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Discussion is printed only if the paper is published

in an ASME journal or Proceedingi.
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Released for general publication upon presentation
75C TO ASME MEMBERS
Copyright 1967 by ASME

Jet Engine Starters, Cartridge-Pneumatic

J. A. ANDERSON
Group Engineer,
Cartridge-Pneumatic Starters,
Sundstrand Aviation, A Division
of Sundstrand Corporation,
Rockford, Ill.

C. R. GALASINSKI
Project Engineer,
Cartridge-Pneumatic Starters,
Sundstrand Aviation, A Division
of Sundstrand Corporation,
Rockford, Ill.

A typical dual-mode (cartridge-pneumatic) jet engine starter is discussed with respect

to its basic design and functional purpose. The establishment of starter output require-
ments for satisfactory engine starting is presented as an aid to understanding the de-
sign problem encountered for a jet engine starter. Discussion of energy conversion and
particular design parameters concentrates on the cartridge mode of operation and
the handling of the high-temperature, high-pressure gas produced by the starter cart-
ridge.

Contributed by the Gas Turbine Division for presentation at the Gas Turbine Conference
and Products Show, Houston, Tex., March 5-9, 1967, of The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers. Manuscript received at ASME Headquarters, January 27, 1967.
Copies will be available until January 1, 1968.

THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, UNITED ENGINEERING CENTER, 345 EAST 47th STREET, NEW YORK, N.Y. 10017

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 Jet Engine Starters, Cartridge-Pneumatic
J. A. ANDERSON C. R. GALASINSKI
1 INTRODUCTION
It is the purpose of this paper to present
a discussion of the significant parameters which
must be considered when sizing or designing a car-
tridge-pneumatic type of starter. Special atten-
tion is given to the design areas which are unique
to this particular type of device.
To assist and orient the reader who may not
be familiar with jet engine starters, an initial
section, 2, which describes a typical cartridge-
pneumatic starter and its functional purpose, is
included.
2 FUNCTIONAL PURPOSE AND DESCRIPTION
OF A TYPICAL UNIT
The primary purpose of all jet engine
starters is to provide a torque level sufficient
to accelerate the main engine rotor from zero rpm
to engine light-off, and to assist the engine to a
speed at which it alone can sustain the accelera-
tion to engine idle without excessive internal
temperatures. The unit is normally mounted di-
rectly on the engine accessory gearbox, which is
mechanically connected to the engine rotor. Air-
frame facilities are provided for pneumatic inlet
ducting, electrical power for cartridge ignition,
accessory exhaust ducting, and access for car-
tridge loading.
CARTRIDGE
GROUND CART
ENGINE INTERBLEED I
4
11111111P I priately designed nozzles, so that the same tur-
rPOWER POWER REDUCTION GEAR - 1-
GENERATION CONVERSION BOX AND DISCONNECT
Fig. 1 Cartridge-pneumatic starter schematic
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There are two particular utilization advan-
tages to the approach of the cartridge-pneumatic
starters to jet engine starting. The first utili-
zation advantage is the self-sufficient starting
capability. This means that when operating in
the cartridge mode, it is possible for an aircraft
equipped with cartridge-pneumatic starters to com-
plete its start cycle without additional ground
support equipment.
The advantages of this are obvious, in that
aircraft can be dispersed or operated out of re-
mote or inconvenient areas where ground support
equipment either cannot be made available or, at
any rate, does not have to be made available. It
should be pointed out here that the combination
starter device does not have to be operated in the
cartridge mode for all starts. This means that
when ground support equipment is available, par-
ticularly for maintenance starting, the pneumatic
mode can be utilized. This extends the service
life of the starter and reduces the actual start-
ing costs. The second utilization advantage of
cartridge pneumatic starters is the alert or
quick-start capability that can be provided.
Since the aircraft can be started without any at-
tached ground support equipment, the aircraft can
be available for flight just as soon as the en-
gines are brought up to speed. There is no time
lost in the disconnecting of ground support equip-
ment and coordination of this starting operation
with a ground crew.
Fig.l shows a simple schematic of a combina-
tion cartridge-pneumatic starter. It can be seen
that this starter arrangement is made up of a
cartridge gas generating system, a turbine or
power-conversion arrangement, and a reduction gear
box and disconnector arrangement. The power from
either the cartridge gas generator during a car-
tridge-mode start or from a ground cart or air-
craft interbleed system is transferred to appro-
bine is used for power conversion in either mode.
A description of a typical cartridge-pneu-
matic starter is shown in Figs.2 and 3 by a sche-
matic of the functional parts and a cutaway view.
Fig.4 shows a list of the leading particulars of
this one starter example.

Fig.2
1 Cartridge
2 Breech cap
3 Breech handle
4 Connector
5 Ignition contact
6 Ground clip
7 Hot-gas nozzles
8 Turbine rotor
9 Turbine exhaust ring
3 ESTABLISHMENT AND DISCUSSION OF SIGNIFICANT
DESIGN PARAMETERS
The sequence of this section presents first
a discussion of the parameters which determine
the starter output requirements; then in the sub-
sequent sections the energy conversion is followed
through the starter from the cartridge to the noz-
zle, to the turbine rotor, and to the output
shaft. In the last section, special items are
covered which are unique to cartridge starters,
such as hot-gas handling, speed control, and
safety devices.
A Establishment of Starter Output Requirements
The starter output requirements are normally
established by the airframe manufacturer and are
based upon the engine requirements, the accessory
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13
Schematic of functional starter components
10 Overboard exhaust connector 19 Flyweight
11 Exhaust from turbine and fan 20 Switch actuating rod
12 Relief valve 21 Switch
13 Compressed-air inlet 22 Adjusting screw
14 Aerodynamic-braking fan 23 Gearbox vent
15 Air inlet for braking fan 24 Spline shaft
16 Fan exhaust ring 25 Oil slinger
17 Gearshaft 26 Oil sump
18 Overrunning sprag clutch 27 Magnetic plug
drag-torque loading, and the desired aircraft per-
formance. The starter output requirements may be
presented in specific terms, or in terms of en-
gine or aircraft operational requirements.
In specific terms, the requirements are
generally presented as an actual "starter torque
versus speed envelope," as shown in Fig.5. To
present the requirements in this form, the air-
frame manufacturer must perform the necessary cal-
culations to assure that the minimum torque curve
will result in satisfactory engine starts.
In many cases, however, the starter output
is presented in terms of the engine starting re-
quirements and aircraft operational requirements.
In this form the airframe manufacturer takes the
engine drag-torque curve from the engine manufac-
turer and adds the drag-torque loading for the
specific hydraulic and electrical accessories.
 1. Electrical Connector 10. Containment Clamp
2. Switch 11. Turbine Rotor
3. Switch Actuating Rod 12. Aerodynamic Braking Fan
4. Lubrication Tube 13. Breech Cap Assembly
5. Output Clutch Race 14, Breech Cap Chamber
6. Output Spline Shaft Assembly 15. Pneumatic Inlet
7. Adapter (Installation Part) 16. Ignition Connector
8. "V" Band Coupling (Installation Part) 17. Transfer Tube
9. Gearshaft
Fig. 3 Cutaway view of cartridge-pneumatic starter

The resultant curve may look like Fig.6. The air-
craft operational requirements may also dictate a
maximum time-to-idle curve such as Fig.7.
The significance of the curves and limits of
Fig.6 is as follows. The maximum torque limit is
determined by the load-carrying strength of the
accessory gearbox and engine accessory power
train. The -65, +59, and +130 F drag curves are
representative of the typical engine plus acces-
sory drag torque at that specific ambient tempera-
ture. At the -65 F condition, special considera-
tion is given to the rate of acceleration to
light-off because of the viscous drag loading of
the engine and accessories. The minimum assist or
cutout speed for the starter is determined by the
minimum positive torque above which the engine can
accelerate itself uniformly to idle.
Given the information in Figs.6 and 7, the
starter designer can begin to approximate the
shape of the starter output curve which will best
satisfy all the requirements of minimum engine
assist and time to idle. The resultant time to

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 Weight ............................................................................ 61 lbs. 6 oz.
Operational Temperature Range ........................ -65 to +160 F.
Maximum Operational Altitude ........................ 6000 feet
Operational Attitude ................................................ Horizontal +10 degrees
Output Rotation
(when facing output spline) ................................ Counterclockwise
Maximum Output Shaft Torque ............................ 680 pound feet
Output Spline Shear Section ................................ 800 to 900 pound feet
Pneumatic Shut-Off Actuation
(output rpm) ............................................................ 2970 + 100 rpm
External Disengagement at Output Spline
Shaft (output rpmp) ............................................ 3000 rpm
Maximum Turbine Operational Speed . . 67, 500 rpm
Cartridge Required .................................................... Air Force Type MXU-4/A
or MXU-4 A
Electrical Requirement for Ignition ................ 18 to 30 volts dc at 1 ampere
Relief Valve Actuation Point ................................ 700 psi
Gear Ratio 14 88 to 1
Pneumatic Requirement
Source ........................................................................ Compressed air from MA-1A
pneumatic ground cart or
equivalent
Maximum Pressure ............................................ 60 psia
Permissible Frequency of Use
Cartridge Starts per Hour ................................ 2
Minimum Time Between Starts on
Aircraft (minutes) .................................... 5
Minimum Time Between Starts
During Testing (minutes) .................... 30
Maximum Continuous Motoring ............................ 10 minutes
Minimum Waiting Time before Removal
of Spent Cartridge* ............................................ 1 minute
Minimum Waiting Time before Removal
of Hang Fire Cartridge* .................................... 15 minutes
Oil Requirements
Specification ............................................................ MIL- L-7808
Maximum Oil Capacity .................................... 275 cc(9. 3 ounces)
*Assumes use of asbestos gloves
Fig. 4 Table of leading starter particulars

reach engine idle (t) is derived from the follow- where

ing relationship. T = net accelerating torque reflected to
n
the starter mounting pad
I = total inertia reflected to the starter
T = I a (lb/ft) (1) T
n T output shaft: l e = engine, I A = acces-
sory, I s = starter
I = I + I + I (slug-ft2) (2)
T e A s T = steady-state starter torque at the
s
1- starter mounting pad: Te = engine
T = Ts - (T e + T Acc ) (1b/ft) (3)
n torque, T Acc = accessory torque

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 LL +130

I +59
LI)

z
ka.i -65
6-5

30 40
STARTER OUTPUT SPEED IN) TIME TO IDLE (SEC .1

Fig. 5 Starter torque versus speed envelope Fig. 7 Engine starting requirements (time to idle)

-65F
4000
+60F
MAX ALLOWABLE STARTER TORQUE +160F 3000

2000
-65F
+59F
0.15 1500
+130F

010 1000
009
STARTER SPEED
0.08
2 0.07
MIN ASSIST 0 06
100 LB.-FT 0 05

004

0.03
ENGINE LITE- OFF = 200 RPM + 8 TO 10 SEC 200 300 500 1000 2000 3000 500

CHAMBER PRESSURE, PSI

INERTIA ID OF ENGINE
PLUS ACCESSORIES AT
2 EFFECTIVE GRAIN BURNING THICKNESS = 119 IN. 2
STARTER PAD =IXISLUG-FT.
EFFECTIVE GRAIN BURNING SURFACE IA, I= 129 8 IN.

Fig. 6 Engine starting requirements (torque versus speed) A

t
= EFFECTIVE NOZZLE AREA

Fig. 8 MXU-4/A Cartridge burn rate and K n versus chamber

pressure and grain temperature (fixed nozzle system) (Courtesy
of Olin. Mathieson Chemical Corporation)

a = acceleration reflected to the starter B Starter Cartridge Input Energy Available

mounting pad The energy source for self-sufficient start-
N = starter output speed ing of an aircraft utilizing a cartridge-pneumatic
t = time to idle starter is a starter cartridge such as the MXU-4/A
or MXU-4A/A. The primary constituent of these
Then, from equation (1):
cartridges is an 8-lb grain composed of pellets of
an ammonium nitrate base propellant homogenously
dn
T n = I T &t (lb/ft) ( 4) suspended in an appropriate combustible binder.
The design of the grain is such that the burn
rate, or rate of consumption of the grain, pro-
t - IT ,r
idle
0
(sec) (5) duces a relatively constant mass rate of gas flow
having a characteristic temperature of approxi-
The actual calculation of time to idle using mately 2400 R, and composed of CH4, CO 2 , H 2 , H2 0,
equation (5) is performed by taking AN increments, N 2, and Na CO
2 3'
using the average torque for each increment, and It is also characteristic of ammonium ni-
determining the At for each increment; i.e.: trate base propellants to exhibit a burn rate
which is directly proportional to a function of
I x 2/t/60x (4h.RPM) (sec) (6) the conditioned temperature of the grain and the
t
Tnet operating chamber pressure. Graphical representa-
time to idle (t) =1 0 t (sec) (7) tions of cartridge chamber pressure versus time,
burn rate and K versus grain temperature and
n
The same method of calculation is used to deter- chamber pressure for the typical MXU-4/A cartridge
mine the engine speed at cartridge burnout. are shown in Figs.8 and 9. The term K is the
n

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 1 ,1
1500

Lailemarmos 1500

II 111 \
1000

500

0
I t
a_
1500

V)
Er)
100 0
k eililiMMEMIN Fig. 10 Cartridge burn characteristics (fixed-nozzle system)

rlillii iirillirili -
cc
a_
re
-N
50 tures of -65 and +160 F while using a valve to
produce a variable orifice. Fig.11 also shows

IW= -- 1ENE1MIN \\ that, with the variable orifice design, the re-
duced cartridge pressure results in a slower burn
rate and correspondingly longer cartridge burn

ril 65F MILUIll

500
time for the hot-day conditions. This resultant
1 characteristic is beneficial in starting engines
I6 2 28
which are slow to light-off.
0 8 I2
THE,SECONDS
The available energy, or available adiabatic
head (H ad ), produced by the cartridge may be cal-
Fig. 9 MXU-4A Cartridge chamber pressure versus time culated from published values of the cartridge
(fixed-nozzle system) (Courtesy of Olin Mathieson Chem- specific heat ratio (k), specific gas constant
ical Corporation) (R), the flame temperature (T p ), and the appropri-
ate design operating pressure (Po) and exhaust
ratio of nozzle-throat area to the burning surface exit pressure (Pe). Thus
of the cartridge grain, and therefore is use-
ful in predicting chamber pressures for a particu- H
ad = K R T [ 1-(pe ) (ft) (8)
lar nozzle system. K-1 Po
It is evident from Figs.8 and 9 that, for a
fixed-nozzle size, the increased burn rate of a
+160 F cartridge will result in an increased For the typical MXU-4A and MXU-4A/A cartridge gas:
chamber pressure, which in turn results in an ad-
ditional increase in the burn rate of the grain R = 81
until stabilization is reached. Typical chamber K = 1.27
pressure versus time curves for cartridge tempera-
tures of -65 and +160 F, with a fixed-nozzle size, T =2400 R
are shown in Fig.10. However, since the output
torque of the starter is a function of the pres- To simplify equation (8), let
sure ratio across the nozzle, the magnitude of
this chamber pressure variation with temperature K-1
produces excessive torque output at the high ambi- Y = 1-( Pe) K (9)
Po
ent temperatures required.
The starter described in Section 2 therefore
utilizes a highly pressure-sensitive valve, which Then, from Fig.12, the value of Y can be deter-
produces a variable-nozzle bypass orifice. The mined for any Pe/Po with K = 1.2 to 1.4. There-
resultant increase in effective nozzle area re- fore, equation (8) may be expressed as
duces the chamber pressure below the fixed-nozzle
condition, such that the pressure difference be- H
ad = K RT,Y (ft) (10)
tween the hot and cold cartridge is minimized. K-1
The maximum starter output torque and, subse-
quently, the impact torques sustained by the en- The spouting velocity (Co), or maximum
gine gearbox can then be controlled within a more theoretical gas velocity which can be obtained at
desirable range. Fig.11 shows the typical chamber a nozzle exit from the available energy, can then
pressure versus time curves for cartridge tempera- be determined from

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 825
750

16 21
TIME - SECONDS

Fig. 11 Cartridge burn characteristics (variable-nozzle system) 05

P
E

0
1/2 1/2
C o = ( 2g H ad ) or (2g k RT p Y)
k-1 01

(ft/sec)(11)
005

The energy available from the cartridge may also

be calculated in terms of gas horsepower (GHP)
from the mass rate of cartridge gas flow (W f ) and
the adiabatic head (H ad ), where W f is a function
001
of the grain burn rate (r b ) at the desired operat-
ing pressure and temperature, the grain burning
area (A s ), and the grain density (p ). Thus 0005

r, from Fig.9
W = rb As (12)
f
A s = 129.8 in 2 (typical)
jOl p = .053 #/in 3
0001
4
0
w H
GHP - 5f50ad (HP) (13)
Fig. 12 Pressure ratio versus Y
Approximate values of the above properties for a
typical MXU-4A cartridge at nominal operating con- diverging nozzles requires that the Mach number
ditions of +60 F, 865 psia, and exhaust pressure (M) at the nozzle throat must be unity, and that
of 18 psia are the pressure ratios P e /P o must be less than the
H
critical pressure ratio P*/P o required for M = 1
ad :Z.- 506 x 10 3 FT at the throat, where P* is the pressure at the
C 3
o C:= 5.7 x 10 FT/sec throat, and the critical pressure ratio P*/P o is
defined by
f .52 1,13 m /sec

481 HP k
GHP *
P ( 2 ) K -1 (14)
Po k+1

It should also be noted that the actual de-

C Starter Nozzles and Nozzle Energy Conversion
The first stage in the transformation of the
heat energy produced by the cartridge to usable
work is the conversion to kinetic energy by a noz-
zle system. The starter accomplishes this energy
conversion by expansion of the gas through super-
sonic converging-diverging nozzles. This type of
nozzle is used because of its characteristically
high efficiency for high pressure ratios P o /P e .
Before defining the energy conversion by the
nozzles, it should be recalled that supersonic
isentropic flow of a gas through converging-
sign value of P o must not only be consistent with
the requirements for supersonic isentropic flow,
but must also be of a sufficient magnitude to pro-
duce the required starter performance with the
final nozzle and turbine design incorporated in
the starter. Experience has shown that values of
P o in the range of 800 to 1000 psig are generally
sufficient.
The conditions of the gas at the nozzle exit
may be determined from the following pressure,
temperature, and density relationships for isen-
tropic flow:

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 12
le max = (Kg) /
k -1 K+1 (21)
Po k = To (FTC/sec)
or (Po ) Tr K-+1N 2(K-1)
15; -e (15) k 2 I --

For the typical cartridge gas

7 = .Po (16)
e 'doe K 1.27

Max. 3.78
where p is the gas density.
As noted in section B, the maximum theoreti-
Therefore
cal exit velocity of the gas at the nozzle exit
may be determined from
W f = A* P o max (lbm/sec) (22)
(RT 0 )
12 (ft/sec) (17)
Co = ( 248- 6 ) /

The actual nozzle exit velocity, however, is

D Starter Turbine Rotor and Turbine Energy
dependent on the nozzle velocity coefficient (k v ),
Conversion
which is the ratio of the actual exit velocity
The second stage in the transformation of
(V ) to the theoretical exit velocity with isen-
1 the cartridge gas energy is the conversion of the
tropic flow and the same exit pressure P e . The
kinetic energy of the gas leaving the nozzle sys-
value of k v for supersonic nozzles having straight
tem to usable shaft power by a means of a single-
axes has been found from experience to generally
stage impulse turbine.
equal 0.96.
The absolute blade speed used for the design
The actual nozzle exit velocity is, there- of a starter turbine is not necessarily the speed
fore: at which maximum efficiency is obtained, because
the starter must be designed to yield a maximum
V1 = .96 C o (Ft/Sec) ( 1 8) output torque at the most critical starter output
speed. The design speed used for the blading de-
To summarize the conversion of the heat en- sign, and therefore the entire starter system de-
ergy of the gas to kinetic energy, it can be sign, is therefore the one corresponding to the
stated that the nozzles transform the low- starter output speed at which the maximum engine
velocity, high-temperature, high-pressure gas pro- drag torque must be exceeded. The actual turbine
duced by the cartridge to a lower static tempera- blading utilized by a cartridge-pneumatic starter
ture, lower static pressure gas having a super- must also be designed on the basis of a compromise
sonic velocity and the same mass rate of flow. between the most practical turbine efficiency for
The nozzle exit W can be determined from both the cartridge and pneumatic-energy sources.
f
the relationships for isentropic flow at the The reason for this is that the mass rate of gas
critical nozzle area A*. flow from the pneumatic-energy source is generally
t'
greater than that produced by the cartridge, and
W
f
= Jo* C* A* ..e e
Fi. 7,
P the size and weight requirements of the starter
assembly necessitate the use of a cascade of con-
C* (KgRT*) 1/2 (KgR ) 1/2 T o 1/2 verging nozzles for most efficient energy conver-
(T-71) (19)
sion of the pneumatic gases. Therefore, the noz-
zle exit conditions and velocities are signifi-
A* = Kd A t * K d = Nozzle discharge coeff = .96 cantly different for the two energy sources.
Let us,begin the analysis of energy conver-
Therefore: sion by an impulse turbine by defining an impulse
force as one which results from a decrease in
A* P o (Kg) 1/2 magnitude or change in direction of the tangential
Wf = velocity of a fluid.
(RT 0 )1/2 )K+1 (lb m/sec) (20)
"' T7=1) For the ideal impulse blade shown in Fig.13,
if the absolute tangential velocity of the blade
For pressure ratio (Po/Pe) greater than the criti- is U and the absolute velocity of the fluid leav-
cal ratio, the foregoing Wf equation can be sim- ing the nozzles and entering the blade is V 1 , then
plified as follows by using the maximum compressi- the relative velocity of the fluid entering the
bility factor ( y max), where blade (W 1 ) is, vectorially:

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 VI

W =v - U
I 1
U

VZ

W 2 =-W I =U - V 1

Fig. 13 Schematic of ideal impulse blade

Fig. 14 Velocity diagram for simple impulse turbine

W V=1 --.- U (23)
1

Using similar notation, and assuming fric-

tionless contact between the fluid and the blade,
/7/ = r ( dw ( V 1U - V2U
it can be seen that the relative velocity of the dt /
fluid leaving the blade (W 2 ) must be equal in (lb/ft) (28)
magnitude but opposite in direction to W. There-
T = (V1U - v2u)
fore

W2 =--. --a
"' W
1 The analysis of a real impulse turbine is
(24)
U --0. V1 facilitated by a velocity diagram such as the one
shown in Fig.14, where, in addition to the nomen-
Then, since W2 is opposite in direction to Wi and clature previously defined:
V 1 , it can be seen that the absolute velocity of a = angle of absolute fluid velocity V 1
the fluid leaving the blade (V2) must be leaving nozzle
0 = angle of relative fluid velocity W1
V2 = W 2 U ===-1.W1.4-11. U entering blades
(25)
= 2U V1 y = angle of relative fluid velocity W 2
leaving blades
This brief analysis of the ideal impulse 8 = angle of absolute fluid velocity V2
blade clearly shows that the effective tangential leaving blades
velocity of the fluid entering the blade (V 1U ) is V ia and V 2a = resultant axial components of abso-
decreased, resulting in an impulse force. The lute fluid velocities V 1 and V 2 .
force produced by the gas is derived from Newton's Using equation (28) and the relationships
laws of motion, which state that momentum is the
product of the mass of a body and its velocity and V 1U = V1 Cos oCand V2u = V 2 CoSS
that the rate of change of momentum is equal to
the sum of the external forces acting on the body. derived from the velocity diagram of Fig.14, the
Therefore value of T for a real impulse turbine may be bx-
pressed as
F = d (M) = d ( E (1bf) (26)
dt dt g
= W f r (V 1 Cos0C- V2 Cos ) (lb/ft) (29)
g
The impulse force produced by the tangential ve-
locities of a gas entering and leaving a turbine Since the relationships derived from the analysis
blade passage may therefore be defined as of the ideal impulse blade assume steady flow and
no blade passage losses, it is only necessary to
apply suitable design coefficients for utilization
F
i = )( V
1U V2U) (lb f ) (27)
dt W of those relationships for practical turbine
analysis and design.
Now by noting that the mass rate of fluid flow These design coefficients, which account for
(W f ) is equal to dW/dt, and that torque about a the difference between the relative fluid entrance
fixed axis is equal to the product of the force velocity W i and the relative fluid exit velocity
and the distance from the axis to the point at W cannot be calculated because of the numerous
2'
which the fluid enters the blade (r), the turbine indeterminable factors which effect the blade
torque produced by the fluid may be defined as passage losses. However, from the interpretation

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 torque, which occurs at zero rotor rpm, may then
be derived from equation (32) by equating k p k i =
kb and setting U = 0. Therefore

Ts
= w f rv, (Cos + k b k d Sin Cos r
2 4 6 8 L0 Sin/
U/v i
(lb/ft) (33)
Fig. 15 Typical torque coefficient versus 11/V 1
(cartridge mode of operation) For practical analysis of starter turbine
systems, it is a common practice to account for
all the losses which occur in the nozzle-turbine
and evaluation of extensive testing, a satisfac-
system and the fixed geometric parameters by means
tory correlation between predicted and actual re-
of a stall torque coefficient, designated as
sults has been obtained by assuming that the sig-
tau (
nificant losses occurring in single-stage impulse
From equation (33) let
turbines are represented by a profile-loss coeffi-
cient (k p ), and an incidence-loss coefficient
(ki). The coefficient k p accounts for the losses kb k d Sin of Cosr (34)
T max = Cos a
'

Sinif
due to fluid turbulence, friction, deflection of
the fluid within the passage, curvature of the
The equation for turbine stall torque may then be
blade profile, and the deviation of the actual
expressed as
fluid exit angle y from the geometric blade exit
angle y'. The coefficient k i accounts for the
losses due to turbulence caused by the difference Ts = '
rmax W
fV1 r (lb/ft) (35)
between the entrance angle 13 of the relative fluid
velocity W i and the geometric blade entrance angle
Also, since the turbine torque will be equal
to zero when the tangential blade velocity is
Another coefficient, which is required for
equal to tangential velocity of the gas entering
partial-admission systems only, is the partial-
the blade, V 1 Cos a, the value of T at the corre-
admission factor kd. The value of this coeffi-
sponding rotor velocity must equal zero. However,
cient is a function of the blade profile width
in the actual turbine system, the maximum tangen-
(c), the geometric blade exit angle (y 1 ), the
tial velocity of the gas will never equal V 1 Cosa,
thickness of the blade trailing edge (t e ), and the
but will incur some losses due to the deviation of
arc length of admission (e), and may be calculated
the angle of the gas from the geometric angle of
from
the nozzle.
Therefore
kd = 1 -
E yo.

2 e
-0-t e (30)
U = KV Cos c<.. or ( U = K Cosc.C.
max 1
1 ) max (36)
Therefore, recalling that the effect of the blade
losses is to decrease the magnitude of W2, the
Empirically it has been found that for the starter
actual value of W 2 is defined by
turbine systems, which have a nozzle angle (a) in
the range of 17 to 20 deg, the maximum value of
W2 = k p k i kd (ft/sec) (31)
(U/V 1 ) max is approximately equal to 0.90, which
is also the speed ratio at which 'C equals zero.
Using the relationship of equation (31) and the
Therefore, since turbine torque versus speed
identities
is very nearly a linear function, a curve of T
V 2 Cos S = U - W2 Cos r and W 1 = V1 Sin- versus U/V for a typical starter turbine system
1
Sin/g may be derived as shown in Fig.15.
from Fig.15, equation (29) may be expressed as The simple expression of torque in equation
(35) is very useful in the evaluation of modifica-
T. = WfrV ( Cos kp k i k d Sin 64. Cos - u tions to an existing unit configuration and for
Sin /9 predicting unit performance with intermediate or
new cartridge pressure levels. With a known
(lb/ft) (32)
fixed-nozzle diameter, the value of W f and V 1 can
A simplified equation for the turbine stall be determined from the measured breech pressure.
torque T s , or the maximum obtainable turbine The 'C factor can then be determined from the

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 measured starter output torque, or the torque can
be predicted by a previously determined "t" versus
U/V relationship.
1 600
It is apparent that small-diameter impulse
turbines must operate at extremely high rotative
speeds for most efficient energy conversion of the
high-energy gas produced by a cartridge. There-
fore, since the torque-speed characteristics of
the turbine will almost never match the torque-
speed characteristics required for starter output,
a gear ratio must be employed between the turbine
and the starter output shaft.
The value of this gear ratio must be a com-
promise between the gear ratios which will produce
the most desirable starter torque-speed curves for
both the cartridge and pneumatic modes of start-
ing. The reason for this compromise is that, be-
cause the stall torques resulting from a typical
Air Force MA-1A type ground cart pneumatic-energy
source are normally lower than those resulting
from a cartridge energy source, the required slope
of the torque-speed curve for the pneumatic mode
must be much less than that of the cartridge mode
in order to exceed the engine drag torque at all
output speeds below the required minimum starter
assist speed. The gear ratios actually used for
starter systems range from 13:1 to 22:1.
Utilizing the required gear ratio (G) and
the corresponding efficiency (% ) of the gearbox
G
required, the actual starter output torque may be
determined from
T starter
= TWf r via
g
(lb/ft)
Typical torque versus speed and horsepower versus
speed curves for a starter operating in the car-
tridge mode at ambient temperature are shown in
Fig.16.
E Hot-Gas Handling and Transfer System
Special attention must be given to the se-
lection of the materials used for the starter
components carrying the cartridge gases, in order
to provide:
1 Sufficient pressure vessel strength at
maximum temperature.
2 Minimum surface temperatures.
3 Minimum localized fatigue stresses due
to high-temperature cycling.
4 Minimum erosion by the cartridge gas.
5 Minimum high-temperature corrosion by the
cartridge gas residues.
The problems encountered by the designer and
metallurgist in achieving the desired endurance of
the components subjected to contact with the high-
temperature cartridge gas (1900+ F) have been
formidable.
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120
CO HP VS SPEED
CO
%EMMEN=
500 100
w 400 80
ce
11E 60
300
VS. SPEED
200 1111
3RQUE 40
100 FIIIIM11 20
0
1000 2000 3000 4000
STARTER OUTPUT SPEED RPM
Fig. 16 Typical starter torque and starter horsepower
versus output speed (cartridge mode of operation)
The first problem encountered was that of
material cracking due to thermal cycling stresses.
The selection of materials used to confront this
problem was accomplished mostly by experimental
testing with the high-temperature nickel and co-
balt-base alloys. Test components were made from
both investment cast and wrought materials. In
most of the applications it was found that the
cobalt-base alloys exhibited a slightly higher re-
sistance to thermal cracking, and that the wrought
material provided a longer endurance life. It was
also found that the resistance to thermal cracking
was greatly increased by the incorporation of the
most practical gradual transition between thin and
thick cross sections, and by utilization of the
most generous radii practical, at all internal
(37)
corners. Weld joints were found to be particu-
larly prone to cracking in the heat-affected area
of the parent material, which was minimized by
using equal cross sections for the components at
the weld joint, whenever possible.
High-temperature corrosion and/or erosion
potential exists in all areas exposed to the flow
of the gases. Here again, the wrought cobalt-base
materials exhibited the better resistance. It has
been found that the cartridge ignition gases con-
tain sodium and potassium salts along with various
degrees of sulfur compounds, depending upon the
particular ignition design. These elements, in
combination with a reducing atmosphere, react with
the metals at high temperature to form nickel and
chromium sulfides. Also, the chromium reacts with
the carbon in the reducing atmosphere to form
chromium carbides. Both of these reactions cause
the chromium to be depleted as a corrosion-resist-
ant element and allow the nickel or cobalt to
later oxidize more rapidly. It is generally found
that the nickel alloys are impervious to this
corrosion below 1200 F and the cobalt alloys are
good for approximately 200 deg F higher. Diffu-
sion coatings are helpful in resisting this corro-
11
 I BREECH CHAMBER ASSEMBLY

SWITCH

BREECH CHAMBER PRESSURE VESSEL

INTERNAL GAS SHIELD

INTERMEDIATE RADIATION SHIELD

GAS FLOW LINER TUBE

INSULATION
INSULATION 8 RADIATION Fig. 18 Overspeed protection which diverts gas before nozzle
GAS FLOW

INTERNAL (FREE FLOATING)

GAS TUBE
PRESSURE VESSEL TUBE
OUTER SKIN

III NOZZLE BLOCK ASSEMBLY

OUTER SKIN

ws mmvi sm s
. IN S U L A T I 0 N
ex
r x x
PRESSURE VESSEL
GAS FLOW IN RADIATION SHIELD
AND INSULATION
FLOW LINER

SENSING ARRANGEMENT
AND GEARBOX

APPROACH 2

Fig. 17 Schematics of hot-gas transfer components Fig. 19 Overspeed protection which diverts gas after nozzle

sion, and in some areas of the starter where cor-
rosion was particularly bad, a chromized diffusion
coating has been used with success.
The basic design approach used for the
starter described in section 2 was to use a mate-
rial which exhibited high corrosion resistance and
good high-temperature strength, as an internal gas
shield and/or gas-transfer member, wherever possi-
ble. These internal shield and/or transfer mem-
bers are only required to direct the main flow of
cartridge gases, and are not required to withstand
the stresses produced by the gas pressure. There-
fore, these members are designed to be free-float-
ing wherever possible, thus minimizing the
stresses due to thermal expansion and internal
pressure.
The structural members, which must actually
withstand the gas pressures, are protected from
the high-temperature cycling by the use of insula-
tion materials, air gaps, and/or shielding between
it and the gas-carrying member. From Fig.17 it
can be seen how this design approach is applied to
each area of the starter which transfers the hot
gases.
F Speed Control and Safety Devices
Because of the high spouting velocity (C o )
of the cartridge gas (5700 fps) and the rotor
diameter required for sufficient output torque, it
is not practical to design a turbine rotor which
can structurally withstand a free-running condi-
tion at tip speeds corresponding to rotor speeds
near 160,000 rpm. It is therefore necessary to
provide a reliable means of limiting the maximum
rotor speed.
There are several methods of providing tur-
bine overspeed protection in a cartridge starter.
A few of the devices which have been utilized are:
1 Diversion of the hot-gas flow so that it
does not pass through the nozzle when cutout speed
is attained.
2 Diversion of the hot gas between the noz-
zle exit and the turbine inlet, either partially
or completely, when cutout speed is attained.
3 Modification of the single-stage turbine
output torque so that the turbine is aerodynami-
cally or inherently speed limited within a safe
design speed.
Each of these methods of speed limiting has
been used with varying degrees of success, and
there are advantages and disadvantages to each.
Method 1. Fig.18 shows an arrangement
whereby the gas is diverted before reaching the
nozzle. In this case, it is necessary to have
some type of speed or acceleration sensing device
with a cutout or bypass arrangement in the cir-

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 FAN
0
0
REENTRY DUCT
Fig. 20 Aerodynamic speed control
cuitry. The sensing device may include a flyball
governor system in conjunction with a switch,
squib, or solenoid, and the necessary electrical
circuitry. The governor system may be mechani-
cally connected to a bypass valve in the hot-gas
circuit.
Method 2. Fig.19 shows the arrangement of
the cutout device which diverts the gas from com-
pletely going through the turbine wheel downstream
of the cartridge nozzle system. This approach to
speed control has a sensing arrangement which may
either sense the output speed, the output accel-
eration, or the output torque of the starter.
There have been two schemes of control mechanisms
with this type of design approach. The first
would be to place some type of baffle plate be-
tween the nozzle and the turbine, so that the gas
coming from the nozzle would be deflected and pre-
vented from going through the turbine. The second
would be to vary the position of the turbine with
respect to the nozzles, such that the blades could
be moved out of the nozzle gas flow.
Method 3. Fig.20 is a diagram showing two
approaches to aerodynamic or inherent turbine
speed control. The first arrangement is that of
using a torque-absorbing fan as a part of the ro-
tating single-stage turbine assembly. The second
approach shown is that of staging the turbine
wheel, thus producing a torque curve which in it-
self goes to zero torque within a safe turbine
yield speed. There are some basic efficiency
losses in both systems; however, in the fan ap-
proach, the losses in the critical starter operat-
ing speeds can be kept at a minimum.
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CARTRIDGE RUBBER SEAL
REQUIRED LEAKAGE GAP
ELECTRIC CONNECTOR AND BREECH LOCK
Fig. 21 Breech locking design
G Breech Electrical Interlock
Fig.21 shows a typical starter cartridge
breech assembly. It includes the basic pressure
vessel in which the cartridge is burned as well
as a joint at which the pressure vessel separates
for the purpose of installing the cartridge.
The breech must also include a locking de-
vice for indexing and locking the two halves of
the breech after the cartridge has been installed.
This locking device includes the contact for the
electrical circuit which is used to ignite the
cartridge. The breech handle which carries part
of the electrical circuitry is designed so that
the breech assembly has to be closed and locked
before the breech electrical circuit can be com-
pleted. This is to prevent any inadvertent firing
of the cartridge before the breech is completely
closed and locked.
H Overpressure Protection
Overpressure protection is a significant de-
sign requirement for the safe handling and utili-
zation of the cartridge gas in a starter system.
There are two basic approaches to overpressure
protection. One design is to use a rupture dia-
phragm. The second is to use a spring-loaded
plunger. Both systems have been used satisfac-
torily.
4 SUMMARY
In summary, the design of the cartridge-
pneumatic starter begins when the prime contractor
combines the engine starting requirements with the
accessory loading and aircraft performance re-
quirements to establish the starter performance
limits.
The starter manufacturer first analyzes the
airframe requirements and approximates the starter
output torque versus speed curve which will sat-
isfy a particular application. The size and type
of gas generator is determined to supply the re-
quired rate of gas flow (namely, Wf, C o , and so
forth) and the total propellant burn time. The
13
 starter nozzles and turbine rotor are designed to
convert the gas energy to mechanical energy within
an economical weight and package size. A compro-
mise is made in the nozzle and turbine to provide
both cartridge and pneumatic-mode operation.
Special design considerations unique to the
cartridge starter are given to the handling of the
high-temperature and pressure cartridge gas to
arrive at reasonable endurance life. Safety fea-
tures must be included to provide safe no-load
operation and overpressure relief.
14
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In the early 1950's the U.S. Air Force haa
its first jet engine cartridge starter operational
on the B-57 aircraft. Beginning in the late
1950 1 s, cartridge-pneumatic starters were devel-
oped and have been installed on operational F-100,
F-101, F-105, B-52, KC/C-135, F-4C, and F-111A
aircraft. It is evident from this lengthy list of
U.S. Air Force applications that the cartridge-
pneumatic starter has proven itself to be a relia-
ble means of providing self-sufficient jet engine
starting.