Mineralogical Magazine, June 2014, Vol. 78(3), pp.

623637

OPEN ACCESS

Growth of continental crust:

a balance between preservation and recycling

K. C. CONDIE
Department of Earth and Environmental Science, New Mexico Tech, Socorro, NM 87801 USA
[Received 1 October 2013; Accepted 6 February 2014; Associate Editor: C. Storey]

ABSTRACT

One of the major obstacles to our understanding of the growth of continental crust is that of estimating
the balance between extraction rate of continental crust from the mantle and its recycling rate back into
the mantle. As a rst step it is important to learn more about how and when juvenile crust is preserved
in orogens. The most abundant petrotectonic assemblage preserved in orogens (both collisional and
accretionary) is the continental arc, whereas oceanic terranes (arcs, crust, melange, Large Igneous
Provinces, etc.) comprise <10%; the remainder comprises older, reworked crust. Most of the juvenile
crust in orogens is found in continental arc assemblages. Our studies indicate that most juvenile crust
preserved in orogens was produced during the ocean-basin closing stage and not during the collision.
However, the duration of ocean-basin closing is not a major control on the fraction of juvenile crust
preserved in orogens; regardless of the duration of subduction, the fraction of juvenile crust preserved
reaches a maximum of ~50%. Hafnium and Nd isotopic data indicate that reworking dominates in
external orogens during supercontinent breakup, whereas during supercontinent assembly, external
orogens change to retreating modes where greater amounts of juvenile crust are produced. The most
remarkable feature of eNd (sedimentary rocks and granitoids) and eHf (detrital zircons) distributions
through time is how well they agree with each other. The ratio of positive to negative eNd and eHf does
not increase during supercontinent assembly (coincident with zircon age peaks), which suggests that
supercontinent assembly is not accompanied by enhanced crustal production. Rather, the zircon age
peaks probably result from enhanced preservation of juvenile crust. Valleys between zircon age peaks
probably reect recycling of continental crust into the mantle during supercontinent breakup. Hafnium
isotopic data from zircons that have mantle sources, Nd isotopic data from detrital sedimentary rocks
and granitoids and whole-rock Re depletion ages of mantle xenoliths collectively suggest that 570%
of the continental crust was extracted from the mantle between 3500 and 2500 Ma.

K EY WORDS : continental growth, crustal reworking, supercontinents, Nd isotopes, Hf isotopes.

Introduction
ALTHOUGH it is well established that U/Pb ages of
zircons dene episodic populations (Rino et al.,
2004; Iizuka et al., 2005; Condie et al., 2009;
Condie and Aster, 2010; Belousova et al., 2010;
Hawkesworth et al., 2010), the origin of this
distribution and how it is related to the growth and
preservation of continental crust is not well
* E-mail: kcondie@nmt.edu
DOI: 10.1180/minmag.2014.078.3.11
understood. Both igneous and detrital zircon
populations show that major age peaks or peak
clusters (2700, 1900, 1000, 600 and 300 Ma) are
global in extent (Condie and Aster, 2010). The
common interpretation of these peaks has been
that they represent periods of enhanced produc-
tion of continental crust (Taylor and McLennan,
1995; Condie, 1998; Wang et al., 2009).
Geochemical data from oceanic basalts and
subduction-related volcanics have been inter-
preted to support new growth of continental
crust during collisional orogenies (Niu and

# 2014 The Mineralogical Society

 K. C. CONDIE

OHara, 2009). However, as pointed out by
several investigators in recent years, there is a
striking correlation of major zircon age peaks
with the assembly of supercontinents and this has
led to the suggestion that they are not crustal
production peaks, but crustal preservation peaks
(Fig. 1) (Condie, 1990; Kemp et al., 2006;
Hawkesworth et al., 2009; Condie and Aster,
2010). Another feature of zircon age spectra that
is not well understood are the age minima
between times of supercontinent formation. Do
these represent true minima in juvenile crustal
production or could they be due to enhanced
recycling of crust into the mantle and thus also be
related to crustal preservation (Kemp et al., 2006;
Roberts, 2012)? The answer to these questions
partly depends on our understanding of collisional
orogens, where most juvenile crust is preserved.
Orogens are of three types, but only two are of
importance in the production and preservation of
juvenile continental crust: accretionary and
collisional orogens (Cawood et al., 2009). As
ocean basins close, accretionary orogens are
active on one or both continental margins and
nal closure is marked by a continent-continent
collision or a large terrane collision (Fig. 2). The
ages of juvenile additions preserved in many
Proterozoic orogens date mostly to the ocean-
basin closing stage and not to the actual collision
(Condie et al., 2011; Condie, 2013). However,
crust is preserved in orogens during collisional
phases, with the highest degree of preservation
accompanying the nal collisions (Hawkesworth
et al., 2009).
Hafnium and Nd isotopes together with U/Pb
zircon ages can be used to constrain the growth
and recycling of continental crust (Wang et al.,
2009; Belousova et al., 2010; Hawkesworth et al.,
2010; Condie et al., 2011; Condie and Aster,
2013; Condie, 2013). We know that most juvenile
crust preserved in orogens is produced in
continental arcs and back arcs with only small
amounts produced in oceanic arcs and other
oceanic tectonic settings (Condie, 2013; Condie
and Kroner, 2013). What is not well constrained is
the location of orogens from which detrital

FIG. 1. Distribution of U/Pb zircon ages in granitoids and detrital zircons since 4.5 Ga (from Condie and Aster,
2010). The vertical sample count axis is the number of samples as a function of time for a Gaussian kernel bandwidth
of three standard deviations (30 m.y.). The multiple lines in each spectrum represent error bounds of one standard
deviation and their tightness conrms the robustness of the major peak clusters in the various sample distributions.
Supercontinent history is also summarized on the gure.

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 GROWTH OF CONTINENTAL CRUST
FIG. 2. Diagrammatic cross-sections of accretionary and collisional orogens.
zircons are derived, as most zircons are recycled
multiple times in the geological record.
Furthermore, primary zircon sources may not
reside on the same continent as derivative detrital
zircons due to past supercontinent breakup and
assembly. Unlike detrital zircons, both the
location and tectonic setting can often be
constrained for igneous-rock Nd isotopic data.
Common to all isotopic studies are geographic
sampling biases, either by geologists or by river
systems and this appears to be responsible for
some decoupling between the isotopic systems.
In the present study, the main focus is on the
questions of when, how and where juvenile
continental crust is generated at convergent
margins. To evaluate these questions, data from
150 post-Archaean orogens (or orogen segments)
are compiled in Supplementary Appendix 1
(Supplementary Appendices 1 and 2 have been
deposited with the Principal Editor of
Mineralogical Magazine and are available from
www.minersoc. org/pages/e_journals/
dep_mat_mm.html), with corresponding informa-
tion on tectonic settings and juvenile crust
distribution. The Archaean is not included
because the relatively hot orogens in the
Archaean may have been quite different in
preservation potential from the cooler orogens
thereafter (Sizova et al., 2013).
Durations of orogeny
It is useful to examine the duration of both the
ocean-basin closing (subduction) and collisional
stages, estimates of which are compiled in
Supplementary Appendix 1, in order to better
understand how and when crust is preserved in
625
orogens. Note that many of the compiled orogens
are orogen segments, which, upon reconstruc-
tion of past supercontinents, may continue into
other cratons. Both accretionary and collisional
orogens are included in the compilation. The age
of onset of subduction is equated with the ages of
the oldest (post-basement) arc volcanic and
plutonic rocks and is assumed to represent a
minimum for the onset of ocean-basin closing.
Duration of subduction is estimated as the
difference between the age of the onset of
subduction and the onset of collision, which is a
maximum age for the duration of closing of an
oceanic basin, as subduction associated with the
accretionary stage of an orogen may have started
before the actual closing of the ocean basin. The
onset of collision is estimated from the oldest
syntectonic granitoids and structures accompa-
nying major collisions. The termination of
collision is more difcult to estimate because
these processes generally have a gradual rather
than abrupt ending as colliding plates are
annealed to each other and subduction and
delamination cease. The termination is estimated
from the oldest post-tectonic intrusions and
structures, which is a maximum age for the end
of collision, because delamination and crustal
foundering may continue after collision.
Subduction (ocean-basin closing) duration
ranges from 57 to >900 m.y. but most durations
are between 50 and 200 m.y. and collision
duration ranges from 10 260 m.y. with most
falling between 40 and 150 m.y. Orogens fall into
two broad groups: those with subduction dura-
tions 4600 m.y. (mean = 115 m.y.) and those
with durations of >600 m.y. (mean = 750 m.y.)
(Fig. 3). Only seven examples of the >600 m.y.
 K. C. CONDIE

Altaids and Xionger. However, the actual

FIG. 3. Duration of subduction (ocean-basin closing)
compared to duration of collision of post-Archaean
orogens. Data from Supplementary Appendix 1.
number of orogens in each group depends on
how orogens are divided up (lumpers vs. splitters).
The rst three orogens in the list above comprise
the Great Proterozoic Accretionary Orogen
(GPAO), which may be the longest-lived orogen
of all time, in some segments enduring for
>800 m.y. (Figs 3 and 4) (Condie, 2013)
(Supplementary Appendix 1). The GPAO began
as a segmented accretionary orogen during the
amalgamation of Nuna and did not terminate in
collisions until Rodinia formed at
1200 1000 Ma. It is noteworthy that the subduc-
tion duration of most post-Archaean orogens is
considerably longer than the lifespan (oldest
igneous rock age minus accretion age) of typical
terranes in these orogens (50 300 m.y.; Condie,
2007). This means that, on average, arc
magmatism in terranes continues for several
hundred million years after terrane docking.

Tectonic settings preserved in orogens

group are recognized: Penokean-Yavapai- It is important to characterize ancient tectonic
Mazatzal, Makkovikian-Labradorian-Grenville, settings preserved in orogens in order to better
Baltica (Svecofennian-Sveconorwegian), understand the distribution and origin of juvenile
Amazonia (Sunsas and Oaxaquia components), crust. Together with geochemical features,

FIG. 4. Reconstruction of the supercontinent Nuna at 1600 Ma after Pisarevsky et al. (2014), showing the Great
Proterozoic Accretionary Orogen.

626
 GROWTH OF CONTINENTAL CRUST

petrotectonic assemblages are key in identifying
ancient tectonic settings. Details of how tectonic
settings are identied and how juvenile and
reworked crust are estimated, using a combination
of Nd isotopes and geological maps, are given in
previous papers (Condie, 1993; Condie and
Chomiak, 1996; Condie, 2007). Such assemblages
either survive subduction during ocean-basin
closing or form during collision and they
include oceanic and continental tectonic regimes
as represented by both supracrustal and plutonic
rocks. Greenstones are particularly useful in
identifying ancient tectonic settings and both arc
and within-plate oceanic greenstones show similar
distributions with age (Fig. 5). The large preser-
vational peak in both types of greenstones in the
late Archaean probably reects rapidly propa-
gating plate tectonics at this time (Condie and
ONeill, 2010) as well as formation of the rst
supercratons (Bleeker and Ernst, 2006). Another
preservational peak at 2100 1700 Ma corre-
sponds to the assembly and stasis of the super-
continent Nuna. Unlike Nuna, very few
greenstones that accompanied the assembly of
Rodinia between 1200 and 1000 Ma are preserved
and the reason for this is an important outstanding
question. The peak in greenstone ages at ~500 Ma
corresponds to the breakup of Pannotia and the
peak at 200 100 Ma corresponds to the breakup
of Pangea. The latter peak, which is dominated by
within-plate oceanic greenstones, also reects
increased preservation of ophiolites and
increasing numbers of studies of ophiolites of
this age (Fig. 5) (Dilek and Furnes, 2011).
If petrotectonic assemblages are divided into
three groups (continental arc, oceanic settings and
reworked crust), the most abundant assemblage
preserved in orogens is the continental arc ranging
from 10 90% by volume (mean = 53%) (Fig. 6),
but there is no relationship between abundance of
continental arc assemblages and orogen age, at
least since the end of the Archaean. In most
orogens, remnants of continental arcs comprise
40 80% of supracrustal rocks, but in a few
examples, such as the Limpopo, Usagaran-
Tanzania, Ubendian, New Quebec and Angara
orogens, they comprise 420% (Supplementary
Appendix 1). Some of these orogens may have
involved a large transpressive subduction compo-
nent, such that arc magmatism was minimal. Only

FIG. 5. Histogram showing abundances of greenstones with age. The supercontinent cycle (from Condie and Aster,
2013) is also shown. Greenstone types: WP, oceanic within-plate; arcs, convergent margin.

627
 K. C. CONDIE

FIG. 6. Relative abundances of continental arc, oceanic terrane and reworked crust petrotectonic assemblages in
orogens. Data from Supplementary Appendix 1. Details of data compilation are given in Condie (1993, 2007) and
Condie and Chomiak (1996).

in the Wopmay and Tanami orogens do remnants
of continental arcs comprise 590% of the
preserved rocks. In contrast to continental arcs,
oceanic terranes (including arcs, oceanic crust,
serpentinites, pelagic sediments, oceanic islands
and LIPs (large igneous provences)) comprise a
very small proportion of tectonic settings
preserved in orogens (usually 410%) and in
some orogens, oceanic assemblages are not
recognized (Fig. 6). Three exceptions stand out:
the Trans-Hudson, Arabian-Nubian and Birimian-
Transamazonian orogens, all of which contain
30 40% of oceanic terranes (Supplementary
Appendix 1). Also, there is no apparent secular
change in relative abundances of oceanic terranes
Juvenile crust preserved in orogens
with orogen age, except in the last 200 m.y. where
the number of preserved ophiolites increases as
mentioned above. The small number of fragments
of oceanic arcs preserved in orogens is in
agreement with the results of Condie and Kroner
(2013), who suggest that oceanic arcs are not
major components of continental growth.
Almost everything else in orogens comprises
reworked crust, which includes some combination
of Archaean basement, accreted terranes with
older crust and detrital sediments. Reworked
components comprise between 10 and 90% of
orogens (most between 20 and 50%) with an
average of 40%, (Supplementary Appendix 1;
Fig. 6). Microcratons, such as the Sask craton in
the Trans-Hudson orogen, are difcult to identify
without geophysical data, because they are often
not exposed at the surface. Thus, microcratons
may be more abundant than suggested by the data
in Supplementary Appendix 1. Four orogens are
unusual in that they comprise 580% reworked
components (Limpopo, Usagaran-Tanzania,
Angara and Ubendian) and all of them fall in
the 2100 1800 Ma time window. It is possible
that these four orogens involved largely trans-
pressive collisions with minimal amounts of
concurrent arc magmatism.
The proportion of juvenile crust (crust derived
from the mantle with a short crustal residence
time) preserved in orogens can be estimated from
a combination of Hf and Nd isotopic data
interpreted together with geological maps of
various scales (Condie, 2007, 2013; Condie and
Aster, 2010; Belousova et al., 2010; Dhuime et
al., 2012). One uncertainty in this approach,
however, is that if the zircon ages are biased by
selective preservation, this will also affect Hf and
Nd model ages. On average, continental arcs
contain about 40 50% of juvenile crust, whereas
oceanic terranes (including oceanic arcs, crust,

628
 GROWTH OF CONTINENTAL CRUST

FIG. 7. Relative abundances of juvenile crust in orogens grouped by tectonic setting. Data from Supplementary
Appendix 1. Details of data compilation are given in Condie (1993, 2007) and Condie and Chomiak (1996).

islands and plateaus) comprise ~90% juvenile tional potential of igneous rocks formed at
input (Condie, 2013; Condie and Aster, 2013). As convergent margins and high potential of syn-
shown in Fig. 7, most juvenile crust preserved in collisional igneous rocks, our results show that
orogens occurs in remnants of continental arcs, most juvenile crust (60 90%) is generated during
with only minor amounts in oceanic arcs and the ocean-basin closing stage rather than during
other oceanic tectonic settings. The fraction of the actual collision (Fig. 9) (Supplementary
juvenile crust preserved in orogens ranges from Appendix 1). Although the preservational poten-
5 60% (mostly in the range of 20 40% with a tial is probably highest during the collisional
mean = 30%) and the corresponding reworked phase, most juvenile crust trapped in collisional
crust from 40 95% (mostly in the range of
60 80% with a mean = 70%). Although there is a
scatter in the data, with the exception of six
orogens in the 2000 1800 Ma time window,
there is a suggestion of a decrease in the fraction
of juvenile crust preserved with decreasing age
(Supplementary Appendix 1; Fig. 8). The
Limpopo orogen contains the smallest amount of
juvenile crust (~5%) and 16 other orogens
containing 420% are mostly associated with the
assembly of either Nuna or Gondwana. At the
other extreme are 10 orogens that contain 550%
juvenile input and these are mostly associated
with the assembly of Rodinia or Nuna. The
Arabian-Nubian orogen at 750 Ma contains the
largest amount of juvenile crust at ~60%. The
decrease in juvenile crust with time in orogens
reects an increasing volume of reworked crust
with time.
Although Hawkesworth et al. (2009, 2010) FIG. 8. Fraction of juvenile crust preserved vs. collisional
make a case for the poor to moderate preserva- age of orogens. Data from Supplementary Appendix 1.

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 K. C. CONDIE
FIG. 9. Distribution of juvenile crust produced during the
ocean-basin closing stage of orogens. Percents refer to
juvenile crust produced during ocean-basin closing.
Data from Supplementary Appendix 1.
orogens has already survived earlier subduction.
An example of this, based on Nd isotopic data, is
presented by Dickin et al. (2010) for the Grenville
orogen in eastern Canada.
One might expect the longer the duration of
ocean-basin closing the greater the amount of
juvenile crust preserved, however, this is not
supported by the data. Although the seven
orogens with subduction durations of >600 m.y.
all contain ~50% juvenile components, many of
the orogens with shorter subduction durations
contain similar amounts of juvenile crust
(Fig. 10). This indicates that the duration of
ocean-basin closing is not a major control on the
fraction of juvenile crust preserved in orogens. It
is important to note that the seven orogens with
subduction durations >600 m.y. all have long-
lived accretionary phases. Three out of the seven
comprise part of the GPAO, which contains the
largest volume of juvenile crust preserved
globally between 2 and 1 Ga (Condie, 2013).
Supercontinents and juvenile crust
Several investigations have shown that major
U/Pb zircon age peaks correlate with super-
continent assembly and may represent preserva-
tional rather than production peaks of continental
crust (Fig. 1) (Condie and Aster, 2010, 2013;
Hawkesworth et al., 2009, 2010; Kemp et al.,
630
FIG. 10. Fraction of juvenile crust preserved in orogens
as a function of the duration of subduction (ocean-basin
closing). Data from Supplementary Appendix 1. P-Y-M,
Penokean-Yavapai-Mazatzal orogen.
2009; Roberts, 2012). Condie and Aster (2013)
have also shown that the combined use of Hf and
Nd isotopes is more useful in understanding the
supercontinent cycle and its relation to juvenile
crust preservation than the use of Hf isotopic data
only from detrital zircons. Unlike detrital zircons,
where sources cannot be located precisely
because of crustal recycling, both the location
and tectonic setting can often be constrained for
Nd isotopic data from granitoids. Murphy (2003)
has suggested that supercontinents form in two
tectonic scenarios: extroversion, which involves
closing of external ocean basins and introversion,
which involves closing of internal ocean basins.
Extroversion and introversion have different
signals in eNd and eHf distributions in the rock
record (Murphy and Nance, 2003; Collins et al.,
2011; Roberts, 2012; Condie and Aster, 2013).
The extroversion types show rapid drops in e
during assembly, which lasts the order of 100 m.y.
(Fig. 11) (Condie and Aster, 2013; latest update
of Nd isotopic data given in Supplementary
Appendix 2). This decrease in e values begins
during supercontinent breakup as shown by the
breakup of the late Archaean supercratons
(2150 2050 Ga), Rodinia (750 650 Ma) and
Pannotia (550 Ma) and reects reworking in
external orogens as they converge and collide
with each other. Breakup of the Archaean
supercraton, Kenorland, using the reconstruction
 GROWTH OF CONTINENTAL CRUST

FIG. 11. eHf for detrital zircons and eNd for whole-rock sediments and granitoids with increasing age. eHf and eNd
are median values from our combined Hf and Nd database (Condie and Aster, 2013; latest update of Nd isotopic data
given in Supplementary Appendix 2). Trends are displayed as the median value within a 100 m.y. time window
stepping in m.y. increments. Also shown are assembly and breakup times of supercontinents (Condie and Aster,
2010). Points are median e values for assembly and breakup time windows; vertical black bar is one standard
deviation.

of Bleeker and Ernst (2006) also supports an
assembly of Nuna by extroversion. However,
there is no evidence in Nd or Hf isotope records
for the breakup of Nuna (Fig. 11). The only
supercontinent that clearly formed by introversion
is Pangea (Murphy et al., 2009) and both eNd and
eHf show a rapid increase during its assembly
around 400 Ma. This is consistent with external
orogens shifting to retreating modes as internal
oceans close, where a greater proportion of
Recycling of continental crust into the
juvenile crust is added to the continents. The
mantle
breakup of Pangea around 150 Ma is accom-
panied by a sharp decrease in both eNd and eHf,
followed by an abrupt increase. If the correlation
of Nd and Hf isotopic data with supercontinent
evolution shown in Fig. 11 is correct, it implies
that external orogens may have a signicant
control on detrital zircon populations and
Roberts (2012) reached a similar conclusion
based solely on Hf isotope data.
Although the combined Nd and Hf databases
increase our insight into the supercontinent cycle,
they also present several new and important
questions. It appears that external orogens often
control both eNd and eHf distributions when
considered on a global scale (Hawkesworth et al.,
2010; Collins et al., 2011; Condie, 2013) and if
this is correct, we must ask why internal orogens
(accretionary or collisional) do not contribute
signicantly to isotopic signatures in the
preserved crust? Another intriguing question is
why Nuna appears to be the only supercontinent
with a long-lived (5800 m.y.) accretionary
orogen (the GPAO) leading into the assembly of
the next supercontinent? These questions are also
related to what determines whether a super-
continent forms by extroversion or introversion
and why the introversion case is so rare?
If the major U/Pb zircon age peaks result from
enhanced preservation of continental crust during
the assembly of supercontinents, do the valleys
between the peaks represent (1) relatively few
zircon-producing magmatic events during these
times, (2) sampling biases by geologists and
rivers, (3) the background extraction and recy-
cling rates of continental crust from the mantle as
suggested by Condie et al. (2011), or
(4) enhanced recycling of continental crust into
the mantle? When both Hf and Nd isotopic data
are considered, 1 and 2 seem very unlikely
(Condie, 2013; Condie and Aster, 2013).
Numerous accretionary orogens were active
during the minima between zircon age peaks
and most or all of these produced zircon-bearing
granitoids. Also, as discussed in previous papers,
it is unlikely that geologists and rivers have

631
 K. C. CONDIE
similar sampling biases such that both show age
minima at the same times (Condie et al., 2009;
Condie and Aster, 2010). It is difcult with our
existing data to distinguish between possibilities 3
and 4 and thus both possibilities need to be tested
against future data.
If the zircon peaks were truly crustal generation
peaks, the ratio of positive to negative eNd and
eHf should increase at the same times and if
recycling does not discriminate between juvenile
and reworked crust, the ratio of juvenile to
reworked crust should be about the same in age
peaks and valleys. The most remarkable feature of
the e curves is how well they agree with each
other through time (Fig. 11). At times of super-
continent assembly, median eNd and eHf do not
show peaks in positive e, but are close to zero,
thus not favouring new crustal production at these
times. Both e values are also close to zero for
supercontinent breakups. The somewhat high
positive e values at 700 and 1400 Ma reect
juvenile crust generation in long-lived accre-
tionary orogens (Arabian-Nubian and Central
Asian Orogens at 800 600 Ma and the GPAO
at 1900 1300 Ma) and not fragmentation of the
supercontinents. The large difference between
eNd and eHf at 100 Ma is puzzling and it may be
that the continued fragmentation of Pangea and
the beginning of the assembly of a new super-
continent (Amasia) have caused decoupling in
these isotopic systems. In summary, the eNd and
eHf distributions do not favour enhanced produc-
tion of juvenile continental crust either during or
between supercontinent assemblies.
Accretionary orogens go through retreating and
advancing phases and during retreating phases
new continental crust is generated in forearc
FIG. 12. Diagrammatic cross-section of closing and opening of ocean basins showing (a) enhanced production of
juvenile crust during closing and (b) enhanced recycling during opening.
632
regions and preferentially preserved in back arc
regions (Fig. 12a) (Kemp et al., 2009; Cawood et
al., 2009). In contrast, advancing orogens may
lose signicant volumes of crust by recycling into
the mantle at subduction zones by a combination
of subduction erosion, sediment subduction and
delamination (Cawood et al., 2009; Scholl and
von Huene, 2007, 2009; Clift et al., 2009; Stern,
2011). Studies of both the Japanese and Andean
orogens show that large volumes of juvenile and
reworked crust have been recycled into the mantle
during the Phanerozoic (Kay et al., 2005; Scholl
and von Huene, 2007, 2009; Clift et al., 2009).
Enhanced subduction erosion in the Andes in the
last 250 m.y. may reect the opening of the
Atlantic basin, during which the Andean arc
changed from a retreating to an advancing arc
(Fig. 12b). Scholl and von Huene (2007, 2009)
have estimated that continental crust around the
Pacic basin is being recycled into the mantle at a
rate of 3.2 km3/yr, approximately equal to the rate
at which it is being extracted from the mantle. At
this rate, the entire width of an accretionary
orogen can be destroyed in a few hundred million
years and if this rate is typical of the last 3 g.y., a
volume equal to the current continental crust
would have been recycled into the mantle during
this time interval.
If recycling can explain age gaps in single
orogens, could it also explain the large minima in
ages between the global zircon age peaks
(Fig. 1)? At least in part, two of these age
minima correlate with supercontinent breakup.
During the 1500 1250 Ma minimum, Nuna may
have partially fragmented leading into the
assembly of Rodinia (Pisarevsky et al., 2014).
Consistent with this possibility is the fact that
 GROWTH OF CONTINENTAL CRUST
crustal remnants of this age occur in the GPAO as
well as in other external accretionary orogens
such as Namaqua-Natal, Kibaran, Irumides and
Albany-Fraser (Supplementary Appendix 1).
During the 900 700 Ma minimum, Rodinia
fragmented and minor pieces of crust of this age
are widespread in external accretionary orogens
such as the Irumides, Kibaran, Jiangnan, Arabian-
Nubian, Central Asian, Zambezi and East African
Orogens. Although the 400 Ma mimimum
correlates with the beginning of the assembly of
Pangea, crustal remnants of this age formed
chiey in external accretionary orogens, although
they are now preserved in collisional orogens
(examples include the Taconic-Caledonian,
CAOB, Qinling-Dabi-Sulu, Antler, Variscan,
Pampean and Acadian Orogens). Neodymium
and Hf model ages from these orogens indicate
that continental crust must have formed during the
age minima, but that it was not preserved. This
observation supports a recycling explanation for
the large valleys between the major zircon age
peaks (Fig. 1). The large, well established crustal
age gap at 2400 2200 Ma (Condie et al., 2009)
correlates with stasis of the late Archaean
supercratons, which fragmented at
2150 2050 Ma. Although this age gap was
originally suggested to record a slow-down in
global magmatism and plate tectonics (Condie et
al., 2009), it more likely reects recycling of
continental crust into the mantle. Supporting this
interpretation are widespread Hf and Nd model
ages as well as detrital zircon ages from South
America and south China ~2300 Ma (Sun et al.,
2009; Berman et al., 2010; Teixeira et al., 2014).
Growth rate of continental crust through time
The best estimate of the net growth rate of
continental crust uses a combination of model
ages of Nd in sediments and granitoids and of Hf
in zircons. To avoid inclusion of signicant
volumes of reworked continental crust, it is
important to consider Hf isotope data in zircons
that are ltered with O isotopes so as to include
only those with mantle isotopic signatures (d18O =
4.5 6.5% (Kemp et al., 2006; Iizuka et al., 2012;
Wang et al., 2011; Dhuime et al., 2012). A
comparison of d18O ltered and unltered data
shows a similar distribution of juvenile crust with
broad model age peaks at 3500 3000 and
2000 1200 Ma, which is in striking contrast to
the sharp peaks of the zircon age spectra (Figs 1,
13a,b). Note that the 2000 1200 Ma peak is
633
much smaller using the d18O ltered data. The Nd
model ages of sediments and granitoids show
much the same pattern as the Hf isotope data
(Fig. 13c). The Archaean peak is somewhat
younger, centred ~3000 2700 Ma and the
Proterozoic peak somewhat older at
2300 1400 Ma. There also is a suggestion of
renewed crustal growth around 900 600 Ma in
the Nd data and 600 400 Ma in the Hf data (both
ltered and unltered).
Other than the late Archaean peak in Nd model
ages, there is no correlation of model age peaks
with zircon age peaks (Fig. 1), which supports the
interpretation of the zircon peaks as preservation
peaks rather than production peaks of continental
crust. However, both Nd and Hf model ages may
also be biased because an unknown number of
model ages reect mixing rather than isotopic
growth. Another way to test the preservation
model is using Re/Os isotopic ages of mantle
xenoliths (Carlson et al., 2005; Pearson et al.,
2007). Rhenium depletion ages of xenoliths may
record major melting events in the mantle and if
so, there is strong evidence of a major event
around 2800 2500 Ma (Fig. 13d). The broad
peak in Re depletion ages in the last 1000 m.y.
probably reects a sampling bias, as many
isotopic studies have concentrated on mantle
xenoliths in volcanics underlain by Phanerozoic
crust. If most weight is given to the ltered Hf
isotopic data in zircons, the whole-rock Nd
isotopic data from granitoids and sediments and
the whole-rock Re depletion ages of mantle
xenoliths, it would appear that most of the
continental crust (570%) was extracted from
the mantle between 3500 and 2500 Ma
(Belousova et al., 2010; Condie and Aster,
2010; Collins et al., 2011; Dhuime et al., 2012).
Conclusions
(1) Most orogens have durations of 4600 m.y.
whereas a few, with long-lived accretionary
phases, can last for up to 800 m.y. or more. The
deformation in orogens generally ends with a
continentcontinent collision, although some
segments of accretionary orogens can end with
terrane collisions. Most of the long-lived accre-
tionary orogens are part of the gigantic GPAO,
which extended along the southern margins of
Laurentia and Baltica (present day coordinates)
from 2.0 to 1.2 Ga.
(2) The most abundant tectonic setting preserved
in orogens is the continental arc, at least since the
 K. C. CONDIE

FIG. 13. Hafnium and Nd model age distributions with age. (a) Hf isotope model ages of detrital zircons from modern
river sediments; (b) Hf model ages from (a) that have d18O in the range 4.5 6.5%; and (c) Nd isotopic model ages
for whole-rock detrital sedimentary rocks and granitoids (data from Condie, 2013); (d) histogram of Re depletion
ages in mantle xenoliths (data from Carlson et al., 2005; Pearson et al., 2007).

end of the Archaean. Oceanic terranes (arcs, crust,
melange, LIPs etc.) are uncommon in most
orogens as they appear to be easily subducted
into the mantle. Approximately 50% of the crust
preserved in orogens is reworked older crust.
(3) Juvenile continental crust is generated and
preserved in accretionary orogens during ocean-
basin closing, chiey in external orogens, but in
some cases also in internal orogens. The ultimate
preservation of juvenile crust occurs during
continental collisions, or in some instances in
accretionary orogens, during collision and accre-
tion of large terranes.
(4) Supercontinents that form by extroversion
show rapid drops in eNd and eHf during their
assembly, which lasts the order 100 m.y. This
decrease in e begins during supercontinent
breakup and reects extensive reworking in
external orogens as they converge and collide
with each other. The only supercontinent that
clearly formed by introversion is Pangea and both
eNd and eHf show a rapid increase during its
assembly. This is consistent with a greater
proportion of juvenile crust production in external
orogens, which shift into retreating modes as
internal oceans close.

634
 GROWTH OF CONTINENTAL CRUST
(5) The most remarkable feature of eNd
(sedimentary rocks and granitoids) and eHf
(detrital zircons) distributions through time is
how well they agree with each other. The ratio of
positive to negative eNd and eHf does not
increase during supercontinent assembly (co-
incident with zircon age peaks), which suggests
that supercontinent assembly is not accompanied
by enhanced crustal production, assuming recy-
cling does not discriminate between juvenile and
reworked crust. The proportions of positive to
negative eNd and eHf also do not correlate with
supercontinent breakup.
(6) Neodymium model ages from detrital
sedimentary rocks and granitoids, Hf model
ages from mantle-sourced zircons and whole-
rock Re depletion ages of mantle xenoliths
collectively suggest that 570% of the conti-
nental crust was extracted from the mantle
between 3500 and 2500 Ma.
(7) Although some age minima can be related
to the breakup of supercontinents, others may
correlate with supercontinent assembly or stasis.
Minima between U/Pb zircon age peaks at
1500 1250 Ma and 900 700 Ma may reect
recycling of continental crust into the mantle and
correspond to either partial or complete breakup
of supercontinents. In contrast, minima at
2400 2200 and 400 Ma correspond to stasis or
growth of supercontinents, respectively. No peaks
or minima occur during overlap of supercontinent
assembly and breakup between 750 and 500 Ma
and 4150 Ma. A major question that must be
addressed is that of what mantle processes control
the balance of extraction and recycling of
continental crust out of and into the mantle and
why should one or the other be more important?
Acknowledgements
This paper is based on the Hallimond lecture
given at the meeting How to Build Strong
Continents, September 2 4, 2013 in
Portsmouth, UK. The author acknowledges the
Mineralogical Society of the UK for the invitation
to give this lecture.
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