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(Carol Vorderman) Help Your Kids With Maths (PDF) (ZZZZZ) PDF
(Carol Vorderman) Help Your Kids With Maths (PDF) (ZZZZZ) PDF
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CAROL VORDERMAN M.A.(Cantab), MBE is one of Britains best-loved TV personalities and is
renowned for her excellent math skills. She has hosted numerous shows, from light entertainment
with Carol Vordermans Better Homes and The Pride of Britain Awards, to scientific programs such
as Tomorrows World, on the BBC, ITV, and Channel 4. Whether co-hosting Channel 4s Countdown
for 26 years, becoming the second-best-selling female nonfiction author of the 2000s in the UK,
or advising Parliament on the future of math education in the UK, Carol has a passion for and
devotion to explaining math in an exciting and easily understandable way.
ANDREW JEFFREY (Author, Probability) is a math consultant, well known for his passion and
enthusiasm for the teaching and learning of math. A teacher for over 20 years, Andrew now
spends his time training, coaching, and supporting teachers and delivering lectures for various
organizations throughout Europe. He has written many books on the subject of math and is
better known to many schools as the Mathemagician.
MARCUS WEEKS (Author, Statistics) is the author of many books and has contributed to
several reference books, including DKs Science: The Definitive Visual Guide and Childrens
Illustrated Encyclopedia.
SEAN MCARDLE (Consultant) was head of math in two primary schools and has a
Master of Philosophy degree in Educational Assessment. He has written or co-written
more than 100 mathematical textbooks for children and assessment books for teachers.
Contents
F O R E W O R D b y C a ro l Vo rd e r m a n 8
I N T R O D U C T I O N b y B a r r y Le w i s 10
1 NUMBERS 2 GEOMETRY
Introducing numbers 14 What is geometry? 80
Addition 16 Tools in geometry 82
Subtraction 17 Angles 84
Multiplication 18 Straight lines 86
Division 22 Symmetry 88
Prime numbers 26 Coordinates 90
Units of measurement 28 Vectors 94
Telling the time 30 Translations 98
Roman numerals 33 Rotations 100
Positive and negative numbers 34 Reflections 102
Powers and roots 36 Enlargements 104
Surds 40 Scale drawings 106
Standard form 42 Bearings 108
Decimals 44 Constructions 110
Binary numbers 46 Loci 114
Fractions 48 Triangles 116
Ratio and proportion 56 Constructing triangles 118
Percentages 60 Congruent triangles 120
Converting fractions, decimals, Area of a triangle 122
and percentages 64 Similar triangles 125
Mental math 66 Pythagorean Theorem 128
Rounding off 70 Quadrilaterals 130
Using a calculator 72 Polygons 134
Personal finance 74 Circles 138
Business finance 76 Circumference and diameter 140
Area of a circle 142 The quadratic formula 192
Angles in a circle 144 Quadratic graphs 194
Chords and cyclic quadrilaterals 146 Inequalities 198
Tangents 148
Arcs
Sectors
150
151
5 STATISTICS
Solids 152 What is statistics? 202
Volumes 154 Collecting and organizing data 204
Surface area of solids 156 Bar graphs 206
Pie charts 210
4 ALGEBRA 6 PROBABILITY
What is algebra? 168 What is probability? 230
Sequences 170 Expectation and reality 232
Working with expressions 172 Combined probabilities 234
Expanding and factorizing expressions 174 Dependent events 236
Quadratic expressions 176 Tree diagrams 238
Formulas 177
Solving equations 180 Reference section 240
Linear graphs 182 Glossary 252
Simultaneous equations 186 Index 258
Factorizing quadratic equations 190 Acknowledgments 264
Foreword
Hello
Welcome to the wonderful world of math. Research has shown just how
important it is for parents to be able to help children with their education.
Being able to work through homework together and enjoy a subject,
particularly math, is a vital part of a childs progress.
We wanted this book to guide parents through some of the methods in early
arithmetic and then for them to go on to enjoy some deeper mathematics.
Over nearly 30 years, and for nearly every single day, I have had the privilege
of hearing peoples very personal views about math and arithmetic.
Many werent taught math particularly well or in an interesting way. If you
were one of those people, then we hope that this book can go some way to
changing your situation and that math, once understood, can begin to excite
you as much as it does me.
CAROL VORDERMAN
=3.1415926535897932384626433832
7950288419716939937510582097494
4592307816406286208998628034853
4211706798214808651328230664709
3844609550582231725359408128481
11745028410270193852110555964462
2948954930381964428810975665933
4461284756482337867831652712019
0914564856692346034861045432664
8213393607260249141273724587006
6063155881748815209209628292540
91715364367892590360011330530548
8204665213841469519451160943305
72703657595919530921861173819326
11793105118548074462379962749567
3518857527248912279381830119491
Introduction
This book concentrates on the math tackled in schools between the ages of 9 and
16. But it does so in a gripping, engaging, and visual way. Its purpose
is to teach math by stealth. It presents mathematical ideas, techniques, and
procedures so that they are immediately absorbed and understood. Every spread
in the book is written and presented so that the reader will exclaim, Ah hanow
I understand! Students can use it on their own; equally, it helps parents
understand and remember the subject and thus help their children. If parents
too gain something in the process, then so much the better.
At the start of the new millennium I had the privilege of being the director of the
United Kingdoms Maths Year 2000, a celebration of math and an international
effort to highlight and boost awareness of the subject. It was supported by the
British government and Carol Vorderman was also involved. Carol championed
math across the British media, and is well known for her astonishingly agile ways
of manipulating and working with numbersalmost as if they were her personal
friends. My working, domestic, and sleeping hours are devoted to mathfinding
out how various subtle patterns based on counting items in sophisticated
structures work and how they hang together. What united us was a shared
passion for math and the contribution it makes to all our liveseconomic,
cultural, and practical.
How is it that in a world ever more dominated by numbers, maththe subtle art
that teases out the patterns, the harmonies, and the textures that make up the
relationships between the numbersis in danger? I sometimes think that
we are drowning in numbers.
The danger is, despite all the numbers and our increasingly numerate world, math
gets left behind. Im sure that many think the ability to do the numbers is enough.
Not so. Neither as individuals, nor collectively. Numbers are pinpricks in the fabric of
math, blazing within. Without them we would be condemned to total darkness. With
them we gain glimpses of the sparkling treasures otherwise hidden.
This book sets out to address and solve this problem. Everyone can do math.
BARRY LEWIS
2 Introducing numbers
COUNTING AND NUMBERS FORM THE FOUNDATION OF MATHEMATICS.
1
1 2 3
0.4 First number
One is not a prime number.
It is called the multiplicative
Even prime number
The number 2 is the only
even-numbered prime
identity, because any number numbera number that
Types of numbers multiplied by 1 gives that is only divisible by itself
Here 1 is a positive whole number and -2 is a number as the answer. and 1 (see pp.2627).
negative number. The symbol 13 represents a
fraction, which is one part of a whole that has
been divided into three parts. A decimal is
1 2
another way to express a fraction.
LOOKING CLOSER
Zero
The use of the symbol for zero is considered an
important advance in the way numbers are written.
Before the symbol for zero was adopted, a blank space
was used in calculations. This could lead to ambiguity
and made numbers easier to confuse. For example, it
was dicult to distinguish between 400, 40, and 4,
6 7
since they were all represented by only the number 4.
The symbol zero developed from a dot rst used by
Indian mathematicians to act a placeholder.
Easy to read
The zero acts as
Number symbols
Many civilizations developed their own symbols for numbers, some of which
are shown below, together with our modern HinduArabic number system.
One of the main advantages of our modern number system is that arithmetical
operations, such as multiplication and division, are much easier to do than
with the more complicated older number systems.
Modern HinduArabic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Mayan
Ancient Chinese
Ancient Roman I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X
Ancient Egyptian
Babylonian
3 4 5
8
Fibonacci number
9
Highest decimal
10
Base number
The number 8 is a cube The number 9 is the highest The Western number system
number (23 = 8) and it is single-digit whole number is based on the number 10.
the only positive Fibonacci and the highest single-digit It is speculated that this is
number (see p.171), other number in the decimal because humans used their
than 1, that is a cube. system. fingers and toes for counting.
16 NUMBERS
Subtraction 17
Positive and negative
NUMBERS ARE ADDED TOGETHER TO FIND THEIR TOTAL. move three
What it means
The result of adding 3 to
the start number of 1 is
4. This means that the
sum of 1 and 3 is 4.
+ =
1+
FIRST
3
NUMBER
= 4
TOTAL, RESULT,
NUMBER TO ADD OR SUM
9 19 1,119
First, the numbers Next, add the ones 1 The sum of the tens Then add the hundreds
are written with their and 8 and write their has two digits, so write and the carried digit.
ones, tens, and sum of 9 in the space the second underneath This sum has two digits,
hundreds directly underneath the ones and carry the first to so the first goes in the
above each other. column. the next column. thousands column.
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION 17
16 Addition
Positive and negative
A NUMBER IS SUBTRACTED FROM ANOTHER NUMBER TO
FIND WHAT IS LEFT. THIS IS KNOWN AS THE DIFFERENCE.
numbers 3435
Use a number line
Taking away
A number line can also be used to show
how to subtract numbers. From the
1 1 1 start at 4, then move
three places to left
To subtract 3 from 4,
start at 4 and move
three places along the
rst number, move back along the line number line, first to 3,
the number of places shown by the 0 1 2 3 4 5 then 2, and then to 1.
second number. Here 3 is taken from 4.
sign for equals sign
subtraction leads to answer
=
What it means
The result of
subtracting 3 from 4
is 1, so the difference
4
FIRST
3
NUMBER TO
= 1 RESULT OR
between 3 and 4 is 1. NUMBER SUBTRACT DIFFERENCE
7 37 737 is 737
First, the numbers Next, subtract the unit In the tens, 9 cannot In the hundreds
are written with their 1 from 8, and write be subtracted from 2, column, 1 is
ones, tens, and their difference of 7 so 1 is borrowed from subtracted from the
hundreds directly in the space the hundreds, turning new, now lower
above each other. underneath them. 9 into 8 and 2 into 12. number of 8.
18 NUMBERS
13 people
in each row
9
8
11
10
7
9
6
multiplication sign
8
7
5
6
9 13
4
5
4
3
9 13 = 13 + 13 + 13 + 13 + 13 + 13 + 13 + 13 + 13 = 117
product of 9
and 13 is 117
M U LT I P L I C AT I O N 19
Works both ways
It does not matter which order numbers appear in a multiplication sum because the answer
will be the same either way. Two methods of the same multiplication are shown here.
4 3 = 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 12
3 added to itself
four times is 12
3 4
= + + +
2 3
2
1 1
3 4 = 4 + 4 + 4 = 12
4 added to itself
three times is 12
4
3
= + +
2 3
2
1 1
MULTIPLES
When a number is multiplied by any whole number the result (product) is called a
multiple. For example, the first six multiples of the number 2 are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12.
This is because 2 1 = 2, 2 2 = 4, 2 3 = 6, 2 4 = 8, 2 5 = 10, and 2 6 = 12.
31= 3 81= 8 12 1 = 12
32= 6 8 2 = 16 12 2 = 24
first five first five first five
33= 9 multiples
of 3
8 3 = 24 multiples
of 8
12 3 = 36 multiples
of 12
3 4 = 12 8 4 = 32 12 4 = 48
3 5 = 15 8 5 = 40 12 5 = 60
Common multiples
Two or more numbers can have multiples in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
common. Drawing a grid, such as the one on the
right, can help nd the common multiples of dierent
numbers. The smallest of these common numbers is 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
called the lowest common multiple.
24 of 3 and 8 is 24 because it is
the smallest number that
both multiply into.
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
multiples of 3
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
multiples of 8
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
multiples of 3 and 8 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Finding common multiples
Multiples of 3 and multiples
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
of 8 are highlighted on this grid.
Some multiples are common
to both numbers.
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
M U LT I P L I C AT I O N 21
Short multiplication
Multiplying a large number by a single-digit number is called short multiplication. The larger
number is placed above the smaller one in columns arranged according to their value.
4 carried 4 6 written in
6 carried to 64 1 written in 64
to tens
column 196 ones column
hundreds
column 196 hundreds
column 196
7 2 written in
ones column 7 written in
7 7 1,372 is
2 tens column
72 3 written in hundreds
column; 1 written in
thousands column
1,372 nal answer
To multiply 196 and 7, first Next, multiply 7 and 9, Finally, multiply 7 and 1.
multiply the ones 7 and 6. the product of which is Add its product (7) to the
The product is 42, the 4 of 63. The carried 4 is added carried 6 to get 13, giving
which is carried. to 63 to get 67. a final product of 1,372.
Long multiplication
Multiplying two numbers that both contain at least two digits is called long
multiplication. The numbers are placed one above the other, in columns arranged
according to their value (ones, tens, hundreds, and so on).
428 multiplied
by 100 428
428 multiplied 428 multiplied 428 111
by 1 428 by 10
111 428
428 111 428 add 00 when + 4,280
add 0 when
111 428 multiplying by 10
4,280 multiplying
by 100 42,800
428 4,280 42,800 = 47,508
First, multiply 428 by 1 in Multiply 428 digit by digit by 1 Multiply 428 digit by digit by Add together the
the ones column. Work digit in the tens column. Remember 1 in the hundreds column. Add products of the three
by digit from right to left so to add 0 when multiplying by a 00 when multiplying by a digit multiplications. The
8 1, 2 1, and then 4 1. number in the tens place. in the hundreds place. answer is 47,508.
LOOKING CLOSER
There are two ways to think about division. The first is sharing a number
proportion 5659
out equally (10 coins to 2 people is 5 each). The other is dividing a number
into equal groups (10 coins into piles containing 2 coins each is 5 piles).
I V be or b
e iv e
in an
=
I D r t sh er
EN hat are
D is d
4 CANDIES 2 PEOPLE = 2 CANDIES PER PERSON
LOOKING CLOSER
3
D u m b e d to e n d
Th i n g e d
be th
I V er d
e us ivi
I S th ivid
O at i e
R s
d
Division is the direct opposite or inverse of multiplication, and the Back to the beginning
two are always connected. If you know the answer to a particular If 10 (the dividend) is divided
division, you can form a multiplication from it and vice versa. by 2 (the divisor), the answer
(the quotient) is 5. Multiplying
the quotient (5) by the divisor
of the original division problem
(2) results in the original
dividend (10).
10 2=5 5 2=10
DIVISION 23
Introducing remainders
3IRLS
10 ISIO
N G
DIV
9
DIVISION TIPS
A number is If... Examples
3 divisible by
2 the last digit is an even number 12, 134, 5,000
3 1 AINING 3 the sum of all digits when added 18
3S EM S
R DIE together is divisible by 3 1+8 = 9
ND
IE 3 CA
N 4 the number formed by the last 732
CA EACH two digits is divisible by 4 32 4 = 8
=
re
U O es io
together is divisible by 3
Th e d
m
T I ult of n
th
EN
ain
de
A I t le r c ot
v
divisible by 9 6+8+3+1 = 18
n t
N D f t o ann her
ER ver ot
LOOKING CLOSER
Short division Converting remainders
Short division is used to divide one number (the dividend) by remainder
another whole number (the divisor) that is less than 10. When one number will not divide
result is 132 exactly into another, the answer
start on the left with
the rst 3 (divisor)
has a remainder. Remainders can 22 r 2
1
be converted into decimals, as 4 90
1 13 dividing line
132 shown below.
Remove the remainder, 2 in
start on
the left
divisor
divide 5 into
rst 2 digits
of dividend 5 2 2
of dividend
LOOKING CLOSER
55 2 2 1
1 to next digit
of dividend 553
is 553
2 2 1
8162 = 408 4083 = 136
divide by rst factor
of divisor
divide by second
factor of divisor
Long division
Long division is usually used when the The answer (or quotient) goes
the dividing line is used in the space above the
divisor is at least two digits long and the in place of or / sign dividing line.
dividend is at least 3 digits long. Unlike
short division, all the workings out are
written out in full below the dividing line.
Multiplication is used for nding
remainders. A long division sum is
presented in the example on the right. DIVISOR
52 754 The calculations go in the
DIVIDEND
number that is
divided by another
number
number is used to space below the dividing line. put result of
divide dividend second division
above last digit
being divided into
result is 1
1 multiply 1 (the
1 14
divide divisor into 234
14 14 add a decimal
point then a zero 14.5
other one
1821 Multiplication
PICK A NUMBER
FROM 1 TO 100
1 2 3 4 2
5
Is the number
NO
2, 3, 5, or 7?
YES
11 12 2 3
13 14 2 7
15
3 5
Is it divisible by 2?
THE 21
3 7
22 2
23 24 2 3
25 5
NUMBER
NO YES
IS NOT
PRIME 31 32 2
33 3
34 2
35
5 7
Is it divisible by 3?
41 42
2 3 7
43 44 2
45
3 5
NO YES
51 3
52 2
53 54 2 3
55 5
Is it divisible by 5?
NO YES 61 62 2
63 3 7
64 2
65 5
Is it divisible by 7? THE
NUMBER
71 72 2 3
73 74 2
75
3 5
NO YES IS PRIME
81 3
82 2
83 84
2 3 7
85 5
42
2 3 7
A yellow box denotes a composite
number, which means that it is
divisible by more than 1 and itself.
prime factor remaining factor
6
2 3
7 8 2
9 3
10 2 5
which needs to be broken down into prime numbers.
largest
prime factor
16 2
17 182 3
19 20 2 5
6 = 3 2
26 2
27 3
282 7
29 30 2 3 5
Next, take the remaining factor and find the largest prime
number that divides into it, and any smaller prime numbers. In
this case, the prime numbers that divide into 6 are 3 and 2.
36 37 38 39 40 descending order
2 3 2 3 2 5
30 = 5 3 2
46 2
47 482 3
49 7
50 2 5
It is now possible to see that 30 is the product of multiplying
together the prime numbers 5, 3, and 2. Therefore, the prime
factors of 30 are 5, 3, and, 2.
56
2 7
57 3
58 2
59 60 2 3 5 REAL WORLD
Encryption
66
2 3
67 68 2
69 3
70 2 5 7
Many transactions in banks and stores rely on the Internet and other
communications systems. To protect the
information, it is coded using a number
76 2
77 7
782 3
79 80 2 5
that is the product of just two huge
primes. The security relies on the fact
that no eavesdropper can factorize the
fldjhg83asldkfdslkfjour523ijwli
eorit84wodfpflciry38s0x8b6lkj
qpeoith73kdicuvyebdkciurmol
wpeodikrucnyr83iowp7uhjwm
kdieolekdoripasswordqe8ki
number because its factors are so large.
86 2
87 3
88 2
89 90 2 3 5
Data protection
mdkdoritut6483kednffkeoskeo
kdieujr83iowplwqpwo98irkldil
ieow98mqloapkijuhrnmeuidy6
woqp90jqiuke4lmicunejwkiuyj
96
2 3
97 982 7
99 3
100 2 5
mathematicians relentlessly
hunt for ever bigger primes.
SEE ALSO
Basic units
A unit is any agreed or standardized measurement of size. This allows
quantities to be accurately measured. There are three basic units: time,
LOOKING CLOSER
weight (including mass), and length.
this is the length Distance
these two units
this is the width of the building
are lighter this is
these three units of the building Distance is the amount of
are heavier the height
of the leng
space between two points. It
building h th expresses length, but is also
widt
used to describe a journey,
which is not always the
most direct route between
two points . B
height
plane ies set
distance between
two cities
Compound measures
A compound unit is made up of more than one of the basic units, including using
the same unit repeatedly. Examples include area, volume, speed, and density.
length
area = length width volume = length width height
area is made up of two of the same volume is a compound of three of the same units,
units, because width is also a length because width and height are technically lengths
Finding speed
Speed A van travels 20 km in
Speed measures the distance (length) traveled in a given time. This means that the 20 minutes. From this
formula for measuring speed is length time. If this is measured in kilometers and information its speed
hours, the unit for speed will be km/h. in km/h can be found.
20 km
distance divide 20 by 60 to nd its
Speed = value in hours
time distance = speed time
20 1
D 20 minutes = = hour
Speed formula triangle 60 3
The relationships between
S T D=ST First, convert the minutes into hours. To convert minutes into
speed, distance, and time can hours, divide them by 60, then cancel the fractiondivide the
be shown in a triangle. The top and bottom numbers by 20. This gives an answer of 1/3 hour.
position of each unit in the
triangle indicates how to use this line acts as
a division sign time = distance speed
the other two measurements distance is 20 km
to calculate that unit. D
D D D
D D S= = 60 km/h
S= S T S T S T T= T
T S time is 1/3 hour
this line acts as a
speed = distance time multiplication
Then, substitute the values for distance and time into
sign the formula for speed. Divide the distance (20 km) by the
time (1/3 hour) to find the speed, in this case 60 km/h.
Density
Density measures how much matter is packed into a given volume of a substance. It involves
two unitsmass and volume. The formula for measuring density is mass volume. If this is density of lead is
measured in grams and centimeters, the unit for density will be g/cm. constant, regardless
of mass
mass Finding volume
Density = mass = density volume
volume Lead has a density of 0.0113
M kg/cm. With this measurement,
the volume of a lead weight g
Density formula triangle D V M=DV that has a mass of 0.5 kg can 0.5 k
The relationships between density,
be found.
mass, and volume can be shown in
a triangle. The position of each unit
of measurement in the triangle mass is 0.5 kg
this line acts as
shows how to calculate that volume = mass density
a division sign M
unit using the other two M V= = 44.25 cm
measurements. D
M M M M density is 0.0113 kg/cm
D= D V D V D V V=
V D Using the formula
this line acts as a Substitute the values for mass and density into the formula
density = mass volume multiplication sign for volume. Divide the mass (0.5 kg) by the density (0.0113
kg/cm) to find the volume, in this case 44.25 cm.
30 NUMBERS
TIME IS MEASURED IN THE SAME WAY AROUND THE WORLD. Units of measurement
2829
1
minute
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1000 years is a millennium
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 1
hour
2 3 4 5 6
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 7 8 9 10 11 12
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
13 14 15 16 17 18
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
1 hour 19 20 21 22 23 24
There are 24 hours in each day. 1 day
TELLING THE TIME 31
Reading the time The short hand indicates 12 The hands move in this
what hour it is. This hour direction. This is called
The time can be told by looking carefully 11 1
hand shows 11. the clockwise direction.
at where the hands point on a clock or watch.
The hour hand is shorter and moves around 10 2
slowly. The minute hand is longer than the Between each
number is The number of
hour hand and points at minutes past the 5 minutes. small marks are the
hour or to the next one. Most clock faces 9 3 number of minutes
show the minutes in groups of ve and the or seconds.
in-between minutes are shown by a short line
or mark. The second hand is usually long and 4
The second hand 8
thin, and sweeps quickly around the face shows 40 seconds
every minute, marking 60 seconds. on this clock face.
7 5 The long hand shows
6 the minutes. On this
When the minute hand points clock face 20 minutes
to 12, the time is on the hour have passed.
as shown by the hour hand. A clock face
oclock A clock face is a visual way to show
the time easily and clearly. There are
5 to 5 past many types of clock and watch faces.
12
11 1
10 to 10 past
When the minute hand
If the minute hand is
pointing to 9, the time 10 2 points to 3, the time is
quarter past the hour.
is quarter to the hour.
p
the hour
as
t the hou
12 12 12 12
11 1 11 1 11 1 11 1
10 2 10 2 10 2 10 2
9 3 9 3 9 3 9 3
8 4 8 4 8 4 8 4
7 5 7 5 7 5 7 5
6 6 6 6
Analogue time
Most clocks and watches only go up to 12 hours, but there are 24-hour clock
24 hours in one day. To show the dierence between morning The 24-hour system was devised to stop
and night, we use AM or PM. The middle of the day (12 oclock) confusion between morning and afternoon
is called midday or noon. times, and runs continuously from midnight
to midnight. It is often used in computers,
Before noon we say 12 noon After noon by the military, and on timetables. To convert
the time is AM we say PM from the 12-hour system to the 24-hour system,
you add 12 to the hour for times after noon.
For example, 11 PM becomes 23:00 (11 + 12)
6 AM 6 PM and 8:45 PM becomes 20:45 (8:45 + 12).
AM or PM 3:00 AM 03:00
The initials AM and PM stand for the Latin words ante meridiem (meaning 4:00 AM 04:00
before noon) and post meridiem (meaning after noon). The first 12 hours
of the day are called AM and the second 12 hours of the day are called PM. 5:00 AM 05:00
6:00 AM 06:00
7:00 AM 07:00
Digital time
8:00 AM 08:00
Traditional clock faces show time in an analoge format
but digital formats are also common, especially on electrical 9:00 AM 09:00
devices such as computers, televisions, and mobile phones.
Some digital displays show time in the 24-hour system; 10:00 AM 10:00
others use the analoge system and also show AM or PM. 11:00 AM 11:00
12:00 noon 12:00
1:00 PM 13:00
2:00 PM 14:00
3:00 PM 15:00
Hours and minutes 24-hour digital display
On a digital clock, the hours If the hours or minutes are 4:00 PM 16:00
are shown first followed by a single digit numbers, a zero
colon and the minutes. Some (called a leading zero) is 5:00 PM 17:00
displays may also show seconds. placed to the left of the digit.
6:00 PM 18:00
7:00 PM 19:00
AM
8:00 PM 20:00
PM
9:00 PM 21:00
1415 Introducing
numbers
DEVELOPED BY THE ANCIENT ROMANS, THIS SYSTEM USES
LETTERS FROM THE LATIN ALPHABET TO REPRESENT NUMBERS.
Number Roman numeral
Understanding Roman numerals 1 I
The Roman numeral system does not use zero. To make a number,
seven letters are combined. These are the letters and their values: 2 II
3 III
I V X L C D M 4 IV
5 V
1 5 10 50 100 500 1000
6 VI
Forming numbers 7 VII
Some key principles were observed by the ancient Romans to 8 VIII
create numbers from the seven letters.
9 IX
First principle When a smaller number appears after a larger number,
the smaller number is added to the larger number to find the total value. 10 X
11 XI
XI = X + I = 11 XVll = X + V + l + l = 17 12 XII
13 XIII
Second principle When a smaller number appears before a larger number,
the smaller number is subtracted from the larger number to find the total value.
14 XIV
15 XV
lX = X I = 9 CM = M C = 900 16 XVI
17 XVII
Third principle Each letter can be repeated up to three times. 18 XVIII
XX = X + X = 20 XXX = X + X + X = 30 19
20
XIX
XX
30 XXX
Using Roman numerals 40 XL
Although Roman numerals are not widely used today, they still appear on some
50 L
clock faces, with the names of monarchs and popes, and for important dates.
60 LX
Time Names Dates 70 LXX
80 LXXX
Henry VIII MMXIV 90 XC
5 2 = 7 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
=+
move four places left Like signs equal a positive
start at 3 move four 4 3 2 1 from -3 to -7 If any two like signs appear together,
places to left
the result is always positive. The result is
1 0 1 2 3 4 5
8 is positive because
=+
24=8 ++=+
++
1 6 = 6
6 is negative because
+=
+
unlike signs give a
negative answer
2 is negative because
4 2 = 2 +=
8 is negative because
+=
+ =
2 4 = 8 +
2 4 = 8
8 is positive because
=+ +
5 is positive because Positive or negative answer
The sign in the answer depends on whether the
10 2 = 5 =+
signs of the values are alike or not.
36 NUMBERS
1821 Multiplication
4
5
Introducing powers this is the power, which shows how
A power is the number of times a number is multiplied by itself. This many times to multiply the number
(5 means 5 5 5 5)
is indicated as a smaller number positioned to the right above the
number. Multiplying a number by itself once is described as squaring this is the number that
the number; multiplying a number by itself twice is described as the power relates to
cubing the number.
Squared number
55=5
This image shows how many units
make up 5. There are 5
rows, each with 5
unitsso
this is the power; 5 5 = 25.
= 25 5 is called 5 squared
1
5
The square of a number
2
4
Multiplying a number by itself gives the
3
3
square of the number. The power for a 5 rows with 5
4
2
square number is 2, for example 52 means units in each row
that 2 number 5s are being multiplied.
5
1
3
555=5 this is the power;
= 125
The cube of a number
5 is called 5 cubed 1
2
Multiplying a number by itself twice
gives its cube. The power for a cube
number is 3, for example 5, which
3
means there are 3 number 5s being
multiplied: 5 5 5.
4
5 vertical rows
5
Cubed number
1
1
POWERS AND ROOTS 37
once, equals a given number. For example, one
25 125
square root of 4 is 2, because 2 2 = 4. Another
square root is 2, as (2) (2) = 4; the square
roots of numbers can be either positive or negative.
A cube root is a number that, multiplied by itself
twice, equals a given number. For example,
the cube root of 27 is 3, because 3 3 3 = 27. this is the number for this is the number
which the square for which the cube
root is being found root is being found
square root symbol this is the square
root of 25
25 is 52
25 = 5
The square root of a number
because 5 5 = 25
The square root of a number is the number
which, when squared (multiplied by itself ),
equals the number under the square root sign.
LOOKING CLOSER
COMMON SQUARE ROOTS
Square
Using a calculator
Answer Why?
root Calculators can be used to nd powers and square roots. Most calculators have
1 1 Because 1 1 = 1 buttons to square and cube numbers, buttons to nd square roots and cube roots,
and an exponent button, which allows them to raise numbers to any power.
4 2 Because 2 2 = 4
Using exponents
Xy
3 =
9 3 Because 3 3 = 9
First enter the number
16 4 Because 4 4 = 16 Exponent 3 Xy 5 to be raised to a power,
25 5 Because 5 5 = 25 This button allows then press the
36
49
6
7
Because 6 6 = 36
Because 7 7 = 49
any number to be
raised to any power. = 243 exponent button, then
enter the power
required.
64 8 Because 8 8 = 64
Using square roots
81
100
9
10
Because 9 9 = 81
Because 10 10 = 100
Square root
This button allows
25 = 25 On most calculators, find
the square root of a number
121
144
11
12
Because 11 11 = 121
Because 12 12 = 144
the square root of
any number to be
=5 by pressing the square root
button first and then
found. entering the number.
169 13 Because 13 13 = 169
38 NUMBERS
because
Writing it out
Writing out what each of
these powers represents
shows why powers are
added together to
(66)(666)
6 is 6 6 6 is 6 6 6
= 66666 6 6 6 6 6 is 6
multiply them.
because
4 is 4 4 4 4
Writing it out
4444 4444
Writing out the division of
the powers as a fraction and
then canceling the fraction
shows why powers to be
44 44 = 44
divided can simply be 4 is 4 4 cancel the fraction to 4 4 is 4
subtracted. its simplest terms
LOOKING CLOSER
Zero power
Any number raised to the power 0 is equal the rst the second the power of the
to 1. Dividing two equal powers of the same power power answer is: 3 3 = 0
base number gives a power of 0, and
therefore the answer 1. These rules only
apply when dealing with powers of the
same base number.
8 8 = 8 = 1 any number to
the power 0 = 1
because
Writing it out
888
Writing out the division of two equal
powers makes it clear why any number
to the power 0 is always equal to 1. 8 is 8 8 8 888 = 512
512 =
1 any number divided
by itself = 1
POWERS AND ROOTS 39
32 = ? 1,000 = ?
25 = 5 and 36 = 6,so the answer must be 1,600 = 40 and 900 = 30, so the answer
somewhere between 5 and 6. Start with the midpoint must be between 40 and 30. 1,000 is closer to 900 than
between the two, 5.5: 1,600, so start with a number closer to 30, such as 32:
5.65 5.65 = 31.9225 Too low 31.5 31.5 = 992.25 Too low
32 = ? 800 = ?
3 3 3 = 27 and 4 4 4 = 64, so 9 9 9 = 729 and 10 10 10 = 1,000,
the answer is somewhere between 3 and 4. Start with the so the answer is somewhere between 9 and 10. 800 is closer to
midpoint between the two, 3.5: 729 than 1000, so start with a number closer to 9, such as 9.1:
3.5 3.5 3.5 = 42.875 Too high 9.1 9.1 9.1 = 753.571 Too low
3.3 3.3 3.3 = 35.937 Too high 9.3 9.3 9.3 = 804.357 Too high
3.1 3.1 3.1 = 29.791 Too low 9.27 9.27 9.27 = 796.5979 Too low
3.2 3.2 3.2 = 32.768 Too high 9.28 9.28 9.28 = 799.1787 Very close
Introducing surds
Some square roots are whole numbers and are easy to write. But some are irrational
numbersnumbers that go on forever after the decimal point. These numbers cannot
be written out in full, so the most accurate way to express them is as square roots.
5 = 2.2360679774... 4=2
Surd Not a surd
The square root of 5 is an irrational numberit goes The square root of 4 is not a surd.
on forever. It cannot accurately be written out in full, It is the number 2, a whole, or
so it is most simply expressed as the surd 5. rational, number.
Simplifying surds
Some surds can be made simpler by taking out factors that can be
written as whole numbers. A few simple rules can help with this.
Square roots
A square root is the number
that, when multiplied by
a a = a
itself, equals the number
inside the root.
3 3 = 3
multiply the surd by itself
to get the number inside
the square root
Multiplying roots
Multiplying two numbers
together and taking the
square root of the result
ab = a b
16 = 4, so this can
equals the same answer as
be written as 4 3
taking the square roots of
the two numbers and
mutiplying them together.
48 = 16 3 = 16 3 = 4 3
look for factors that 48 can be written the square root of 16 the square root of 3 is
are square numbers as 16 3 is a whole number an irrational number,
so it stays in surd form
SURDS 41
Dividing roots 7 is irrational (2.6457...),
Dividing one number by
another and taking the
a = a 7= 7= 7 so leave as a surd
Simplifying further 9 = 3
When dividing square (3 x 3 = 9)
roots, look out for ways to
simplify the top as well as
the bottom of the fraction.
8 = 8 = 8 = 2 2
9 9 3 3
nal, simplied form
8 = 4 2 = 2 2
8 is 4 2 4 is 2 squared
Surds in fractions
When a surd appears in a fraction, it is helpful to make sure it appears in the numerator (top of
the fraction) not the denominator (bottom of the fraction). This is called rationalizing, and is
done by multiplying the whole fraction by the surd on the bottom.
the surd 2 is now on
Rationalizing top of the fraction
The fraction stays the
same if the top and
1 = 1 2 = 2
bottom are multiplied
by the same number.
2 2 2 2
multiply top and bottom
by the surd 2
Simplifying further
Sometimes rationalizing a 12 and 15 can both be divided
fraction gives us another surd by 3 to simplify further
that can be simplified further.
12 = 12 15 = 12 15 = 4 15
15 15 15 15 5
multiply both top multiplying 15 by
and bottom by 15 15 gives 15
42 NUMBERS
410
3
Standard Form SEE ALSO
1821 Multiplication
4 10
Standard form makes very large or very small numbers
easier to understand by showing them as a number
multiplied by a power of 10. This is useful because the
3 This is how 4,000 is written as
standard formit shows that the
decimal place for the number
size of the power of 10 makes it possible to get an represented, 4,000, is 3 places to
instant impression of how big the number really is. the right of 4.
Take a number
Standard form is usually used
for very large or very small
numbers.
1,230,000 0.0006
Add the decimal point add decimal point decimal point is already here
Identify the position of the
decimal point if there is one.
Add a decimal point at the
end of the number, if it does
1,230,000. 0.0006
not already have one.
23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
LOOKING CLOSER
E X A M P L E S O F S TA N D A R D F O R M
Decimals
SEE ALSO
1821 Multiplication
1,234 . 56
Whole and fractional parts
The whole numbers represent moving left from the decimal
point ones, tens, hundreds, and thousands. The fractional
numbers moving right from the decimal place are tenths
then hundredths.
decimal point separates the whole
numbers (on the left) from the
fractional numbers (on the right)
Multiplication
To multiply decimals, rst remove the decimal point. Then perform a long
multiplication of the two numbers, before adding the decimal point back in
to the answer. Here 1.9 (a decimal) is multiplied by 7 (a whole number).
6 is carried to
the tens column 6 6
multiply
7 by 9 19 7 9 = 63, the 19 multiply 7 by 1
decimal point is
put back in
1.9 19 7 7
rst digit, 6, is
carried to the
tens column
decimal point
is removed 3 1 7 + 6 = 13,
which is written
133 133 13.3
across two columns
First, remove any decimal Then multiply the two Next multiply the tens. The Finally, count the decimal
points, so that both numbers, starting in the product is 7, which, added to digits in the original numbers
numbers can be treated ones column. Carry ones to the carried 6, makes 13. Write there is 1. The answer will
as whole numbers. the tens if necessary. this across two columns. also have 1 decimal digit.
DECIMALS 45
DIVISION
Dividing one number by another often gives a decimal answer. Sometimes it is easier to
turn decimals into whole numbers before dividing them.
0 8 ts into 6
0.7 add decimal 8 6.0 8 6.0 0 bring
0 times, so
write 0 here
point
0 0 down a 0
LOOKING CLOSER
6 0 0 0 + 4 0 0 + 50 + 2 8
9
1000
1001
1 eight
1 eight + 1 one
= 6452 10 1010 1 eight + 1 two
11 1011 1 eight + 1 two + 1 one
Counting in binary
Each column in the binary system is worth two times more 12 1100 1 eight + 1 four
than the column to the right of it and, as in the decimal system, 13 1101 1 eight + 1 four + 1 one
0 represents zero value. A similar system of headings may be used
with binary numbers but only two symbols are used (0 and 1). 14 1110 1 eight + 1 four + 1 two
15 1111 1 eight + 1 four + 1 two + 1 one
2 2 2 2 2 16 10000 1 sixteen
Thirty-twos Sixteens Eights Fours Twos Ones 17 10001 1 sixteen + 1 one
32 16 8 4 2 1
18 10010 1 sixteen + 1 two
= 57 written in the
decimal system
100 1100100 1 sixty-four + 1 thirty-two + 1 four
BINARY NUMBERS 47
Adding in binary
Numbers written in binary form can be added together in a similar
way to the decimal system, and column addition may be done like this:
the answer is 12
Fours Twos in the decimal system
Ones 1+1=2 1+0+1=2 (8 + 4 + 0 + 0 = 12)
(this is 10 in binary) (this is 10 in binary)
111 (4 + 2 + 1
in decimal) 111 111 111
+ 101 (4 + 0 + 1
in decimal)
+ 101 + 101 + 101
0 00 1100
1 carry 1 1 carry 1 1 carry 1 and place
in the eights column
Align the numbers Add the ones column. Now the digits in the twos Finally, add the 1s in the
under their correct The answer is 2, which is column are added together fours column, which gives
place-value columns as in 10 in binary. The twos are with the 1 carried over from us 3, (11 in binary). This is
the decimal system. It may shown in the next column the ones column. The total is the end of the equation so
be helpful to write in the so carry a 1 to the next 2 again (10 in binary) so a 1 the final 1 is placed in the
column headings when column and leave 0 in needs to be carried and a 0 eights column.
first learning this system. the ones column. left in the twos column.
Subtracting in binary
Subtraction works in a similar way to the decimal system but borrows
in dierent units to the decimal systemborrowing by twos instead of tens.
0 2 0 2
1101 (8 + 4 + 1
in decimal) 1101 1101 1101
11 (2 + 1 in
decimal) 0011 0011 the answer is 10 in
the decimal system
0011
0 10 (8 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 10)
1010
The numbers are Add zeros so that there are The lower 1 cannot be Now subtract the
written in their correct the same number of digits subtracted from the 0 above digits in the fours
place-value columns as in each column. Then begin it so borrow from the fours column, which gives
in the decimal system. by subtracting the ones column and replace it with a us 0. Finally, in the eights
column: 1 minus 1 is 0, 0. Then put a 2 above the column we have nothing
so place a 0 in the answer twos column. Subtract the to subtract from the
space. Now move on to the lower 1 from the upper 2. upper 1, so 1 is written
twos column on the left. This leaves 1 as the answer. in the answer space.
48 NUMBERS
2225 Division
1
number on the bottom shows the
total number of equal parts that
the whole has been divided into.
Quarter
One fourth, or 14
1 Numerator
The number of equal
parts examined.
Dividing line
This is also written as .
(a quarter), shows 1
part out of 4 equal
parts in a whole.
4
2 Denominator
Total number of equal
parts in the whole.
1
8
Eighth
1
8 (one eighth)
1
is 1 part out of
8 equal parts 16 1
in a whole.
32 1
64 6 1
4
Sixteenth
1
16 (one sixteenth)
is 1 part out of
16 equal parts
in a whole.
One thirty-
second One sixty-fourth
1
32 (one 1
64 (one
thirty-second) sixty-fourth) is
Equal parts of a whole is 1 part out of 1 part out of 64
The circle on the right shows how parts 32 equal parts equal parts in
of a whole can be divided in different in a whole. a whole.
ways to form different fractions.
FRACTIONS 49
numerator has higher
numerator has lower value than denominator
Types of fractions value than denominator
A proper fractionwhere the numerator is
smaller than the denominatoris just one 1 Proper fraction
In this fraction the number of
35 Improper fraction
The larger numerator
type of fraction. When the number of parts
is greater than the whole, the result is a
fraction that can be written in two ways
4 parts examined, shown on
top, is less than the whole. 4 indicates that the parts
come from more than
one whole.
either as an improper fraction (also known whole number
as a top-heavy fraction) or a mixed fraction. fraction
1
10 3
Mixed fraction
A whole number is
combined with a
proper fraction.
Depicting fractions
Fractions can be illustrated in many ways, using any shape
that can be divided into an equal number of parts.
1
Split equally
The shapes show
that there is
1 1 1 1 1
3 3 3 = 3 3
more than one
way of depicting
1 a fraction.
3
2 1
5
1
5
1
5
1
5
1
5 = 1 1 1 1 1
5 5 5 5 5
1 1 1
6 1
6 1 6 6
1 6 1 1
6 1 = 6 6
6 1 1 1
6 6 6
1
7 1
1 7 1 1
Half 7 1 1 7 7 1
1
2 (one half ) is
1 7 = 7 7
1 part out of 2
7 1 1 1 1
equal parts in
a whole. 7 7 7 7
1
7
50 NUMBERS
whole number
1 2 5 6 9 10
numerator of 8 is produced
3 4 7 8 11 12 with 3 left over
35 is
4
13 14
15 16
25 26
17 18
19 20
29 30
21 22
23 24
33 34
is
8 3
4
35 = 35 4 = 8 r3 =
4
denominator
8 3
4
27 28 31 32 35
1 2 3 4 5 6 multiply whole
number by
whole number denominator
7 8 9 10 11 12 add to
numerator
10 1 31
10 1 10 3 + 1 31
13 14 15 16 17 18
is is = =
3 19 20 21 22 23 24 3 3 3 3
25 26 27 28 29 30
denominator
31 each group of 3
parts represents
1 whole Multiply the whole number The result is the
1
3 (one third) by the denominatorin top-heavy fraction 313,
of a whole left over
this case, 10 3 = 30. Then with a numerator (31)
add the numerator. greater than the
denominator (3).
Draw the fraction as ten groups of three
parts with one part left over. In this way it is
possible to count 31 parts in the fraction.
FRACTIONS 51
Equivalent fractions
The same fraction can be written in dierent ways. These are known as
equivalent (meaning equal) fractions, even though they look dierent.
3 highlighted 2 highlighted
sectors take up rectangles take
same space as up same space
= 9 highlighted
sectors in circle
on left = as 4 highlighted
rectangles
on left
9 3 numerator and
4 2 results in
12
= 4
denominator
by same
number
6
= 3
equivalent
fraction with
smaller
numerator and
denominator 3 2 denominator
Cancellation
Cancellation is a method used to find an equivalent fraction
that is simpler than the original. To cancel a fraction divide
the numerator and denominator by the same number.
16 highlighted 2 highlighted
triangles take triangles take up
up same space same space as
as 4 highlighted highlighted
= triangles in
square on left = triangle on left
numerator 4 2
4 16 multiply
1 2
8
= 32
numerator and
denominator
by same
number 3
= 6
denominator 4 2
Reverse cancellation
Multiplying the numerator and denominator by the same
number is called reverse cancellation. This results in an
equivalent fraction with a larger numerator and denominator.
/ = / / / / / / / / /
/ = / / / / / / / / /
/ = / / / / / / / / /
/ = / / / / / / / / /
/ = / / / / / / / / /
/ = / / / / / / / / /
/ = / / / / / / / / /
/ = / / / / / / / / /
52 NUMBERS
Comparing fractions
To work out the relative sizes
of fractions, it is necessary to
convert them so that they all
2 denominator
5 denominator
7 denominator
have the same denominator.
To do so, first look at the
denominators of all the
3 8 12
fractions being compared.
Make a list
List the multiples all the
whole number products of
3, 6, 9, 12, 8, 16, 24, 32, 12, 24, 36,
each denominator for all
of the denominators. Pick
15, 18, 21, 40, 48, 56, 48, 60, 72,
a sensible stopping point
for the list, such as 100. 24, 27, 30 64, 72 84, 96
+ = =
1 2 3 7 4 3
4 + 4 = 4 8 8
= 8
To add fractions, add together only the numerators. The To subtract fractions, subtract the smaller numerator from
denominator in the result remains unchanged. the larger. The denominator in the result stays the same.
multiply whole number by denominator 6 is a common / can now be added remainder becomes
then add numerator denominator of to / as both have numerator of fraction
both 3 and 6 same denominator
2
1 5 43+1 13 5 13 26 5 31
4 +
3 6 3 3
+
6 3
=
6
2
+
6 6
31 6 = 5r1 =
5 16
denominator goes into common denominator 2 times,
denominator stays same so multiply both numerator and denominator by 2
First, turn any mixed The two fractions have Convert the fractions If necessary, divide the
fractions that are being different denominators, so into fractions with numerator by the denominator
added into improper a common denominator common denominators to turn the improper fraction
fractions. is needed. by multiplying. back into a mixed fraction.
13 3 13 26 3 23
6 12 34 62+1
2 2
4 2
=
4
2
4 4
23 4 = 5r1 =
5 34
denominator goes into common denominator 2 times,
denominator stays same so multiply both numerator and denominator by 2
First, turn any mixed The two fractions have Convert the fractions If necessary, divide the
fractions in the equation different denominators, so into fractions with numerator by the denominator
into improper fractions a common denominator common denominators to turn the improper fraction
by multiplying. is needed. by multiplying. back into a mixed fraction.
54 NUMBERS
MULTIPLYING FRACTIONS
Fractions can be multiplied by other fractions. To multiply fractions by mixed fractions
or whole numbers, they first need to be converted into improper (top-heavy) fractions.
two equal
parts multiplying / by 3
is same as adding whole number an improper fraction
/ to / to / with whole number as numerator
3= =
and 1 as denominator
+ + remainder becomes
numerator of fraction
1
2 3= 1
2 + 1
2 + 1
2 = 1 12 1
2 3
1 = 3
2
32 = 1r1 = 1 12
denominator
stays the same
Imagine multiplying a fraction by a whole number as Convert the whole number Divide the numerator of
adding the fraction to itself that many times. Alternatively, to a fraction. Next, multiply the resulting fraction by the
imagine multiplying a whole number by a fraction as both numerators together denominator. The answer is
taking that portion of the whole number, here of 3. and then both denominators. given as a mixed fraction.
=
as big by doubling sign means of
1
3
= 3 2 4 8 denominator decreases
value of fraction
3 2 5 35+2
5 6 5 add to
17
5
5
6 = 85
30
85 30 = 2r25 =
2 2530
numerator denominator
stays the same
First, turn the mixed fraction Next, multiply the numerators Divide the numerator of the new
into an improper fraction. and denominators of both improper fraction by its denominator. The
fractions to get a new fraction. answer is shown as a mixed fraction.
FRACTIONS 55
DIVIDING FRACTIONS
Fractions can be divided by whole numbers. Turn the whole number into a fraction and find
the reciprocal of this fraction by turning it upside down, then multiply it by the first fraction.
1
4 (one dividing by 2 means each part is 18 whole number rst
quarter) splitting in half (one eighth) sign becomes
turned into around
i tc h sign
improper fraction sw
2 = 12 1 1 1
=
1
= 1 4 1 4 2 8
4 2 8 denominator is doubled,
so value is halved sw
i tc h a
round
Picture dividing a fraction by a whole number as To divide a fraction by a whole number, convert the whole
splitting it into that many parts. In this example, is number into a fraction, turn that fraction upside down, and
split in half, resulting in twice as many equal parts. multiply both the numerators and the denominators.
11 1 3 3
is same
= =
as saying
same as 31 4 3 4 1 4
1 1 1 = 3
4 3
is same
as saying
4 3
Dividing one fraction by another is the same as turning the
4
sw
i tc h a
round
To divide two fractions use the inverse operation
turn the last fraction upside down, then multiply
second fraction upside down and then multiplying the two. the numerators and the denominators.
49 4 4 16
1 2 1
3
1
4
13+1
3
24+1
4
=
3 4 3 9 27
add to
numerator sw
denominator i tc h a
round
First, turn each of the mixed fractions into Divide the two fractions by turning the second
improper fractions by multiplying the whole number fraction upside down, then multiplying the
by the denominator and adding the numerator. numerators and the denominators.
56 NUMBERS
1821 Multiplication
Writing ratios
Ratios are written as two or more numbers with a Supporters
colon between each. For example, a fruit bowl in This group represents fans
which the ratio of apples to pears is 2 : 1 means that of two football clubs, the
there are 2 apples for every 1 pear in the bowl. greens and the blues.
Forming a ratio
To compare the numbers
of people who support
the two different clubs,
write them as a ratio. This
makes it clear that for
every 4 green fans there
are 3 blue fans.
there are this is the symbol there are
4 : 3
4 green for the ratio 3 blue
supporters between the fans supporters
More ratios
The same process applies to any set of data
that needs to be compared. Here are more
groups of fans, and the ratios they represent.
1: 2
1:2
1: 1:3
3 2 : 2:5
5
One fan of the greens and 2 fans of the One fan of the greens and 3 fans of the Two fans of the greens and 5 fans of the
blues can be compared as the ratio 1 : 2. blues can be shown as the ratio 1 : 3, which blues can be compared as the ratio 2 : 5.
This means that in this case there are twice means that, in this case, there are three There are more than twice as many fans
as many fans of the blues as of the greens. times more blue fans than green fans. of the blues as of the greens.
R AT I O A N D P R O P O R T I O N 57
Finding a ratio
20 minutes is /
Large numbers can also be written as ratios. For example, to nd the ratio of an hour
between 1 hour and 20 minutes, convert them into the same unit, then ratios show information in the
cancel these numbers by nding the highest number that divides into both. same way as fractions do
= 750 m 18 cm 40 = 0.45 cm
the answer is converted into a more suitable
unitthere are 100 cm in a meter
Comparing ratios
compare the
Converting ratios into fractions allows their size to be compared. To compare the numerators
ratios 4 : 5 and 1 : 2, write them as fractions with the same denominator.
5 2 is 10,
1 fraction that 2 5 is 10, the the common 5 8
1:2= 2
represents
ratio 1 : 2
common denominator
5 2
denominator
10 is smaller than
10
and 1 so
4:5= 4
fraction that
represents
ratio 4 : 5 2 = 105 4
5 = 108 1:2 is smaller than 4:5
5 5 2
First write each ratio as a Convert the fractions so that they Because the fractions now
fraction, placing the smaller both have the same denominator, share a denominator, their sizes
quantity in each above the by multiplying the first fraction by can be compared, making it clear
larger quantity. 5 and the second by 2. which ratio is bigger.
58 NUMBERS
PROPORTION
Two quantities are in proportion when a change in one causes a change in the other by a
related number. Two examples of this are direct and indirect (also called inverse) proportion.
Delivering parcels
1:8
The number of vans used to 1 van takes 8 days to
deliver parcels determines 2 2 8
deliver the parcels
how many days it takes to
deliver the parcels. Twice
6
as many vans means half as the line showing
2:4
TIME DAYS
3 in the ratio
24=8 ratio
3 in the
6 2 = 12 6 in the ratio
6 people
Proportional quantities
Proportion can be used to solve problems involving unknown quantities. For
example, if 3 bags contain 18 apples, how many apples do 5 bags contain?
total number apples
of apples bags apples per bag number of bags
per bag
total
18 3 = 6 6 5 = 30
There is a total of 18 apples in 3 bags. To find out how many apples there To find the number of apples
Each bag contains the same number are in 1 bag, divide the total number in 5 bags, multiply the number
of apples. of apples by the number of bags. of apples in 1 bag by 5.
60 NUMBERS
0
0 Percentages SEE ALSO
4445 Decimals
100%
This is simply
another way
of saying
everybody or
everything. Here,
all 100 gures
100%are blue.
1
2
50%
This group
3
4
5
is equally
divided between 6
50 blue and 50 purple
TS
7
DEN
gures. Each represents 50
T U 8
LE S
out of 100 or 50% of the total.
or
19 % 2
This is the same as half.
MA 0
9
t o f 10 RS
10
1
19 o
u
E A CHE
LE T or
MA 5%
1%
In this group
5 ou
t o f 10
0
Adding up to 100
Percentages are an eective
way to show the component
parts of a total. For example,
there is only 1 male teachers (blue)
blue gure out account for 5% (5 out of
of 100, or 1%. 100) of the total.
P E R C E N TA G E S 61
25% of 24
The 6 people shown in
blue make up 25%
10
48
100 = 42.86
5
PERCENTAGE (%)
what %
TOTAL NUMBER
12 4
3
30 of class
play an
Divide the known number by the
total number (9 12 = 0.75).
Multiply the result by 100 to get
the percentage (0.75 100 = 75). 2
1
% 20
10
instrument?
PERCENTAGE (%)
35 6 30
%
NUMBER
Divide the known amount by the Multiply the result by 100 to get 4 20
TOTAL
REAL WORLD
Percentages
Percentages are all around usin stores,
SALE
PERCENTAGE CHANGE
If a value changes by a certain percentage, it is possible to calculate the new value.
Conversely, when a value changes by a known amount, it is possible to work out
the percent increase or decrease compared to the original.
100 40
PERCENTAGE (%)
15
Divide the Multiply the result Add the original value to 22 to ? 10
30
known % by 100 by the original value find the % increase, or subtract % 20
VALUE
(55 100 = 0.55). (0.55 40 = 22). 22 to find the % decrease. 5
10
original value (30 99 = 0.303). the percentage (0.303 100 = 30.3), and 20 20
round to 3 significant figures. 10 10
40
245 80
30
ADON
ME
60
%
IT
Divide the decrease in value by the Multiply the result by 100 to find
VALUE
20
original value (36 245 = 0.147). the percentage (0.147 100 = 14.7), 40
and round to 3 significant figures. 20 10
64 NUMBERS
4445 Decimals
6063 Percentages
4855 Fractions
75%
an exam, this is the same as saying that 1/5 of the answers in an
exam need to be answered correctly to achieve a pass mark or
that the minimum score for a pass is 0.2 of the total.
0.75 75%
All change
0.75 100 = 75%
Decimal Multiply by 100 Percentage
The three ways of writing the same
number are shown here: decimal (0.75),
fraction (), and percentage (75%). They
look different, but they all represent
decimal point in 0.75 moved
two places to right to make 75 the same proportion of an amount.
0.75
Everyday numbers to remember
Many decimals, fractions, and percentages are used in everyday
lifesome of the more common ones are shown here.
DECIMAL
FRACTION
0.75 4
highest
number that
goes into 75
and 100
25
75 3
0.75
3 Decimal
number with
two digits
after the
100
Count the decimal
placesif there is 1
digit, the denominator
is 10; if there are 2, it is
25
4
Cancel the
fraction down
to its lowest
4
decimal point. possible terms.
FRACTION 100. The numerator is
the number after the
A fraction shows a number as part decimal point.
of an equally divided whole.
3 3
4
3 4 = 0.75 0.75100 = 75%
4 = 3 4 = 0.75
For decimal, divide Divide the numerator by
Fraction Multiply by 100 Fraction Decimal
the numerator by the denominator.
the denominator.
66 NUMBERS
+
Mental math SEE ALSO
1821 Multiplication
Finding the
t-shirt for sale 20 t-shirts for sale answer
Multiplying by 20
First multiply the
A shop is selling price of 10 price by 10, here
t-shirts for the price
of $1.20 each. How
much will the price
1 1.2 10 t-shirts in $ 12 2
20 by moving the
decimal point one
place to the right,
be for 20 t-shirts?
1.20 10
12.0 2
24.0 and then double
that to give the
final price of $24.
athlete runs
athlete runs every day every day for 25 days
Multiplying by 25 Finding the
An athlete runs 16 answer
16 100 1,600 miles run 1,600 4 First multiply the 16
miles a day. If the in 100 days
athlete runs the same miles for one day by
distance every day for 100, to give 1,600
25 days, how far will miles for 100 days,
he run in total?
2.9 3 and
3 4 = 12
2 .9 m 4m close to real answer of 11.6
length of oor to
be covered
carpet to be cut
so 2.9 4 12
to required size
width of oor to be covered
Top tricks
The multiplication tables of several numbers reveal patterns of multiplications.
Here are two good mental tricks to remember when multiplying the 9 and 11
times tables.
multipliers 1 to 10 multipliers 1 to 9
9 T I M E S TA B L E 11 T I M E S TA B L E
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99
DIVISION
Dividing by 10 or 5 is straightforward. To divide by 10, either delete a 0 or move the decimal
point one place to the left. To divide by 5, again divide by 10 and then double the answer.
Using these rules, work out the divisions in the following two examples.
75 7.5 15
How many tokens 10 2 point in 75 one place
are needed for 1 of to the left) to give 7.5,
the 5 children to and then double that
enter the zoo? 75 10 7.5 2 for the answer of 15.
LOOKING CLOSER
Top tips
There are various mental tricks to help with dividing larger or more complicated numbers. In the three examples below, there are
tips on how to check whether very large numbers can be divided by 3, 4, and 9.
54 3 = 18, so the
original number is
Divisible by 3 original number digits add up to 54 divisible by 3
Add together all of the digits in
the number. If the total is divisible 1665233198172 1 + 6 + 6 + 5 + 2 + 3 + 3 + 1 + 9 + 8 + 1 + 7 + 2 = 54
by 3, the original number is too.
56 4 = 14, so the
5 and 6 seen as original number is
Divisible by 4 original number one number: 56 divisible by 4
If the last two digits are taken as
one single number, and it is divisible 123456123456123456 56 4 = 14
by 4, the original number is too.
add together all digits of 36 9 = 4, so the
Divisible by 9 original number number, their sum is 36 original number
is divisible by 9
Add together all of the digits in
the number. If the total is divisible 1643951142 1 +6 + 4 + 3 + 9 + 5 + 1 + 1 + 4 + 2 = 36
by 9, the original number is too.
M E N TA L M AT H 69
PERCENTAGES
A useful method of simplifying calculations involving percentages is to reduce one difficult
percentage into smaller and easier-to-calculate parts. In the example below, the smaller
percentages include 10% and 5%, which are easy to work out.
original price
of bike
2.5% of 480 = 12 + 12
2.5% of 480 is half of
5% of 480, which is 84 is 17.5% of 480 84
half of 10% of 480
First, write down the percentage Next, reduce 17.5% into the easier The sum of 48, 24, and 12 is
price increase required and the stages of 10%, 5%, and 2.5% of 84, so $84 is added to $480 for
original price of the bike. $480, and calculate their values. a price of $564.
Switching Progression
A percentage and an amount can both be switched, to A progression involves dividing the percentage by a number
produce the same result with each switch. For example, and then multiplying the result by the same number. For
50% of 10, which is 5, is exactly the same as 10% of 50, example, 40% of 10 is 4. Dividing this 40% by 2 and
which is 5 again. multiplying 10 by 2 results in 20% of 20, which is also 4.
Rounding off
THE PROCESS OF ROUNDING OFF INVOLVES REPLACING ONE
SEE ALSO
4445
6667
Decimals
Mental math
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
if the last digit is below the if the last digit is at or above
midpoint, round down the midpoint, round up
LOOKING CLOSER
Approximately equal
Many measurements are given as
approximations, and numbers are sometimes 31 30 and 187 200
rounded to make them easier to use. An Approximately equal to
approximately equals sign is used to show when The approximately equals sign shows that the two
numbers have been rounded up or down. It looks sides of the sign are approximately equal instead of
similar to a normal equals sign (=) but with wavy lines mean equal. So 31 is approximately equal to 30, and 187 is
curved instead of straight lines. approximately approximately equal to 200.
ROUNDING OFF 71
Decimal places
Any number can be rounded to the appropriate number of decimal
places. The choice of how many decimal places depends on what the
number is used for and how exact an end result is required.
original number with
9.2
1 decimal place (1 d.p.)
decimal place is 5 (9.15),
so round up
number. This table shows the accuracy that is
represented by dierent numbers of decimal places.
For example, a distance in miles to 3 decimal places
would be accurate to a thousandth of a mile, which
the digit after the is equal to 5 feet.
9.15
2 decimal places (2 d.p.)
second decimal place is
3 (9.153), so round down Decimal
places
Rounded to Example
1 1.1 mi
the digit after the third
2 / 1.14 mi
9.154
3 decimal places (3 d.p.)
decimal place is 6
(9.1536), so round up
3 / 1.135 mi
Significant zeros
Significant figures 1 signicant
gure
2 signicant
gures
3 signicant
gures The answer 200 could
A signicant gure in a number is be the result of
a digit that counts. The digits 1 to 9
are always signicant, but 0 is not.
However, 0 becomes signicant when
it occurs between two signicant
200 200 200
Real value anywhere Real value anywhere Real value anywhere
rounding to 1, 2, or 3
significant figures (s.f.).
Below each example is
the range in which its
gures, or if an exact answer is needed. between 150249 between 195204 between 199.5200.4 true value lies.
100,000
1 significant figure (1 s.f.)
3 1 significant figure (1 s.f.)
these 0s are
not signicant
this 0 is signicant because it had
110,000
2 significant figures (2 s.f.)
3.0 numbers after it in the number it
was rounded from
110,010
5 significant figures (5 s.f.)
this 0 is not
signicant
3.05
3 significant figures (3 s.f.)
72 NUMBERS
Using a calculator
SEE ALSO
(7+2) 9= =
Standard arithmetic keys
These cover all the basic mathematical functions:
Enter these keys, making sure to include all parts of multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction, as well as
the calculation, including the parentheses. the essential equals sign.
7 + 2 ) 9 = 81
Not Decimal point
calculator does .
7 + 2 9 = 25 product 2 9 =
18, then sum
This key works in the same way as a written decimal
pointit separates whole numbers from decimals. It is entered
18 + 7 = 25 in the same way as any of the number keys.
Estimating answers
Calculators can only give answers according to the keys that Cancel
have been pressed. It is useful to have an idea of what answer AC The cancel key clears all recent entries from the
to expect since a small mistake can give a very wrong answer. memory. This is useful when starting a new calculation because
it makes sure no unwanted values are retained.
For example
2 0 0 6 1 9 8 Delete
this would give the DEL This clears the last value that was entered into the
must be close to answer 400,000
calculator, rather than wiping everything from the memory. It
is sometimes labeled CE (clear entry).
2 0 0 0 2 0 0
So if the calculator gives the answer 40,788 it is clear that
Recall button
the numbers have not been entered correctlyone 0 is RCL This recalls a value from the calculators memory
missing from what was intended: it is useful for calculations with many parts that use numbers
or stages from earlier in the problem.
2 0 6 1 9 8
U S I N G A C A LC U L AT O R 73
FUNCTION KEYS
Cube
This is a short cut to cubing a number,
without having to key in a number multiplied by
itself, and then multiplied by itself again. Key in the
number to be cubed, then press this button.
ANS
ANS Pressing this key gives the answer to
the last sum that was entered. It is useful for sums
with many steps.
x2 x log ln Square
A short cut to squaring a number,
without having to key in the number multiplied by
() o hyp sin cos tan itself. Just key in the number then this button.
4 5 6 Negative
Use this to make a number negative. It
is usually used when the first number in a calculation
is negative.
1 2 3 +
0 . 10
x
Ans = sin
sin, cos, tan
These are mainly used in trigonometry,
to find the sine, cosine, or tangent values of angles
in right triangles.
Personal finance 90
TAX
KNOWING HOW MONEY WORKS IS IMPORTANT FOR
MANAGING YOUR PERSONAL FINANCES. 80
GOVERNMENT
Part of the cost of
Personal finance includes paying tax on income, 70
government spending
gaining interest on savings, or paying interest on loans. 60 is collected in the form
of income tax
SEE ALSO 50
3435 Positive and
40 Income tax
TAKE HOME
negative numbers
Each person is taxed on
Business finance 7677 30 what they earn; take
Formulas 177179 home is the amount
of money they have
20
left after paying their
Tax 10 income tax and other
Tax is a fee charged by a government on a product, deductions.
income, or activity. Governments collect the money
they need to provide services, such as schools and TAXPAYER WAGE
defense, by taxing individuals and companies. Everybody pays taxthrough This is the amount of money
Individuals are taxed on what they earnincome their wages and through the that is earned by a person
taxand also on some things they buysales tax. money that they spend who is employed
FINANCIAL TERMS
Financial words often seem complicated, but they are easy to understand. Knowing what the important ones mean will enable you to
manage your nances by helping you understand what you have to pay and the money you will receive.
This is the record of whatever a person borrows from or saves with the bank. Each account holder has a numeric
Bank account password called a personal identication number (PIN), which should never be revealed to anyone.
Credit is money that is borrowedfor example, on a 4-year pay-back agreement or as an overdraft from the bank.
Credit It always costs to borrow money. The money paid to borrow from a bank is called interest.
This is the money that comes to an individual or family. This can be provided by the wages that are paid for
Income employment. Sometimes it comes from the government in the form of an allowance or direct payment.
This is the cost of borrowing money or the income received when saving with a bank. It costs more to borrow
Interest money from a bank than the interest a person would receive from the bank by saving the same amount.
A mortgage is an agreement to borrow money to buy a home. A bank lends the money for the purchase and this
Mortgage is paid back, usually over a long period of time, together with interest on the loan and other charges.
There are many forms of savings. Money can be saved in a bank to earn interest. Saving through a pension plan
Savings involves making regular payments to ensure an income after retirement.
Break-even is the point where the cost, or what a company has spent, is equal to revenue, which is what the
Break-even company has earnedat break-even the company makes neither a prot nor a loss.
Companies make a loss if they spend more than they earnif it costs them more to produce their product than
Loss they earn by selling it.
Prot is the part of a companys income that is left once their costs have been paidit is the money made
Profit by a company.
PERSONAL FINANCE 75
INTEREST
Banks pay interest on the money that savers invest with them (capital), and charge
interest on money that is borrowed from them. Interest is given as a percentage,
and there are two types, simple and compound.
Simple interest
This is interest paid only on the sum of money that is rst saved with the bank. If $10,000
is put in a bank account with an interest rate of 0.03, the amount will increase by the
same gure each year.
invested
amount interest number amount interest total
invested rate of years interest
First year
amount saved interest number
(capital) rate of years
10,000 0.03 1= 300 10,000 + 300 = 10,300
Substitute the values in the After one year, this is the total
Interest = P R T formula to work out the value amount of money in the savers
of the interest for the year. bank account.
Simple interest formula
result is starting
To find the simple interest made in
Second year
Compound interest
This is where interest is paid on the money invested and any interest that is earned on
that money. If $10,000 is paid into a bank account with an interest rate of 0.03, then the
amount will increase as follows.
amount number of total after original
invested interest rate years total rst year amount interest
amount amount interest number
First year
Business Finance
BUSINESSES AIM TO MAKE MONEY, AND MATH PLAYS
AN IMPORTANT PART IN ACHIEVING THIS AIM.
The aim of a business is to turn an idea SEE ALSO
or a product into a profit, so that the
7475 Personal210211
finance
business earns more money Pie charts 1
than it spends. Line graphs 212213 INPUTS
Inputs are raw materials that are
What a business does Making cakes used in making a product. For
Businesses take raw materials, This diagram shows how cake making, the inputs would
process them, and sell the end a cake-making business include the ingredients such as
product. To make a prot, the processes inputs to flour, eggs, butter, and sugar.
business must sell its end product produce an output.
at a price higher than the total
cost of the materials and the
manufacturing or production.
Costs
This example shows the basic
Small business Costs are incurred at the input stage, when
stages of this process using a
A business can consist of the raw materials have to be paid for. The
cake-making business. just one person or a whole same costs occur every time a new batch
team of employees. of cakes is made.
PROFIT
Profit = Revenue Costs this line shows the
businesss total costs
2 PROCESSING
3 OUTPUT
Processing occurs when a Output is what a business
business takes raw materials produces at the end of
and turns them into processing, in a form that is
something else that it can sold to customers; for example,
sell at a higher value. the finished cake.
Costs Revenue
Processing costs include rent, wages paid Revenue is the money that is received by
to staff, and the costs of utilities and the business when it sells its output. It is
equipment used for processing. These costs used to pay off the costs. Once these are
are often ongoing, long-term expenses. paid, the money that is left is profit.
Sta costs
Costs and profit pie chart
30%
Raw materials
This pie chart shows some costs 20%
that a business might have.
Businesses that make different Rent, utilities,
products have different expenses, and equipment
which reflect the makeup of their
products and the efficiency of the
18%
business. When all the costs have
been paid, the money left is profit.
size of angle
symbol indicates
parallel lines
vertex
REAL WORLD
c i rc Geometry in nature
um
Although many people think of geometry as a purely
fe
re
one of four
right-angle
one of four
equal sides
Triangle Square
A triangle is a three-sided, two- A square is a four-sided polygon, or
dimensional polygon. All triangles have quadrilateral, in which all four sides are the
three internal angles that add up to 180. same length and all four internal angles are
right angles (90).
radius of
sphere
length of edge
l
Cube Sphere
A cube is a three-dimensional polygon in A sphere is a perfectly round three-
which all its edges are the same length. dimensional shape in which every point on
Like other rectangular solids, a cube has 6 its surface is the same distance from the
faces, 12 edges, and 8 vertices (corners). center; this distance is the radius.
82 GEOMETRY
Angles 8485
MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS ARE NEEDED FOR
Constructions
Circles
110113
138139
MEASURING AND DRAWING IN GEOMETRY.
arms of compass
Tools used in geometry can be adjusted to
length of radius use a pencil to draw
Tools are vital to measure and construct geometric shapes circles and arcs
accurately. The essential tools are a ruler, a compass, and a
protractor. A ruler is used for measuring and to draw straight holds pencil
lines. A compass is used to draw a whole circle or a part of a circle in place
(called an arc). A protractor is used to measure and draw angles.
Using a compass
A tool for drawing circles and arcs, a compass is made up of two
arms attached at one end. To use a compass, hold the arm that point held
tip of pencil is level
ends in a point still, while pivoting the other arm, which holds a in place
with compass point
pencil, around it. The point becomes the center of the circle.
Drawing a circle when given the radius Drawing a circle when given its center and
Set the distance between the arms of a compass one point on the circumference
to the given radius, then draw the circle. Put the point of the compass where the center
is marked and extend the other arm so that the
tip of the pencil touches the point on the
drag pencil
around circumference. Then, draw the circle.
draw a circle
point on
measure center circumference
radius on ruler
radius radius
Use a ruler to set the With the compass set to the Set the compass to the Hold the point of the
arms of the compass to radius, hold the point down distance between the compass down and draw
the given radius. and drag the pencil around. two points. a circle through the point.
Drawing arcs
Sometimes only a part of a circlean arcis required. Arcs intersection is
the same
are often used as guides to construct other shapes. distance
(equidistant)
hold compass from points
in place A and B
center
A A A
radius
point on
circumference compass
draw arc held steady
with pencil
B B B
Draw a line and mark the ends with a Set the compass to the length of the Draw a second arc by holding the point
pointone will be the center of the arc, linethe radius of the arcand hold it of the compass on the other point. The
the other a point on its circumference. on one of the points to draw the first arc. intersection is equidistant from A and B.
TOOLS IN GEOMETRY 83
14
50 40
0
140
40
A ruler is also used as a
150 20 10 0
30
30
straight edge when
0 1
160
20
drawing lines between straight line
180 170 16
170 180
0 10
two points.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
8283 Tools in
geometry
AN ANGLE IS A FIGURE FORMED BY TWO RAYS THAT
SHARE A COMMON ENDPOINT CALLED THE VERTEX.
Straight lines 8687
Bearings 108109
line rotated 45
Angles show the amount two lines turn as they extend in counterclockwise
from start
different directions away from the vertex. This turn is
measured in degrees, represented by the symbol .
Measuring angles
The size of an angle depends on the
amount of turn. A whole turn, making
one rotation around a circle, is 360.
All other angles are less than 360. 90
letter
identies
180 45 0
angle
sign for
point or
vertex
Parts of an angle
The space between these
two rays is the angle. An
angle can be named with Turn
a letter, its value in Here, the turn is
degrees, or the symbol . counterclockwise, but a
turn can also be clockwise.
complete turn half turn
of circle
quarter turn
straight
line
360 180 90 45
turn is 55
55 90 120 180 210
Acute angle Right angle Obtuse angle Reflex angle
This angle is less than 90. A right angle is 90. This angle is more than A reflex angle is more
90 but less than 180. than 180.
Naming angles
Angles can have individual names and names that
reect a shared relationship.
one angle of
A 90 turn is 60 90 a pair of
supplementary
angles
angle can have other angle of a pair
three names of supplementary
60 angles
60
a 30turn is 30 straight line
120
B C 180
One angle, three names Complementary angles Supplementary angles
This angle can be written as a, Any two angles that add up Any two angles that add up
or as ABC, or as CBA. to 90 are complementary. to 180 are supplementary.
b = 70
all four angles
together make up
a half turn
a = 60 c = 90
point, or vertex
b = 40 c = 90 e = 80
straight line
a = 20 d = 30 d = 60
a + b + c + d = 180 a + b + c + d + e = 360
20 + 40 + 90 + 30 = 180 60 + 70 + 90 + 60 + 80 = 360
86 GEOMETRY
A STRAIGHT LINE IS USUALLY JUST CALLED A LINE. IT IS THE SHORTEST Angles 110113
8485
arrowheads mean
endpoints show
lines extend indenitely
line segments
have xed length
A
A B C D
b a Corresponding angles
A B Angles in the same position in
f e d=e c=f
C D
h g
all angles with two
d c
arcs in this diagram
are the same e f
b=c
Vertical angles b Alternate angles
When two lines cross, equal angles c Alternate angles are formed
are formed on opposite sides of on either side of a transversal
the point. These angles are known between parallel lines. These
as vertical angles. angles are equal.
Draw a straight line with a ruler. Draw a line through the mark, Measure the same angle from the
Mark a pointthis will be the intersecting the original line. This is transversal. Draw the new line
distance of the new, parallel line the transversal. Measure the angle through the mark with a ruler; this
from the original line. it makes with the original line. line is parallel to the original line.
88 GEOMETRY
Symmetry
SEE ALSO
Lines of symmetry
8687 Straight100101
lines These are the lines of
Rotations symmetry for some flat or
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF SYMMETRY Reflections 102103 two-dimensional shapes.
Circles have an unlimited
REFLECTIVE AND ROTATIONAL.
number of lines of symmetry.
A shape has symmetry when a line can be drawn that splits the shape
1
exactly into two, or when it can fit into its outline in more than one way.
Reflective symmetry 2
A at (two-dimensional) shape has reective symmetry when each
half of the shape on either side of a bisecting line (mirror line) is the mirror
image of the other half. This mirror line is called a line of symmetry.
Lines of symmetry of a rectangle
equilateral triangles have
Isosceles triangle three lines of symmetry Equilateral triangle
This shape is An equilateral triangle 1 2
symmetrical across an isosceles triangle has a line of symmetry
a center linethe has a single line of through the middle of
sides and angles on symmetry through each sidenot just 3
its center
either side of the the base.
line are equal, and
the line cuts the
base in half at
4
right angles.
Lines of symmetry of a square
a rectangle-based
pyramid has two
planes of symmetry 3
Equilateral triangle
An equilateral triangle has
rotational symmetry of
1 direction of
rotation
2 3
order 3when rotated, it
fits its original outline in
three different ways.
center of
rotation
Square
A square has rotational symmetry of order 4when rotated around its
center of rotation, it fits its original outline in four different ways.
1 center of
rotation
2 direction of
rotation 3 4
Axes of symmetry
Instead of a single point as the center of rotation, a three-dimensional
shape is rotated around a line known as its axis of symmetry. It has
rotational symmetry if, when rotated, it ts into its original outline.
Vectors 9497
COORDINATES GIVE THE POSITION OF A PLACE OR POINT
Linear graphs 182185
ON A MAP OR GRAPH.
Introducing coordinates
City Map
Coordinates come in pairs of numbers or letters, or both. They are always
A grid provides a framework for locating
written in parentheses separated by a comma. The order in which places on a map. Every square is identified
coordinates are read and written is important. In this example, (E, 1), means by two coordinates. A place is found
ve units, or squares on this map, to the right (along the horizontal row) when the horizontal coordinate meets the
and one square down, or up in some cases (the vertical column). vertical coordinate. On this city map, the
horizontal coordinates are letters and the
letters are used as horizontal vertical coordinates are numbers. On
numbers are used as vertical coordinates on this map other maps only numbers may be used.
coordinates on this map
A B C D E F G H I
E
1 H
LA
N Post office
AS
FIRST AVENUE
2 Shopping center
D U E
3 R OA
ER
BL
K V
OA RI
SYCAMORE STREET
EW
VI
Fire station
4 LA Cinema V ER
RC
HL RI
AN
E
5 RE
E T
ST Hospital
OW
BI
L
IL
RC
6 W
H
AV
Health club
EN
UE
7 ELM ROAD
C O O R D I N AT E S 91
Town hall
Find the town hall using coordinates (J, 5).
J K L M N Move 10 squares to the right, then move
5 squares down.
Health club
School Library
Using the coordinates (C, 7), find the
location of the health club. First, find C.
Next, find 7 on the vertical column.
Library
FIRST AVENUE The coordinates of the library are (N, 1).
Find N first then move down 1 square
to locate the library.
Hospital
The hospital can be found using the
coordinates (G, 7). To find the horizontal
coordinate of G, move 7 squares to the
right. Then go down 7 squares to find
MAPLE SQUARE
School
The coordinates of the school are (L, 1).
First find L, then move down 1 square
to find the school.
Shopping center
Using the coordinates (D, 3), find the
location of the shopping center. Find D.
Next, find 3 on the vertical column.
ELM ROAD
92 GEOMETRY
quadrant
3 4 Coordinates of a point
Coordinates give the position of a point on each
axis. The first number gives its position on the x
axis, the second its position on the y axis.
Plotting coordinates y 4
positive values
Coordinates are plotted on a set of axes. To plot a given on y axis are 3 positive values
point, rst read along to its value on the x axis, then read above origin on x axis are to
up or down to its value on the y axis. The point is plotted 2 right of the
where the two values cross each other. the origin (0, 0) origin
1
is labeled 0 x
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5
1
A = (2, 2) B = (1, 3) 2 negative values
negative values
C = (1, 2) D = (2, 1) on x axis are to
left of origin
3
of y axis are
below origin
4
These are four sets of coordinates. Each gives Using graph paper, draw a horizontal line to form the x
its x value first, followed by its y value. Plot the axis, and a vertical line for the y axis. Number the axes, with
points on a set of axes. the origin separating the positive and negative values.
y 4 y 4 point is at (2, 2)
D has a negative
3 x coordinate 3
2
A A
y coordinate 2
1
of A D 1
x x
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5
1 1
x coordinate
2 of A both coordinates 2
C
of B are negative
3
B 3
C has a negative
y coordinate
4 4
To plot each point, look at its x coordinate (the first Plot each point in the same way. With negative coordinates,
number), and read along the x axis from 0 to this number. the process is the same, but read to the left instead of right for
Then read up or down to its y coordinate (the second number). an x coordinate, and down instead of up for a y coordinate.
C O O R D I N AT E S 93
Equation of a line y coordinate
x coordinate
The equation of a line can be found using only a The graph of the equation is of all the points where
few coordinates. This line passes through the the y coordinate is 1 greater than the x coordinate
coordinates (1, 0), (0, 1), and (1, 2), so it is already (y = x + 1). This means that the line can be used to find
clear what pattern the points follow. other coordinates that satisfy the equation.
World map
Coordinates are used to mark the position of places on the Earths
surface, using lines of latitude and longitude. These work in the
same way as the x and y axes on a graph. The origin is the point
where the Greenwich Meridian (0 for longitude) crosses the
Equator (0 for latitude).
east from
North Pole North Pole Greenwich North Pole P can also
Meridian be shown
on a map
north from
lines of longitude degrees
Equator
Greenwich are like y axis P north
Meridian (latitude)
Equator
degrees east
Meridian
(longitude)
this is the origin Equator lines of latitude curved lines
are like x axis are attened
out into a grid
South Pole
South Pole South Pole
Lines of longitude run from the The coordinates of a point This is how the surface of the
North Pole to the South Pole. Lines such as P are found by Earth is shown on a map. The
of latitude are at right-angles to finding how many degrees lines of latitude and longitude
lines of longitude. The origin is East it is from the Meridian work as axesthe vertical lines
where the Equator (x axis) crosses and how many degrees show longitude and horizontal
the Greenwich Meridian (y axis). North it is from the Equator. lines show latitude.
94 GEOMETRY
9093 Coordinates9899
A VECTOR IS A LINE THAT HAS SIZE (MAGNITUDE) AND DIRECTION.
Translations
Pythagorean
Theorem 128129
A vector is a way to show a distance in a particular direction. It is often
drawn as a line with an arrow on it. The length of the line shows the size
of the vector and the arrow gives its direction.
What is a vector?
intended direction A vector is a distance in a particular
direction of current direction. Often, a vector is a diagonal
of travel horizontal distance, and in these cases it forms
direction the diagonal side (hypotenuse) of a
right-angled triangle (see pp.128
129). The other sides of the triangle
determine the vectors length and
actual direction end point direction. In the example on the left, a
starting
of travel swimmer is swimmers path is a vector. The other
point
aiming for two sides of the triangle are the
distance across to the opposite shore
from the starting point, and the
vertical distance down from the end point
direction that the swimmer was aiming for to
the actual end point where the
swimmer reaches the shore.
vector is
Vector of a swimmer
determined by A man sets out to swim to the opposite
other two lines shore of a river that is 30m wide. A
current pushes him as he swims, and
he ends up 20m downriver from where
end
point he intended. His path is a vector with
dimensions 30 across and 20 down.
end point
Expressing vectors of vector
length of the
In diagrams, a vector is drawn as a line with an arrow on it,
showing its size and direction. There are three dierent
ways of writing vectors using letters and numbers.
line indicates
size of vector b
v=
A v is a general label for a vector, used
even when its size is known. It is often
arrow indicates
direction of vector v vertical units
of vector
and sign
Equal vectors
6) + 3 = c
(6) = 6 6 = 36
Put the vertical and horizontal
units of the vector into the formula.
c = 6.7
both vectors sides are equal The answer is the magnitude
(length) of the vector.
96 GEOMETRY
end
Adding and subtracting vectors second vector 2 (1)
Vectors can be added and subtracted in two ways. The rst is by using written
numbers to add the horizontal and vertical values. The second is by drawing (2)
answer 4 is
from start of rst
the vectors end to end, then seeing what new vector is created. vector to end of
rst vector 3 + ( 1) = 2 second vector
Addition
second vector
Vectors can be
3 1 2 ( 3)
( )+( ) = ( )
added in two rst vector 2
different ways. Both
methods give the
same answer.
2 2 2+2=4
4 start
Addition by drawing vectors
Adding the parts Draw one vector, then draw the second starting
To add vectors numerically, add the from the end point of the first. The answer is the
two top numbers (the horizontal new vector that has been created, from the start
values) and then the two bottom of the first vector to the end of the second.
numbers (the vertical values).
to subtract
rst vector, from second vector, which
vectors, second
Subtraction which second vector is subtracted from rst vector
( )
vector 12 is
Vectors can be is subtracted rst vector 3 (1) = 4 ( 32 ) reversed, giving
subtracted in two ( )
1
2
3 1 4
( ) ( ) = ( )
different ways. Both end
methods give the
same answer.
2 2 0 start answer ( ) 4
is from start of rst
0
vector to end of second vector
22=0
Subtracting the parts Subtraction by drawing vectors
To subtract one vector from another, Draw the first vector, then draw the second
subtract its vertical value from the vector reversed, starting from the end point of
vertical value of the first vector, then the first vector. The answer to the subtraction is
do the same for the horizontal values. the vector from the start point to the end point.
Multiplying vectors
Vectors can be multiplied by numbers, but not by other vectors. The direction of a vector
stays the same if it is multiplied by a positive number, but is reversed if it is multiplied by a Vector a multiplied by
negative number. Vectors can be multiplied by drawing or by using their numerical values. To multiply vector a by
numerically, multiply each of its
Vector a Vector a multiplied by 2
parts by . To multiply it by by
Vector a has 4 horizontal units and To multiply vector a by 2 numerically, multiply both its
drawing, draw a vector half the length
+2 vertical units. It can be shown as horizontal and vertical parts by 2. To multiply it by 2 by
and in the opposite direction of a.
a written vector or a drawn vector, drawing, simply extend the original vector by the same
as shown below. length again. 4 = +2
2 4 = 8 vector a
vector a
horizontal value
a =( 4
2a = 2(42 ) = 8 12 a = 12 (42 ) = (+2
1 )
2 ) vertical value
22=4
( )4 2 = 1
end
end 2 / = 1
drawn vector vertical units
vector a is in the
22=4 opposite direction
vector a vertical vector 2a is twice
units as long as vector a 1
2 4
2 4 = 8 2
horizontal units
start
4 / = +2
4 start 8 horizontal units
VECTORS 97
First, choose 2 sides of triangle ABC, in this example AB Second, find the midpoints of the two sides that have
and AC. Mark these sides as the vectors a and b. To get been chosen (AB and AC). Mark the midpoint of AB as P,
from B to C, go along BA and then AC, rather than BC. BA and the midpoint of AC as Q. This creates three new
is the vector a because it is the opposite of AB, and AC vectors: AP, AQ, and PQ. AP is half the length of vector a,
is already known (b). This means vector BC is a + b. and AQ is half the length of vector b.
B 1 1
B
BC = a + b AP = 2 AB = 2 a
this is negative
vector BC because BA is vector BC
can also be 1 1
opposite of AB
expressed AQ = 2 AC = 2 b
like this
P is the
midpoint of AB
vector AB is
a a+b P
labeled a
1 a
2
A C A C
b vector AC is
labeled b
1 b Q Q is the
midpoint of AC
2
Third, use the vectors a and b to find the length Fourth, make the proof. The vectors PQ and BC are in
of vector PQ. To get from P to Q go along PA then AQ. the same direction and are therefore parallel to each
PA is the vector a because it is the opposite of AP, and other, so the line PQ (which joins the midpoints of the
AQ is already known to be b. This means vector PQ sides AB and AC) must be parallel to the line BC. Also,
is a + b. vector PQ is half the length of vector BC, so the line PQ
must be half the length of the line BC.
this is half BA this is half AC
1 1
PQ = 2 a+ 2 b B B
1
PQ = 2 BC BC and PQ
are parallel vector BC
BC is a + b, so PQ
is half BC a+b
this is negative
because BA is P a+b P
opposite of AB
PQ is half BC vector PQ
12 a 1
a+ b 1
2 2
12 a + 1
2 b
A C A C
1
b Q Q
2
SEE ALSO
9497 Vectors
A TRANSLATION CHANGES THE POSITION OF A SHAPE. Rotations 100101
Reflections 102103
A translation is a type of transformation. It moves an object to a new position. Enlargements
104105
The translated object is called an image, and it is exactly the same size and
shape as the original object. Translations are written as vectors.
y
9
B
triangle ABC is
original object
before translation
8
each point on
triangle ABC is
B B 6 units right and
7 2 units up from
each point on
triangle ABC
6 T T
Translation T Translation T A
moves triangle 6 moves triangle 6
5 units horizontally units to right and
to the right. 2 units upward.
4 A A T
T
3
each point on triangle ABC
is 6 units to the right of each
2
1
T moves triangle T moves triangle ABC 6
C ABC 6 units right C units right and 2 units up
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Writing translations
translation distance moved translation distance moved
Translations are written as vectors. The top number horizontally number horizontally
number shows the horizontal distance an
object moves, while the bottom number shows
the vertical distance moved. The two numbers 6 6
are contained within a set of parentheses. Each
T = T =
translation can be numberedfor example, T,
T, Tto make it clear which one is being
(( 0 distance moved
vertically
(( 2 distance moved
vertically
referred to if more than one translation is shown.
Translation T Translation T
To move triangle ABC to position ABC each To move triangle ABC to position ABC each
point moves 6 units horizontally, but does not point moves 6 units horizontally, then moves 2
move vertically. The vector is written as above. units vertically. The vector is written as above.
LOOKING CLOSER
Direction of translations Tessellations in action
The numbers used to show a translations vector are positive or
negative, depending on which direction the object moved. If it moves A tessellation is a pattern created by using shapes to cover a surface
to the right or up, it is positive; to the left or down, it is negative. without leaving any gaps. Two shapes can be tessellated with
themselves using only translation (and no rotation)the square and
Negative translation
the regular hexagon. To tessellate a hexagon using translation
The rectangle ABCD, moves down and left,
requires 6 different translations; to tessellate a square requires 8.
so the values in its vector are negative.
1
T T
1 B
A moves
3 units
to left 3 2 1 T T
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 T T
T T
distance moved Translation T
horizontally (to The translation T1 moves Hexagons Squares
the left) Each of the hexagons around the Each of the squares around the edge
rectangle ABCD to the new
T = 3 position ABCD. It is written outside is a translated image of the is a translated image of the central
distance moved
as the vector shownboth central hexagon. The tessellation square. The tessellation continues in
1 ( ( vertically
(downward) its parts are negative. continues in the same way. the same way.
100 GEOMETRY
8485 Angles
angle of
rotation
center of
distance from
rotation
center of rotation
stays the same as
object moves
image
center of rotation is end position
center of object
direction of
rotation
+
angle of
rotation
Positive angle Negative angle
of rotation of rotation
y 6 B B1
5
B
object triangle
triangle has rotated
C1 4 C
through 90
3
2
C1
B1 A1 1 C A1
A measure the
A center of rotation
x angle of rotation
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Label the new points A1, B1, and C1. Join them to form The center of rotation is the point where the two
the image. Each point on the new triangle A1B1C1 has perpendicular bisectors cross. To find the angle of rotation,
rotated 90 counterclockwise from each point on the join A and A1 to the center of rotation and measure the
original triangle ABC. angle between these lines.
102 GEOMETRY
8889 Symmetry
A
axis of
reection E
E1
A1
mountain reected in
these two distances B1 water of a lake
are the same C1
D is reected point
corresponding to D; it is
D1 same distance from axis
of reection as D
LOOKING CLOSER
Kaleidoscopes
A kaleidoscope creates patterns using mirrors and colored beads. The patterns are
the result of beads being reected and then reected again.
this is one the nal
reection of the reection, which
two mirrors
original beads completes image
A simple kaleidoscope contains two The beads are reflected in the Each of the two reflections is
mirrors at right angles (90) to each two mirrors, producing two reflected reflected again, producing another
other and some colored beads. images on either side. image of the beads.
REFLECTIONS 103
Constructing a reflection
To construct the reection of an object it is necessary to know the position of the axis
of reection and the position of the object. Each point on the reection will be the
same distance from the axis of reection as its corresponding point on the original.
Here, the reection of triangle ABC is drawn for the axis of reection y = x (which
means that each point on the axis has the same x and y coordinates).
3 3
axis of axis of
reection y = x right angle reection y = x
2 C 2 C
C is (3, 2)
1 triangle ABC 1
A B A B
0 x 0 x
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
A is (1, 0) B is (2, 0)
First, draw the axis of reflection. As y = x, this axis Second, draw lines from each point of the triangle
line crosses through the points (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), ABC that are at right-angles (90) to the axis of
(3, 3), and so on. Then draw in the object that is to be reflection. These lines should cross the axis of
reflectedthe triangle ABC, which has the reflection and continue onward, as the new
coordinates (1, 0), (2, 0), and (3, 2). In each set of coordinates for the reflected image will be
coordinates, the first number is the x value, and the measured along them.
second number is the y value.
A B A B
0 x 0 x
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Third, measure the distance from each of the Finally, join the points A, B1, and C1 to complete
original points to the axis of reflection, then the image. Each of the points of the triangle has a
measure the same distance on the other side of mirror image across the axis of reflection. Each
the axis to find the positions of the new points. point on the original triangle is an equal distance
Mark each of the new points with the letter it from the axis of reflection as its reflected point.
reflects, followed by a small 1, for example A.
104 GEOMETRY
102103 Reflections
100101 Rotations
enlarged image (a
Properties of an enlargement B regular pentagon) has
sides that are twice the
When an object is transformed into a larger image, the size of the original object
relationship between the corresponding sides of that
object and the image is the same as the scale factor.
For example, if the scale factor is 5, the sides of the
image are 5 times bigger than those of the original.
B A C
original object
(a regular pentagon)
centre of
enlargement
A C
scale factor 2
E D
Positive scale factor
If the object and the enlarged image
corresponding angles in
object and enlarged image
E D
are on the same side of the centre of are equal, because object is
enlarged in proportion
enlargement, the enlargement has a
positive scale factor, here +2. B
centre of
enlargement
Constructing an enlargement
An enlargement is constructed by plotting the coordinates of
the object on squared (or graph) paper. Here, the quadrilateral
ABCD is measured through the centre of enlargement (0, 0) with
a given scale factor of 2.5. horizontal distance vertical distance of
of A from centre of A from centre of
enlargement enlargement
x coordinate
The coordinates of
y axis this polygon are:
A (1, 1) B (2, 3)
C (4, 2) D (4, 1)
A = 1 2.5, 1 2.5 = (2.5, 2.5)
8 scale factor y coordinate
7
draw a line
6 through each The same principle is then applied to the other points, to
vertex (point) work out their x and y coordinates.
5 of shape
4
B
B = 2 2.5, 3 2.5 = (5, 7.5)
3
C
2
A C = 4 2.5, 2 2.5 = (10, 5)
1
D
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x axis D = 4 2.5, 1 2.5 = (10, 2.5)
centre of enlargement is 0, 0
Draw the polygon ABCD using the given coordinates. Then, calculate the positions of A, B, C, and D
Mark the centre of enlargement and draw lines from this by multiplying the horizontal and vertical distances
point through each of the vertices of the shape (points of each point from the centre of enlargement (0, 0)
where sides meet). by the scale factor 2.5.
y axis y axis
angles are same size
8 B B is point (5, 7.5)
8 B as in original object
7 7
6 C is point (10, 5) 6
C C
5 5
A is point
4 (2.5, 2.5) 4
3
B A 3 B
C D C D
2
A
2
A new image has sides
1
D
D is point 1 A D that are 2.5 times larger
(10, 2.5) than original
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x axis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x axis
Read along the x axis and the y axis to plot the Join the new coordinates to complete the
vertices (points) of the enlarged image. For example, enlargement. The enlarged image is a quadrilateral with
B is point (5, 7.5) and C is point (10, 5). Mark and sides that are 2.5 times larger than the original object,
label all the points A, B, C, and D. but with angles of exactly the same size.
106 GEOMETRY
To make an accurate plan of a large object, such as a bridge, the objects measurements
need to be scaled down. To do this, every measurement of the bridge is reduced by the
same ratio. The rst step in creating a scale drawing is to choose a scalefor example,
1 cm for each 10 m. The scale is then shown as a ratio, using the smallest common unit.
length (in cm) length (in cm) Scale as a ratio
on scale drawing of real length A scale of 1 cm to 10 m 60 m
can be shown as a ratio by
1m
By converting this to a ratio of 1 cm : 500 cm, it is now possible
to work out the measurements that will be used in the drawing.
30 m
real measurements changed
length for
from meters to centimeters to
scale drawing
make calculation easier
squares on graph
paper show
measurement in cm Scale drawing of a bridge
Every measurement of the bridge
is reduced in the same ratio. All
the angles in the scale drawing
are the same as those of the
convert real length to centimeters real bridge.
(3,500 cm) and divide by
converted ratio value of 1,000 to
get length for drawing, in this case
3.5 cm
35 m
34m
110 m 50 m
measurements represent
those of real bridge
REAL WORLD
Scale: 1 cm : 5 m Maps
1 cm 1 cm The scale of a map varies according to
the area it covers. To see a whole country
such as France a scale of 1 cm : 150 km
might be used. To see a town, a scale of
radius is radius is
1 cm : 500 m is suitable.
0.2 cm 0.2 cm
6 cm 6 cm
1 cm 1 cm
3 cm 3 cm
Make a second rough sketch, Construct a final, accurate scale 0 km 100
this time marking on the scaled drawing of the basketball court. Use a 0 miles 100
8283 Tools in
geometry
A BEARING IS A WAY OF SHOWING A DIRECTION.
000 8485 Angles
WSW ESE
247.5 112.5
WSW (west-south-
west) on compass is
bearing 247.5
SW SE ESE (east-
south-east) on
225 SSW SSE 135 compass is
Compass directions and bearings 202.5 157.5 bearing 112.5
This compass shows how specific numerical
bearings relate to specific compass points. S
180
How to measure a bearing
Begin by deciding on the starting point of the journey. Place
a protractor at this start or center point. Use the protractor to N
draw the angle of the bearing clockwise from the compass position of
direction north. position of protractor for rst
protractor measurement
compass direction for second
north measurement
N
bearings measured in measure angle
clockwise direction remaining 270 090
above 180
bearing smaller
start at than 100 has 0 as
center rst of three digits
270 point 090 225
draw line at 180,
180 measured clockwise
from north
n
bearing of 045
2i
actual distance
3 in 3 in
new center at
end of 3 in 200 100 = 2 in
distance on
protractor placed
start point scale drawing start point
at new center
2i
2i
8283 Tools in
Constructions geometry
C A D C A D C A D
mark and label points where
arcs cross the line segment
Draw a line segment and mark a point on the Place the point of a compass on point C, Now, draw a line segment from
segment with a letter, for example, A. Place the and draw an arc above the line segment. Do E through A. This line segment is
point of a compass on point A, and draw two the same from point D. The arcs intersect perpendicular (at right angles) to
arcs of the same distance from this point. (cross) at a point, label this point E. the original one.
Using a point above the line
Perpendicular lines can be constructed by marking a point above the
rst line segment, through which the second, perpendicular, one will pass.
line segment AD
is perpendicular
mark point to line BC
above line draw two
arcs from A arcs from B and C
segment must be same
A A distance from point A A A
draw a line
B arcs from A cross
C B C B C
segment line at two points line must cross D
D through D
Draw a line segment and Place a compass on point A. With the compass on points B and C, Now, draw a line segment
mark a point above it. Label Draw two arcs that intersect draw two arcs of the same length from points A to D. This is
this point with a letter, for the line segment at two points. beneath the line segment. Label the perpendicular (at right
example, A. Label these points B and C. intersection of the two arcs point D. angles) to line segment BC.
P Q P Q P Q P Q
Y
First, draw a line segment, Place a compass on point P and draw Draw another arc from point Q Label the points where the arcs
and label each end point, for an arc with a distance just over half the with the compass kept at the same intersect X and Y. Draw a line
example P and Q. length of line segment PQ. length. This arc will intersect the connecting X and Y; this is the
first arc at two points. perpendicular bisector of PQ.
112 GEOMETRY
name of angle
arc crosses rst side
of angle at point a a set compass to just over half
distance it was in previous step
a
size of angle
o o o
vertex point b is where the
arc crosses second
side of the angle b b
First, draw an angle of any size. Label Draw an arc by placing the point of a Place the compass on point a
the vertex of this angle with a letter, compass on the vertex. Mark the points and draw an arc in the space
for example, o. at which the arc intersects the angles between the angles sides.
sides and label them a and b.
o c o
set compass at same
length for arc a and arc b
c
b b
Keep the compass set at the same length and place Draw a line from the vertex, o, through
it on point b, and draw another arc, and then on point cthis is the angle bisector. The angle
point a. The two arcs intersect at a point, c. is now split into two equal parts.
LOOKING CLOSER
Congruent triangles
Triangles are congruent if all their sides and
interior angles are equal. The points that
joining a and c creates
rst triangle
a a
are marked when drawing an angle
bisector create two congruent triangles
one above the bisector and one below. o c o c
triangle obc is
Constructing triangles
reected image of
By connecting the points
made after drawing a bisecting
b triangle oac b
line through an angle, two Draw a line from a to c, to make Now, draw a line from b to
congruent triangles are formed. the first triangle, which is shaded c to construct the second
red here. triangleshaded red here.
CONSTRUCTIONS 113
label end
points of line label points P P this creates
a 90 angle
where arcs cross
A B A B A B
draw arcs above compass must be
and below line Q set to same size as
arcs from point A
Q
Draw a straight line (AB). Place a Then, draw two arcs with the compass Draw a line from point P to point
compass on point A, set it to a distance set to the same length and placed on Q. This is a perpendicular bisector
just over half of the lines length, and point B. Label the points where the of the original line and it creates
draw an arc above and below the line. arcs cross each other P and Q. four 90 angles.
mark and label the
label the
points the
arc crosses
P arc from o P s
intersecion of arcs join o and S
with a
P s
f f straight line f this creates
a 45 angle
A o e B A o e B A o e B
Draw an arc from point o that crosses Keep the compass at the same length Draw a line from point o through
two lines on either side, this creates a as the last arc and draw arcs from points s. This line is the angle bisector.
45 angle. Label the two points where f and e. Label the intersection of these The 90 angle is now split into
the arc intersects the lines, f and e. arcs with a letter (s). two 45 angles.
Constructing 60 angles
An equilateral triangle, which has three equal sides and three
C
60 angles, can be constructed without a protractor.
2. 5
cm
2. 5
mark and label
cm
C C all internal
angles are 60
2. 5
cm
cm
2. 5
cm
and C and B
Line AC is the same length line from B to C. Each side of
as line AB. A 60 angle has angle is 60 the triangle is equal and
been created. each internal angle of the
A 2.5 cm B triangle is 60. A 2.5 cm B
114 GEOMETRY
O c p O c
path of point p will be
plotted so that it is always
the same distance from point O
A compass and a pencil are needed to construct this The shape drawn when turning the compass a full
locus. The point of the compass is held in the fixed point, rotation reveals that the locus is a circle. The center of
O. The arms of the compass are spread so that the the circle is O, and the radius is the fixed distance
distance between its arms is the constant distance, c. between the compass point and the pencil (c).
A d B A d B A B
Draw the line segment AB. A and B are Between points A and B, the locus is a straight This is the completed locus.
fixed points. Now, plot the distance of d line. At the end of these lines, the locus is a It has the shape of a typical
from the line AB. semicircle. Use a compass to draw these. athletics track.
LOCI 115
LOOKING CLOSER
Spiral locus
Loci can follow more complex paths. The example below
follows the path of a piece of string that is wound around a
cylinder, creating a spiral locus. points P, P, P,
and P represent a smooth line joins
points P, P, P, and P
cylinder end of string P P positions through
which P moves as
starts o in string is wound
position P around cylinder original
position
of string
P P
P
The string starts off lying flat, As the string is wound around the When the path of point
with point P1 the position of cylinder, the end of the string moves P is plotted, it forms a
the end of the string. closer to the surface of the cylinder. spiral locus.
Using loci
Loci can be used to solve dicult
problems. Suppose two radio using the scale, 4 cm
B
represents 200 km
stations, A and B, share the same
frequency, but are 200 km apart.
The range of their transmitters scale =
is 150 km. The area where the
4 cm 1 cm : 50 km
ranges of the two transmitters
overlap, or interference, can be A
found by showing the locus of
each transmitter and using a scale To find the area of interference, first choose a scale,
drawing (see pp.106107). then draw the reach of each transmitter. An
appropriate scale for this example is 1 cm : 50 km.
Construct the reception area for radio station A. Construct the reception area for radio station B.
Draw the locus of a point that is always 150 km from This time draw an arc with the compass set to
station A. The scale gives 150 km = 3 cm, so draw an 3cm, with B as the center. The interference occurs
arc with a radius of 3cm, with A as the center. in the area where the two paths overlap.
116 GEOMETRY
8485 Angles
A TRIANGLE IS A POLYGON WITH THREE ANGLES AND THREE SIDES. 8687 Straight
Constructing
lines
A triangle has three sides and three interior angles. A vertex (plural vertices)
triangles 118119
is the point where two sides of a triangle meet. A triangle has three vertices.
Polygons 134137
Introducing triangles
A triangle is a three-sided polygon. The base of a triangle can
wh
int
be any one of its three sides, but it is usually the bottom one.
po
The longest side of a triangle is opposite the largest angle. The
ere
shortest side of a triangle is opposite the smallest angle.
the
tw
The three interior angles of a triangle add up to 180.
os
pe
x
ide
te
sm
A
rim
r
e et
ve
shortest side
et
longest side
er
ABC
the
len
C
gth
B
es
biggest smallest
sid
of
angle angle
ree
the
f th
ou
Labeling a triangle
eo
tsi
A capital letter is used
de
on
fra
A triangle with vertices
e
me
A, B, and C is known as
sid
nb
aig xed po
ht
et w
a fi
the
line
e en
amou
s ab o
two
base
int
nt
ut
Equilateral triangle
A triangle with three
a a + b + c = 180
equal sides and three 1
equal angles, each of
80
which measures 60.
b c
b c a
equal angles are shown
as an arc or double arc
Proving that the angle sum of a triangle is 180
Isosceles triangle Adding a parallel line produces two types of relationships between
A triangle with two equal
angles that help prove that the interior sum of a triangle is 180.
sides. The angles opposite
these sides are also equal. Draw a triangle, then add a Corresponding angles are equal
line parallel to one side of the and alternate angles are equal;
hypotenuse triangle, starting at its base, angles c, a, and b sit on a straight
(the longest side of a to create two new angles. line so together add up to 180.
right-angled triangle)
Scalene triangle
A triangle with three
x + y + z = 360
sides of different length,
and three angles of each exterior angle of a triangle is p z
equal to the sum of the two
different size. opposite interior angles, so y = p + q
y opposite interior
angle (to y)
SEE ALSO
compass set at
3c
3 cm set compass
m compass here
to 3 cm
37 53
A 5 cm B A 5 cm B A 5 cm B
Draw the baseline, using the longest length. Set the compass to the third length, Join the points to complete the triangle. Now
Label the ends A and B. Set the compass to the 3 cm. Place the point of the compass on B use a protractor to find out the measurements
second length, 4 cm. Place the point of the and draw another arc. Mark the spot where of the angles. These will add up to 180
compass on A and draw an arc. the arcs intersect (cross) as point C. (90 + 53 + 37 = 180).
Constructing a triangle when two angles and one side are known (AAS)
A triangle can be constructed when the two angles, for example, 73 and 38, are given, along
with the length of the side that falls between them, for example, 5 cm.
because interior angles of
point where two triangles add up to 180, work
draw line from A lines cross is third C out angle C by subtracting
at 73 angle point of triangle use ruler to known angles from 180:
C measure sides 180 73 38 = 69
69
m
5.1
cm
3. 3 c
73 measure rst measure
given angle from second given
baseline angle from 38
73 baseline 73 38
A 5 cm B A 5 cm B A 5 cm B
Draw the baseline of the triangle, here 5 cm. Label the Place the protractor over point B and mark Join the points to complete the triangle.
ends A and B. Place the protractor over A and measure 38. Draw another side of the triangle from Calculate the unknown angle, and use a
the first angle, 73. Draw a side of the triangle from A. B. Point C is where the two new lines meet. ruler to measure the two unknown sides.
Constructing a triangle when two sides and the angle in between are known (SAS)
Using the measurements for two of a triangles sides, for example, 5 cm and 4.5 cm, and the angle
between them, for example 50, it is possible to construct a triangle. measure
C unknown angles C
with protractor
point C is where arc
and line meet measure unknown
side with ruler
m
71
c
cm
draw line at 50
5
from baseline
4 .
4.5
4c
m
9899 Translations
TRIANGLES THAT ARE EXACTLY THE SAME SHAPE AND SIZE. 102103 Reflections
100101 Rotations
Identical triangles
Two or more triangles are congruent if their sides
are the same length and their corresponding R
interior angles are the same size. In addition to
sides and angles, all other properties of congruent
B this angle is same
size as angle with
one arc on ABC
triangles are the same, for example, area. Like
other shapes, congruent triangles can be this angle is same size
translated, rotated, and reected, so they may as angle with three
appear dierent, even though they remain the arcs on PQR
same size and have identical angles.
P
this side is same length
as side with three
dashes on PQR
PQR
this side is same
length as side
with two dashes
on PQR
this angle is
same size as
angle with two
arcs on PQR ABC
ROTATION
reecting an
object creates a
mirror image of it
A
REFLECTION
Congruent triangles
The triangle on the right is how
the triangle on the left would
appear if rotated clockwise
through 180 and reflected.
this side is same
length as side with
one dash on PQR
C Q
CONGRUENT TRIANGLES 121
a c
A C
D A D D C
congruent triangles equal angles
Draw a line perpendicular (at right angles) The perpendicular line is common to both triangles.
to the base of an isosceles triangle. This The two triangles have equal hypotenuses, another
creates two new right triangles. They are pair of equal sides, and right angles. The triangles
congruentidentical in every way. are congruent (RHS) so angles a and c are equal.
122 GEOMETRY
116117 Triangles
AREA IS THE COMPLETE SPACE INSIDE A TRIANGLE.
Area of a circle142143
Formulas 177179
apex (point at the
What is area? top of the triangle)
The area of a shape is the amount of space that ts inside Area, base, and height
its outline, or perimeter. It is measured in squared units, The area of a triangle is found
such as cm. If the length of the base and vertical height using two measurements: the
of a triangle are known, these values can be used to nd base of the triangle and the
the area of the triangle, using a simple formula, which vertical height of the triangle,
is shown below. which is the distance from its
base to its apex, measured at
right angles to the base.
base
C A B C A
B
vertical height vertical height vertical height
at right angles at right angles at right angles
to base to base to base
To calculate the area of a triangle, substitute the given values for the base Why the formula works
and vertical height into the formula. Then work through the multiplication
shown by the formula ( base vertical height). By adjusting the shape of a triangle, it can be
converted into a rectangle. This process makes
the formula for a triangle easier to understand.
area is the space
inside the triangle vertical
vertical height = 3 cm
height
vertical height
An acute-angled triangle base
right
The base of this triangle is vertical height angle
6 cm and its vertical height is
3 cm. Find the area of the
triangle using the formula.
base = 6 cm
base
First, write down the
Draw any triangle and label its base
area = 12 base vertical
formula for the area of
and vertical height.
a triangle.
height line through the
midpoint of
vertical height
Then, substitute the
area = 12 6 3
lengths that are known
into the formula.
area is measured
in squared units
Work through the base
multiplication in the area = 9 cm Draw a line through the midpoint of the
formula to find the vertical height vertical height that is parallel to the base.
answer. In this example, can be measured
6 3 = 9. Add the outside the triangle
as long as it is the
units of area to the distance between
answer, here cm.
vertical height = 4 cm
An obtuse triangle
The base of this triangle is 3 cm and its
vertical height is 4 cm. Find the area of the
triangle using the formula. The formula and base
the steps are the same for all types of This creates two new triangles. These can
triangles. be rotated around the triangle to form a
base = 3 cm rectangle. This has exactly the same area as
the original triangle. the vertical height
area = 12 base vertical
First, write down the of the triangle
formula for the area of
a triangle.
height
Then, substitute the
lengths that are known area = 12 3 4 base
into the formula.
area is measured The original triangles area is found using the
34=6 in squared units formula for the area of a rectangle (b h). Both
Work through the shapes have the same base; the rectangles height
multiplication to find the
answer, and add the
area = 6 cm is the height of the triangle. This gives the area
of the triangle formula: base vertical height.
appropriate units of area.
124 GEOMETRY
3cm
The formula for the area of a triangle can also be used to
nd the length of the base, if the area and height are known.
Given the area and height of the triangle, the formula needs
to be rearranged to nd the length of the triangles base.
First, write down the formula for the area of a triangle. base (?)
The formula states that the area of a triangle is equal to
multiplied by the length of the base, multiplied by the height. area = 12 base height
height
Area = 8cm
triangle using the area and base
The formula for area of a triangle can also be used to nd its
height, if the area and base are known. Given the area and
the length of the base of the triangle, the formula needs to
be rearranged to nd the height of the triangle.
4cm
First, write down the formula. This shows that the area of a
triangle equals multiplied by its base, multiplied by its height. area = 12 base height
Substitute the known values into the formula. Here the
values of the area (8cm) and the base (4cm) are known.
8 = 12 4 height height is
4=2 unknown
116117 Triangles
U = U PR = PQ and P = P
angle V = V
V = V V PR PQ
Q Q
PQ is in proportion
with PQ
angle V = V PQ is in proportion
V with PQ
angle at
angle P = P
U = U
U angle U = U W
P R
PR is in proportion
angle at
U W with PR
P = P P PR is in R
proportion with PR
Side, side, side (S) (S) (S) Right-angle, hypotenuse, side R (H) (S)
When two triangles have three pairs of corresponding If the ratio between the hypotenuses of two right triangles is
sides that are in the same ratio, then the two triangles the same as the ratio between another pair of corresponding
are similar. sides, then the two triangles are similar.
AB = AC = BC
AB AC BC B
LN = ML or MN
LN ML MN ( ) L
AB is in
proportion L the hypotenuse,
LM is in
proportion
AB is in NL, is in
to AB with LM
proportion CB is in
proportion with
to AB proportion
the other
to CB
hypotenuse, LN
B
AC is in
proportion BC is in A N M
to AC proportion
to BC
LM is in
the hypotenuse, LN is in
A C CA is in
proportion
to LM
proportion with the
other hypotenuse, NL
proportion
C
to CA M N
SIMILAR TRIANGLES 127
Similar triangles
Triangles ABC and ADE are
Finding the length of BC
similar (AA). The missing To nd the length of BC, use the ratio between BC and its
values of AD and BC can be D corresponding side DE, and the ratio between a pair of
found using the ratios sides where both the lengths are known AE and AC.
between the known sides. B
3cm
Write out the ratios
3c m
between the two pairs of
sides, each with the longer
DE = AE
A a E side above the shorter BC AC
side. These ratios are equal.
2.5cm C
4.5cm
AD = 3 4.5 BC = 3 2.5
to isolate AD. In this by rearranging the
example this is done by equation one more time
multiplying both sides of
multiply by 3
2.5 divide both sides of the
divide both
4.5
the equation by 3. equation by 4.5.
to isolate AD sides by 4.5
1.6666.... is rounded
Do the multiplication to Do the multiplication to to 2 decimal places
find the answer, and add find the answer, add the
the units to the answer AD = 5.4cm units, and round to a BC = 1.67cm
that has been found. This sensible number of
is the length of AD. decimal places.
128 GEOMETRY
Formulas 177179
If the lengths of two sides of a right triangle are known, the length
c2 is the area of the square
of the third side can be worked out using Pythagorean Theorem. formed from sides of length c
c
a
longest side. The idea of squaring each side can
be shown literally. On the right, a square on each c
side shows how the biggest square has the same
area as the other two squares put together.
side a side b side c (hypotenuse)
b
Squared sides
The squares of the shorter
b b = b b
b
2
a + b = c sides are shown here with
the square of the longest side
(the hypotenuse). b2 is the area of the
formula shows that side a squared plus square formed from sides
side b squared equals side c squared of length b
area of larger
If the formula is used with values substituted for the sides a, b, and c, the square is 52 (or
Pythagorean Theorem can be shown to be true. Here the length of c 5 5), which is
(the hypotenuse) is 5, while the lengths of a and b are 4 and 3. 25 smaller squares
a + b = c2 4 cm
2 25 cm
4 + 3 = 5
4 cm
16 cm
5c
44 33 55
m
16 + 9 = 25 5c
m
squares of two square of each side of square
shorter sides hypotenuse is 5 cm long
added
area of larger square
3 cm
Pythagoras in action is 42 (or 4 4), which
is 16 smaller squares
3 cm
m
5c
3.5 cm
se)
otenu
p
(hy this side 13 cm (hypotenuse)
c missing side length
is known
To calculate the
length of side b, take
13 5 = b
3.5 3.5 equals 7.2 7.2 equals subtracting 52 from
Calculate the squares each side. This isolates
12.25 + 51.84 = c of each of the
triangles known sides
hypotenuse now at
start of formula
b2 on one side because
52 52 cancels out.
by multiplying them.
hypotenuse. equals
144 = b
sign means Subtract these squares
square root to find the square of
Use a calculator to the unknown side.
8485 Angles
interior and
line extends Interior angles
to form exterior angle
Types of quadrilaterals add up to 180 If a single diagonal line is
exterior angle
Each type of quadrilateral is grouped drawn from any one corner to
and named according to its properties. the opposite corner, the
There are regular and irregular quadrilateral is divided into
START two triangles. The sum of the
quadrilaterals. A regular quadrilateral
has equal sides and angles, whereas interior angles of any triangle
an irregular quadrilateral has sides is 180, so the sum of the
and angles of different sizes. interior angles of a
Are all the interior quadrilateral is 2 180.
angles right angles?
YES NO
opposite side is
Rhombus opposite Parallelogram opposite angle
is equal of equal length
angle is equal
All sides of a rhombus opposite The opposite sides of
are of equal length. angle is a parallelogram are
equal
The opposite angles parallel and are of equal
are equal and the length. Adjacent sides
opposite sides are are not of equal length.
parallel. The diagonals The opposite angles
bisect each other at are equal and the opposite
right angles. diagonals bisect each side is of
other in the center of equal
this symbol shows length
parallel sides the shape.
this symbol
one of four equal sides indicates
opposite angle
parallel sides
is equal
opposite angle
Trapezoid Kite is not equal adjacent
side is of
A trapezoid, also A kite has two pairs equal
known as a trapezium, of adjacent sides that length
has one pair of are equal in length.
opposite sides that are Opposite sides are not
parallel. These sides are of equal length. It has
not equal in length. one pair of opposite
angles that are equal
one pair of and another pair of
parallel sides angles of dierent opposite
adjacent
values. angle is equal
side is of
equal length
132 GEOMETRY
height = 26 m
this side is the
side = 5.2 cm
units of
area = side2 area, square area = base height units of area,
centimeters square meters
Vertical height
A D
formula can also be
Finding the area of a rhombus depends base = 9 cm written area = bh
on knowing its vertical height. In this
example, the vertical height measures
8 cm and its base is 9 cm.
area = base vertical height
9 8 = 72 cm 2
Q UA D R I L AT E R A L S 133
this single dash indicates that this
Finding the area of side is equal to the opposite side
a parallelogram B C
vertical height = 5 m
Like the area of a rhombus, the area of
a parallelogram is found by multiplying
the double dash symbols
the length of its base by its vertical show that this side is equal
height. to the side opposite
8 5 = 40 m 2
X W X W X W
W angle X is X
angle U is angle W is equal to
equal to equal to angle V
angle W angle U
one of four angle V is
equal sides U equal to
V angle X
U V U V U V
All the sides of a rhombus are Divide the rhombus along a diagonal Dividing along the other
equal in length. To show this a to create two isosceles triangles. Each diagonal creates another pair
dash is used on each side. triangle has a pair of equal angles. of isosceles triangles.
congruent
opposite side A triangle
A D is equal
A D A D
one of two pairs
of parallel sides
Opposites sides of a parallelogram The triangles ABC and ADC are congruent. The triangles are congruent, so
are equal in length. To show this a Angle BCA = CAD, and because these are angle BAC = ACD; because these are
dash and a double dash are used. alternate angles, BC is parallel to AD. alternate angles, DC is parallel to AB.
134 GEOMETRY
8485 Angles
triangles
Congruent
Equilateral
A rhombus is
Regular Irregular an equilateral
All the sides and all the angles of In an irregular polygon, all the quadrilateral. All its
regular polygons are equal. This sides and angles are not the same. sides are equal, but
hexagon has six equal sides and This heptagon has many different- all sides the same all its angles are not.
six equal angles, making it regular. sized angles, making it irregular.
P O LY G O N S 135
Naming polygons
Regardless of whether a polygon is regular or irregular, the number of sides it
has always equals the number of its angles. This number is used in naming both
kinds of polygons. For example, a polygon with six sides and angles is called a
hexagon because hex is the prex used to mean six. If all of its sides and angles
are equal, it is known as a regular hexagon; if not, it is called an irregular hexagon.
3
Sides and
angles
4
Sides and
angles
5
Sides and
angles
6
Sides and
angles
7
Sides and
angles
8
Sides and
angles
9
Sides and
angles
10
Sides and
angles
11
Sides and
angles
12
Sides and
angles
15
Sides and
angles
20
Sides and
angles
136 GEOMETRY
PROPERTIES OF A POLYGON
There are an unlimited number of different polygons that can be drawn using
straight lines. However, they all share some important properties.
Convex or concave
Regardless of how many angles a polygon has, it can be classied as either
concave or convex. This dierence is based on whether a polygons interior
angles are over 180 or not. A convex polygon can be easily identied because at
least one its angles is over 180.
acute angle
all vertices
point outward
acute angle
Concave polygon
obtuse angle At least one angle of a
reex angle concave polygon is over
Convex polygon 180. This type of angle is
A convex polygon has no known as a reflex angle.
interior angles greater The vertex of the reflex
than 180its angles are vertex angle points inward,
either acute or obtuse. All points toward the center of
acute angle obtuse angle its vertices point outward. inward the shape.
acute angle
obtuse angle acute angle
convex
diagonal splits shape
1
quadrilateral
into two triangles
This quadrilateral is convexall of its angles are A quadrilateral can be split into two triangles.
smaller than 180. The sum of its interior angles can be The sum of the angles of each triangle is 180,
found easily, by breaking the shape down into triangles. so the sum of the angles of the quadrilateral is
This can be done by drawing in a diagonal line that the sum of the angles of the two triangles
connects two vertices that are not next to one another. added together: 2 180 = 360.
triangle 5
triangle 2
triangle 1 triangle 1
108
(5 2) 180 (9 2) 180
108 108
= 540 sum of its = 1,260 sum of its
interior angles interior angles
8283 Tools in
geometry
A CIRCLE IS A CLOSED CURVED LINE SURROUNDING A CENTER Circumference
POINT. EVERY POINT OF THIS CURVED LINE IS OF EQUAL and diameter 140141
DISTANCE FROM THE CENTER POINT. Area of a circle 142143
Properties of a circle
A circle can be folded into two identical halves, which ound the ce a r
e the distan c i rc l e
means that it possesses reective symmetry (see p.88).
The line of this fold is one of the most important parts
e n c
of a circleits diameter. A circle may also be rotated
about its center and still t into its own outline,
fe r
giving it a rotational symmetry about
m segment the space
its center point.
u between a chord and an arc
c
cir
chord a str
the cir aight line
cumferen linking tw
ce o points o
n
diam
of the circumference
eter
a line
that c
uts a
sector the space enter circle
exac t
ly
enclosed by two radii c in hal
e to f
g
ed center point
rom
of circle
ef
ion
c
tan
tan s
sec t
i
ge us
d
area the total space
i
a
ra
ar
a li
ne
tha
t to
uch
A circle divided es
This diagram shows the the
many different parts of a circ
circle. Many of these parts le a
to
will feature in formulas ne
over the pages that follow. po
int
CIRCLES 139
Parts of a circle
A circle can be measured and divided in various How to draw a circle
ways. Each of these has a specic name and Two instruments are needed to draw a circlea compass
character, and they are all shown below. and a pencil. The point of the compass marks the center of
the circle and the distance between the point and the pencil
attached to the compass forms the circles radius. A ruler is
Radius needed to measure the radius of the circle correctly.
Any straight line from the center
of a circle to its circumference.
The plural of radius is radii.
Set the compass. First,
decide what the radius of
Diameter x stands for the circle is, and then use a
Any straight line that passes distance in inches ruler to set the compass at
between compass this distance.
through the center from one
point and pencil
side of a circle to the other. or length of radius
Segment
The smaller of the two parts of
a circle created when divided
by a chord.
keep moving
pencil around to Decide where the
Circumference
complete circle center of the circle is
The total length of the outside
and then hold the point
edge (perimeter) of a circle.
of the compass firmly
in this place. Then put
the pencil on the
Arc paper and move the
Any section of the circumference pencil around to draw
of a circle. the circumference of
center of the circle.
circle
Sector
A slice of a circle, similar to the
slice of a pie. It is enclosed by two
radii and an arc.
All circles are similar because they have exactly the same shape. This means
that all their measurements, including the circumference and the diameter, are
in proportion to each other.
symbol for pi
The value of pi
The number pi The numbers after the
3.14
The ratio between the circumference and diameter of a circle decimal point in pi go
is a number called pi, which is written . This number is used in on for ever and in an
many of the formulas associated with circles, including the unpredictable way. It starts
formulas for the circumference and diameter. value to 2 decimal places 3.1415926 but is usually
given to two decimal places.
is a constant is a constant
Circumference (C) circumference
radius
circumference
diameter
The circumference is the distance around the edge of a Formulas
circle. A circles circumference can be found using the
diameter or radius and the number pi. The diameter is
always twice the length of the radius.
C = 2r C = d There are two
circumference
formulas. One uses
value of diameter and the
C)
ce (
circumference other uses radius.
is unknown
en
fer The formula for d is the same as 2 r,
circumference shows
C = d the formula can also
m
be written C=2r
cu
3 i (r )
equal to pi multiplied by
= ius
d = 18
into the formula for diameter.
(d )
ter
circle is 18 in.
dia
LOOKING CLOSER
Why ?
All circles are similar to one another. This means that corresponding
lengths in circles, such as their diameters and circumferences, are always
in proportion to each other. The number is found by dividing the
circumference
circumference of a circle by its diameterany circles circumference
divided by its diameter always equals it is a constant value. C
circumference
2
Similar circles
As all circles are enlargements of each
C
1
O
142 GEOMETRY
SEE ALSO
n )=
4 i s (r
The area of a circle is measured in square units. It can be found
using the radius of a circle (r) and the formula shown below. If the
diu
diameter is known but the radius is not, the radius can be found
ra
by dividing the diameter by 2. is a xed value the value of the
area of
radius is given
a circle radius
In the formula for the area of
a circle, r means (pi)
radius radius.
area = r
Substitute the known values
into the formula; in this
example, the radius is 4 in.
area = 3.14 42
is 3.14 to 3 signicant
gures; a more accurate value this means
can be found on a calculator 44
LOOKING CLOSER
LOOKING CLOSER
of the shape. In this example, the two of the shape measurements given here.
dierent parts are a semicircle, and a
rectangle. The total area is 1,414 in
the height of the the width of the rectangle is the
(area of the semicircle, which is r, rectangle is same as the diameter of the circle.
half the area of a circle) + 5,400 in (the 120 30 = 90 in This can be be found by multiplying
area of the rectangle) = 6,814 in. the radius by 2, 30 2 = 60 in.
144 GEOMETRY
8485 Angles
Circles
If angles are drawn to the center and the circumference from the same
two points on the circumference, the angle at the center is twice the
circumference
angle at the circumference. (edge of circle)
Subtended angles
Any angle within a circle is
R
subtended from two points on
P Q
its circumferenceit stands on
the two points. In both of these
examples, the angle at point R is
the angle subtended, or standing
on, points P and Q. Subtended R is the angle
angles can sit anywhere within subtended
the circle. from points P
and Q R is the angle
subtended
from points P
and Q
Subtended angles
These circles show how a point is
Q
subtended from two other points P
on the circles circumference to form
an angle. The angle at point R is
subtended from points P and Q.
circumference
(edge of circle)
R
R
Angles at the center and circumference
(edge of circle)
at the circumference
When angles are subtended from the
same two points to both the center of the
circle and to its circumference, the angle angle at
circumference
at the center is always twice the size of
the angle formed at the circumference.
center of
In this example, both angles R at the circle
circumference and O at the center are
subtended from the same points, P and Q. O
angle at 2 angle at
= circumference
center
angle at
center is
Angle property twice angle at
The angles at O and R are both circumference
subtended by the points P and Q both angles are
at the circumference. This means P Q subtended from the
same points on the
that the angle at O is twice the size circumference
of the angle at R.
ANGLES IN A CIRCLE 145
these angles are all
equal because they
are all subtended Proving angle rules in circles
from A and B in the
major segment
Mathematical rules can be used to prove that the
angle at the center of a circle is twice the size of
the angle at the circumference when both the
angles are subtended from the same points.
R, P, and Q are 3 points
on the circumference
R
Draw a circle and
chord across circle mark any 3 points on
splits it into a major its circumference, for center
(larger) segment and example, P, Q, and R. Mark
a minor (smaller) O
the center of the circle, in
segment
this example it is O.
A B P Q
angle R subtended
from P and Q
these angles are R
circumference equal because they Draw straight lines
(edge of circle) are both subtended
from A and B in the from R to P, R to Q, O to P,
minor segment and O to Q. This creates
Angles subtended from the same points two angles, one at R
Angles at the circumference subtended from (the circumference of O
the same two points in the same segment are equal. the circle) and one at O
Here the angles marked with one red line are equal, (the center of the circle).
as are the angles marked with two red lines. Both are subtended from
these are all right
angles subtended
P Q
points P and Q.
from diameter, CD angle O
dividing line creates 2 subtended
isosceles triangles from P and Q
R
Draw a line from R through
O, to the other side of the
circle. This dividing line
creates two isosceles
triangles. Isosceles triangles
O
diameter is the line have 2 sides and 2 angles
through center of circle that are the same. In this
case, two sides of triangles
P Q
C D POR and QOR are formed
from 2 radii of the circle.
the angle at O
is twice the
R angle at R
For one triangle the two
angles on its base are
Chords vary in lengththe diameter of a circle is also its longest chord. Chords of SEE ALSO
the same length are always equal distances from the center of the circle. The corners
of a cyclic quadrilateral (four-sided shape) touch the circumference of a circle.
130133 Quadrilaterals
138139 Circles
Chords
A chord is a straight line across a circle. all chords touch
The longest chord of any circle is its the circumference
diameter because the diameter crosses a at two points
circle at its widest point. The perpendicular
bisector of a chord is a line that passes these two chords are equal
through its center at right angles (90) to it. lengths, so they are equal
distances from the center
The perpendicular bisector of any chord of the circle
passes through the center of the circle. The center of circle
distance of a chord to the center of a circle diameter is the longest
is found by measuring its perpendicular chord; it passes
through the center
bisector. If two chords are equal lengths they
will always be the same distance from the
center of the circle.
right angle
distance of chord from
the center is found chord
by measuring its
perpendicular bisector
Chord properties
This circle shows four chords. Two
of these chords are equal in length. this is perpendicular
The longest chord is the diameter, bisector of chord
and one is shown on the right with circumference
its perpendicular bisector (a line (edge) of circle
that cuts it in half at right angles).
LOOKING CLOSER
Intersecting chords
When two chords cross, or intersect, they gain
an interesting property: the two parts of one two parts of one two parts of other
chord, either side of where it is split, multiply to chord multiplied chord multiplied
by each other by each other
give the same value as the answer found by
multiplying the two parts of the other chord. C
Crossing chords
This circle shows two chords, which
A D
B AB=CD
cross one another (intersect). One
chord is split into parts A and B, the
other into parts C and D.
C H O R D S A N D C YC L I C Q UA D R I L AT E R A L S 147
perpendicular
Finding the line is at
right-angles
bisector
Cyclic quadrilaterals
Cyclic quadrilaterals are four-sided shapes made from chords. Each corner of
the shape sits on the circumference of a circle. The interior angles of a cyclic
quadrilateral add up to 360, as they do for all quadrilaterals. The opposite interior
angles of a cyclic quadrilateral add up to 180, and their exterior angles are equal
to the opposite interior angles.
points (vertices) of
cyclic quadrilateral
x is exterior angle of
A + B + C + D = 360
are on circumference Interior angle sum
cyclic quadrilateral;
of circle
it is equal to its opposite The interior angles of a cyclic quadrilateral
interior angle, D always add up to 360. Therefore, in this
A x example A + B + C + D = 360.
Tangents point of
SEE ALSO
110113 Constructions
m
tangent
radius of the circle,
1. 5 c
A tangent is at right-angles to the radius at the point
of contact, so a right triangle can be created using the and the line
connecting the center
radius, the tangent, and a line between them, which is O P
the hypotenuse of the triangle. Pythagorean theorem
radius 4cm hypotenuse of the circle to point P
can be used to nd the length of any one of the three form a right triangle.
sides of the right triangle, if two sides are known.
square of square of square of the
one side other side hypotenuse
Find the square root of both sides of the equation to find the value
of AP. The square root of AP is just AP. Use a calculator to find the AP = 13.75
square root of 13.75. 3.708... is rounded
to 2 decimal places
Find the square root of the value on the right, and round the answer to a
suitable number of decimal places. This is the length of the missing side. AP = 3.71cm
TA N G E N T S 149
Constructing tangents
To construct a tangent accurately requires a compass and a straight edge.
arc drawn from
This example shows how to construct two tangents between a circle with point P
center O and a given point outside the circle, in this case, P. x
draw circle mark point
outside circle
center point of circle
P M P
O O the midpoint of OP
is labelled M
Set the compass to distance OM (or MP which is the same Finally, join each point where the circles intersect (cross),
length), and draw a circle with M as its center. Mark the A and B, with point P. These two lines are the tangents from
two points where this new circle intersects (crosses) the point P to the circle with center O. The two tangents are
circumference of the original circle as A and B. equal lengths.
angle at the
Tangents and angles circumference
these angles are equal
Tangents to circles have some special angle drawn from either D chord drawn from
end of the chord point of contact with
properties. If a tangent touches a circle at B, and
the tangent
a chord, BC, is drawn across the circle from B, an
angle is formed between the tangent and the
chord at B. If lines (BD and CD) are drawn to the two lines from the C
circumference from the ends of the chord, they ends of the chord to
create an angle at D that is equal to angle B. create an angle at the angle created
the circumference between the tangent
Tangents and chords and the chord
The angle formed between the tangent and the chord is equal to the tangent
the angle formed at the circumference if two lines are drawn from
either end of the chord to meet at a point on the circumference. point of contact B A
150 GEOMETRY
140141 Circumference
and diameter
What is an arc?
An arc is a part of the circumference of a circle. The length angle created at the center
of an arc is in proportion with the size of the angle made when two lines are drawn from minor arc
at the center of the circle when lines are drawn from each the ends of the major arc
end of the arc. If the length of an arc is unknown, it can
be found using the circumference and this angle. When a
major arc
circle is split into two arcs, the bigger is called the major
arc, and the smaller the minor arc. formula for nding
the length of an arc
Arcs and angles
arc length angle at center This diagram shows two
circumference
= 360
arcs: one major, one
minor, and their angles angle created at
at the center of the circle. the center when
two lines are drawn
total length of circles edge 360 in a circle
from the ends of
the minor arc
Take the formula for finding the length of an arc. arc length angle at center
The formula uses the ratios between arc length and
circumference, and between the angle at the center
of the circle and 360 (total number of degrees). circumference
= 360
Substitute the numbers that are known into the arc length 120
formula. In this example, the circumference is
known to be 10 cm, and the angle at the center of
the circle is 120; 360 stays as it is. 10
= 360 this side has also been
multiplied by 10
this side has been multiplied by because what is done
10 to leave arc length on its own to one side must be
(10 10 cancels out) done to the other
Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown 10 120
valuethe arc lengthon one side of the equals
sign. In this example the arc length is isolated by
multiplying both sides by 10.
arc length = 360
3.333... is rounded to
2 decimal places
Multiply 10 by 120 and divide the answer by 360 to
get the value of the arc length. Then round the
answer to a suitable number of decimal places. C = 3.33cm
ARCS AND SECTORS 151
proportion
5659 Ratio and
140141
and diameter
Circumference
What is a sector?
minor arc
A sector of a circle is the space between two radii and angle at the
one arc. The area of a sector depends on the size of center created
the angle between the two radii at the center of the minor sector by the two
radii of the
circle. If the area of a sector is unknown, it can be minor sector
angle at the center created by
found using this angle and the area of the circle. When the two radii of the major sector
a circle is split into two sectors, the bigger is called the
major sector, and the smaller the minor sector.
major sector
Take the formula for finding the area of a sector. area of sector angle at center
The formula uses the ratios between the area of a
sector and the area of the circle, and between the
area of circle
=
total number 360
angle at the center of the circle and 360.
of degrees in
circle
Substitute the numbers that are known into the area of sector 45
formula. In this example, the area is known to be
7 cm, and the angle at the center of the circle is
45. The total number of degrees in a circle is 360. 7
= 360 this side has
this side has been multiplied by 7 also been
to leave the area of a sector on its multiplied by 7
own (7 7 cancels out)
Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown 45 7
valuethe area of the sectoron one side of the
equals sign. In this example, this is done by
multiplying both sides by 7.
area of sector = 360
0.875 is rounded to
2 decimal places
Multiply 45 by 7 and divide the answer by 360 to
get the area of the sector. Round the answer to a
suitable number of decimal places. C = 0.88 cm2
152 GEOMETRY
134137 Polygons
Volumes 154155
A SOLID
D IIS A THREE-DIMENSIONAL SHAPE. Surface area of solids 156157
Solids are objects with three dimensions: width, length, and
height. They also have surface areas and volumes.
Prisms
Many common solids are polyhedronsthree-dimensional shapes with at
surfaces and straight edges. Prisms are a type of polyhedron made up of two
parallel shapes of exactly the same shape and size, which are connected by
a li
faces. In the example to the right, the parallel shapes are pentagons, joined by
ne
rectangular faces. Usually a prism is named after the shape of its ends (or
bases), so a prism whose parallel shapes are rectangles is known as a
wh
edgsurfaces
rectangular prism. If all its edges are equal sizes, it is called a cube.
ere
A prism
hei
e meet
The cross section of this
prism is a pentagon (a shape
with five sides), so it is called
a pentagonal prism.
dist g
anc ht
e
t fro
ob
ottom top
Volume m
The amount of space that
a solid occupies is called
its volume.
hor
i zo
wid
cross section of
nta
a l di
th
pentagonal prism ngl stan
is a pentagon e s t ce
o le at r
ngt igh
this net forms
a shape with
h t
seven faces
a pentagon is
a shape with
ve sides
Other solids
veorint whe
A solid with only at surfaces is
ap called a polyhedron and a solid
with a curved surface is called a
tex re edg nonpolyhedron. Each common
solid also has a name of its own.
Cylinder
A cylinder is a prism
es m
Faces
A face is the surface contained circular end
between a number of edges.
This prism has seven faces. this face is equal in
size to its opposite
Rectangular
prism
A rectangular prism
is a prism whose
opposite faces are
equal. If all its edges
are equal in length, it
is a cube.
thst side
its center.
n g
le f longe vertex
eo
anc Pyramid
dist A pyramid has a
polygon as its
base and triangular
faces that meet
at a vertex (point).
Vertices apex
A vertex (plural vertices) is a
point at which two or more
edges meet. Cone
A cone is a solid with
edge
a circular base that is
Edges connected by a
An edge is a straight line where curved surface to its
two surfaces of a solid meet. This apex (highest point).
prism has 15 edges.
154 GEOMETRY
SEE ALSO
GTH
US
cm
RA
m
H= 4. 3 c
WI
ENGT
DT
H=
L RADIUS = 2 cm
2. 2
cm
SEE ALSO
SURFACE AREA IS THE SPACE OCCUPIED BY A SHAPES OUTER SURFACES. 152153 Solids
154155 Volumes
For most solids, surface area can be found by adding together the areas of its
faces. The sphere is the exception, but there is an easy formula to use.
Surfaces of shapes
For all solids with straight edges, surface area can be found Finding the surface area of a cylinder
by adding together the areas of all the solids faces. One Breaking the cylinder down into its component parts creates
way to do this is to imagine taking apart and attening a rectangle and two circles. To nd the total surface area,
out the solid into two-dimensional shapes. It is then work out the area of each of these and add them together.
straightforward to work out and add together the areas
of these shapes. A diagram of a attened and opened out formula for
shape is known as its net. area of circle
Area = r area of circle
Cylinder
A cylinder has two flat faces and
3.14 4 4 = 50.24 cm
C
IR
the flat surfaces are separated The area of the circles can be worked out using the known
M
FE
and the curved surface radius and the formula for the area of a circle. (pi) is usually
REN
opened up. shortened to 3.14, and area is always expressed in square units.
CE
formula for
circumference
radius is the circumference
length from
RA
of cylinder
center of circle to Circumference = 2 r
DI
its perimeter
US
cm
4c
10 2 3.14 4 = 25.12 cm
m
T
HE IGH Before the area of the rectangle can be found, it is necessary
to work out its widththe circumference of the cylinder. This is
done using the known radius and the formula for circumference.
circle has
same radius
unrolled middle as cylinder
section becomes 4 cm length of rectangle
rectangle = circumference width of rectangle area of
of cylinder = height of cylinder rectangle
circumference of the
cylinder becomes
length of rectangle 25.12 10 = 251.2 cm
? cm
The area of the rectangle can now be found by using the
height of cylinder
length of 10 cm is now width
formula for the area of a rectangle (length width).
rectangle of rectangle
needs to surface area
be found of cylinder
HEIGHT
multiply together the rectangular
rectangle A prisms height and width.
TH
rectangle C Area of B = length width
LENG
WI
DT
H
LENGTH HEIGHT
12.3 cm 3 cm The surface area of the (2 A) + (2 B) + (2 C)
rectangular prism is the total
Net of a rectangular prism of the areas of its sidestwice (2 14.7) + (2 60.27) + (2 36.9)
The net is made up of three different area A, added to twice area B,
pairs of rectangles. added to twice area C. = 223.74 cm
total surface
sphere is the same as 4
NT H
area of cone
times the formula for
EI G H
Corresponding triangles
the Sun
Trigonometry uses comparisons of the lengths of the sides of the Suns rays
similar right triangles (which have the same shape but dierent create shadows of
the person and the
sizes) to nd the sizes of unknown angles and sides. This building
diagram shows the Sun creating shadows of a person and a
building, which form two similar triangles. By measuring the
shadows, the height of the person, which is known, can be
used to nd the height of the building, which is unknown.
height of the
building,
Similar triangles which is
The shadows the sun makes unknown
of the person and the
building create two
corresponding triangles. h
the height of
the person
the length of
the persons
shadow the length of
the buildings
6 ft shadow
9 ft
250 ft
The ratio between corresponding sides of similar triangles height of building length of buildings shadow
is equal, so the buildings height divided by the persons =
height equals the length of the buildings shadow divided by height of person length of persons shadow
the length of the persons shadow.
Substitute the values from the diagram into this whatever is done to one
h 250 side of the equation
equation. This leaves only one unknownthe height the value of h is = must be done to the
of the building (h)which is found by rearranging
the equation.
unknown
6 9 other, so this side must
also be multiplied by 6
Rearrange the equation to leave h (the height of the this side has been 250
building) on its own. This is done by multiplying both
sides of the equation by 6, then canceling out the two
multiplied by 6 to h = 6 the answer is
6s on the left side, leaving just h.
cancel out the 6
and isolate h 9 rounded to 2
decimal places
Work out the right side of the equation to find the
value of h, which is the height of the building. h = 166.67 ft
W H AT I S T R I G O N O M E T R Y ? 161
Right triangles
The sides of these triangles are called the hypotenuse, opposite, and
adjacent. The hypotenuse is always the side opposite the right angle.
The names of the other two sides depend on where they are in relation
to the particular angle specied.
Opposite Adjacent
the angle
The opposite is the side that The adjacent is the shorter
faces the specified angle. side next to the specified
hyp hyp
ote ote angle (the hypotenuse is the
opposite
adjacent
nus nus longer side).
e e
right angle right angle
the angle
adjacent opposite
Trigonometry formulas
There are three basic formulas used in trigonometry. A stands in for the
angle that is being found (this may also sometimes be written as ). The
formula to use depends on the sides of the triangle that are known.
Using a calculator
The values of sine, cosine, and tangent are set for each angle.
Calculators have buttons that retrieve these values. Use them
to nd the sine, cosine, or tangent of a particular angle.
160 What is
trigonometry?
GIVEN AN ANGLE AND THE LENGTH OF ONE SIDE OF A RIGHT Finding missing
missing length x
Substitute the known values
into the sine formula.
sin 37 = this side has
hypotenuse 7 also been
multiplied
is side opposite show the
right angle s e) unknown rst
by 7
by 3.7
unknown
Rearrange to make x the subject rst
by multiplying both sides by 3.7. x = tan 53 3.7
this side has value of tan 53
been multiplied by is rounded to 4
3.7 to isolate x decimal places
Use a calculator to find the value
of tan 53 press the tan button x = 1.3270 3.7
53 then enter 53.
3.7 cm (adjacent) the answer is
adjacent side rounded to 2
is next to given Round the answer to a decimal places
angle
suitable size. x = 4.91 cm
164 TRIGONOMETRY
n t)
yp
inverse cosine
us
a+b b+a
a rectangle.
The area of any
rectangle is found
=
by using the
L (length)
equation area =
length width. Two terms
When adding together two terms, it is possible to start with either term.
A = LW (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
Three terms
W (width) As with adding two terms, three terms can be added together in any order.
=8
The equals sign means that A number with a value that Multiplying terms in algebra can be done in any order, but when
the two sides of the equation is always the same dividing the terms must be kept in the order they were given.
balance each other
4 rows of 3 is
same amount
of blocks as 3
rows of 4
=
ab ba
Two terms
When multiplying together two terms, the terms can be in any order.
=
=
THE ANSWER IS:
a (b c) b (a c) c (a b)
Three terms
b=6 Multiplication of three terms can be done in any order.
170 ALGEBRA
A basic sequence
For this sequence, the rule is that
each term is the previous term
with 2 added to it.
is 2
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...
1st term 2nd term 3rd term 4th term 5th term
continues
2n
The value of a particular term can be found without The rule as an expression expression used to
nd value of term
writing out the entire sequence up until that point Knowing the expression, which 1 is substituted for n
by writing the rule as an expression and then using is 2n in this example, helps find in 1st term, 2 in 2nd
this expression to work out the term. the value of any term. term, and so on
To find the first term, To find the second term, To find the 41st term, For the 1,000th term, substitute
substitute 1 for n. substitute 2 for n. substitute 41 for n. 1,000 for n. The term here is 2,000.
4n 2 = 4 1 2= 2 4n 2 = 4 2 2= 6 4n 2 = (4 1,000,000) 2= 3,999,998
1st term 2nd term 1,000,000th term
To find the first term, To find the second term, For the 1,000,000th term, substitute
substitute 1 for n. substitute 2 for n. 1,000,000 for n. The term here is 3,999,998.
SEQUENCES 171
IMPORTANT SEQUENCES
Some sequences have rules that are slightly more complicated; however,
they can be very significant. Two examples of these are square numbers and square has
square has sides 5
the Fibonacci sequence. units long
sides 4
square has
units long
sides 3
Square numbers square has
sides 2 units long
square has
A square number is found by sides 1 units long
multiplying a whole number by itself. unit long
These numbers can be drawn as
squares. Each side is the length of a
whole number, which is multiplied by
itself to make the square number. 1 4 9 16 25
The Fibonacci sequence is a widely recognized sequence, appearing frequently in Fibonacci and nature
nature and architecture. The rst two terms of the sequence are both 1, then after this
each term is the sum of the two terms that came before it. Evidence of the Fibonacci sequence is
found everywhere, including in nature.
each number in sequence is The sequence forms a spiral (see
sum of two numbers before it below) and it can be
seen in the spiral of a
1+1 1+2 2+3 3+5 5+8 shell (as shown here)
or in the arrangement
of the seeds in a
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ...
sequence starts with 1 sequence continues in
sunower. It is
named after
Leonardo
Fibonacci,
an Italian
same way indenitely
mathematician.
First, draw a square that is 1 unit long by Keep drawing squares that represent Finally, draw curves to touch the
1 unit wide. Draw an identical one above the terms of the Fibonacci sequence, opposite corners of each square,
it, then a square with sides 2 units long adding them in a counterclockwise starting at the center and working
next to the 1 unit squares. Each square direction. This diagram shows the first outward counterclockwise. This curve
represents a term of the sequence. six terms of the sequence. is a Fibonacci spiral.
172 ALGEBRA
like terms
6a 2b 6a2b 12 ab = 12ab
The term 6a means 6 a. Separate the expression into The product of multiplying 6 and 2 is
Similarly, the term 2b means the individual numbers and 12, and that of multiplying a and b is
2 b. symbols involved. ab. The simplified expression is 12ab.
area of a rectangle is
that y = 2, the overall value of the expression can be found. This is called
length width.
substituting the values in the expression or evaluating the expression. Substituting 5 in for the
Substitute the values in the expression 2x 2y 4y + 3x if length and 8 in for
the width, gives an area
x = 1 and y = 2 of 5 in 8 in = 40 in .
W = WIDTH
5x = 5 1 = 5
2x 2y 4y + 3x 5x 6y 5 12 = 7
6y = 6 2 = 12
like terms
substitute 2 for y
Group like terms together The expression has Now substitute the given The final answer is
to simplify the expression. now been simplified. values for x and y. shown to be 7.
174 ALGEBRA
Expanding and
2(a + 2) SEE ALSO
4 (a + 3) =
number outside is multiplied
4 a + 4 3 = 4a + 12 sign between terms
by each number inside remains the same
To expand an expression with a Multiply each term inside the parenthesis by Simplify the resulting
number outside a parenthesis, multiply the number outside. The sign between the two terms to show the expanded
all the terms inside the parenthesis by terms (letters and numbers) remains the same. expression in its final form.
that number. Here, 4 a is simplified to
4a and 4 3 to 12.
Expanding multiple parentheses
To expand an expression that contains two parentheses, each part of the rst one is multiplied by each
part of the second parenthesis. To do this, split up the rst (blue) parenthesis into its parts. Multiply the
second (yellow) parenthesis by the rst part and then by the second part of the rst parenthesis.
3x 3 = 9x 1 2y = 2y 13=3
second parenthesis multiplied
by rst part of rst parenthesis 3x 2y = 6xy
To expand an expression of two Break down the first parenthesis into Simplify the resulting terms by
parentheses, multiply all the terms of its terms. Multiply the second parenthesis carrying out each multiplication.
the second by all the terms of the first. by each term from the first in turn. The signs remain the same.
Squaring a parenthesis
Squaring a parenthesis simply means multiplying a parenthesis by itself. Write it out as
two parentheses next to each other, and then multiply it to expand as shown above.
3 x = 3x
x 3 = 3x
parenthesis means x x = x
multiply 3 3 = 9
(x 3) = (x 3) (x 3) = x(x 3) 3(x 3) = x 3x 3x + 9 = x 6x + 9
multiply second parenthesis multiply second parenthesis by
sign remains
by rst part of rst one second part of rst parenthesis
the same
To expand a squared parenthesis, Split the first parenthesis into its Simplify the resulting terms, making sure to
first write the expression out as two terms and multiply the second multiply their signs correctly. Finally, add or
parentheses next to each other. parenthesis by each term in turn. subtract like terms (see pp.172173) together.
E X PA N D I N G A N D FA C T O R I Z I N G E X P R E S S I O N S 175
LOOKING CLOSER
Factorizing more complex expressions Factorizing a formula
Factorizing can make it simpler to understand and write complex
expressions with many terms. Find the factors that all parts of The formula for nding the surface area (see pp.156157)
the expression have in common. of a shape can be worked out using known formulas for
3 5 x y y = 15xy the areas of its parts. The formula can look daunting, but
3 3 3 3 x x y = 9xy 2 3 3 x y y y = 18xy it can be made much easier to use by factorizing it.
xx 35 x y
two circles, one at each end
yy
9x y + 15xy + 18xy r
radius
height
all 3 terms
To factorize an expression write out the Surface of a cylinder
multiplied
factors of each part, for example, y is y y. The formula for the surface
Look for the numbers and letters that are area of a cylinder is worked
common to all the factors. h out by adding together
the areas of the circles
common factor of x variables at each end and the
common factor
rectangle that forms the
of numbers
3xy common factor
of y variables
space between them.
length of rectangle is
circumference of circle (2r) area of a
area of rectangle circle is r,
2rh + 2r
is length (2r) for 2 circles
All the parts of the expressions contain it is 2r
height (h)
the letters x and y, and can be factorized by
the number 3. These factors are combined
to produce one common factor. To find the formula for the surface area of
3xy is common
a cylinder, add together the formulas for
factor of all parts
9xy 3xy = 3x 15xy 3xy = 5y the areas of its parts.
of the expression
18xy 3xy = 6y h and r are not common
means
3xy(3x + 5y + 6y )
2r is common to to both terms so they sit
both expressions multiply by inside the parenthesis
2r (h + r)
Set the common factor (3xy) outside a set To make the formula easier to use, simplify it by
of parentheses. Inside, write what remains identifying the common factor, in this case 2r, and
of each part when divided by it. setting it outside the parentheses.
176 ALGEBRA
(x + ? ? ) (x + ? ? )
together
means multiplying every term of one
parenthesis with every term of the other. The multiply both terms
final answer will be a quadratic equation. of second parenthesis multiply both terms of second
by rst term of both variables are x and
share the same value parenthesis by second term of
rst parenthesis rst parenthesis
To multiply the two parentheses, split one of the
parentheses into its terms. Multiply all the terms of
the second parenthesis first by the x term and then
by the numerical term of the first parenthesis.
x(x + ? ? ) + ? ? (x + ? ? )
split up one parenthesis
into its terms
Multiplying both terms of the second
parenthesis by each term of the first in turn
results in a squared term, two terms multiplied by
x, and two numerical terms multiplied together.
x + ? ? x+??x + ? ? ? ?
squared term x x numerical terms numerical terms
multiplied by x multiplied together
A formula usually has a single subject and an equals sign, together with an
equations 180181
expression written in symbols that indicates how to find the subject.
Area of a tennis court
Introducing formulas A tennis court is a rectangle.
The recipe that makes up a formula can be simple The area of the court depends
or complicated. However, formulas usually have on its length (L) and width (W).
three basic parts: a single letter at the
beginning (the subject); an equals sign
that links the subject to the recipe;
and the recipe itself, which area is the space occupied
by the tennis court
when used, works out the
value of the subject.
A = LW
L=
LE
NG
TH
TH
ID
W
subject of equals sign the recipeto nd A
=
the formula we must multiply the length
W
(L) and the width (W). LW
means the same as L W
LOOKING CLOSER
Formula triangles
Formulas can be rearranged to make Simple rearrangement
dierent parts the subject of the area (A) is the subject This triangle shows the different
formula. This is useful if the unknown
of the formula A A =LW ways the formula for finding a
value to be found is not the subject of rectangle can be rearranged.
the original formulathe formula can L W area (A) = length (L)
multiplied by width (W)
be rearranged so that the unknown
becomes the subject, making solving
the formula easier. A stands
for area
length (L) = area (A) width (W) = area (A)
A
divided by width (W) L stands W stands divided by length (L)
for length for width
A A
L= A A W=
length (L) is the subject
of the formula
W
L W L W L W
L
width (W) is the subject
of the formula
178 ALGEBRA
A = b+c A c = b+cc A c = b+ c c Ac = b
To make b the subject, Add c to both sides. To move Simplify the formula by The formula can
+c needs to be moved +c, its opposite (c) must first canceling out c and +c on now be rearranged
to the other side of the be added to both sides of the the right, leaving b by itself so that it reads
equals sign. formula to keep it balanced. as the subject of the formula. b = A c.
A = bc A = bc A = bc A =b
c c c c c
In this example, b is Divide both sides by c. To Simplify the formula by The formula can
multiplied by c. To make move the c to the other side, canceling out c/c on the now be rearranged
b the subject, c needs to you must do the opposite of right, leaving b by itself as so that it reads
move to the other side. multiplying, which is dividing. the subject of the formula. b = A/c.
A = bc A c = b c c A c = bc
c Ac = b
In this example, b is Multiply both sides by c. To Simplify the formula The formula can
divided by c. To make move the c to the other side, by canceling out c/c on the now be rearranged
b the subject, c needs to you must do the opposite of right, leaving b by itself as the so that it reads
move to the other side. dividing, which is multiplying. subject of the formula. b = Ac.
FORMULAS 179
FORMULAS IN ACTION
A formula can be used to calculate how much
interest (the amount a bank pays someone in this stands for principal, which this stands for rate of interest
exchange for being able to borrow their money) just means the amount
is paid into a bank account over a particular
period of time. The formula for this is principal (or
amount of money) rate of interest time. This
formula is shown here.
= PRT this stands for the time it
will take to earn interest
There is a bank account with $500 in it, earning simple interest (see pp.7475) at 2% a year. To nd
out how much time (T) it will take to earn interest of $50, the formula above is used. First, the
formula must be rearranged to make T the subject. Then the real values can be put in to work out T.
Move P
The first step is to divide
each side of the formula by = PRT = RT remember that dividing the right
P to move it to the left of
the equals sign.
P
to remove P from the right side,
side by P gives PRT/P, but the Ps
cancel out, leaving RT
Move R
The next step is to divide
each side of the formula by = RT = T remember that dividing the right
R to move it to the left of
the equals sign. P PR side by R gives RT/R, but the Rs
cancel out, leaving T.
2, which gives 0
Simplify the equation by canceling out
the +2 and 2 on the left side. This leaves
x on its own on the left. 2 + x 2= 8 2
Once x is the subject of the equation,
working out the right side of the
equation gives the value of x.
x is now the subject of
the equation
x=6 working out the right side
of the equation (8 2)
gives the value of (6)
LOOKING CLOSER
Creating an equation
Equations can be created to explain day-to-day situations. For If a customer pays $18 for a trip, the equation can be used to work
example, a taxi rm charges $3 to pick up a customer, and $2 out how far the customer traveled.
per mile traveled. This can be written as an equation. cost per mile multiplied
total cost of trip by distance
c = 3 + 2d 3 has been
taken from
15 = 2d 3 has been
taken from
this side
Rearrange the equation
subtract 3 from both sides.
this side
total cost of the to get rid of 2 Find the distance traveled
1
trip this side has been
divided by 2
7 =d 2 mi
in 2d, divide
both sides by 2
by dividing both sides by 2.
S O LV I N G E Q U AT I O N S 181
12 3 = 4, which
The subject of the equation, a, is now on its is the value of a a is now the subject,
own on the right side of the equation, and
there is only a number on the other side. 4=a isolated by itself on one
side of the equation
take 4 from
First rearrange the numerical terms. 4 4 = 0, so 6a 5, leaving 1
is on its own
Subtract 4 from both sides of the equation so
that there are numbers on only one side. 6a = 1 2a
Then rearrange the equation so that the 6a + 2a = 8a 2a + 2a = 0, so
1 is on its own
unknown variable is on the opposite side to the
number, by adding 2a to both sides. 8a = 1
divide 8a by 8 to leave because the left side was divided by
a = 18
Finally, divide each side by 8 to make a a by itself on the left 8 to isolate a, the right side must
the subject of the equation, and to find the of the equation also be divided by 8 to keep both
solution of the equation. sides equal
182 ALGEBRA
9093 Coordinates
slope =
vertical distance 4 = +1 slope y intercept = (0,4)
horizontal distance 4 division sign
y y
4 4
horizontal y intercept
distance is 4 is where line
3 3
crosses the
vertical y axishere
distance is 4 it is (0,4)
2 2
1 1
0 0
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 x 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 x
1 1
y intercept 1x simplies
Finally, substitute the values that have been found slope is +1 is 4 to x
from the graph into the equation for a line. This gives
the equation for the line shown above.
y = mx + b y=x+4
LINEAR GRAPHS 183
Positive slopes
Lines that slope upward from left to right have positive
slopes. The equation of a line with a positive slope y
can be worked out from its graph, as described below. 3
Find the slope of the line by choosing a section of it and
drawing horizontal (green) and vertical (red) lines out from draw line
it so they meet. Count the units each new line covers, then 2 down from
divide the vertical by the horizontal distance. graph; vertical
y intercept is (0,1)
distance is 6
vertical distance 6 1
slope = = = +2
horizontal distance 3
+ sign means line
slopes upward 0 x
from left to right 2 1 1 2
The y intercept can be easily read off the graph
it is the point where the line crosses the y axis. 1
y intercept = (0,1)
2
Substitute the values for the slope and y intercept into the draw line across
equation of a line to find the equation for this given line. 3 from graph;
y intercept horizontal
y intercept is 1
slope distance is 3
slope is +2
y = mx + b y = 2x + 1
Negative slopes
Lines that slope downward from left to right have negative
slopes. The equation of these lines can be worked out in the
same way as for a line with a positive slope. y
2
Find the slope of the line by choosing a section of it and drawing
horizontal (green) and vertical (red) lines out from it so they meet.
Count the units each new line covers, then divide the vertical by the 1
horizontal distance.
vertical distance
slope = = 4 =4 4 3 2 1
0
1 x
horizontal distance 1
1
insert minus
The y intercept can be easily read off the graph sign to show line draw line down from
slopes downward graph; vertical 2
it is the point where the line crosses the y axis.
from left to right distance is 4
y intercept = (0,4) 3
y intercept is (0,4)
Substitute the values for the slope and y intercept into the 4
equation of a line to find the equation for this given line. draw line across
from graph;
y intercept is (0,4) y intercept horizontal
slope
5
slope is 4 distance is 1
y = mx + b y = 4x 4
184 ALGEBRA
x y =2x
rst, choose some then nd 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
possible values of x 1 2 corresponding 1
values of y by
2 4 doubling each 2
3 6 x value 3
4 8 4
Second, draw a set of 5 extend axes beyond
axes and label the axes known values to allow
First, choose some possible values of xnumbers below 10 are with numbers. Make 6
space for line to continue
easiest to work with. Find the corresponding values of y using sure there is space to beyond points in table
a table. Put the x values in the first column, then multiply each extend the line beyond
number by 2 to find the corresponding values for y. the calculated values.
y y
8 8
7 7
6 6
plot points from the
5 table on to the graph 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
1 1
2 2
Finally, draw
3 3 line continues
a straight line
beyond points in
Third, plot the through the
4 4 table to all points
x and y values pointsthis where y = 2x
from the table 5 is the graph of 5
on to the graph. 6 the equation 6
y = 2x.
LINEAR GRAPHS 185
Downward-sloping graph y
Graphs of linear equations are read from left to right and
slope down or up. Downward-sloping graphs have a negative 8
gradient; upward-sloping ones have a positive gradient. 7
6
The equation here this means x graph of
contains the term 2x. multiplied by 2 y = 2x + 1 5
Because x is multiplied
by a negative number
(2), the graph will
y = 2x + 1 4
3
slope downward. 2
1
Use a table to find some values for x and y. This equation is more 0 1
5 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 5 x
complex than the last, so add more rows to the table: 2x and 1. 1
Calculate each of these values, then add them to find y. It is
2 plot each point
important to keep track of negative signs in front of numbers.
3 (x, y) from the
table
x 2x +1 y =2x+1 work out 4
corresponding
1 2 +1 1 values for y by 5
adding together 6
write down 2 4 +1 3 the parts of
some the equation 7
possible 3 6 +1 5
values of x 8
4 8 +1 7
REAL WORLD
Temperature conversion
Two sets of values for Fahrenheit (F) 0
and Celsius (C) give all the 2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
information that is needed to plot 10 T E M P E R AT U R E C
the conversion graph.
186 ALGEBRA
x+y=1
xy=0 Simultaneous equations SEE ALSO
and put in the value for y that has just it is already known that y = 4
been found. This eliminates the y variable
from the equation, leaving only the x
2x + (2 4) = 6 so 2y = 8
24=8
variable. Rearranging the equation
means that it can be solved, and the
2x + 8 = 6
subtract 8 from this side:
value of the x can be found.
2x = 2
subtracting 8 from this
side to isolate 2x
6 8 = 2
x = 22
divide this side by 2 to
isolate x
this side must also be
divided by 2
11y = 22
isolate the y term by subtracting
28 must also be subtracted
from this side: 6 28 = 22
28 from this side 11y 22
11
= 11 this side must also be
divide this side by 11 to divided by 11
y=2
isolate y (11y 11 = y)
this is the value of y
x+4=7
work out the terms in the 4 has been subtracted from
x=3
parentheses: 2 2 = 4 the other side of the equation,
so it must also be subtracted
subtract 4 from this side to isolate x
from this side: 7 4 = 3
y=3+x
divide both sides of
equation by 3 to isolate y
3y 3 = y 93=3 3x 3 = x
Find the corresponding x and y values for Find the corresponding x and y values for
the rearranged first equation using a table. the rearranged second equation using a table.
Choose a set of x values that are close to zero, Choose the same set of x values as for the other
then work out the y values using a table. table, then use the table to work out the y values.
LOOKING CLOSER
Draw a set of axes, then plot the two sets of x and Unsolvable simultaneous equations
y values. Join each set of points with a straight line,
continuing the line past where the points lie. If the Sometimes a pair of simultaneous
y
pair of simultaneous equations has a solution, then equations does not have a solution.
the two lines will cross. For example, the graphs of the
two equations x + y = 1 and x + y =2
x + y = 2 are always equidistant from
each other (parallel) and, because
y they do not intersect, there is no
x
11
10
point of intersection
4 represents solution to pair of
simultaneous equations
3
this is the graph of the
equation y = 7 2x, which is
2 the rearranged form of the
rst equation: 2x + y = 7
0
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
LOOKING CLOSER
a sum of +3
b term (3) c term (1) Factors of +1 Sum of factors is needed as
both sets of
x 2 + 3x + 1 = 0 1, 1 2 the b term is 3
numbers multiply
together to give 1, 1 2
c (1)
The equation above is a typical Listing all the possible factors and their sums
quadratic equation, but cannot in a table shows that there is no set of factors
be solved by factorizing. that add to b (3), and multiply to give c (1).
SEE ALSO
190191 Factorizing
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS CAN BE SOLVED USING A FORMULA. quadratic equations
Quadratic
graphs 194197
The quadratic formula
The quadratic formula can be used to solve any quadratic equation. Quadratic equations
take the form ax + bx + c = 0, where a, b, and c are numbers and x is the unknown.
number that number that number with
A quadratic equation multiplies x multiplies x no x terms
LOOK CLOSER
Quadratic equations
include a number Quadratic variations
multiplied by x , a ax+ bx + c = 0
number multplied by x, Quadratic equations are not always the same. They can
and a number by itself. include negative terms or terms with no numbers in front of
them (x is the same as 1x), and do not always equal 0.
2
Add the two values on Subtract the second
the top part of the x = 3 + 4.12 value on the top part of x = 3 4.12
fraction; here the values the fraction from the first
are 3 and 4.12. value; here the values are
2 3 and 4.12.
2
3 4.12 = 7.12
2 2
quadratic equations always
Give both answers, have two solutions
because quadratic
equations always have
two solutions.
x = 0.56 x = 3.56
194 ALGEBRA
x y x x2 3x +2 y x x2 3x +2 y
3 3 9 9 2 3 9 9 2 2
2 2 4 6 2 2 4 6 2 0
1 1 1 3 2 1 1 3 2 0
0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 2
1 1 1 3 2 1 1 3 2 6
2 2 4 6 2 2 4 6 2 12
3 3 9 9 2 3 9 9 2 20
y is the sum of numbers
in each purple row
Values of x Different parts of the equation
+ + =
The value of y depends on the Each quadratic equation has 3 different Corresponding values of y
value of x, so choose a set of x partsa squared x value, a multiplied x value, Add the three parts of the equation together
values and then find the and an ordinary number. Work out the different to find the corresponding values of y for each
corresponding values of y. values of each part of the equation for each x value, making sure to pay attention to when
Choose x values either side of 0 value of x, being careful to pay attention to the different parts of the equation are positive
as they are easiest to work with. when the numbers are positive or negative. or negative.
Q U A D R AT I C G R A P H S 195
Draw the graph of the equation. Use the values of x and
y that have been found in the table as the coordinates of
points on the graph. For example, x = 1 has the corresponding
value y = 6. This becomes the point on the graph with the
coordinates (1, 6).
y
point plotted
from table
20
line continues
draw smooth line past the points
connecting plotted points 15 plotted
line continues
Join the points past the points
Draw a smooth line to plotted
join the points plotted on 10
the graph. This line is the
graph of the equation
y = x + 3x + 2. Bigger and 5
smaller values of x could
have been chosen, so
x
the line continues past 0
the values that have 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3
been plotted.
LOOKING CLOSER
x 2x + 3 = 5
quadratic equation on the left and a
linear equation on the right. To find the
solutions to this equation, draw the
quadratic and linear graphs on the same
axes. To draw the graphs, it is necessary
y values for linear
to find sets of x and y values for both quadratic part part of equation
sides of the equation. of equation are all 5
y values for quadratic
part of equation are
dependent on value
of x y = 5
Find values of x and y for the quadratic
y = x 2x + 3 y y = 5
This graph is very
simple: whatever value
x
part of the equation using a table. Choose 0 x takes, y is always 5.
x values either side of 0 and split the This means that the
equation into parts (x, 2x, and +3). Work 5 graph is a straight
out the value of each part for each value of horizontal line that
x, then add the values of all three parts to passes through the y
find the y value for each x value. axis at 5.
work out x2 rst
then put a minus
choose some values y = x 2x + 3, so it is sign in front to work out 2x in +3 is the same for add values in each purple
of x around 0 dicult to work out the y give values this column each x value row to nd y values
values right away
x y x x 2 2x 3 y x x 2 2x 3 y
4 4 16 +8 +3 4 16 +8 +3 5
3 3 9 +6 +3 3 9 +6 +3 0
2 2 4 +4 +3 2 4 +4 +3 3
1 1 1 +2 +3 1 1 +2 +3 4
0 0 0 0 +3 0 0 0 +3 3
1 1 1 2 +3 1 1 2 +3 0
2 2 4 4 +3 2 4 4 +3 5
y is the sum of numbers
in each purple row
Values of x Different parts of the equation
+ + =
Each value of y depends on The equation has 3 different parts: x, Corresponding values of y
the value of x. Choose a 2x, and +3. Work out the values of each Finally, add the three parts of the
number of values for x, and part of the equation for each value of x, equation together to find the
work out the corresponding being careful to pay attention to whether corresponding values of y for each x
values of y. It is easiest to the values are positive or negative. The value. Make sure to pay attention to
include 0 and values of x that last part of the equation, +3, is the same whether the different parts of the
are on either side of 0. for each x value. equation are positive or negative.
Q U A D R AT I C G R A P H S 197
y
Plot the quadratic graph. First draw
a set of axes, then plot the points of 4
green line represents
the graph, using the values of x and y equation x 2x + 3 = 0 3
from the table as the coordinates of
each point. For example, when x = 4, 2
y has the value y = 5. This gives the 1
coordinates of the point (4, 5) on
x
the graph. After plotting the points, 0
draw a smooth line to join them. 5 4 3 2 1 1 1 2 3
2
3
4
5
plot x and y values 6
from the table
7
8
9
y
Then plot the linear graph. The
linear graph (y = 5) is a horizontal 4
straight line that passes through the y green line represents 3
axis at 5. The points at which the equation x 2x + 3 = 0
two lines cross are the solutions to 2
the equation x 2x +3 = 5. 1
x
0
5 4 3 2 1 1 1 2 3
2
3
solution 1 solution 2
4
second
The solutions are read off the coordinates of coordinates of rst solution solution to
graphthey are the two x values of rst solution second solution to the equation the equation
the points where the lines cross:
4 and 2.
(4, 5) and (2, 5) x = 4 x = 2
198 ALGEBRA
negative
3435 Positive and
numbers
AN INEQUALITY IS USED TO SHOW THAT ONE
QUANTITY IS NOT EQUAL TO ANOTHER.
expressions Working with
172173
180181 Solving
equations
Inequality symbols
An inequality symbol shows that the numbers on either side of
it are dierent in size and how they are dierent. There are ve
main inequality symbols. One simply shows that two numbers
are not equal, the others show in what way they are not equal.
xy Not equal to
This sign shows that x
is not equal to y; for
example, 3 4.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
LOOKING CLOSER
+4 x+4<0 3 3p > 9
x < 4 sign stays
the same p<3 sign is
reversed
2 x 2 < 6 1 p > 3
2 subtracted
Adding and subtracting from both
Multiplying or dividing by a negative number
When an inequality has a number sides of sign When an inequality is multiplied or divided by a
added to or subtracted from it, its negative number, its sign is reversed. In this example,
sign does not change. a less than sign becomes a greater than sign.
INEQUALITIES 199
Solving inequalities
Inequalities can be solved by rearranging them, but anything that is done to one side of
the inequality must also be done to the other. For example, any number added to cancel
a numerical term from one side must be added to the numerical term on the other side.
6 3 = 2 3x 3 = x 63=2
3x 3 = x
What is statistics?
STATISTICS IS THE COLLECTION, ORGANIZATION, AND group number
PROCESSING OF DATA. Female teachers 10
Organizing and analyzing data helps make large quantities of Male teachers 5
information easier to understand. Graphs and other visual charts Female students 66
present information in a way that is instantly understandable. Male students 19
Total people 100
Working with data Collecting data
Data is information, and it is everywhere, in enormous quantities. When data is Once data has been collected, it must
collected, for example from a questionnaire, it often forms long lists that are hard be organized into groups before it can be
to understand. It can be made easier to understand if the data is reorganized into effectively analyzed. A table is the usual
tables, and even more accessible by taking the table and plotting its information way to do this. This table shows the
as a graph or circle graph. Graphs show trends clearly, making the data much different groups of people in a school.
easier to analyze. Circle graphs present data in an instantly accessible way,
allowing the relative sizes of groups to be seen immediately.
ALE
F FEMCHERS
STUEMALE TEA
DEN
66
TS
10
MAL
TEA E
CHE
5 R S
Set of data
A set of data can be drawn up from almost
anywhere. This image shows the members
of a school. There are 10 female teachers, 5
male teachers, 66 female students, and 19
LE male students. This information can be put
MA DENTS into a table (see top right), and can then be
STU plotted as a graph, or shown as a circle graph,
FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
6 6
Group 2 8
4 4
Group 3 6
2 2
Group 4 4
0 0
Group 5 5
DATA GROUP DATA GROUP
6 6 width of block
shows size of
data group
4 shape of line 4
shows trend
2 2
0 0
1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29
Collecting data
A common way of collecting
Beverage questionnaire
information is in a survey. A This questionnaire is being used to find out what
selection of people are asked childrens favorite soft drinks are. Put a cross in the
about their preferences, box that relates to you.
habits, or opinions, often
in the form of a questionnaire. 1) Are you a boy or a girl?
The answers they give, which
is the raw data, can then
be organized into tables
x boy girl
and diagrams.
information from
pineapple juice orange juice
x apple juice
these answers is
collected as lists of data
milk cola other
once a week
or less x 23 times
a week
35 times
a week
over 5 times
Questionnaire
a week
Questionnaires often take the
form of a series of multiple
choice questions. The replies
to each question are then 4) Where is you favorite drink usually bought from?
easy to sort into groups of
data. In this example, the
data would be grouped by
supermarket
x deli other
man questioned
in survey
Seismometer
A seismometer
records movements
supporters
of the ground that
of blue team
are associated with
Football fan earthquakes. The
If asked whether the blue or red collected data is
team is better, a blue supporter analyzed to find
would probably answer blue. This patterns that may
would be regardless of whether the predict future
reds had proved their superiority. earthquakes.
206 S TAT I S T I C S
This frequency table To draw a bar graph, first choose a suitable scale for your
shows the groups of data data. Then draw a vertical line for the y axis and a horizontal
and the size (frequency) of line for the x axis. Label each axis according to the columns
each group in a data set. of the table, and mark with the data from the table.
Ages of
visitors Frequency y axis shows information from
frequency column of table
under 15 3
35
1519 12
choose range according
2024 26 to values in tablein this
FREQUENCY NUMBER OF PEOPLE WHO VISIT THE GYM
values of
frequency in 20
age groups in this column
this column y axis shows continuous
are marked dataall the values
are marked on vertical
on horizontal 15 between 0 and 35
y axis
x axis
10
each age group is
represented by 15 small
5 squares on x axis x axis shows information
draw mark between from ages column of table
each age group on x axis
0
under 15 1519 2024 2529 3034 over 35
mark the point where
y and x axis meet with 0 AGES OF VISITORS
BAR GRAPHS 207
0
under 15 1519 2024 2529 3034 over 35
AGES OF VISITORS
15
10
0
under 15 1519 2024 2529 3034 over 35
AGES OF VISITORS
208 S TAT I S T I C S
Computer
games length of bars
shows frequency
of data
vertical y axis shows
Music
groups of data largest frequency
value is 45, so scale
Collecting of 050 is suitable
0 10 20 30 40 50
on x axis, 15 small horizontal x axis
squares represent FREQUENCY NUMBER OF CHILDREN shows frequency
10 children of each group
Three-dimensional
bar graph FAVORITE HOBBIES
The three-dimensional
50
blocks in this type of bar
graph give it more visual
impact, but can make it
FREQUENCY NUMBER OF CHILDREN
40
misleading. Because of the bars drawn in 3-D
perspective, the tops of the are more striking but
blocks appear to show two 30
less accurate
values for frequencythe
true value is read from the
front edge of the block. 20
10
number of children in
each group is dicult
to nd quickly
0
Reading Sports Computer games Music Collecting
HOBBY
BAR GRAPHS 209
Compound and Hobby Boys Girls Total frequency
composite bar graphs Table of data
Reading 10 15 25
For data divided into sub-groups, This data table shows
compound or composite bar graphs can Sports 25 20 45
the results of the
be used. In a compound bar graph, bars Computer games 20 10 30 survey on childrens
for each sub-group of data are drawn side Music 10 9 19 hobbies divided into
by side. In a composite bar graph, two separate figures for
sub-groups are combined into one bar. Collecting 5 10 15 boys and girls.
FAVORITE HOBBIES OF BOYS AND GIRLS FAVORITE HOBBIES OF BOYS AND GIRLS
sports is most popular
sports is most 50 hobby overall
30 popular hobby
among boys
0 0
Reading Sports Computer Music Collecting Reading Sports Computer Music Collecting
games games
HOBBY HOBBY
25
marks must be on
20 exact midpoints
15 of groups
10
5
Drawing a frequency polygon 0
Mark the frequency value at the midpoint under 15 1519 2024 2529 3034 3539 over 40
of each group of data, in this case, the middle of AGE
each age range. Join the marks with straight lines.
210 S TAT I S T I C S
8485 Angles
PIE CHARTS ARE A USEFUL VISUAL WAY TO PRESENT DATA. 204205 Arcs
150151 and Sectors
Collecting
organizing data
and
A pie chart shows data as a circle divided into segments, or slices, with
each slice representing a different part of the data.
206209 Bar graphs
Why use a pie chart?
Pie charts are often used to present data because Reading a pie chart
they have an immediate visual impact. The size of When a pie chart is divided into slices, it is
each slice of the pie clearly shows the relative sizes easy to understand the information. It is
of dierent groups of data, which makes the clear in this example that the red section
comparison of data quick and easy. represents the largest group of data.
Frequency table
Identifying data Country of Frequency
The table shows the number of
origin of data
To get the information necessary to hits on a website, split into the
calculate the size, or angle, of each slice United Kingdom 375 countries where they occurred.
of a pie chart, a table of data known
as a frequency table is created. This United States 250 frequency of data is
broken down country
identies the dierent groups of data, Australia 125 by country
and shows both their size (frequency of
data) and the size of all of the groups of Canada 50 United
data together (total frequency). China 50
data from each country
Kingdom
Calculating the angles Unknown 150 is used to calculate size
To find the angle for each slice of the
TOTAL FREQUENCY 1,000
of each slice 135
pie chart, take the information in the
frequency table and use it in this formula.
total frequency is total
number of website hits
frequency of data from all countries
angle = 360
total frequency
The angles for the remaining slices are calculated in the same
way, taking the data for each country from the frequency table
and using the formula. The angles of all the slices of the pie Canada = 50 360 = 18
should add up to 360the total number of degrees in a circle. 1,000
First, draw a circle using Draw a straight line Measure the angle of
a compass (see from the center point a slice from the center
pp.8283). of the circle to the and straight line. Mark
circumference (edge it on the edge of the
of the circle). circle. Draw a line from
the center to this mark.
United
States Finished pie chart
90 After drawing each slice on
the circle, the pie chart
can be labeled and color
coded, as necessary. The
angles add up to 360,
so all of the slices fit
into the circle exactly.
LOOKING CLOSER
182185 Linear
graphs
LINE GRAPHS SHOW DATA AS LINES ON A SET OF AXES.
204205 Collecting and
organizing data
Line graphs are a way of accurately presenting information in an easy-to-read
form. They are particularly useful for showing data over a period of time.
Day Sunshine
(hours)
data from table is
Monday 12 12 y axis is marked with 12 plotted on graph
HOURS OF SUNSHINE
HOURS OF SUNSHINE
10 hours of sunshine 10
Tuesday 9
8 8
Wednesday 10 6 6
x axis is marked with
Thursday 4 4 days of the week 4
Friday 5 2 2
0 0
Saturday 8 Mon Tue Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun Mon Tue Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun
Sunday 11 DAY DAY
The columns of the table Draw a set of axes. Label the Read up the y axis from
provide the information for x axis with data from the first Monday on the x axis and mark
the horizontal and vertical column of the table (days). the first value. Do this for each
linesthe x and y axes. Label the y axis with data from day, reading up from the x axis
the second (hours of sunshine). and across from the y axis.
0
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
DAY
LINE GRAPHS 213
15
10
to nd temperature
reading graph here gives
at 14.00, draw vertical
temperature at 02.00,
line to graph line from
5 which is 12C
14.00 on x axis
0
00.00 04.00 08.00 12.00 16.00 20.00 24.00
TIME
spread 220223
Different types of averages
There are several dierent types of average. The main ones
are called the mean, the median, and the mode. Each one
gives slightly dierent information about the data. In
150, 160, 170, 180, 180
everyday life, the term average usually refers to the mean. working out averages often requires
this color represents mode listing a set of data arranged in
because it appears most often ascending order
The mode
The mode is the value that appears most The mode color
frequently in a set of data. It is easier to nd the The set of data in this
example is a series of
mode if you put the data list into an ascending
colored figures. The
order of values (from lowest to highest). If
pink people appear the
dierent values appear the same number of
most often, so pink is
times, there may be more than one mode. the mode value.
150, 160, 170, 180, 180 180 occurs twice in this list, more often
than any other value, so it is the mode,
or most frequent, value
Average heights this person is 170 cm tall; this person is one of two people
The heights of this 170 cm is the median who are 180 cm tall; 180 cm is
group of people can (middle value in the list) therefore the mode value
be arranged as a list mode the value that appears most often in the list
of data. From this
list, the different
median the middle value of the list
types of average can mean the sum of the values divided
be foundmean, by the number of values in the list (168 cm) this person is
median, and mode. 160 cm tall,
shortest shorter than
person is average
150 cm tall
AV E R AG E S 215
The mean
The mean is the sum of all the values in a set of data divided Sum total of values
by the number of values in the list. It is what most people Mean =
Number of values
understand by the word average. To nd the mean, a simple
formula is used.
formula to nd mean
110
100
in a list with an odd number
of values.
150, 160, 170, 180, 180
90
80 LOOKING CLOSER
70 Median of an even number of values
60 3rd value 4th value
In a list with an even number of values,
50 the median is worked out using the two
40 middle values. In a list of six values, 150, 160, 170, 180, 180, 190
these are the third and fourth values. middle values
30 median value
20 Calculating the median
10 Add the two middle values and 170 + 180 = 350 = 175
divide by two to find the median.
0 2 2
216 S TAT I S T I C S
The following marks were scored in a The following marks were scored in a An even total frequency
test and entered in a frequency table: test and entered in a frequency table: If the total frequency is even,
the median is calculated from
20, 20, 18 , 20, 18, 19 , 20 , 20, 20 18, 17 , 20 19, 19, 18 , 19 , 18 the two middle values.
Mark Frequency number of Mark Frequency 1st middle value + 2nd middle value
times each frequency Median =
mark appears 2
18 2 contains 17 1
4th value
19 1 (2 + 1 = 3) 18 3 (1 + 3 = 4) 1st middle value
frequency 2nd middle value
6 (3 + 6 = 9) median frequency
20
(entry contains
5th value in list)
contains
5th value
19 3 (4 + 3 = 7)
18 + 19 = 18.5
9 20 1 (7 + 1 = 8)
median total frequency
total frequency
8
2 median
mark
Because the total frequency of 9 is odd, to find the The total frequency of 8 is The two middle values (4th and 5th)
median first add 1 to it and then divide it by 2. This makes even (8), so there are two middle represent the marks 18 and 19
5, meaning that the 5th value is the median. Count down values (4th and 5th). Count down respectively. The median is the mean of
the frequency column adding the values until reaching the frequency column adding these two marks, so add them together
the row containing the 5th value. The median mark is 20. values to find them. and divide by 2. The median mark is 18.5.
16 , 18 , 20 , 19 , 17 , 19 , 18 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 16 , 19 total marks
18 3 18 3 18 3 = 54 total marks
19 4 19 4 19 4 = 76
20 1 20 1 20 1 = 20 216 12 = 18
12 216 total frequency mean mark
Grouped data is data that has been collected into groups of Weighted mean
values, rather than appearing as specic or individual values. If
a frequency table shows grouped data, there is not enough If some individual values within
Students 15 20 22
information to calculate the sum of values, so only an grouped data contribute more in group
estimated value for the mean can be found. to the mean than other
individual values in the group, Mean exam
estimated average total frequency mark 18 17 13
size of data midpoint value
a weighted mean results.
To find the midpoint of a set of Multiply the midpoint by the frequency for Dividing the total frequency midpoint by
data, add the upper and lower each group and enter this in a new column. the total frequency gives the estimated mean
values and divide the answer by Add the results to find the total frequency mark. It is an estimated value as the exact
2. For example, the midpoint in multiplied by the midpoint. marks scored are not known only a range
the 9099 mark group is 94.5. has been given in each group.
LOOKING CLOSER
Average for quarters 25 Average for quarters 36 Average for quarters 47 Average for quarters 58
Calculate the mean of the Calculate the mean of the figures Calculate the mean of the Find the mean for quarters
figures for quarters 25 and for quarters 36 and mark it at figures for quarters 47 and 58, mark it on the graph,
mark it at the quarters midpoint. the quarters midpoint. mark it at the quarters midpoint. and join all of the marks.
3.75 + 4.25 + 2.5 + 1.5 = 12 4.25 + 2.5 + 1.5 + 4.75 = 13 2.5 + 1.5 + 4.75 + 5 = 13.75 1.5 + 4.75 + 5 + 2.75 = 14
sum of sales gures sum of sales gures sum of sales gures for sum of sales gures
for quarters 25 for quarters 36 quarters 47 for quarters 58
mean value mean value mean value
3RD QUARTER 4TH QUARTER 5TH QUARTER 6TH QUARTER 7TH QUARTER 8TH QUARTER
YEAR TWO
220 S TAT I S T I C S
Ed: 10, 47, 60, 65, 77, 81, 90, 95 To calculate the range of each students
marks, subtract the lowest figure from
the highest in each set. Eds lowest mark
is 10, and highest 95, so his range is 85.
Bella: 60, 61, 64, 65, 65, 68, 70, 72 Bellas lowest mark is 60, and highest 72,
giving a range of 12.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Bella
Measure-of-spread diagram
When the ranges are shown in a diagram, it is easy
to see that Eds marks are distributed over a much lowest mark highest mark
length of pink
wider range than Bellas. bar is the range
MEASURING SPREAD 221
Stem-and-leaf diagrams
Another way of showing data is in stem-and-leaf diagrams. These give a clearer picture of the way
the data is distributed within the range than a simple measure-of-spread diagram.
the list of
data that
has 1 as its
rst digit
1 2 2 4 5 8
2 1 2 2 4 5 7 34 appears 3 times
3 0 3 4 4 4 5 7 9
there is no
data of 60
or more 4 2 3 3 5 8 9 there is most data
in the middle of
the range
QUARTILES
Quartiles are dividing points in the range of a set of data that give a clear picture of distribution.
The median marks the center point, the upper quartile marks the midpoint between the median and
the top of the distribution, and the lower quartile the midpoint between the median and the bottom.
Estimates of quartiles can be found from a graph, or calculated precisely using formulas.
Estimating quartiles 30
Quartiles can be estimated by reading
values from a cumulative frequency graph
(see p.213).
25
Make a table with the data given for range
and frequency, and add up the cumulative
frequency. Use this data to make a cumulative
frequency graph, with cumulative frequency on
the y axis, and range on the x axis. 20 read down from
here to nd the
estimated value of
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY
Range Frequency Cumulative frequency the upper quartile
read down from here to nd the
3039 2 2 estimated value of the median
15
4049 3 5 (= 2+3)
5059 4 9 (= 2+3+4)
read down from here to
6069 6 15 (= 2+3+4+6) 10 nd the estimated value
7079 5 20 (= 2+3+4+6+5) of the lower quartile
8089 4 24 (= 2+3+4+6+5+4)
>90 3 27 (= 2+3+4+6+5+4+3)
5
this sign means add each number to
greater than those before it to nd the median
cumulative frequency is 68
Calculating quartiles
Exact values of quartiles can be found from a list of data. These formulas give the position of the quartiles
and median in a list of data in ascending order, using the total number of data items in the list, n.
n is the total
number of values
in the list
(n + 1) (n + 1) 3 (n + 1)
4 2 4
Lower quartile Median Upper quartile
This shows the position of the This shows the position of This shows the position of the
lower quartile in a list of data. the median in a list of data. upper quartile in a list of data.
MEASURING SPREAD 223
37,38,45,47,48,51,54,54,58,60,62,63,63,65,69,71,74,75,78,78,80,84,86,89,92,94,96
Using the formulas, calculate where to find the
quartiles and the median in this list. The answers
give the position of each value in the list.
n is the total number of position of lower position of median position of upper
values in the list quartile (7th value) (14th value) quartile (21st value)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
37,38,45,47,48,51,54,54,58,60,62,63,63,65,69,71,74,75,78,78,80,84,86,89,92,94,96
LOOKING CLOSER
Box-and-whisker diagram
Box-and-whisker diagrams are a way of showing the spread and Using the diagram
distribution of a range of data in an graphic way. The range is This box-and-whisker diagram shows a
plotted on a number line, with the interquartile range between range with a lower limit of 1 and an
the upper and lower quartiles shown as a box. upper limit of 9. The median is 4, the
lower quartile 3, and the upper quartile 6.
the lower limit the boxed area is the the upper the upper limit
of the range the lower quartile the median interquartile range quartile of the range
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
224 S TAT I S T I C S
220223
spread
Measuring
What is a histogram?
A histogram is a diagram made up of blocks on a graph. Histograms are useful for showing data when
it is grouped into groups of dierent sizes. This example looks at the number of downloads of a music
le in a month (frequency) by dierent age groups. Each age group (class) is a dierent size because
each covers a dierent age range. The width of each block represents the age range, known as class
width. The height of each block represents frequency density, which is calculated by dividing the
number of downloads (frequency) in each age group (class) by the class width (age range).
y axis shows
frequency density, 1
or frequency (number
of downloads in each
age range divided
by class width
(age range) 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
30
x axis shows ages of people AGE
downloading the music le
LOOKING CLOSER
The information needed to To find class width, begin by finding the class To find frequency density,
draw a histogram is the range of boundaries of each group of data. These are the divide the frequency by
each class of data and frequency two numbers that all the values in a group fall in the class width of each group.
data. From this information, the betweenfor example, for the 1015 group they Frequency density shows
class width and frequency are 10 and 16. Next, find class width by subtracting the frequency of each group in
density can be calculated. the lower boundary from the upper for each group. proportion to its class width.
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 no one over the age of
AGE 29 downloaded the le
226 S TAT I S T I C S
Scatter diagrams SEE ALSO
Height (cm) 173 171 189 167 183 181 179 160 177 180 188 186 176
Weight (kg) 69 68 90 65 77 76 74 55 70 75 86 81 68
160
Positive correlation
The pattern of points
marked between the two
axes shows an upward
trend from left to right. An
two large squares upward trend is known as
represent 10kg data for weight in table is positive correlation. The
shown on x axis correlation between the
150 two sets of data in this
40 50 60 WEIGHT KG 70 80 90 example is that as height
increases, so does weight.
S C AT T E R D I A G R A M S 227
Negative and zero correlations
The points in a scatter diagram can form many dierent patterns, which reveal dierent types of
correlation between the sets of data. This can be positive, negative, or nonexistent. The pattern can
also reveal how strong or how weak the correlation is between the two sets of data.
Energy used (kwh) 1,000 1,200 1,300 1,400 1,450 1,550 1,650 1,700 IQ 141 127 117 150 143 111 106 135
Temperature (C) 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 Shoe size 8 10 11 6 11 10 9 7
1,600 140
1,400 130
IQ
1,200 120
1,000 110
800 100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
TEMPERATURE C) SHOE SIZE
4855 Fractions
total of all
Total chances possible events
there are 5 that can happen
Decide what the total candies, 4 are
number of possibly red and 1 is
outcomes is. In this yellow
example, with 5 candies
to pick 1 candy from, the
total is 5any one of 5
candies may be picked.
A hole in one
total number of A hole in one during a game
Chance of red candy
Of the 5 candies, 4 are
red. This means that
4 red candies that
can be chosen
total of 5
of golf is highly unlikely, so
it has a probability close to 0
on the scale. However, it can
there are 4 chances out
of 5 that the candy
chosen is red. This
5 candies to
choose from
still happen!
probability can be
written as the fraction 45.
total of 5
candy picked being yellow.
This probability can be
written as the fraction 15.
5 candies to
choose from
Identical snowflakes
Every snowflake is unique
and the chance that there
0
can be two identical
snowflakes is 0 on the scale,
or impossible.
IMPOSSIBLE UNLIKELY
Probability scale
All probabilities can be shown on a line
known as a probability scale. The more
likely something is to occur the further
LESS LIKELY
to the right, or towards 1, it is placed.
W H AT I S P R O B A B I L I T Y ? 231
Calculating probabilities
This example shows how to work out the probability of randomly picking a red candy
from a group of 10 candies. The number of ways this event could happen is put at the
top of the fraction and the total number of possible events is put at the bottom.
chance of red
number of red candies candy being
that can be chosen chosen, as fraction
3 red 3
or 0.3
10 candies 10
chance of red candy
total that can be being chosen,
chosen as decimal
Pick a candy Red randomly chosen Write as a fraction What is the chance?
There are 10 candies to One candy is chosen at There are three reds that The probability of a red
choose from. Of these, 3 are random from the 10 can be chosen, so 3 is put at candy being picked is 3
colored red. If one of the colored candies. The candy the top of the fraction. As out of 10, written as the
candies is picked, what is chosen is one of the 3 red there are ten candies in fraction 3, the decimal 0.3,
the chance of it being red? candies available. total, 10 is at the bottom. or the percentage 30%.
0.5
EVEN CHANCE
person are very high
almost 1 on the scale. Most
people are right-handed.
LIKELY
1
CERTAIN
MORE LIKELY
232 PROBABILITY
6
Expectation and reality SEE ALSO
4855 Fractions
W H AT A R E T H E C H A N C E S ?
What is expectation?
There is an equal chance of a 6-sided dice landing on any Two random phone numbers ending in same digit 1 chance in 10
number. It is expected that each of the 6 numbers on it will Randomly selected person being left-handed 1 chance in 12
be rolled once in every 6 throws (16 of the time). Similarly, if Pregnant woman giving birth to twins 1 chance in 33
a coin is tossed twice, it is expected that it will land on heads
once and tails once. However, this does not always happen An adult living to 100 1 chance in 50
in real life. A random clover having four leaves 1 chance in 10,000
Being struck by lightning in a year 1 chance in 2.5 million
A specic house being hit by a meteor 1 chance in 182 trillion
Roll a dice
Roll a dice 6 times and it
seems likely that each of
the 6 numbers on the dice
will be seen once.
Expectation
Mathematical probability
expects that, when a dice is
rolled 6 times, a 4 will be
thrown once.
Reality
Throwing a dice 6
times may create any
combination of the
numbers on a dice.
E X P E C TAT I O N A N D R E A L I T Y 233
Calculating expectation
Expectation can be calculated. This is done by expressing Numbered balls
the likelihood of something happening as a fraction, and There are 30 balls in the game
then multiplying the fraction by the number of times the and 5 are removed at random.
occurrence has the chance to happen. This example The balls are then checked for
shows how expectation can be calculated in a game winning numbersnumbers
where balls are pulled from a bucket, with numbers that end in 0 or 5.
ending in 0 or 5 winning a prize.
number of winning
6 winning balls balls in game
25 26 27 28 29 30
both parts of the chances of winning
fraction can divide by 6, ball being picked
1 2 3 4 5 6 so it can be reduced 66=1
230231 What is
probability?
THE PROBABILITY OF ONE OUTCOME FROM TWO OR MORE EVENTS 232233 Expectation
HAPPENING AT THE SAME TIME, OR ONE AFTER THE OTHER. and reality
Calculating the chance of one outcome from two things happening at the
same time is not as complex as it might appear.
coin has 2 sides dice has 6 sides
Both events coin lands on tails multiply the 2 chance of dice rolling
To find out the chances probabilities together a 4 is 1 in 6 chance of specic
of both a coin landing outcome
on tails and a dice
simultaneously rolling a 1 1 1 chance of coin
4, multiply the individual
probabilities together. = landing on tails
and rolling
a 4 is 1 in 12
The answer shows that
there is a 112 chance of
this outcome.
2 chance of coin landing
6 12 total possible
TAILS on tails is 1 in 2 outcomes
COMBINED PROBABILITIES 235
Red
Blue
6 ways out of
36 to throw 7, for
example blue
5 ways out of 36
to throw 8, for
example blue
4 ways out of 36
to throw 9, for
example blue
3 ways out of 36
to throw 10, for
example blue
5 6 7 8 9 10 dice rolling 4 and
red dice rolling 6
2 ways out of 36
to throw 11, for
example blue
6 7 8 9 10 11 dice rolling 5 and
red dice rolling 6
1 way out of
36 to throw 12
7 8 9 10 11 12
KEY
232233 Expectation
and reality
THE CHANCES OF SOMETHING HAPPENING CAN CHANGE ACCORDING
TO THE EVENTS THAT PRECEDED IT. THIS IS A DEPENDENT EVENT. there are 4 cards of each color
Color-coded
Dependent events This pack of cards
In this example, the probability of picking any one of four contains 10
green cards from a pack of 40 is 4 out of 40 (4/40). It is an groups, each with
independent event. However, the probability of the second its own color.
card picked being green depends on the color of the card There are 4 cards
picked rst. This is known as a dependent event. in each group.
total of 40 cards
in pack
there are 4 green cards green cards
12 cards chosen,
chances of next card
none pink
being pink
The first 12 cards have
been chosen, none of
which were pink. The
next card to be picked 28
12 cards
chosen means
4 The chances of the
next card being pink are
24 cards chosen,
none pink 24 cards chosen chances of next card
means 16 cards left being pink
24 cards have been
chosen and none of
which were pink. The
next card to be picked 16 4 The chances of the
next card being pink are 4
36 cards chosen,
none pink 36 cards chosen chances of next card
means 4 cards left being pink
The first 36 cards have
been chosen. None of
them were pink. The
next card to be picked 4 4 The chances of the next
card being pink are 4 in 4
cards left
238 PROBABILITY
230231 What is
probability?
TREE DIAGRAMS CAN BE CONSTRUCTED TO HELP CALCULATE THE
PROBABILITY OF MULTIPLE EVENTS OCCURRING.
234235 Combined
probabilities
236237 Dependent
events
A range of probable outcomes of future events can be shown using
arrows, or the branches of a tree, flowing from left to right.
2 |
Building a tree diagram 2 messages out of 5 5
The rst stage of building a tree diagram is Single events sent to rst phone
HELLO
to draw an arrow from the start position to Of 5 messages, 2 are
each of the possible outcomes. Here, the sent to the first
start is a cell phone, and the outcomes are phone, shown by the
5 messages sent to 2 other phones, with fraction 25, and 3 out 3 messages out of 5 |
each of these other phones at the end of
1 of 2 arrows. Because no event came
of 5 are sent to the
second phone, shown
sent to second phone 3
before, they are single events. by the fraction 35. 5
3
picks orange is
3 out of 10 chance person
7 chance person 2
picks orange
10 2 picks apple 9
3 2 = 6
7 chance person
2 picks orange
3 10 9 90
10 chance person 1 9
Dependent events
picks apple is
7 out of 10
chance person
1 picks orange or chance both
pick orange
chance person 6
The first person picks from a
bag of 10 fruits (3 oranges, 7
2 picks apple
9 1 fraction
reduced
down to
apples). The next picks from
9 fruits, when the chances of
what is picked are out of 9. person 1 chooses from 10 fruits person 2 chooses from 9 fruits
15 by dividing 6
and 90 by 6
POMPEII
1
while in Naples,
Stage 2 of multiple events
4 1 out of 4 visits Vesuvius
VESUVIUS
Stage 2 shows the chances of a Stage 3 of multiple events
randomly selected person Stage 3 shows the chances of a randomly
staying in a specific location. selected person making a specific day trip.
Reference section
Multiplication table 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
This multiplication table shows the products of 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
each whole number from 1 to 12, multiplied 2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
by each whole number from 1 to 12. 3 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36
column with other number 4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
to be multiplied, here 2
5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
1 2 3 6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
1 1 2 3 7 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84
2 2 4 6 8 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96
3 3 6 9 9 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108
10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
row with one result of multiplication 11 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 110 121 132
number to be (2 3 = 6)
multiplied, here 3 12 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144
242 REFERENCE
Units of measurement
A unit of measurement is a quantity used as a standard, allowing values of things
to be compared. These include seconds (time), meters (length), and kilograms
(mass). Two widely used systems of measurement are the metric system and
the imperial system.
MASS LENGTH
metric metric
1,000 milligrams (mg) = 1 gram (g) 10 millimeters (mm) = 1 centimeter (cm)
1,000 grams (g) = 1 kilogram (kg) 100 centimeters (cm) = 1 meter (m)
1,000 kilograms (kg) = 1 tonne (t) 1,000 millimeters (mm) = 1 meter (m)
imperial 1,000 meters (m) = 1 kilometer (km)
16 ounces (oz) = 1 pound (lb) imperial
14 pounds (lb) = 1 stone 12 inches (in) = 1 foot (ft)
112 pounds (lb) = 1 hundredweight 3 feet (ft) = 1 yard (yd)
20 hundredweight = 1 ton 1,760 yards (yd) = 1 mile
5,280 feet (ft) = 1 mile
TIME 8 furlongs = 1 mile
metric and imperial
60 seconds = 1 minute TEMPERATURE
60 minutes = 1 hour Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin
24 hours = 1 day Boiling point of water = 212 100 373
7 days = 1 week Freezing point of water = 32 0 273
52 weeks = 1 year Absolute zero = 459 273 0
1 year = 12 months
REFERENCE 243
Conversion tables
The tables below show metric and imperial equivalents for common
measurements for length, area, mass, and volume. Conversions between
Celcius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin temperature require formulas, which are
also given below.
LENGTH AREA
metric imperial metric imperial
1 millimeter (mm) = 0.03937 inch (in) 1 square centimeter (cm2) = 0.155 square inch (sq in)
1 centimeter (cm) = 0.3937 inch (in) 1 square meter (m2) = 1.196a square yard (sq yd)
1 meter (m) = 1.0936 yards (yd) 1 hectare (ha) = 2.4711 acres
1 kilometer (km) = 0.6214 mile 1 square kilometer (km2) = 0.3861 square miles
imperial metric imperial metric
1 inch (in) = 2.54 centimeters (cm) 1 square inch (sq in) = 6.4516 square centimeters (cm2)
1 foot (ft) = 0.3048 meter (m) 1 square foot (sq ft) = 0.0929 square meter (m2)
1 yard (yd) = 0.9144 meter (m) 1 square yard (sq yd) = 0.8361 square meter (m2)
1 mile = 1.6093 kilometers (km) 1 acre = 0.4047 hectare (ha)
1 nautical mile = 1.853 kilometers (km) 1 square mile = 2.59 square kilometers (km2)
MASS VOLUME
metric imperial metric imperial
1 milligram (mg) = 0.0154 grain 1 cubic centimeter (cm3) = 0.061 cubic inch (in3)
1 gram (g) = 0.0353 ounce (oz) 1 cubic decimeter (dm3) = 0.0353 cubic foot (ft3)
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2046 pounds (lb) 1 cubic meter (m3) = 1.308 cubic yard (yd3)
1 tonne/metric ton (t) = 0.9842 imperial ton 1 liter (l)/1 dm3 = 1.76 pints (pt)
imperial metric 1 hectoliter (hl)/100 l = 21.997 gallons (gal)
1 ounce (oz) = 28.35 grams (g) imperial metric
1 pound (lb) = 0.4536 kilogram (kg) 1 cubic inch (in3) = 16.387 cubic centimeters (cm3)
1 stone = 6.3503 kilogram (kg) 1 cubic foot (ft3) = 0.0283 cubic meters (m3)
1 hundredweight (cwt) = 50.802 kilogram (kg) 1 fluid ounce (fl oz) = 28.413 milliliters (ml)
1 imperial ton = 1.016 tonnes/metric tons 1 pint (pt)/20 fl oz = 0.5683 liter (l)
1 gallon/8 pt = 4.5461 liters (l)
TEMPERATURE
To convert from Fahrenheit (F) to Celsius (C) = C = (F 32) 5 9
To convert from Celsius (C) Fahrenheit (F) = F = (C 9 5) + 32
To convert from Celsius (C) to Kelvin (K) = K = C + 273
To convert from Kelvin (K) to Celsius (C) = C = K 273
How to convert
The table below shows how to convert between metric and imperial units of measurement. The left table shows
how to convert from one unit to its metric or imperial equivalent. The right table shows how to do the reverse conversion.
HOW TO CONVERT METRIC and IMPERIAL MEASURES HOW TO CONVERT METRIC and IMPERIAL MEASURES
to change to multiply by to change to divide by
acres hectares 0.4047 hectares acres 0.4047
centimeters feet 0.03281 feet centimeters 0.03281
centimeters inches 0.3937 inches centimeters 0.3937
cubic centimeters cubic inches 0.061 cubic inches cubic centimeters 0.061
cubic feet cubic meters 0.0283 cubic meters cubic feet 0.0283
cubic inches cubic centimeters 16.3871 cubic centimeters cubic inches 16.3871
cubic meters cubic feet 35.315 cubic feet cubic meters 35.315
feet centimeters 30.48 centimeters feet 30.48
feet meters 0.3048 meters feet 0.3048
gallons liters 4.546 liters gallons 4.546
grams ounces 0.0353 ounces grams 0.0353
hectares acres 2.471 acres hectares 2.471
inches centimeters 2.54 centimeters inches 2.54
kilograms pounds 2.2046 pounds kilograms 2.2046
kilometers miles 0.6214 miles kilometers 0.6214
kilometers per hour miles per hour 0.6214 miles per hour kilometers per hour 0.6214
liters gallons 0.2199 gallons liters 0.2199
liters pints 1.7598 pints liters 1.7598
meters feet 3.2808 feet meters 3.2808
meters yards 1.0936 yards meters 1.0936
meters per minute centimeters per second 1.6667 centimeters per second meters per minute 1.6667
meters per minute feet per second 0.0547 feet per second meters per minute 0.0547
miles kilometers 1.6093 kilometers miles 1.6093
miles per hour kilometers per hour 1.6093 kilometers per hour miles per hour 1.6093
miles per hour meters per second 0.447 meters per second miles per hour 0.447
millimeters inches 0.0394 inches millimeters 0.0394
ounces grams 28.3495 grams ounces 28.3495
pints liters 0.5682 liters pints 0.5682
pounds kilograms 0.4536 kilograms pounds 0.4536
square centimeters square inches 0.155 square inches square centimeters 0.155
square inches square centimeters 6.4516 square centimeters square inches 6.4516
square feet square meters 0.0929 square meters square feet 0.0929
square kilometers square miles 0.386 square miles square kilometers 0.386
square meters square feet 10.764 square feet square meters 10.764
square meters square yards 1.196 square yards square meters 1.196
square miles square kilometers 2.5899 square kilometers square miles 2.5899
square yards square meters 0.8361 square meters square yards 0.8361
tonnes (metric) tons (imperial) 0.9842 tons (imperial) tonnes (metric) 0.9842
tons (imperial) tonnes (metric) 1.0216 tonnes (metric) tons (imperial) 1.0216
yards meters 0.9144 meters yards 0.9144
REFERENCE 245
Numerical equivalents
Percentages, decimals, and fractions are dierent ways of presenting a numerical value as a proportion of a
given amount. For example, 10 percent (10) has the equivalent value of the decimal 0.1 and the fraction .
% Decimal Fraction % Decimal Fraction % Decimal Fraction % Decimal Fraction % Decimal Fraction
1 0.01 12.5 0.125 24 0.24 36 0.36 49 0.49
2 0.02 13 0.13 25 0.25 37 0.37 50 0.5
3 0.03 14 0.14 26 0.26 38 0.38 55 0.55
4 0.04 15 0.15 27 0.27 39 0.39 60 0.6
5 0.05 16 0.16 28 0.28 40 0.4 65 0.65
6 0.06 16.66 0.166 29 0.29 41 0.41 66.66 0.666
7 0.07 17 0.17 30 0.3 42 0.42 70 0.7
8 0.08 18 0.18 31 0.31 43 0.43 75 0.75
8.33 0.083 19 0.19 32 0.32 44 0.44 80 0.8
9 0.09 20 0.2 33 0.33 45 0.45 85 0.85
10 0.1 21 0.21 33.33 0.333 46 0.46 90 0.9
11 0.11 22 0.22 34 0.34 47 0.47 95 0.95
12 0.12 23 0.23 35 0.35 48 0.48 100 1.00 1
Angles
An angle shows the amount that a line turns as it extends in a direction away
from a xed point. turn is more
line rotated 45 than 180
counterclockwise
90 90 more than
90 but less
less than
than 180
90
90
180 45 0
55 120 210
360 180
center of rotation Acute angle Obtuse angle
This angle is less than 90. This angle is more than
90 but less than 180. Reflex angle
A reflex angle is more
than 180.
Sizes of angles b a arrows indicate lines AB
The size of an angle A B and CD are parallel
depends on the amount c d
of turn. A whole turn, alternate angles are those corresponding angles are those in
making one rotation on either side of a transversal the same position in relation to a
line between parallel lines, for transversal line and one of a pair of
around a circle, is 360.
example, c and e parallel lines, for example a and e
Pairs of angles
f e Lines AB and CD are
C D parallel. When parallel
g h vertical angles are those on opposite lines are crossed by a
transversal line sides of a point where two lines cross, transversal, pairs of
crosses parallel lines for example, f and h equal angles are created.
246 REFERENCE
Shapes
Two-dimensional shapes with straight lines are called polygons. They are
named according to the number of sides they have. The number of sides
is also equal to the number of interior angles. A circle has no straight lines,
so it is not a polygon although it is a two-dimensional shape.
Sequences
A sequence is a series of numbers written as an ordered list where there
is a particular pattern or rule that relates each number in the list to the
numbers before and after it. Examples of important mathematical
sequences are shown below.
square has
square has sides 5
sides 4 units long
square has
sides 3 units long Square numbers
square has
sides 2 units long In a sequence of square numbers,
square has
sides 1 units long each number is made by squaring
unit long its position in the sequence, for
example the third number is 3
(3 3 = 9) and the fourth number
is 4 (4 4 = 16).
1 (1 1) 4 (2 2) 9 (3 3) 16 (4 4) 25 (5 5)
5th number = Triangular numbers
1+2+3+4+5 In this sequence, each number is
4th number =
1+2+3+4 made by adding another row of
3rd number =
1+2+3 dots to the triangular pattern.
2nd number =
1st number of The numbers are also related
1+2
sequence = 1 mathematically, for example, the
fifth number in the sequence is
the sum of all numbers up to 5
(1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5).
1 3 6 10 15
FORMULAS
Formulas are mathematical recipes that relate various quantities or
terms, so that if the value of one is unknown, it can be worked out if
the values of the other terms in the formula are known.
Interest
There are two types of interest simple and compound. In simple interest,
the interest is paid only on the capital. In compound interest, the interest
itself earns interest.
Compound interest
amount interest number
amount saved interest number saved rate of years
formula
(capital) rate of years Simple interest To find the total value
formula of an investment (capital
To find the simple interest T + interest) after a given
Interest = P R T made after a given number
of years, substitute real
Amount = P 1 + R ) ( number of years,
substitute values
values into this formula. into this formula.
total interest total value of
after T years investment after T years
squared value of x this means add
multiplied by a number constant number or subtract
with no x terms
Formulas in algebra
Algebra is the branch of mathematics ax+ bx + c = 0 x = b + b 4ac
that uses symbols to represent
numbers and the relationship between
them. Useful formulas are the standard
x multiplied by
a number 2a
Quadratic equation The quadratic formula
formula of a quadratic equation and
Quadratic equations take the form shown This formula can be used to solve any
the formula for solving it.
above. They can be solved by using the quadratic equation. There are always
quadratic formula. two solutions.
symbol for pi
= 3.14
value to 2 decimal places
Formulas in trigonometry
Three of the most useful formulas in trigonometry are those to nd out
the unknown angles of a right triangle when two of its sides are known.
Area
The area of a shape is the amount of space inside it. Formulas for working out
the areas of common shapes are given below.
h h
r
b b
h h h
b b2 b
Pythagorean Theorem
This theorem relates the lengths of all the sides of a right triangle, so that if any
two sides are known, the length of the third side can be worked out.
c
a + b = c b
The theorem
side b In a right triangle the
square of the hypotenuse
(the largest side, c) is the
sum of the squares of the
other two sides (a and b).
a
250 REFERENCE
vertical height
slant length of cone
of cone
radius of
Cone sphere Sphere
s
radius of
cylinder
Cube
Cylinder The surface area and
The surface area and volume of a cube can
h volume of a cylinder can be found when only
r
vertical height
of pyramid
slant length of
width of rectangular pyramid
prism height of
rectangular prism s Square pyramid
h The surface area of a
Rectangular prism square pyramid can be
h The surface area and found from the slant
volume of a rectangular length and the side of its
w prism can be found from base. Its volume can be
l its length, width, and l found from its height
length of length of side of
height. base of pyramid and the side of its base.
rectangular prism
circumference (c)
diameter = 2r diameter = c
circumference = d circumference = 2r
circumference (c)
length (l)
Length of an arc
angle (x) A section of the angle (x)
circumference of a
circle is known as an arc, Area of a sector
the length can be found The area of a sector (or
when the circles radius (r) slice) of a circle can be
total circumference found when the circles
and the angle of the area and the angle of
arc are known. the sector are known.
Glossary
Acute is measured in units squared, Box-and-whisker diagram Circumference
An acute angle is an angle that is e.g. cm. A way to represent statistical data. The edge of a circle.
smaller than 90. The box is constructed from lines
Arithmetic indicating where the lower quartile, Clockwise
Addition Calculations involving median, and upper quartile A direction the same as that of a
Working out the sum of a addition, subtraction, measurements fall on a graph, clocks hand.
group of numbers. Addition is multiplication, division, and the whiskers mark the upper
represented by the + symbol, e.g. or combinations of these. and lower limits of the range. Coefficient
2 + 3 = 5. The order the numbers The number in front of a letter in
are added in does not affect the Average Brackets algebra. In the equation x 2 + 5x +
answer: 2 + 3 = 3 + 2. The typical value of a group 1. Brackets indicate the order in 6 = 0 the coefficient of 5x is 5.
of numbers. There are three which calculations must be done
Adjacent types of average: median, calculations in brackets must Common factor
A term meaning next to. In two- mode, and mean. be done first e.g. 2 x (4 +1) = 10. A common factor of two or more
dimensional shapes two sides are 2. Brackets mark a pair of numbers divides exactly into
adjacent if they are next to each Axis (plural: axes) numbers that are coordinates, each of those numbers, e.g. 3 is
other and meet at the same Reference lines used in graphs to e.g. (1, 1). a common factor of 6 and 18.
point (vertex). Two angles are define coordinates and measure 3. When a number appears
adjacent if they share a vertex distances. The horizontal axis is before a bracketed calculation it Compass
and a side. the x-axis, the vertical axis is the means that the result of that 1. A magnetic instrument that
y-axis. calculation must be multiplied shows the position of North
Algebra by that number. and allows bearings to be found.
The use of letters or symbols in Balance 2. A tool that holds a pencil in a
place of unknown numbers to Equality on every side, so Break even fixed position, allowing circles
generalize the relationship that there is no unequal In order to break even a business and arcs to be drawn.
between them. weighting, e.g. in an equation, must earn as much money as its
the left-hand side of the equals spends. At this point revenue and Composite number
Alternate angle sign must balance with the costs are equal. A number with more than two
Alternate angles are formed right-hand side. factors. A number is composite if
when two parallel lines are Calculator it is not a prime number e.g. 4 is
crossed by another straight line. Bar graph An electronic tool used to solve a composite factor as it has 1, 2,
They are the angles on the A graph where quantities are arithmetic. and 4 as factors.
opposite sides of each of the represented by rectangles (bars),
lines. Alternate angles are equal. which are the same width but Chart Concave
varying heights. A greater height An easy-to-read visual Something curving inwards. A
Angle means a greater amount. representation of data, such as polygon is concave if one of its
The amount of turn between two a graph, table, or map. interior angles is greater than 180.
lines that meet at a common point Base
(the vertex). Angles are measured The base of a shape is its bottom Chord Cone
in degrees, for example, 45. edge. The base of a three- A line that connects two different A three-dimensional object with
dimensional object is its points on a curve, often on the a circular base and a single point
Apex bottom face. circumference of a circle. at its top.
The tip of something e.g. the
vertex of a cone. Bearing Circle Congruent/congruence
A compass reading. The angle A round shape with only one Two shapes are congruent if they
Arc measured clockwise from the edge, which is a constant are both the same shape and size.
A curve that is part of the North direction to the target distance from the centre point.
circumference of a circle. direction, and given as 3 figures. Constant
Circle graph A quantity that does not change
Area Bisect A circular graph in which and so has a fixed value, e.g. in
The amount of space within a To divide into two equal halves, segments represent different the equation y = x + 2, the
two-dimensional outline. Area e.g. to bisect an angle or a line. quantities. number 2 is a constant.
GLOSSARY 253
Construction itself three times, equals the Decimal place Division/divide
The drawing of shapes in given number. A cube root is The position of the digit after the The splitting of a number into
geometry accurately, often with indicated by this sign 3 . decimal point. equal parts. Division is shown by
the aid of a compass and ruler. the symbol e.g. 12 3 = 4 or by
Cubed number Degrees / as used in fractions, e.g. 2/ 3.
Conversion Cubing a number means The unit of measurement of
The change from one set of units multiplying it by itself three an angle, represented by the Double negative
to another e.g. the conversion times e.g. 8 is a cubed number symbol . Two negative signs together
from miles into kilometers. because 2 x 2 x 2 = 8, or 23. create a double negative, which
Denominator then becomes equal to a positive
Convex Currency The number on the bottom of a e.g. 5 (2) = 5 + 2.
Something curving outwards. A A system of money within a fraction e.g. 3 is the denominator
polygon is convex if all its interior country e.g. the currency in of 2/ 3. Enlargement
angles are less than 180. the US is $. The process of making something
Density bigger, such as a transformation,
Coordinate Curve The amount of mass per where everything is multiplied by
Coordinates show the position of A line that bends smoothly. unit of volume, i.e. density = the same amount.
points on a graph or map, and A quadratic equation mass volume.
are written in the form (x,y), represented on a graph is Equal
where x is the horizontal position also a curve. Diagonal Things of the same value are equal,
and y is the vertical position. A line that joins two vertices of a shown by the equals sign, =.
Cyclic quadrilateral shape or object that are not
Correlate/correlation A shape with 4 vertices and adjacent to each other. Equation
There is a correlation between 4 edges, and where every A mathematical statement that
two things if a change in one vertex is on the circumference Diameter things are equal.
causes a change in the other. of a circle. A straight line touching two
points on the edge of a circle and Equiangular
Corresponding angles Cylinder passing through the center. A shape is equiangular if all its
Corresponding angles are A three-dimensional object with angles are equal.
formed when two parallel lines two parallel, congruent circles at Difference
are crossed by another straight opposite ends. The amount by which one Equidistant
side. They are the angles in the quantity is bigger or smaller than A point is equidistant to two or
same position i.e. on the same Data another quantity. more points if it is the same
side of each of the lines. A set of information, e.g. a distance from them.
Corresponding angles are equal. collection of numbers or Digit
measurements. A single number, e.g. 34 is made Equilateral triangle
Cosine up of the digits 3 and 4. A triangle that has three 60
In trigonometry, cosine is the Debit angles and sides of equal length.
ratio of the side adjacent to a An amount of money spent and Dimension
given angle with the hypotenuse removed from an account. The directions in which Equiprobable events
of a right triangle. measurements can be made Two events are equiprobable if
Debt e.g. a solid object has three they are equally likely to happen.
Counter clockwise An amount of money that has dimensions: its length, height,
Movement in the opposite been borrowed, and is therefore and width. Equivalent fractions
direction to that of a clocks hand. owed. Fractions that are equal but have
Direct proportion different numerators and
Cross section Decimal Two numbers are in direct denominators e.g. 1/ 2, 2/4, and 5/ 10
A two-dimensional slice of a 1. A number system based on 10 proportion if they increase or are equivalent fractions.
three-dimensional object. (using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, decrease proportionately, e.g.
7, 8, and 9). doubling one of them means the Estimation
Cube 2. A number containing a other also doubles. An approximated amount or an
A three-dimensional object decimal place. approximation the answer to a
made up of 6 identical square Distribution calculation, often made by
faces, 8 vertices, and 12 edges. Decimal point In probability and statistics, the rounding up or down.
The dot between the whole part distribution gives the range of
Cube root of a number and the fractional values unidentified random Even number
A number's cube root is the part e.g. 2.5. variables can take and their A number that is divisible by 2
number which, multiplied by probabilities. e.g. -18, -6, 0, 2.
254 GLOSSARY
Index
supplementary 85 box method of multiplication 21 arcs 150, 251
A
abacus 14
tangents 149
triangles 116, 117
brackets
calculators 72, 73
area of 14243, 151, 154,
155, 251
accuracy 71 trigonometry formulas 161, expanding expressions 174 chords 138, 139, 14647
acute-angled triangles, area 123 162, 163, 16465 break-even, finance 74, 76 circumference 140, 251
acute angles 85, 245 annotation, pie charts 211 business finance 7677 compasses 82
addition 16 answer, calculator 73 cyclic quadrilaterals 147
algebra 169 approximately equals sign 70 diameter 140, 141, 251
binary numbers 47
calculators 72
approximation 70
arcs 138, 139, 150
C
calculators 7273, 83
formulas 249
geometry 80
expressions 172 compasses 82 cosine (cos) 161, 164 loci 114
fractions 53 length of 251 exponent button 37 pie charts 210, 211
inequalities 198 sectors 151 powers 37 sectors 151
multiplication 18 area roots 37 symmetry 88
negative numbers 34 circles 138, 139, 14243, 151, sine (sin) 161, 164 tangents 148, 149
positive numbers 34 155, 249 standard form 43 circular prism 152
vectors 96 congruent triangles 120 tangent (tan) 161, 164 circumference 138, 139, 140, 251
algebra 16699, 248 conversion tables 243 calendars 28 angles in a circle 144, 145
allowance, personal finance 74 cross-sections 154 cancel key, calculators 72 arcs 150
alternate angles 87 formulas 177, 24950 cancellation chords 146
AM (ante meridiem) 32 measurement 28, 242 equations 180 cyclic quadrilaterals 147
analoge time 32 quadrilaterals 13233 expressions 173 pie charts 211
angle of rotation 100, 101 rectangles 28, 249 formulas 178 tangents 148, 149
angles 8485, 245 triangles 12224, 249 fractions 51, 64 clocks 3132, 33
45 113 arithmetic keys, calculators 72 ratios 56 codes 27
60 113 arrowheads 86 capital 75 combined probabilities 23435
90 113 averages 21415 carrying numbers 24 common denominator 5253
acute 85 frequency tables 216 Celsius temperature scale 185, ratio fractions 57
alternate 87 moving 21819 242, 243 common factors 174, 175
arcs 150 axes centimeters 28, 29 common multiples 20
bearings 108 bar graphs 206 center of a circle 138, 139 comparing ratios 56, 57
bisecting 112, 113 graphs 92, 184, 212, 213 angles in a circle 144 compass directions 108
in a circle 14445 axis of reflection 102, 103 arcs 150 compass points 108
complementary 85 axis of symmetry 89 chords 146, 147 compasses (for drawing circles) 139
congruent triangles 120, 121 pie charts 211 constructing tangents 149
constructions 110 tangents 148, 149 constructions 110
corresponding 87
cyclic quadrilaterals 147
B
balancing equations 180
center of enlargement 104,
105
drawing a pie chart 211
drawing triangles 118, 119
drawing triangles 118, 119 banks, personal finance 74, 75 center of rotation 89, 100, 101 geometry tools 82
geometry 80 bar graphs 203, 206209, 224 centuries 30 complementary angles 85
obtuse 85 base numbers 15 chance 230, 231, 234, 236, 237 component bar graphs 209
pairs of 245 bearings 80, 108109 chances composite bar graphs 209
parallel lines 87 bias 205 dependent events 236, 237 composite numbers 15, 26, 27
pie charts 210 binary numbers 4647 expectation 232 compound bar graphs 209
polygons 134, 135, 136 bisectors 112, 113 change compound interest 75
protractor 82, 83 angles 112, 113 percentages 63 compound measurement units
quadrilaterals 130, 131 perpendicular 110, 111, proportion 58 28
reflex 85 146, 147 charts 203, 205 compound shapes 143
rhombus 133 rotation 101 chords 138, 139, 14647 computer animation 118
right-angled 85, 113 borrowing, personal finance tangents 149 concave polygons 136
sectors 151 74, 75 circles 13839, 246, 251 cones 153
size of 245 box-and-whisker diagrams 223 angles in a 84, 85, 14445 surface area 157, 250
INDEX 259
Acknowledgments
BARRY LEWIS would like to thank Toby, Lara, and Emily,
for always asking why.
The publisher would like to thank the following for their kind
permission to reproduce their photographs: