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Guideline On Structural Fire Engineering Part I - Fire Scenarios and Calculation of Temperature Under Fire Struct PDF
Guideline On Structural Fire Engineering Part I - Fire Scenarios and Calculation of Temperature Under Fire Struct PDF
SEBGL OTH6
1. Introduction ..... 1
This Guideline or any part of it shall not be reproduced, copied or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or
any information storage and retrieval system, without the written permission from
Architectural Services Department. Moreover, this Guideline is intended for the internal
use of the staff in Architectural Services Department only, and should not be relied on by
any third party. No liability is therefore undertaken to any third party. While every effort
has been made to ensure the accuracy and completeness of the information contained in
this Guideline at the time of publication, no guarantee is given nor responsibility taken by
Architectural Services Department for errors or omissions in it. The information is
provided solely on the basis that readers will be responsible for making their own
assessment or interpretation of the information. Readers are advised to verify all relevant
representation, statements and information with their own professional knowledge.
Architectural Services Department accepts no liability for any use of the said information
and data or reliance placed on it (including the formulae and data). Compliance with
this Guideline does not itself confer immunity from legal obligations.
1.1 There has been a large body of work written on the subject of performance
based structural fire engineering. Unfortunately, most of this information is
scattered throughout technical journals from different countries and
organizations, and not easily accessible to the practicing engineer. The
purposes of this Guideline are therefore to provide project officers in our
Department:
b) Part II will first describe the heat transfer mechanisms from the fire to
the structural members, and the procedures to obtain the temperature
of the members during a fire. It will then focus on the structural
design of steel structure, reinforced concrete, composite structure and
timber exposed to fire, which will again be followed by design
examples.
Project officers should note that this set of Guideline only provides an
overview on analysis and design of structural elements exposed to fire, and
are therefore advised to conduct their own research on the details and
updated information. The following list the resources that may be helpful:
For private buildings, approval of fire safety designs and inspection of the
buildings upon completion are held responsible by two Government
departments Buildings Department and Fire Services Department. The
building design shall be submitted to the Buildings Department to check
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against all fire aspects for approval. As government buildings are exempted
from the Buildings Ordinance, the design of these government buildings in
theory are not necessary submitted to Buildings Department; yet, our
Department is always required to submit to Fire Services Department. The
requirements and installation of fire protection systems are monitored by the
Fire Services Department. Buildings Department has issued the following
codes governing different aspects for fire safety:
These three codes have just been replaced by the following unified code:
Fire Services Department issued the following two codes on active fire
protection system or fire services installation:
Professional Associations
There are computer softwares available that can be used to simulate fires in
buildings. Common available sofwares (some being free for use) include:
Academic Institutions
http://www.mace.manchester.ac.uk/project/research/structures/strucfire/
This site was developed under the direction of a Steering Group with
representatives from the Institution of Structural Engineers, Building
Control of the City of London, Arup Fire, the Concrete Centre, Corus,
2.1 A properly designed fire safety system of a building greatly reduces the loss
of life and property during a fire, or in the neighborhood of the building.
Nearly all building regulations and/or codes specify requirements for
buildings to be designed in such a way that they exhibit an acceptable level
of performance in the event of fire. Similar requirements have been
specified as Regulations 41(1), 41A, 41B, 41C and 41D in the Building
(Planning) Regulations and Regulation 90 of the Building (Construction)
Regulations. Over the years, Buildings Department and Fire Services
Department have issued the following codes on the performance
requirements complying the statutory requirements:
a) the Code of Practice for the Provision of Means of Escape 1996 (the
MOE Code);
b) the Code of Practice for Fire Resisting Construction 1996 (the FRC
Code);
c) the Code of Practice for Means of Access for Firefighting and Rescue
2004 (the MOA Code);
d) the Code of Practice for Minimum Fire Service Installations and
Equipment; and
e) the Code of Practice for Inspection and Testing and Maintenance of
Installations and Equipment.
2.2 The MOE Code sets out the requirements on the provisions for the
protection of buildings from the effect of fire by providing adequate means
of escape in the event of fire and other emergency. This is achieved by
recommending the assessment of population density of floor, the type of
usage, the minimum number of escape routes and their widths, the
maximum travel distance, the construction of escape routes and appropriate
signage etc. The MOA Code seeks to achieve the objective of assisting in
firefighting and in saving life of people in buildings by ensuring adequate
access for firefighting personnel in case of fire and other emergencies. This
is achieved by recommending adequate emergency vehiclur access, access
staircases, firemans lifts as well as fire fighting and rescue stairways
according to the area, use and height of buildings. The FRC Code provides
guidance on compliance with the requirements for fire resisting construction
stipulated in Part XV of the Building (Construction) Regulations. It sets out
the provisions on protection of buildings from effects of fire by inhibiting
the spread of fire and by ensuring the integrity of structural elements and the
overall stability of buildings. This is achieved by specifying a minimum fire
resistance period (or fire resistance rating in the FS Code) in accordance
Fire Resistance
Class Use Compartment Volume
Rating
1 Domestic
No limit
2 Hotel bedroom 60 mins.
2
3 Institutional Not exceeding 2500 m
4 Commercial Not exceeding 10500 m2 60 mins.
2.2 FS Code
Buildings Department has just issued the Code of Practice for Fire Safety in
Buildings 2011 (the FS Code), which consolidates and replaces the
requirements of the MOE Code (now Part B of the FS Code), the FRC Code
(now Part C of the FS Code) and the MOA Code (now Part D of the FS
Code). As the FS Code has already replaced these three codes, reference in
this set of Guideline will be based on the FS Code. The objectives of the FS
Code are:
2.3 The Code of Practice for Minimum Fire Service Installations and
Equipment and the Code of Practice for Inspection and Testing and
Maintenance of Installations and Equipment are enforced by the Fire
Services Department. The first one provides the minimum fire protection
systems required for different types of premises and the specifications for
various fire service installations and equipment for meeting the statutory
requirements. The second one is to indicate the type and nature of
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inspections and tests which installations and equipment must normally pass,
and provides guidance on administrative procedures for application and for
inspection and testing and how these systems can be appropriately
maintained and inspected throughout the building life.
the art and science of designing buildings and facilities for life safety
and property protection in the event of an unwanted fire.
3.2 There are two broad aspects in the fire engineering: fire prevention
(designed to reduce the chance of a fire occurring) and fire protection
(designed to mitigate the effects of a fire should it nevertheless occur). Fire
prevention includes eliminating or protecting possible ignition sources in
order to prevent a fire from occurring. Fire protection measures may be
passive or active. Active measures include detection and alarm, fire
extinction, and smoke control. Passive measures include structural fire
protection, layout of escape routes, fire brigade access routes, and control of
combustible materials of construction. The term fire protection
engineering therefore comprises active and passive ways of providing
satisfactory protection level to buildings and/or its contents from fires.
Figure 1 shows the role of active and passive fire protection measures
during a fire.
3.3 Structural fire engineering is a special branch within the fire protection
engineering, and addresses the specific aspects of passive fire protection in
terms of analyzing the thermal effects of fires on buildings and designing
members for adequate load bearing resistance and to control the spread of
fire. Figure 2 shows the interrelationship of fire engineering, fire protection
engineering, and structural fire engineering.
3.4 Project officers should therefore note that the term fire engineering (or
fire safety engineering) embraces all aspects of fire prevention and fire
protection. Besides predicting the performance of structural elements under
fire, it also involves the study of the means of escape, smoke control, fire
spread control, design of sprinkler, alarm, fire-fighting systems, etc.
Structural engineering design mainly concerns passive fire protection. This
Guideline will focus on the structural fire engineering, rather than on the
architectural or BS aspects.
4.1 There are two approaches for complying with the statutory requirements for
fire safety, namely: Prescriptive Provisions and Alternative Approach.
Many regulations are unduly restrictive in that they are of a type that
impose solutions rather than objectives and are out of date in
relation to technological advances. There is a danger that
compliance takes precedence over wider safety considerations.
4.2.2 The FRC Code (or the FS Code Part C), which applies to elements of
construction (including structural frame, fire barriers, fixed lights, fire doors,
fire shutters or other components, etc) specifies that one or more of the
following three criteria to be satisfied (details being specified in Table C2 of
the FS Code) in a fire:
Similar provisions have been specified in the Code of Practice for Structural
Use of Concrete 2004 (the HK Concrete Code) and Code of Practice for
Structural Use of Steel 2005 (the HK Steel Code) issued by Buildings
Department.
4.2.3 To meet the stability criterion, a building element must perform its load
bearing function and carry the applied loads for the duration of the fire
without any structural collapse. The integrity and insulation criteria are the
ability of the building element to contain a fire in order to prevent fire
spreads from the room of origin. For structural elements (including
structural frame, beam and column), stability criterion must be satisfied, and
the other criteria may be required for specific structural element. For
example, for floor slab, integrity and insulation criteria must also be
satisfied in order to prevent fore spreads through floors. Table 2 lists the
criterion or criteria to be satisfied for main types of structural elements.
4.2.4 For structural elements, Prescriptive Provisions specify the material, shape
and size, thickness of fire protection materials and construction details to be
used in order to satisfy the statutory requirements. Compliance of these
provisions is deemed to satisfy the statutory requirements laid down for fire
resisting construction for buildings in Part XV of the Building (Construction)
Regulations. The following paragraphs provides brief summary of these
provisions.
4.2.5.1 For structural steelwork, Clause 12.2 of the HK Steel Code specifies the
quantitative requirements for the insulation and stability. For insulation
(e.g. for the floor slabs), it is specified that the mean and maximum
unexposed face temperatures should not be increased by more than 140oC
and 180oC respectively above the initial value. For stability, it is specified
that it should be able to carry the load without excessive deflection.
4.2.5.2 The FS Code contains Prescriptive Provisions for the required fire
protection to structural steel by encasing the members with concrete. The
main disadvantage of such method is that encasing increases the dead
weight of the structure resulting in enlarged member sizes and foundations.
Alternate materials in the form of sprayed mineral coating, intumescent
paint and proprietary fire protection board have therefore been used.
These alternate materials are permitted as prescriptive measures, provided
that appropriate test reports on their performance can be demonstrated.
4.2.5.4 Detailed specification on the submittals, the alternate materials and the
workmanship has been included in the Clauses 15.66 15.72 of the
General Specification for Building 2007 of our Department. Project
officer are required to specify the type(s) of material and the fire resistance
ratings to suit his project.
4.2.5.5 In the choice of the appropriate type of material, project officer should note
that sprayed mineral coating is the cheapest option, and can be rapidly
applied. Sprayed mineral coating is therefore a preferred option. However
due to its undulating finish and hence aesthetically unpleasant, it is usually
preferred in surfaces which are hidden from the view (e.g. concealed
behind false ceiling). The properties of the sprayed material shall also
cope with the use of the structure. For example, where vibration or large
deflection is expected, more demanding sprayed material with higher dry
density and cohesion properties should be used. Moreover if the
environment is moist (e.g. exterior steel stair or above a swimming pool),
then the sprayed mineral coating option is not advisable, as there is the
possibility of water seeping into it (because of the porous nature of sprayed
mineral). Proprietary fire protection board is an expensive method, and
may also susceptible to the effect of moisture. Hence, its application is
also restricted to indoor steelwork with dry environment. Intumescent
fireproofing is a layer of paint which is applied along with the coating
system on the structural steel members. Intumescent coating is applied as
an intermediate coat in a coating system (primer, intermediate, and
top/finish coat). Because of the relatively low thickness of this
intumescent coating (350-700 micrometers), nice finish, and anti-corrosive
nature, intumescent coating is a preferred option when aesthetical
appearance is required. Moreover, intumescent coating is the option that
can be applied to steelwork in moist environment.
Rf Ef
where Rf is the load carrying capacity of the structural member in a fire till
the end of the required fire resistance rating; and
and Ef is required load carrying capacity by loads in the fire till the end of
the required fire resistance rating.
6.1 As stated above, one of the main reasons for the research and rapid advances
on structural fire engineering is to eliminate fire protection to steelwork.
That is, structural steel members can be unprotected, as fire protection to
steelwork can represent a significant part of the total steel structural cost and
the elimination of fire protection to steelwork therefore represents a
significant saving in construction cost to the client. Another benefit of
unprotected steel is to have more choices of architectural
finishes/appearance of the steel thus enhancing the aesthetic effects. In a
structural fire engineering study, it is therefore required to predict the
structural performance of unprotected steel members under a real fire, so
that an equivalent level of fire safety can still be maintained.
6.2 Project officers should, however, note that in a small compartment with the
usual design fire load, the fire will likely to be fully developed. In such
circumstance, it may be safely assumed that the results from a structural fire
engineering study will not eliminate the fire protection to steelwork, and
project officers are advised to adopt Prescriptive Provisions for the structural
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elements. Example 2 in Section 13 will show that the room temperature
will rise up rapidly with time in a small compartment.
6.3 Project officers should further note that roof structure is not classified as an
element of construction as briefly discussed above, and hence no
structural fire engineering study is required to eliminate fire protection to
such steelwork.
6.5 Sports stadium, indoor swimming pool, transport concourse, casino and
cinemas
For sports stadium and indoor swimming pool, fire load is low and
headroom is high, whilst in transport concourse, casino and cinema, the
headroom is high. In these venues, the resulting gas temperature in a fire is
low. The significant fire loads in sports stadium, swimming pool and
transport concourse include the seating, the air ducts or the vehicles, which
will seldom lead to flashover of a localised fire. In our Department, fire
engineering study was employed in the project of Tin Shui Wai Public
Library cum IRC, in which the structural steelwork above the swimming
pool in the IRC was left unprotected.
Similarly, for open-sided car parks, they have very high levels of ventilation
combined with a low fire load. Accordingly, UK Building Regulations 1991
(now Approved Document B Fire Safety Volume 2 issued under UK
Building Regulations 2000) allows that in open-sided car parks less than
30m high, 15 minutes fire resistance rating is normally sufficient, though no
similar provisions have been provided in the corresponding regulations in
Hong Kong. Structural fire engineering study can therefore be utilized to
find the temperature of the structural members under fire.
a) structural fire engineering was applied to study the effect of fire on the
unprotected steel trusses above the swimming pool (further details of the
study having been reported in Ho et al (2011));
b) Prescriptive Provisions by providing a 2-hour fire-resistance rating
passive protection were followed for the steel trusses above the multi-
purpose rooms; and
c) the roof steel trusses were left unprotected as they were not classified as
elements of construction.
7.2.1 Figure 7 shows a typical compartment fire before flashover phase. During
this period the fire begins as either a smoldering or flaming fire depending
on availability of oxygen for combustion. During this stage, the fire is
localised and temperature distribution inside the enclosure is highly non-
uniform. If this fire is promptly discovered and/or effective fire fighting is
activated, it can be easily controlled. Even if there is no intervention, but
the first burning item is sufficiently far away from other combustible
materials, the fire may die out due to the difficulty of igniting other
combustible materials.
7.2.3 Pre-flashover fire does have very significant influence of life safety since
toxic products of combustion can quickly give rise to untenable conditions.
This period is therefore critical for evacuation and fire-fighting. As such,
the majority of studies in fire dynamics have concentrated on the pre-
flashover fire so as to develop an understanding of the production and
spread of smoke and toxic gases. Structural engineers may consider that
pre-flashover fire does not have a significant impact on the strength and
stiffness of structural members because of the low temperature when
compared with post-flashover fire. However, being able to predict the pre-
flashover fire behaviour enables structural engineer to investigate structural
behaviour under localised fires in such buildings as car parks, stadia and
airports, where due to large spaces, flashover is not possible.
As the fire grows in size and the layer of gases develops, owing to a lack of
oxygen in the smoke layer, a large quantity of partially burnt fuel will also
accumulate in the smoke layer. Meanwhile, the burning flame will become
larger and penetrate the smoke layer. Flame spread becomes quicker when
it is aided by the partially burnt fuels in the smoke layer. The radiation from
the burning flames and the high temperature smoke layer will increase the
burning rate of the existing fire. All this will accelerate a positive burning
loop. A point will be reached when the incident radiation on the unburned
combustible materials in the enclosure becomes so high that objects distant
from the seat of the fire become ignited at almost the same time. If there is a
sufficient supply of air, this will result in full involvement of all combustible
materials in the fire. The transition from localised to fully developed fire
tends to be rapid and is known as flashover () (Figure 8).
Flashover lasts an extremely short duration, often seconds, and was held to
result in the death of a 27-year-old fireman on a fire on an industrial
building in Tsuen Wan in 2007 (China Daily, 8 September 2011) and was
reported in the fire of 20 December 2011 in Po On Building on Mongkok
Road (Ming Pao, 21 December 2011). TVB has recorded the latter flashover
in his news, and the video can be found in the following URL (accessed: 21
December 2011):
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jtDsaGgAZIc
NIST of the US Department of Commerce has also uploaded a video in the
following URL (accessed: 26 September 2011) showing the flashover in
compartment fire:
http://www.nist.gov/fire/upload/NS_multi.wmv
Another video showing flashover at a real fire is in the following URL
(accessed: 26 September 2011):
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_8btCZmrJzI&feature=related
Whether flashover will occurs and the time to flashover are both very
important for evacuation and fire-fighting, though is usually ignored in
structural fire engineering study. The conditions necessary for flashover to
occur depend on:
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1) sufficient fuel and ventilation for fire to develop to a significant size;
2) sufficient hot gases trapped in the ceiling; and
3) geometry of the room that must allow the radiant heat flux from the
hot layer to reach critical ignition levels at the level of the fuel items
During the post-flashover phase, the very high temperature and radiant heat
flux in the compartment would cause all combustible fuel to burn when
there is sufficient oxygen supplied. Large amount of combustible gases are
produced at this stage, which burns when mixed with oxygen. The fire
severity will be controlled by the rate of supply of air through openings such
as doors and windows. This is a ventilation controlled fire and in
sufficiently small compartments will result in fairly uniform temperatures at
any level within the compartment. For such ventilation controlled fire, it is
normal to witness flames burning out through the openings, as any unburnt
gases, which leave through the opening will be able to burn due to the new
supply of outside oxygen. It is only during post-flashover phase, the highest
temperature, the largest flame and the highest rate of heating occur, leading
to fire spread and direct impact upon the structural integrity of the
compartment. The structural design of member in a post-flashover phase is
therefore critical, and is the focus of structural fire engineering.
The production rate of volatile gases is decreased as the fuel content in the
compartment is depleted (typically occurs when 70% of the fuel has been
consumed), and the decay phase of the fire will then begin. During this
period the temperature in the room decreases as the fire intensity decreases.
With burning thermoplastics and liquid hydrocarbon fuels, the decay phase
can be extremely short. However, with cellulosic materials, such as wood,
which chars, the decay stage is much longer and is of primary interest when
examining the fire resistance of structural elements of a building.
Ultimately, the decay rate will be a function of the quantity and physical
arrangement of combustible contents (such as the size and shape of openings)
within the compartment, and the thermal properties of the room boundaries.
Typically, as a fire enters the decay period it begins to change from a
ventilation-controlled fire to a fuel-controlled fire.
8 Fire Modelling
8.1 The above paragraph describes the various phases of a fully developed
compartment fire. The factors influencing the temperature, magnitude, and
distribution of a fire can be summarized as follows (Petterson 1973;
Roytman 1975; Subramanian and Venugopal 1984):
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1) fire load type, density and distribution;
2) combustion behaviour of fire load;
3) compartment size and geometry;
4) ventilation conditions of compartment (especially the window opening
area);
5) thermal properties of compartment boundary;
6) thermal conductivity and diffusivity of the construction material;
7) radiation levels from both within the compartment and through the
windows.
8.2 When dealing with post-flashover fire, the ignition phase is generally
neglected, because although this stage is generally the most critical for
human life, ignition phase is assumed to be dealt with active fire fighting
measures (e.g. sprinklers), which, if effective, will suppress the fire before it
becomes a fully-developed fire (Figure 1). Upon entering the post-
flashover phase, structural fire engineering will be useful to check the
stability of the structures. The temperature distribution insider the structure
must therefore be calculated.
8.3 The temperature distribution inside the structure is usually calculated based
on the gas temperature from many alternative methods, e.g. nominal fire
curves, parametric fire curves, the zone or fluid dynamics models, using heat
transfer analysis. Table 3 lists various options for fire modelling.
Simplified and advanced models of fire may be distinguished. The first four
fire models can be considered as simple models, whereas the zone and CFD
models are advanced models.
8.5 Advanced models take into account properties of gas and the exchange of
mass and energy. Zone models are simple computer models that divide the
considered fire compartment into separate zones, where the condition in
each zone is assumed to be uniform. Two zone models exist in which the
height of the compartment is separated into two gaseous layers each with
their own temperature cycle. Three zone models exist in which there is a
mixed gas layer separating the upper and lower gas levels. Two-zone or
multi-zone models are used for pre-flashover fires. When a pre-flashover
fire develops into a post-flashover fire, and the two-zone model will become
a one-zone model. A number of zone models have been programmed and
are available via the internet. The most commonly used ones are CFAST
(available: http://www.nist.gov/) and OZONE (www.ulg.ac.be).
8.6 The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models forecast the temperature
and pressure growth in the finite elements of space in time. CFD has been
shown to be successful in the modelling of smoke movement in large spaces
and atria, and has therefore been applied to the modelling of fires. CFD
modelling is a numerical approach to representing fluids that divides a fluid
domain into small volumes and considers conservation of mass, energy etc.
within each volume. CFD analysis is suitable for very large compartments.
Software exists that can represent the very wide range of physical
phenomena known to affect fire behaviour including compartment geometry,
heat release rates of burning fuel, complex ventilation conditions, turbulent
gas flow, soot production and many others. Figure 9 shows the gas
temperature in fire compartment during fire from different models.
9. Design Fire
9.1 In order to carry out structural design under fire, the selection of a suitable
fire of assumed characteristics, which is referred to as the design fire, is
one of the most important steps in this process. A design fire is generally
considered to be a quantitative description of temperature of a fire with time
based on reasonable assumptions about the type and quantity of
combustibles, ignition method, growth of the fire and its spread from the
first item ignited to subsequent items, and the decay and extinction of the
fire.
9.2 There are two types of design fire for a compartment fire:
9.3.1 The nominal time-temperature curves are a set of curves with no physical
parameters taken into account. That is, these curves are independent of
various parameters known to affect fire intensity including fire load,
ventilation areas, building thermal properties, etc. The standard time-
temperature curves were originally derived from measurements of tests
taken early in the 20th century, and involves an ever-increasing air
temperature inside the compartment, even when all combustible fuel is used
up. The standard fire is primarily used in experimental fire tests, as
although it does not resemble a real fire, it can be replicated in a controlled
environment. By using a standard fire, manufacturers can test their building
product and find a fire resistance time that can be compared to other
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building products. Since all products are tested and exposed to the same fire
they can be compared due to the consistency in the tests.
9.3.2 Most internationally recognized codes (including the Eurocode 1 and ISO
834) contain defining equations for three distinct fire curves: standard,
external and hydrocarbon (Figure 10). The formula describing the standard
time-temperature curve for the ISO 834 fire is:
T = 345 log (8t+1) + To --- (1) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. 3.4.1)
where T is the temperature (in oC) at time t (in minutes), and To is the
ambient temperature (taken as 20 oC in Eurocode 1).
The standard fire curve represents a typical fire based upon a cellulosic fire
in which the fuel source is wood, paper, fabric, etc. This form of time-
temperature relationship has, however, a limited similarity to the
temperatures in real compartment fires, and was indeed not intended to be
representative of a real fire scenario, but instead it is an envelope that
represents maximal values of temperature during fire that may occur in
buildings. It is conservative for long duration fires, as it has no decay phase,
whereas in a real fire compartment temperature will reduce with the duration
of the decay phase. However, for shorter duration fires, particularly where
upholstered furniture and thermoplastics may be involved in a real fire, the
standard curve may be non-conservative. Such a realistic fire can be more
severe than the standard fire in the early stages of fire development, when
evacuation and rescue activities are required to be undertaken. This point
should be considered together with the trend that the wood furnishing used
in the old days have been replaced by high fuel loads from polyurethane
furniture, plastics and other synthetic materials nowadays resulting in large
and fast growing fires.
Nevertheless, although this curve does not really represent the temperature
build-up in a real fire, this has become the standard design curve used in the
furnace test of components. Most European countries have standard fire
curves similar to that in ISO 834 standard fire, and across the Atlantic, the
US and Canada also use the standard fire curve in ASTM E119 which is
similar to those in ISO 834.
Where the structure for which the fire resistance is being considered as
external, Eurocode 1 gives a similar external fire curve. This is the nominal
time-temperature curve to be used for structural members located in a faade
outside the main structure but can be exposed to external plume of a fire
coming either from the inside fire compartment, i.e. from a compartment
situated below or adjacent to the external wall. The formula describing the
external fire curve is:
T = 660(1 - 0.687e-0.32t 0.313e-3.8t)+20 --- (2) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. 3.6)
In situations where petrochemicals or plastics form a significant part of the
overall fire load, Eurocode 1 gives a hydrocarbon fire curve, representing a
fuel load of 200kW/m2. The formula describing the hydrocarbon fire curve
is:
T = 1080(1- 0.325e-0.617t 0.675e-2.5t)+20 --- (3)(Eurocode 1 Eqt. 3.7)
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The external and hydrocarbon fires are similar in shape but the hydrocarbon
fire curve has temperatures 75% higher temperature due to the higher
calorific values of petrochemicals or plastics.
9.4.1 Parametric fire model is a simple means to take into account the most
important physical factors that may influence the development of the fire.
The parameters that are required to represent the time-temperature
relationship in the model include:
1) the fire load present in compartment;
2) the ventilation condition (including ventilation area) of the
compartment;
3) compartment size; and
4) the thermal conductivity and diffusivity of the construction material.
9.4.2 However, it should be noted that the temperature in the compartment of the
model is assumed to be uniform which limits the application to post-
flashover fires. Figure 12 shows the typical behaviour of a compartment
fire with highlights at points of flashover and the decaying point, and the
parametric fire model only gives the time-temperature relationship from the
point of flashover onward.
Eurocode 1 divides the fire development of a parametric fire into two phases:
the heating phase, and the decay phase, and Figure 13 shows the typical
parametric fire curve in Eurocode 1. As only the post-flashover and decay
phases of a fire will be taken into account in the parametric fire model, the
parametric time-temperature curve obtained using in the Eurocode 1 only
describes the fully-developed phase of the fire without considering the
growth phase of the fire, although results of fire tests with ordinary
furnishings reveal that even in small fire compartments it can take some
minutes to reach the fully developed fire from the initial fire.
9.4.3 Eurocode 1 further states that the design equations for the parametric time-
temperature curve derived using the formulae in Eurocode 1 are only valid
for compartments with the following conditions:
9.4.4.1 In Eurocode 1, the design fire load for floor area, qf,d is given by:
where qf,k is characteristic fire load density per unit floor area (MJ/m2)
m is the combustion factor
q1 is the factor taking into account the fire activation risk due
to the size of the compartment (Table 4(a))
q2 is the factor taking into account the fire activation risk due
to the type of occupancy (Table 4(b))
10
and n = ni is a factor taking into account the different active
i =1
fire fighting measures i (Table 4(c)).
Table 4(c) Fire activation risk factor due to fire fighting measures
Automatic
Automatic Independent Automatic fire alarm Work Off site Safe Fire Smoke
water water supplies detection alarm transmission fire fire access fighting exhaust
extinguishing
to fire brigade brigade routes devices system
system
By By
brigade
0 1 2
heat smoke
n1 n2 n3 n4 n5 n6 n7 n8 n9 n10
0.9 or
1. 0. 1.0 or 1.0 or
0.61 0.87 0.87 or 0.73 0.87 0.61 or 0.78 1.0 or
0 7 1.5 1.5
1.5
(Source: Eurocode 1 Annex E.1)
Benzene 40
Toluene
Alcohols
Methanol
30
Ethanol
Ethyl alcohol
Fuels
Gasoline, petroleum 45
Diesel
Pure hydrocarbons plastics
Polyethylene
40
Polystyrene
Polypropylene
ABS (Plastic) 35
Polyester (plastic) 30
Other products
Hv, the calorific value or heat of combustion, is the amount of heat released
during complete combustion per unit mass of fuel. The net calorific values,
denoted by Hv (in unit MJ/kg) for a range of common fuels are shown in
Table 6.
9.4.4.3 The fire load density for total area qt,d (MJ/m2) is then obtained from the
fire load density for floor area qf,d by the following equation:
Ah i i n
heq = i =1
where Av = Ai
Av i =1
The time to reach the maximum temperature tmax determines whether the
compartment fire is ventilation controlled or fuel controlled. If the time to
reach the maximum temperature calculated is less than the tlim specified,
the fire is ventilation controlled; otherwise the fire is fuel controlled.
Eurocode 1 suggests that in case of slow fire growth rate, tlim = 25 min;
medium fire growth rate, tlim = 20 min, and fast fire growth rate, tlim = 15
min. The fire growth rate is be related to the occupancy use of the
compartment, and Table 7 gives typical examples of fire growth rate.
The time to reach maximum temperature tmax in hour is then given by:
0.2 10 3 qt ,d
tmax = max , t lim --- (9) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. A.7)
O
The equation of the heating phase of a parametric fire curve is given by:
= a scaling parameter =
(O / 0.04 )2 ;--- (18)
(b / 1160 )2
t = fire exposure time (in hr);
2
0.1 10 3 q t ,d 1160 2
lim=
0.04
and --- (19) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. A.8)
t lim b
The fire exposure time (t) is to be scaled by a parameter () to create a
parametric time factor (t*). The scaling parameter () is a function of the
relative opening factor and relative compartment thermal inertia, in
comparison with standard values of ventilation factor O = 0.04 and thermal
inertia parameter b = 1160 which combined, give a value of = 1, in
which case parametric time (t*) equals real time (t), and the temperature
growth follows the ISO 834 curve. For compartments with > 1,
temperature growth rate is greater than that of the ISO 834 standard fire.
For compartments with < 1, the temperature growth rate is slower than
that of the ISO 834 standard fire.
If O > 0.04m0.5 and qt,d < 75MJ/m2 and b < 1160J/m2s0.5K, then lim should
be further multiplied by k as given by:
O 0.04 q t ,d 75 1160 b
k= 1 + --- (20) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. A.10)
0.04 75 1160
During the cooling phase, the temperature of the parametric fire curve in
cooling phase, g is assumed to decrease linearly at one of three rates
between 625 and 250 oC hr-1, and is given by (Eurocode 1 Eqt. A.11a, 11b
and 11c):
For example, Law (1983) gave the following equation to calculate the
maximum temperature for the heating phase:1
max = 6000 (1 - e-0.l) -0.5 --- (22)
A Av
where = t and heq is the window height.
Av / heq
Law (1983) commented that this maximum temperature must be modified to
take into account of the fuel available for combustion, and can be reduced
by the following factor:
(1 - e-0.05) --- (23)
L
where = and L is the fire load (in kg wood equivalent).
Aw ( At Aw )
The time to reach maximum temperature tmax in hour is simply given by:
tmax (hr) = L/3600R (sec)
where R(in kg/s)is the rate of burning, and Law (1983) gave the following
equation to find R:
(
R= 0.18 1 e 0.036 Aw )heqW
D
--- (24)
where D and W are respectively the depth and width of the compartment.
1
Ms Margaret Law MBE is the pioneer in structural fire engineering field and her method is a
classic in the field and also forms the basis for that in Eurocodes.
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9.5 Fire in large compartments and travelling fires
9.5.1 In the previous discussion, it has been assumed that there would be uniform
temperatures at any level within the compartment. Eurocode 1 states that
the design equations for the parametric time-temperature curve are only
valid for compartments with floor area up to 500m2 and headroom up to 4m.
In addition, the enclosure must have no openings through the ceiling and the
thermal properties of the compartment linings must be within a limited
range. As a result, common architectural layout in our Department, such as
large enclosures, high ceilings, atria, large open spaces, multiple floors
connected by voids, and glass faades, are excluded from its range of
applicability.
9.5.3 Cooke (1998) conducted a series of fire tests with uniform fire loads in a
4.58.752.75m high compartment in which ventilation was provided at one
end. He found that there had been a progression of temperature within the
compartment. Peak values occurred near the source of ventilation early in
the fire and then progressed away from the opening as fuel was consumed.
Non-uniform heating across a compartment floor can cause a failure
mechanism in the structure, which may not occur if uniform temperatures
were applied to the structure. An example was quoted by Rein and Stern-
Gottfried (2011), when a cool, unheated bay in a multi-bay structure can
produce high axial restraint forces, which can result in failure of a heated
element. However, there has not yet been any suggested new approach to
deal with the design fire for structural fire engineering in such fire scenarios.
In such large compartment, probably a CFD model should be used.
9.6.1 Localised fire is the burning of an individual fire load in a localised area and
transfer the heat energy to the structural member by conduction, convection,
or radiation. Scenarios where localised fires are most likely to occur include
(IStructE 2007):
Eurocode 1 Annex C gives the procedures to predict the gas temperature for
a localised fire using fire plume models.
9.6.2 In a localised fire, it is assumed that the fire is well ventilated and fuel-
controlled similar to the fire that occurs in open space. The rate of burning
is therefore characterized by the type, amount and configuration of the fuel.
Eurocode 1 gives two methods to calculate the temperature effects of a
localised fire depending on the relative height of the flame and of the ceiling,
i.e. whether the flame impinges the ceiling or not.
For flame not impacting the ceiling (Figure 16), the flame height Lf (m) is
calculated by:
Lf = 0.0148Q0.4 1.02D --- (25) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. C.1)
where Q (W) is the heat release rate of the localised fire source, and D (m)
is the characteristic length of the fire (usually taken as the diameter of the
flame). The calculation of these two parameters (Q and D) will be
discussed in the latter paragraphs.
When the flame is not impacting the ceiling, the temperature at height z
along the symmetrical axis from the fire is given by:
2 5
= 20 + 0.25 Qc3 ( z z 0 ) 3 900 --- (26) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. C.2)
where Qc is the convective part of the rate of heat release Q and can be
taken as 0.8Q, and z0 is the virtual origin and is calculated by:
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z0 = 0.00524Q0.4 1.02D --- (27) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. C.3)
Note that the values of z0 are negative because the virtual origin is lower
than the fire source.
In case of a localised fire with the flame tip impinging on the ceiling
.
(Figure 17), the net heat flux h net (W/m2) received by the structural
elements at the level of the ceiling is given by the difference between the
.
flux received by the member h and the heat energy lost by the member to
the environment by convection and radiation,
. .
h net = h c ( m ,t 293) m ( m4 ,t 293 4 ) --- (28) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. C.9)
where m.t is the temperature of the structural member at time t;
100000 when y 0.30
.
z '+ H + r
h = 136300 121000 y when 0.30 y 1.0 and y = ;
1.7 z '+ H + Lh
150000 y when 1.0 y
--- (29) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. C.4)
r = the horizontal distance between the vertical axis of the fire and
the point along the ceiling where the thermal flux is calculated;
H = the distance between the fire source and the ceiling;
2 2
If tp is greater than the fire exposure time, i.e. heat transfer is transient or
non-steady, hk (kW/m2K) is given by:
c 0.5
hk = ( ) --- (35)
tp
If tp is less than the fire exposure time, i.e. heat transfer is steady hk
(kW/m2K) is given by:
hk = --- (36)
9.6.6 Heat Release Rate Q
11.1 External structural members can be exposed to fire through the windows or
openings of the compartment. The temperature of the external members
depends on:
a) the maximum compartment temperatures;
b) the size and temperature of flame from openings;
c) the heat transfer parameters of radiation and convection;
The direction of the fire flame from the opening can also be deflected by
wind. Eurocode 1 Annex B provides procedures for the determination of
the size and temperatures of the flames emerging from the openings to
calculate the temperature of external members located outside a
compartment. The method is based on the original derivation by Law and
OBrien (1989). The procedure is first to determine the shape of the
emerging or venting flame, then centre-line temperatures and finally heat
transfer effects to the structural members.
11.2.1 As a plume vents from an opening, its shape is affected by the enclosure's
ventilation conditions as well as the window shape. The plume often
surges out of the window, curling back to make contact with the external
wall some distance above the opening, depending on its aspect ratio. The
overall height and width of the venting flame will depend on the window
aspect ratio, as well as whether there are any horizontal or vertical
projections above or beside the window. Fire behaviour is also influenced
by the amount of air that can reach and take part in the fire. In most
common situations, the entry of air for combustion takes place through
windows from which the flames are emerging. This is called a no-
through draught (or no-forced draught) condition. If there are windows
on opposite sides of a compartment, such that a through-draught (or
forced draught) condition is possible, or if additional air is being fed to
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the fire from another source, the flames will tend to emerge from the whole
area of window. In this through- or forced- draught condition, not only
does the flame shape tend to be different, but also other relationships (e.g.
the fire temperature and the temperature distribution along the flame axis)
are found to change.
11.2.2 Law and OBrien (1989) investigated the effect of no-forced and forced-
draught conditions on flame shape and behaviour. Correlations of flame
height and width were developed for both of these ventilation conditions as
a function of compartment and window size, and burning rate. Generally,
the flame for a forced-draught condition was found to emerge from the
entire window area, its width being slightly wider than the window width
and at an upward angle. Project officers should further note that the
compartment may initially be in no-forced draught condition when some or
all windows are close; but will change to through-draught condition when
some of the windows break at elevated temperature. Such possibilities
should be considered in the structural fire engineering study.
11.2.3 The following paragraphs will be divided into two parts: forced-draught,
and no-forced draught conditions, in which the flame dimensions and the
temperature of the flame for each condition will be calculated.
The rate of burning or the rate of heat release Q (MW) is given by:
A f q f,d heq
Q = min ; 3.15 ( 1 - e - 0.036 /O )Av
F D/W
--- (40) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. B.4)
where F is free burning fire duration (which may be taken as 1200s for
free burning of most types of furniture found in buildings).
The horizontal projection of flames LH (m) with a wall existing above the
window (Figure 20(b)) is given by (Eurocode 1 Eqt. B.8, B.9 and B.10)
(43a):
LH = heq /3 if heq 1.25wt
0.54
LH = 0.3 heq (heq / wt) if heq > 1.25wt and distance to any other
window > 4wt
0.54
LH = 0.454 heq (heq /2wt) in other cases
The horizontal projection of flames LH (m) with a wall not existing above
the window (Figure 20(c)) is given by:
LH = 0.6 heq (LL/ heq)1/3 --- (43b) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. B.11)
The flame length along axis Lf (m) is given by (Eurocode 1 Eqt. B.11, B.12
and B.13) (44):
when LL > 0,
Lf = LL + heq /2 if wall exist above window or if heq 1.25wt
Lf = (LL2 + (LH - heq /3)2)1/2 + heq /2 if no wall exist above
window or if heq > 1.25wt
The flame axis is the centre-line of the venting plume, beginning at the
widow opening and extending vertically up the external wall, in the middle
of the plume as shown as the dashed line in Figure 20.
The flame temperature at the window Tw (K) is given by:
520
Tw = + To --- (45) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. B.14)
1 0.4725( L f wt / Q)
The flame temperature along the flame axis Tz (K) is given by:
Tz = (Tw - To) (1-0.4725(Lx . wt / Q)) + To --- (46) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. B.15)
where Lx is the axis length from the window to the point where the
calculation is made.
The emissivity of the flame with respect to face i of the column z,i is given
by:
z,i = 1 e 0.3i --- (48) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. B.16)
For column engulfed in flame, the value of the flame thickness i should be
taken at the level of the top of the opening (Figure 21(a)(1)).
For beam engulfed in flame, the value of the flame thickness i should be
taken at the level of the top of the opening (Figure 21(a)(2)), and a
distinction should be made between a beam that is parallel to the external
wall of the fire compartment and a beam that is perpendicular to the
external wall of the fire compartment.
The rate of burning or the rate of heat release Q (MW) is given by:
A f q f,d
Q= --- (49) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. B.18)
F
where F is free burning fire duration (which may be taken as 1200s for
free burning of most types of furniture found in buildings).
The emissivity of the flame with respect to face i of the column z,i is given
by:
z,i = 1 e 0.3i
For column engulfed in flame, the value of the flame thickness i should be
determined as follows:
a) if the level of the intersection of the flame axis and the column
centerline is below the level of the top of the opening, the value of i
shall be taken at the level of the intersection (Figure 22(b)(1));
b) otherwise, the value of i shall be taken at the level of the top of the
opening (Figure 22(b)(2)), except that if 4 < 0 at this level, the values
at the level where 4 = 0 should be used.
For beam engulfed in flame, the value of the flame thickness i should be
determined as Figure 22(c) depending on whether the beam is located
adjacent to wall.
(1) Beam nor adjacent to wall (2) Beam immediately adjacent to wall
11.5.1 Heat transfer to external steelwork can be classified to two different cases:
namely where a member is not engulfed in flame, or where a member is
engulfed in flame. A member that is not engulfed in flame receives
radiative heat transfer from all the openings in that side of the fire
compartment and from the flames projecting from all these openings,
whilst a member that is engulfed in flame can receive convective heat
transfer from the engulfing flame, plus radiative heat transfer from the
engulfing flame and from the fire compartment opening from which it
projects. As member engulfed in flame is the conservative case in the
assessment of heat transfer to external steelwork, only this case will be
discussed as follows.
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Two further cases need to be distinguished, namely: a vertical column
member, and a horizontal beam member being engulfed. For a horizontal
beam member, if the beam is parallel to the external wall of the fire
compartment, its average temperature Tm should be determined for a point
in the length of the beam directly above the centre of the opening. For the
case of the beam perpendicular to the external wall of the fire compartment,
the value of the average temperature should be determined at a series of
points every 100mm along the length of the beam. The maximum of these
values should then be adopted as the average temperature of the steel
member Tm.
The radiative heat flux from the flames Iz (kW/m2) is given by:
( I z ,1 + I z , 2 ) d1 + ( I z ,3 + I z , 4 )d 2
Iz = --- (58) (Eurocode 3 Eqt. B.18)
2( d 1 + d 2 )
and Iz,1 = C1z,1Tz4
Iz,2 = C2z,2Tz4
Iz,3 = C3z,3Tw4
Iz,4 = C4z,4Tz4
where Iz,i is the radiative heat flux from the flame to column face i;
z,i is the emissivity of the flames with respect to face i of the
column;
i is the column face indicator (1), (2), (3) or (4) (Figure 23);
and Ci is the protection coefficient of member face i.
The emissivity of the flames z,i for each of the faces (1), (2), (3) and (4)
of the column should be determined from the expression for z,i given
above.
The radiative heat flux from the flames Iz (kW/m2) is given by:
( I z ,1 + I z , 2 )d1 + ( I z ,3 + I z , 4 )d 2
Iz = --- (59) (Eurocode 3 Eqt. B.21)
2(d1 + d 2 )
where Iz,i is the radiative heat flux from the flame to beam face i;
and i is the beam face indicator (1), (2), (3) or (4) (Figure 23);
Four cases are to be distinguished to calculate Iz,1, Iz,2, Iz,3 and Iz,4.
Case1 (no forced draught with top of flame above the top of the beam):
Case 2 (no forced draught with top of flame below the top of the beam):
where Tx is the flame temperature at the flame tip (can be taken as 813K);
hz is the height of the top of the flame above the bottom of the
beam.
Case 3 (forced draught with beam parallel to the wall, but not
immediately adjacent to it, or with beam perpendicular to the wall):
Case 4 (forced draught with beam parallel to the wall and immediately
adjacent to it):
If the beam is parallel to the wall and immediately adjacent to it, only the
bottom face should be taken as engulfed in flame but one side and the top
should be taken as exposed to radiative heat transfer from the upper
surface of the flame. Thus, Eurocode 3 Eqt. B.25 (63) gives:
Iz,1 = C1z,1Tw4
Iz,2 = z,2C2z,2Tz,24
Iz,3 = z,3C3z,3(Tz,14-Tz,24)/2
and Iz,4 = 0
If the point X lies outside the radiating surface, the effective configuration
factor should be determined by adding the contributions of the two
rectangles extending from X to the farther side of the radiating surface,
then subtracting the contributions of the two rectangles extending from X
to the nearer side of the radiating surface.
After obtaining Tz, Iz, If, and c, the average temperature of the engulfed
steel column Tm (K) is given by equating the flux received by the member
with the heat energy lost by the member to the environment by convection
and radiation, i.e.
Tm4 + cTm = Iz + If + cTz --- (69) (Eurocode 3 Eqt. B.2)
where Tz (K) is the flame temperature;
Iz (kW/m2) is the radiative heat flux from the flame;
and If (kW/m2) is the radiative heat flux from the corresponding
opening.
This is an equation involving the 4th order of Tm, and in order to solve for it,
iterative method may be used. Example 6 and Example 7 in Section 13
shows how to employ the above procedures to get the temperature of a
steel member on the external faade of a compartment.
12.2 Many fire engineering experts are mainly involved in the study of the means
of escape, smoke control, fire spread control, design of sprinkler, alarm, fire-
fighting systems, etc, and may not be able to carry out structural fire
engineering study. Hence, if structural fire engineering is involved in the
fire engineering study, project officers need to specifically state in the brief
of the consultancy agreement that the consultant shall have professional(s)
with both fire engineering and structural engineering experiences so as to
carry out computational studies, such as computational fluid dynamic
analysis, fire scenarios, heat transfer modeling, structural analysis and
design at elevated temperatures to determine their structural responses
(including the adequacy of the members and the connections at elevated
temperature).
Fire load density: qf,k = 511 MJ/m2 (80% fractile value for offices)
(Table 5)
Floor area: Af = 6m6m = 36m2
Ventilation area: Av = 3.6m2m = 7.2m2
Window height: heq = 2m
Height of compartment: H = 3.4m
Fire resistance rating of the office building = 60 mins.
This example will determine the parametric fire curve for a compartment in
a library which is of relatively high fire load level. The walls, ceiling and
floor of the compartment are constructed of reinforced concrete. The walls
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have two openings in total, each of 2m (B)2m(W). A layer of plaster of 15
mm thick has been applied to all surfaces of the walls. The floor area of the
compartment is 1015m2 and the height of the compartment is 3m. The
thermal properties of the materials are:
Reinforced concrete
= 2400 kg/m3; cp = 750 J/kgK; k = 1.70 W/mK
Plaster:
= 2700 kg/m3; cp = 900 J/kgK; k = 0.48 W/mK
Area of Compartment:
For a total of 150 m2 floor area, using Table 4(a) the factor for taking into
account the fire activation risk due to size of compartment,
q1 = 1.1 + x (150 - 25) = 1.322.
The factor taking into account the fire activation risk due to the type of
occupancy, q2 is given as 0.78 (Table 4(b)).
Using Table 4(c), the factor taking into account the different active fire
fighting measures, for the provision of automatic water extinguishing system,
automatic smoke detector and excellent safe access route is:
n = n1 n4 n8 = 0.61 0.73 0.9 = 0.4
Using (7), the design fire load densities for total area is given by,
qt,d = qf,d (Af / At) = 753 (150/450) = 251 MJ/m2
Ventilation factor:
Since bplaster is less than bwall, bwall = bplaster = 1080 J/m2s0.5K, using (15),
b=
(b j (1749 2 150) + [1080 ( 450 2 150 8)]
Aj )
=
At Av 450 8
524700 + 153360
= = 1534.07 J/m2s0.5K
442
The fictitious time t* is given by t* = .t, and since the fire is ventilation
control, using (17) and (18),
(O / 0.04) 2 (0.025 / 0.04) 2
= = = 0.223
(b / 1160) 2 (1534 / 1160) 2
Using (16), the temperature of the parametric fire curve in heating phase, T
is given by,
T = 20 + 1325 (1 0.324e-0.2t* 0.204e-1.7t* 0.472e-19t*)
where t* is 0.223t (in hour)
T = Tmax 625 (t* t*max. x), where x = 1 for tmax > tlim
= 826.2 625 (0.223t 0.448) = 1106.2 139.4t
Part II of this set of Guidelines will show that the steel temperature
follows more or less the gas temperature for unprotected steel, and
hence there is no advantage from the fire engineering study.
This example will determine the parametric fire curve for a fire
compartment in an office which is of relatively low fire load level. The
walls have two openings in total, each of 2m(B)2m(D). A layer of plaster
of 15mm thick has been applied to all surfaces of the walls. The floor area
of the compartment is 2020 m2 and the height of the compartment is 2.5m.
The thermal properties of the materials are:
Reinforced concrete
= 2400 kg/m3; cp = 750 J/kgK; k = 1.70 W/mK
Plaster:
= 2700 kg/m3; cp = 900 J/kgK; k = 0.48 W/mK
Automatic water extinguishing system, automatic smoke detector and
excellent safe access route are provided. For combustion factor, m = 1.0.
Area of Compartment:
Fire load:
For the use of compartment as office, the characteristic fire load density qf,k
is 511 MJ/m2 (Table 5).
For a total of 400 m2 floor area, using Table 4(a), the factor for taking into
account the fire activation risk due to size of compartment
q1 = 1.5 + x (400 - 250) = 1.527.
Using Table 4(b), the factor taking into account the fire activation risk due
to the type of occupancy, q2 is given as 1.00.
Using Table 4(c), the factor taking into account the different active fire
fighting measures, for the provision of automatic water extinguishing system,
automatic smoke detector and excellent safe access route is:
n = n1 n4 n8 = 0.61 0.73 0.9 = 0.4
Using (7), the design fire load densities for total area is given by,
qt,d = qf,d (Af / At) = 312 (400/1000) = 125 MJ/m2
Ventilation factor:
Using (9), the time to reach maximum temperature tmax for tmin = 25 min. is
given by
0.2 10 3 q t,d 0.2 10 3 125
tmax = max , 0.416 = max , 0.416
O 0.011
= max [2.27, 0.416]= 2.27 hr
Since bplaster is less than bwall, bwall = bplaster = 1080 J/m2s0.5K, using (15),
b=
(b j
=
(1749 2 400) + [1080 (1000 2 400 8)]
Aj )
At Av 1000 8
1399200 + 207360
= = 1620 J/m2s0.5K
992
Using (16), the temperature of the parametric fire curve in heating phase T is
given by:
T = 20 + 1325 (1 0.324e-0.2t* 0.204e-1.7t* 0.472e-19t*)
where t* is 0.0388t (in hour).
For t*max < 0.5, using (21), the temperature of the parametric fire curve in
cooling phase, T is given by:
T = Tmax 625 (t* t*max. x), where x = 1 for tmax > tlim
= 573 625 (0.0388t 0.0881) = 628 24.25t
This example shows the case where the fire cannot reach the ceiling of the
floor.
Using Table 9, the rate of heat release of the fire of a wastepaper basket is:
Q = 0.018 MW
Using Table 7, a heat release rate density of 250kW/m2 is used for office.
The area of the fire surface required to release a power of 0.018MW is thus
given by:
Afire = 0.018/0.25 = 0.072 m2
Assuming a circular shape of the fire yields a diameter, using (39),
D = (4 0.072 / ) 0.5 = 0.303 m
Using (25), the length of the flame
Lf = 0.0148 Q0.4 1.02D = 0.0148 (0.018 106)0.4 1.02(0.303)
= 0.436 m
Using (27), virtual origin of the fire source
z0 = 0.00524 Q0.4 1.02D = 0.00524 (0.018 106)0.4 1.02(0.303)
= -0.0452 m
Using (26), temperature on the flame axis
(z) = 20 + 0.25 Qc2/3 (z-z0)-5/3
= 20 + 0.25 (0.8 0.018 106)2/3 (0.43 + 0.0452)-5/3
= 531C
In Section 9.6.5, it has been noted that the UK National Annex to Eurocode
1 specifically states that the method in Eurocode 1 is not applicable to
localised fires, and directs designers instead to refer to the method in PD
7974-1. Hence, the example of a Christmas tree in a library will be
calculated using PD 7974-1as follows:
= 593 C
The results are then checked using the computer software CFAST, which is
free for downloaded. The compartment is simulated using the data from the
above case. CFAST is a two-zone fire model that can be used to calculate
the evolving distribution of temperature throughout compartments of a
building during a fire. These can range from very small containment vessels,
on the order of 1 m3 to large spaces on the order of 1000 m3. A
compartment is divided into two control volumes, a relatively hot upper
layer and a relatively cool lower layer, each of which is internally uniform in
temperature and composition. The modelling equations used in CFAST take
the mathematical form of an initial value problem for a system of ordinary
differential equations (ODEs). These equations are derived using the
conservation of mass, the conservation of energy (equivalently the first law
of thermodynamics), the ideal gas law and relations for density and internal
energy. These equations predict as functions of time quantities such as
pressure, layer height and temperatures given the accumulation of mass and
enthalpy in the two layers. The user need to input data about the building
geometry (compartment sizes, materials of construction, and material
properties), connections between compartments (horizontal flow openings
such as doors, windows, vertical flow openings in floors and ceilings, and
mechanical ventilation connections), fire properties (fire size and species
production rates as a function of time), and specifications for detectors,
sprinklers, and targets (position, size, heat transfer characteristics). The
model of the compartment used in this example is shown as follows:
The time-temperature graph of the fire of the Christmas tree at the ceiling of
the compartment from the software is plotted as follows, and the peak
temperature is at 623C.
This example shows the case where the fire can reach the ceiling of the floor.
Consider the maximum flux received at the level of the ceiling by a
localised fire in a stack of paper. The paper weighs 10kg and the vertical
distance from the fire source to the ceiling is 2.6 m.
From Table 6 and using (6) with the net calorific value of paper is 20MJ/kg,
the total heat content
E=1020 = 200 MJ
From Table 8, take a fire growth rate between fast and medium, i.e. k =
200sMW-0.5.
Using (38), the heat release rate of the fire
2 2
3E 3 3 200 3
Q=( ) =( ) = 2.08 MW
k 200
Using Table 7, a heat release rate density of 500kW/m2 is used.
The fire surface required to release a power of 2.08MW is thus given by:
Afire = 2.08/0.5 = 4.16 m2
Assuming a circular shape of the fire yields a diameter, using (39),
D = (44.16 /) 0.5 = 2.30 m
Using (25), the length of the flame
Lf = 0.0148 (2.17106)0.4 1.02(2.30) = 2.67 m
Using (32),
QH* = Q / (1.11106 H2.5) = 2.17106/(1.111062.62.5) = 0.179
Using (30),
QD* = 2.17 106 / (1.11 106 2.302.5)= 0.231
Using (31), horizontal flame length
Lh = (2.9 H (QH*) 0.33) - H = (2.9 2.6 (0.179) 0.33) 2.6 = 1.67 m
Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD Page 71 of 87 File code : SEBGL-OTH6
Revision No. : 0 CTW/MKL/CHL/CHM/SCF
First Issue Date : December 2011 Current Issue Date : December 2011
For QD*<1.0, using (30), virtual position of the fire source
z = 2.4D (QD*2/5 - QD*2/3) = 2.4 2.30 (0.2312/5 0.2312/3)
= 1.02 m
The maximum flux occurs just above the fire source, where r = 0.
Using (29), at r = 0,
r + H + z'
y= = (2.6 + 1.02) / (1.67 + 2.6 + 1.02) = 0.684
Lh + H + z '
and for 0.30<y<1.0, the heat flux received
h = 136 121y = 136 121(0.684) = 53.2kW/m2
The maximum temperature of the steel member can be read out from the
above graph with a flux h of 53.2kW/m2 and the maximum steel
temperature of 666C.
From Table 5, the design fire load density for floor area, qf,d is 753 MJ/m2.
The resulting temperature in the steel column under steady state situation
will be calculated in this example.
Area of Compartment:
Ventilation factor:
he 2
Using (8), the ventilation factor O = Av =4 = 0.013 m0.5
At 425
Since there is a opening only in one wall and there is no core in the fire
compartment, the ratio of D/W is given by:
D/W = W2/wt = 15/2 = 7.5
For there is no opening on opposite sides of the compartment, no forced
draught ventilation is considered.
Flame Length
Using (48), the emissivity of the flames with respect to face 1 of the column
is given by:
z,1 = 1 e 0.31 = 1 e 0.3( 0.875 ) =0.231
As 1 = 3 = 3, the emissivity of the flames with respect to face 2 and face 3
of the column is as that of face 1 of the column, i.e. z,2 = z,3 = 0.231
The radiative heat flux from the flame to column face 1 is given by:
Iz,1 = C1z,1Tz4 = 1.0 (0.231) (5.67x10-8) (1080)4 = 17.82 kW/m2
The radiative heat flux from the flame to column face 2 is same as that of
column face 1 i.e. Iz,2 = 17.82 kW/m2
The radiative heat flux from the flame to column face 3 is given by:
Iz,3 = C3z,3Tw4 = 1.0 (0.231) (5.67x10-8) (1264)4 = 33.43 kW/m2
The radiative heat flux from the flame to column face 4 is given by:
Iz,4 = C4z,4Tz4 = 1.0 (0.06) (5.67x10-8) (1080)4 = 4.63 kW/m2
Face 3:
Two zones (zone 1 and 2) may be defined for face 3 of the member.
Face 1:
Face 2:
Therefore, the overall configuration factor from the window, f is given by:
Using (67), the radiative heat flux from the window is given by:
If = f f (1- az)Tf4 = 0.119(1)(1- 0.231)(5.67x10-8)(977)4
= 4.73 kW/m2
Using (69), the average temperature of the engulfed steel column is given by:
Tm4 + cTm = Iz + If + cTz
(5.67x10 )Tm4 + 10Tm = (18.43x1000) + (4.73x1000) + 10(1080)
-8
From Table 5, the design fire load densities for floor area, qf,d is 753 MJ/m2.
The temperature of the fire compartment Tf = 704 oC (977 K), which is same
as Example 6.
Flame dimension
Similarly, the emissivity of the flames with respect to face 2 of the beam is
given by:
z,2 = 1 e 0.3 = 1 e 0.3 (1.45 ) = 0.353
2
and, the emissivity of the flames with respect to face 3 of the beam is given
by:
z,3 = 1 e 0.3 = 1 e 0.3 ( 0.875 ) =0.231
3
For the top of the flame is above the level of the top of the beam, the
radiative heat flux from the flame to column face 1 is given by:
Iz,1 = C1z,1Tw4 = 1.0 (0.0723) (5.67x10-8) (1264)4
= 10.46 kW/m2
The radiative heat flux from the flame to column face 2 is given by:
Iz,2 = C2z,2Tz,24 = 1.0 (0.353) (5.67x10-8) (1004)4
= 20.34 kW/m2
The radiative heat flux from the flame to column face 3 is given by:
Iz,3 = C3z,3(Tz,14 + Tz,24) / 2
= 1.0 (0.231) (5.67x10-8) (10424 + 10044) / 2
= 14.37 kW/m2
Face 1:
Two zones, named zone 1 and 2, may be defined for face 1 of the member.
Face 2:
Two zones, named zone 1 and 2, may be defined for face 2 of the member.
Face 3:
Two zones, named zone 1 and 2. may be defined for face 3 of the member.
Therefore, the overall configuration factor from the window, f is given by:
(C1 f ,1 + C 2 f , 2 )d1 + (C3 f ,3 + C 4 f , 4 )d 2
f =
(C1 + C 2 )d1 + (C3 + C 4 )d 2
(0.216 + 0.206)(250 / 1000) + (0.1899 + 0.1899)(250 / 1000)
=
(1 + 1)(250 / 1000) + (1 + 1)(250 / 1000)
0.8018
= = 0.2
4
Using (64), the radiative heat flux from the window is given by:
If = f f (1- az)Tf4
= 0.2(1)(1- 0.451)(5.67x10-8)(977)4
= 5.67 kW/m2
Using (69), the average temperature of the engulfed steel beam is given by:
Tm4 + cTm = Iz + If + cTz
(5.67x10 )Tm4 + 10Tm = (14.89x1000) + (5.67x1000) + 10(1042)
-8
14 References
ASTM (1998), ASTM E-119: Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building
Construction and Materials (West Conshohocken: ASTM).
CIB W14 Workshop Report (1986), Design Guide: Structural Fire Safety,
Fire Safety Journal, 10(1), pp. 77-154.
Cullen, The Honourable Lord (1990), The Public Inquiry into the Piper
Alpha Disaster (London: HM Stationery Office).
Law, M and OBrien, T (1989), Fire Safety of Bare External Structural Steel
(Ascot: SCI).
NFPA (2000), National Fire Codes NFPA 92B: Guide for Smoke
Management Systems in Malls, Atria, and large Areas (Quincy, MA: NFPA)
Annex A
1
Annex A
1.2 The building is to be designed to comply with all current fire safety standards for its
intended uses. Thus, a structural fire engineering study (the Study) is now
required to demonstrate that for the structural elements in insert locations, an
overall level of fire safety which is equivalent to the prescriptive provisions of the
relevant Codes specified in Clause 6 could be achieved.
2.1 The Consultant is required to consider all limitations in the Study, and shall
complete the Study in an efficient and cost effective manner in accordance with the
programme specified and relevant Ordinances, Regulations and Codes specified in
Clause 6.
2.2 The objective of the Study is to investigate and outline options that would
demonstrate that the structural elements including connections in insert locations
would achieve an overall level of fire safety that is equivalent to the prescriptive
provisions of the relevant Codes specified in Clause 6.
2.3 The Consultant shall co-ordinate with the project team from the Architectural
Services Department (ArchSD), observe and address all physical or other constraints
for preparing the Study. It is anticipated that the preparation of the Study would
require iterative discussions and revisions between the concerned parties. The
Consultant shall also incorporate all possible changes in the architectural layouts
and/or structural plans and details during the Study.
3.1 To meet the purposes set out in Clause 2 above, the Consultant is specifically
required to :-
(i) Assess the necessity of application of passive fire protection for the structural
elements in insert locations by carrying out necessary computational studies,
such as computational fluid dynamic analysis, fire scenarios, heat transfer
modeling, structural analysis and design at elevated temperatures to determine
2
Annex A
their structural responses (including the adequacy of the members and the
connections at elevated temperature) such that the equivalent fire safety
performance can be achieved as the prescriptive provisions of the Ordinances,
Regulations and Codes in Clause 6;
(ii) Recoomend any passive fire protection, if fund necessary, for partial or full
protection to the steel trusses under the Study;
(iii) Liaise with ArchSD Statutory Compliance Checking Unit (SCCU), ArchSD
Structural Checking Unit (SCU), and if necessary, Buildings Department, and
other relevant government authorities or parties. This shall include necessary
submission of the fire engineering reports up to the approval of the above-
mentioned government authorities;
(iv) Co-ordinate with other consultants appointed by ArchSD and advise the
Project Architect, Project Structural Engineer and Project Building Services
Engineer, and other consultants on matters arising from the Study;
(v) Present the findings of the Study and/or recommendations to relevant parties;
(vi) Submit the report(s) of the Study summarizing the findings of all the proposed
or recommended fire protection systems.
3.2 The Consultant shall ensure that suitably experienced professional(s) with both
fire-engineering and structural engineering experiences are engaged to work on
the Study. A staff structure together with a Technical Proposal complying with
the requirements specified in Clause 4 shall be provided with the quotation.
Subsequent changes in key team members shall be subject to the prior consent of
the Employers Representative.
3.3 The Consultant shall review the objectives, methodology and procedures to be
adopted in this Study from time to time, and propose any changes and
improvements if necessary.
(a) A full curriculum vitae and the past experience on the Consultant
including relevant projects in similar type and size in the last 3 years and
the role involved. Any related experience similar to this Study shall also
be identified and elaborated.
(b) A list of key staff to be assigned for this Study with their individual full
3
Annex A
5. Deliverables
5.1 The Consultant shall produce the following deliverables as part of the Study to the
Employers Representative.
The Draft Final Report shall consolidate all findings of the Study and make specific
recommendations with particular reference to the specific requirements laid down in
Clause 3. The information should assist the Employers Representative in
undertaking consultation with relevant boards, advisory bodies, and authorities as
required.
The Consultant shall submit the Final Report and incorporate recommendations
from ArchSD SCCU, ArchSD SCU and, if necessary, Buildings Departments Fire
Engineering sub-committee. The Consultant shall respond to any queries having
been raised 6 months after the final submission of the Deliverables required under
the Study.
The Consultant shall, for presentation and consultation purposes, prepare suitable
visual and coloured presentation materials, photographs, slides, plans, sections,
visuals and perspective drawings and sketches with digital files illustrating the
submission proposals as required.
4
Annex A
5.5 Unless otherwise specified, the numbers of copies of reports to be submitted are as
follows :-
(a) Draft Final Report 3 copies
(b) Final Report 5 copies
(c) Soft copy of presentation/ report 3 CD-ROMs
5.7 At the conclusion of the Study, all documents including reports, technical papers
and supporting notes, presentational materials, sketches, plans, drawings,
photographs, charts for the Study and all related computer tapes/disks shall be
delivered to and shall become the property of the Hong Kong SAR Government
with full copyright.
5.8 The Consultant should draw to the attention of the Employers Representative any
Deliverables that are under licence and any pre-existing copyright or patent on any
Deliverables and any other restriction whatsoever affecting the Employers use of
the same and, if required by the Employers Representative, to establish the
existence of any licence, copyright, patent or restriction.
The following is a list of Ordinances, Regulations and Codes, but not exhaustive, to
be adopted in the Study :-