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Chapter 9 Railway Electrification PDF
Chapter 9 Railway Electrification PDF
Chapter 9 Railway Electrification PDF
RailwayElectrification
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AREMA COMMITTEE 24 - EDUCATION & TRAINING
Railway Electrification
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Chapter
C H A P T E R 9 R A I L W A Y E L E C T R I F I C A T I O N
RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION
9.1 Introduction
This chapter presents an Figure 9-1 Overhead High Speed Catenary - Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
introduction to electrification of
rail systems. It is intended to provide a historical perspective and an overview of
typical design principles, construction practice and maintenance considerations. Those
interested in learning more are invited to review AREMAs Manual for Railway
Engineering, Chapter 33, Electrical Energy Utilization, and Chapter 17, High Speed
Rail Systems, which contain sections devoted to electrification power supplies, traction
power systems studies and guidelines for the design of overhead contact systems.
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power. Horses did the work, and it was not until the steam engine was developed, first
as a stationary engine and then in the early 1800's as a locomotive, that the horse began
to be replaced. Surprisingly, this transition took another 100 years, with the last horse-
tramways being phased out by retrofitting electric traction equipment into tramcars and
streetcars in the early 1900's.
In both North America and Europe, the period from 1800 to 1900 was truly a
developmental age for railways. From its beginning in the 1800s, steam traction
expanded without serious competition. Locomotives became larger, faster and more
powerful for the next 125 years, culminating with massive machines weighing over 500
tons and capable of speed of 120 mph. However, the problem with all steam engines,
irrespective of the fuel that was used (wood, coal and later oil), is the smoke, coupled
with high maintenance costs, the frequent fueling and the need for large quantities of
water. These problems led to the eventual demise of the steam locomotive.
In the late 19th century, some early steam power was replaced by electric traction
equipment that had finally become commercially viable through the early efforts of
Werner von Siemens, Thomas Edison and others. First using batteries, but later using
stationary electric generators, electric streetcars demonstrated the practicality of electric
traction. Based on these demonstrations, mainline railways, which up until that time
were 100% reliant on steam traction, began taking an interest in electric traction. In the
period 1895 to 1900, several sections of mainline track were electrified at various
voltages from 550 volts DC to 660 volts DC. The slow development of electric
traction resulted partly from the lack of available utility power. This situation began to
be rectified when the demand for electric lighting drove a need for a public electricity
supply, necessitating the development of sizeable electricity generation plants.
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Tunnel in the 1890s. The technology greatly improved with time and was rapidly
accepted by both railway and transit operators through the early part of the 20th
century. By 1920, there were thousands of electrified track miles on both railway and
transit systems.
Starting in about 1905 there was another surge in railway electrification, using AC
power with voltages up to 11,000 volts and with conversion of some DC lines to AC.
A steady stream of electrification followed for about 25 years, by which time 38
systems existed in North America, aggregating about 7000 electrified route miles.
Although creditable, this was a relatively insignificant amount of the total United States
track mileage. Clearly the steam engine was still in supremacy. However, a new type of
locomotive using a diesel engine, that had been in development for nearly 50 years,
started to come into service.
Patented in the mid-1880s, the straight diesel engine faced a major problem that
prevented its early adoption by railways. The problem was the lack of a reliable
mechanical transmission able to handle the horsepower required for practical mainline
operations. The first diesel locomotive was a direct drive 1,000-hp built in Germany in
1913, but it only ran experimentally for a few months before being withdrawn. Also in
1913, a 75-hp diesel-electric railcar was a built in Sweden. It ran until 1939. Other
experimental diesel-electric locomotives with different horsepower ratings followed,
but it was not until 1925 when a 1200-hp mainline diesel-electric locomotive began
regular service on the German State Railways. Some of the first mainline diesel
locomotives to enter service in the United States were the Chicago, Burlington and
Quincy Railroads Pioneer Zephyr and the Union Pacific Railroads M10000 in 1934.
Subsequent developments with diesel power in the 1960s and 1970s included
locomotives that used Voith hydraulic mechanical transmissions, and diesel railcars that
used gas turbines paired with Voith hydraulic transmissions. Both of these
developments eventually reached an acceptable level of reliability, but have not been
able to supplant the electric traction motor powered from an overhead line (with or
without a transformer) or from an on-board diesel-electric generator.
The diesel-electric locomotive has advantages over both steam and straight electric
locomotives, namely lower maintenance than steam and lower capital and
maintenance-of-way costs than compared to the overhead or third rail electric
distribution systems needed by electrics. However, the diesel-electric locomotive has,
to this day, not been able to match the acceleration, high-speed, or zero-emissions
capabilities of the straight electric locomotive. But for the type of service needed, the
diesel-electric locomotive remains the preeminent player on North American railways.
This is not the case in Europe and Japan.
Many railways that adopted DC traction power stayed with it until it wore out or was
upgraded to 1500 VDC or 3000 VDC, while others changed to AC at 11,000 volts or
more. These high-voltage systems all had or have overhead contact systems.
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Electrification of the main lines grew steadily into the 1920s, but when reliable diesel-
electric locomotives became commercially available, the pace of electrification slowed
down. In many places in the United States, the electric locomotives and the associated
substations and overhead wiring were removed. Diesel-electric locomotives have their
limitations when it comes to very high-speed trains, with a typical upper speed limit of
100 110 mph. While this may be adequate for the needs of freight service, even
higher speeds are being sought for passenger service.
Although electric traction and diesel-electric traction are now the preferred traction
options, there are several choices of traction system within each option. The outcome
of the foregoing developments has produced a variety of alternative sources of motive
power for any particular need, be they for a railway or a transit line.
During the 1860's, the electric dynamo or AC generator was developed, although
electric traction motors powered by electricity would not be demonstrated until 1879,
when Werner von Siemens built the first practical electric railway for the Berlin Trades
Exhibition. The Berlin electrified line was a 600-yard long, 150V center third rail
narrow-gauge line, with a 3 horsepower (hp) locomotive. It could accommodate about
30 passengers on three cars moving at 4 mph. In 1881, the first public electric railway
in the world was opened in Lichterfelde near Berlin. The route was 1.5 miles long and
the cars ran on a 100 V supply, carrying 26 passengers at 30 mph. In 1883, the Volks
Electric Railway, a short length of track on Brighton Beach, operated as the first
electric line in England. It used a Siemens dynamo powered by a 2-hp Crossley gas
engine.
The next significant step forward in the development of electric traction was a 3-foot
gauge railway in Northern Ireland. This 6-mile line had an outside third rail to supply
the electricity, which was generated by waterpower. Electricity soon came to be seen as
a way to propel light vehicles on what, up to then, was horse-tramways. It also led to
the electrification of some lines that had been designed for cable haulage using
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stationary steam engines. These electric tramways were seen as a significantly better
choice than having steam engines in streets. The violent emissions of steam and noise
frightened the public, but more seriously, spooked horses. American tramways soon
caught the electrification bug and by 1888, 50 lines had been electrified. All the lines
used DC electric power, many using Edison's electric motors and generators.
As more powerful electric motors were developed, major railways in the United States
began taking an interest in electric traction. Based on the proven technology of the
tramways, railways entered into mainline electrification. Typically, power was supplied
at 550 to 675 VDC, usually from railway-owned generation plants, since electric utilities
had not yet been developed. However, with changing times, electricity was in demand
and a hydroelectric power plant was constructed at Niagara Falls, to be followed in
quick succession by electric generating plants in other places.
Based on work by Nickeli Tesla, who showed the practicality and demonstrated the
advantages of AC electric power generation and the development work carried out by
George Westinghouse, AC traction power was introduced. The practicality of mainline
electrification, which required more powerful locomotives and higher speeds, now
became evident. Much higher voltages could be used, thereby resulting in lower
electrical current demands. These lower currents allowed reduction in the required size
and number of electrical conductors, thus reducing the overall cost of the
electrification infrastructure.
Ultimately, some United States railways, after conducting feasibility studies using both
DC and AC scenarios, opted for the AC alternative even though the equipment had
not been entirely proven. The New Haven Railroad was one such railway.
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Commercial service commenced in 1907, but not without many serious technical
problems in every area of the power supply and the locomotives. The resulting poor
service was recognized with apologies to the public, while claiming that the steam
service that had been replaced had not been any better.
Transit operators rapidly changed from horse, cable and steam propulsion to electric
traction. By 1920, virtually every large city and many small cities boasted electrically
powered transit lines in the form of streetcar, interurban, subway and elevated railway
operations.
The balance of the 20th century was not kind to the electrified mileage in North
America. The Great Depression killed most of the planned railway electrification
extensions, with the exception of the Pennsylvania Railroads electrification from
Philadelphia to Washington, and the Reading Companys commuter electrification in
the Philadelphia area, both undertaken in the 1930's. These were the last major United
States passenger electrification projects until the 1990s, when Amtrak finally bridged
the gap between New Haven and Boston in 1999.
Since the 1970's, many countries, most notably France, Germany, Italy, Spain and
Japan (and more recently Britain, South Korea, China and Taiwan), have started to
implement passenger train operations at speeds in excess of 160 mph, using new track
alignments. In these trains, the locomotives are integrated into the design of
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permanently coupled trainsets of six to fourteen cars with driving cabs at each end.
Propulsion systems may be distributed throughout the train (so that the train is a mix
of motor and trailer cars) or located in dedicated power cars at each end of the trainset.
These types of trainsets are invariably straight electrics, which operate under high-
voltage overhead contact wire systems. The alternative diesel-electric technology has
been successfully developed for train speeds up to 140 mph outside the United States
where unit loads are not as great.
Rail operations in North America serve a wide variety of transportation modes, from
freight to long distance intercity travel, to daily commuter trips, to local urban transit
services. These operations encompass a diversity of vehicle types, operating speeds,
right-of-way requirements and service frequencies. For purposes of this chapter, the
various types of rail operations will be divided into the following categories:
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Freight railways are almost all diesel-electric, with the exception of some mineral unit
trains, and heavy-haul dedicated short lines electrified at 25 kV, 60 Hz and 50 kV, 60
Hz.
High-Speed and most Intercity services on the Northeast Corridor (NEC) are
electrified with 12.5 kV, 25 Hz; 12.5 kV, 60 Hz; 25 kV, 60 Hz traction power systems,
using a catenary-type overhead contact system (OCS). At the time of this writing, the
Northeast Corridor (NEC) is the only North American rail line with high-speed
operations.
Heavy Haul railways are lines are typically less than 1000 miles in length and operated
by multiple electric or diesel-electric locomotives with up to 200 cars. Loads can range
up to 20,000 tons for iron ore or coal trains. Fifteen hundred VDC, 25 kV AC and 50
kV AC systems are used and examples exist in the United States, South Africa,
Australia and New Zealand.
Most Commuter Rail operations in the Northeast are electrified. Examples include:
Metro-North: 650 VDC under-running third rail (ex-New York Central) and 12
kV, 60 Hz (New Haven Line);
Transit systems (heavy and light-rail) typically have speeds of 50 to 80 mph and shorter
routes, but generally higher service frequencies. For that reason, transit operations
utilize smaller and lighter vehicles. The vast majority of transit operations are
electrified. All Rapid Transit and all but a few LRT systems utilize self-propelled
EMUs. North American electric transit systems are almost exclusively DC systems.
Power may be distributed to trains by an overhead contact system (OCS) or by third
rail (over-running or under-running):
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San Franciscos Bay Areas BART system represents a unique case, using a 1000
VDC system.
Seattle Sound Transit plans to use a 1500 VDC LRT system with OCS (proposed
at this writing).
Independent heavy haul railways are frequently privately owned and operated for the
sole purpose of moving bulk commodities, such as coal or iron ore from a mine to a
power station, plant or a harbor, using unit heavy haul trains. Several of these are
electrified operations including: Sisher Saldenha in South Africa, Coccle Hampton lines
in Australia, and Black Mesa and Deseret Western lines in the United States.
A high level of traffic sustained throughout the day, the week, the year.
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Have lower fuel costs because the electricity generated for traction effort has a
higher thermal efficiency when secured from large power plants as compared to
comparatively small on-board diesel power plants.
Are able to utilize alternate energy sources such as coal, nuclear and hydroelectric
power.
Have no local emissions to pollute air and have fewer fire and life-safety issues in
underground stations or tunnels.
2 A decision to electrify may involve selective tracks, typically mainlines and passing sidings. Branch lines,
yards and sidings along the route can remain diesel operated, typically using switchers or a special applications
locomotive, such as a 'dual-mode' locomotive or an 'electro-diesel.' The 'dual-mode' locomotive that can
handle branch lines is a mainline diesel-electric locomotive fitted with a pantograph and electrical equipment.
The 'electro-diesel' is a mainline electric locomotive fitted with a small diesel generator set, which can provide
slow speed operations off-wire in yards and sidings.
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For equal rated horsepower, the straight electric locomotive has superior wheel-rail
adhesion through better management of available traction, making them better at
handling track grades, and allowing the use of steeper gradients with consequent
savings in track and in civil structures.
Are not limited in horsepower by the size of the on-board diesel engine. (Electric
locomotives can exceed their nominal power ratings for short periods of time,
thus, improving their acceleration and run times.)
Provide better track utilization by maximizing the number of trains that can fit in a
given area at any one time.
Does not present the fire hazard of onboard fuel tanks that may prevent diesel-
electrics from operating in tunnels and underground stations, due to local fire
codes.
Has a lower initial capital cost since they dont require a power distribution system.
Does not require an extremely elaborate and expensive power distribution system
infrastructure, spread over the full length of the rail network, exposed to the
elements and requiring continuous surveillance and on-site maintenance.
Will operate during any level of failure of the electrical supply network.
Does not create possible electrical safety hazards to the public due to the presence
of the bare conductors of the contact system.
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When the cost of diesel fuel was 9 cents a gallon and the supply seemed unlimited,
United States railways were not interested in alternative methods of propulsion.
Railway electrification interest peaks during times of uncertainty in the energy industry.
When fuel rose to 34 cents per gallon and the oil embargos occurred, much effort was
expended studying alternatives to hydrocarbon fuels. Studies showed that "an
estimated 34% savings in energy could be achieved by using electric power.
Electrification of just 10% of the (then) present rail trackage (in the densest traffic
corridors) could result in a 40% reduction in railway diesel fuel consumption.
Studies made in the 1970s also showed that approximately 6 years after electrifying a
route, the operating cost would break even when compared to the operating cost of
diesel service. At 30 years, the annual operating cost of an electrified system would be
one-third that of diesel service. In other words, over the effective life of a railway, the
cost to operate a diesel-electric system far exceeds that of an electric system. These
increased costs mainly come from the price of fuel and maintenance. Diesel
locomotives average 3 to 10 gallons or more of fuel per mile and three times the
amount of maintenance of straight electric locomotives.
The most significant aspect arising from these studies is that in order to realize the
long-term savings, a huge capital investment is needed. Even when engineering
economic studies show that an electrified system would be beneficial, raising enough
money to perform the capital upgrade is a daunting challenge. Private railways would
most likely require government assistance or financing from the utilities.
Tracks may need to be upgraded, including new track work or re-alignment. Sites
must be found and real estate acquired for substations. In rights-of-way with
restrictive width, the location of the system-wide ductbank requires coordination
with track drainage, the foundations for OCS poles and emergency walkways. In all
cases, maintenance access must be provided.
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crossing bridges. New bridges resulting from grade-crossing elimination will need
to be built with adequate electrical clearance. Future widening of existing
overhead bridges must be considered.
Tunnels may be suitable for electrification, or may require costly remedial work,
enlargement or daylighting.
Grounding and bonding of exposed metals is necessary to protect the public from
electrical hazards, as well as insuring that there is no interference with the signals
and communications systems.
A central location will be needed to supervise the power system. SCADA, pilot
wires or a relaying system must send information to a central point to insure
power is being supplied to the system when necessary.
Maintenance
More details on these and other aspects impacting the railway route are given later.
The advent of electrification increases the level of overall maintenance on the right-of-
way. The traction power distribution system, comprising substations, feeder cables,
OCS or third rails, lineside disconnect switches, impedance bonds and rail bonds
requires out-of-service time to perform maintenance inspections, maintenance
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Staff Safety
Traction power distribution systems bring additional
overhead, at-grade and underground electrical hazards, and
require extensive safeguards against damage and personnel
contact. To protect staff, safety barriers may be needed
around adjacent equipment, under low bridges and around
signal heads that are close to the contact system. Third rails
will require wooden or plastic protection boards, especially
in complicated track areas and where railway staff regularly
access. Pictured right is a glow stick that is used to test Figure 9-6 Using a Hot Stick -
conductors to determine if they are energized. Because of Courtesy of Q&R Australia
the proximity of bare overhead or third rail conductors,
safety-oriented work-permitting procedures must be introduced for all maintenance
personnel.
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Not only will local townspeople not have any use for it, but also it will likely create few
jobs and will unfortunately bring with it several distinct disadvantages to the
communities through which it passes. These include:
Safety issues
All of these issues are addressable and must be addressed in the Environmental Impact
Study that precedes public approval of the electrification project.
Apart from a few streetcar systems that have survived from the earliest days, such as in
San Francisco, Boston and Toronto, urban railways have been reintroduced into many
cities. Since 1970, San Francisco Bay Area, Baltimore, Miami, Washington DC, Atlanta
and Los Angeles have developed rapid transit systems, and more than 10 cities have
started to develop light rail systems. Apart from BART in San Francisco, all these new
systems use standard track gauge of 4-ft 8 inches as do mainline railways. Rapid
Transit is typified as being fully segregated, largely in tunnel in the Downtown and on
its own restricted right of way or on aerial structures elsewhere. Stations are designed
to avoid the need for passengers to cross tracks at grade. Traction power uses a third
rail and the tracks must be fully fenced against intrusion by the public. Linear motor-
powered traction systems have been built in Vancouver, BC, Toronto, ON and
Detroit, MI.
Commuter rail, if recently introduced, typically provides morning in and evening out
service for commuters and probably operates only limited service during the non-rush
hours. Unless the lines are already electrified, these commuter services are usually
diesel powered. An exception is the Peninsular Corridor, between San Francisco, San
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Jose and Gilroy, which is planned to be electrified. Electric locomotives could easily
serve commuter lines south of Boston, presently served by diesel locomotives, because
the mainline south to Providence, RI is already electrified as part of the New Haven to
Boston high-speed electrification program.
Light Rail (LRT) is exemplified throughout the United States as having short trains
running frequently up to 21 hours a day, 365 days of the year. The trains utilize the
downtown city streets, often co-existing with motor vehicles. Typically, the public can
access the entire trackage, as fencing is seldom provided. Light rail service can only be
integrated with mainline rail service by means of time separation of operations. Some
sections of track are shared, as in San Diego (after the LRT service closes each night,
the tracks can be used by diesel locomotives to move freight). Such lines must be
designed for mainline railway clearances and loadings.
In the first place, the implementation of a light rail system is typically with voter
approval. Light rail:
Reduces travel times for car owners and bus and LRT passengers.
Occupies downtown streets, thereby reducing automobile traffic flow in the city
center.
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Size of the LRV belies their speed, creating hazards for people and road vehicles.
In the early days of mainline electrification, the only type of traction motors available
were DC drive motors derived from early tramway motors on streetcars. This resulted
in DC being selected for mainline electrification projects. At the turn of the century,
the Swiss and Italians experimented with using three-phase 600 VAC propulsion by
using two overhead conductors and the running rail. This early three-phase system
was very complex to build. In addition, there was no flexibility for operations as the
traction motors were essentially constant speed, only allowing one or two operating
speeds.
By the 1950s traction power technology had improved to allow the direct distribution
of electric power at commercial frequencies, either 50 or 60 Hz. By 1960, studies
determined that 25 kV systems would, for most railways, produce the most cost
effective design by reducing the number of supply stations needed to connect to the
commercial supply grid as compared to 1500 volt or 3000 volt systems. In addition,
conductor sizing could be reduced, which in turn reduces required conductor tension
and allows use of lighter supporting structures. In the early 1970's, the US pioneered
50kV systems for railways in regions where there were few, if any, transmission lines.
Four such lines were built in North America: The Black Mesa & Lake Powel Railway
near Flagstaff Arizona; the Deseret Western railway from Vernal, Utah to Rangeley,
Colorado; the high speed test track in Pueblo, Colorado; and the Tumbler Ridge
Branch Line in British Columbia (electric operations on this last line recently ceased
due to business conditions).
Existing electric railways can be typically identified as one of six operating scenarios.
The six scenarios are:
Inter-City, TGV, Shinkansen, ICE, Amtrak Acela Express are examples of Inter-
City operations. These systems use 11/12.5 kV or 25kV AC, with or without
autotransformers. Twenty-five kV AC is well proven and is the most economic
electrification system under normal conditions. Older 3000 VDC systems are still
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prevalent in Russia, South America and other areas around the world that chose not to
change their systems.
Heavy Haul, including Sishen-Saldhana; Black Mesa and Lake Powell; and Tumbler
Ridge (British Columbia). These railways use 50kV AC, because of the limited
availability of connection points to public utilities, because they generate their own
power at one end of the line, or for other economies. Substation spacing is typically 40
miles apart on 50 kV systems. However, substations on the SishenSaldahna iron-ore
line are over 80 miles apart, in order to reduce the number of long spur distribution
lines from the main power network. Voltage in the catenaries can drop as far down as
25kV and the electric locomotives still operate satisfactorily. The SishenSaldahna
iron-ore line is a case where unique needs have driven the creation of a special type of
traction power system.
Commuter Rail, typified by older suburban lines that do not use streets to penetrate
into the city they serve, such as around New York, Chicago, Baltimore; London,
Birmingham and Newcastle in England and around Sydney and Brisbane, Australia.
These lines operate in segregated right-of-way with no authorized public access. Some
are third rail systems; some are 25kV AC. The lines that formed the old Southern
Railway System in England (which today cover at least 1000 miles of route, including
about 150 miles of four-track route, the rest being primarily two-track) form one of the
worlds largest 660 volt third rail distribution systems. New York, which banned steam
locomotives in the early 1900s, quickly developed third-rail subway service that
operates at 625 volts. Sydney and Melbourne in Australia have extensive 1500 volt DC
systems. Suburban lines to the north of London were originally converted from steam
using the 1500 volt overhead DC system; but in 1956, British Railways selected 25kV
as standard and all lines were converted from 1500 volts DC to 25kV AC. The
London Underground System, although using sub-surface tracks and deep Tube
tunnels, radiates well out of the city to the north, having taken over some of the old
steam tracks of earlier railways. It uses two third-rails, one located in the customary
position outside of the running rails and the other midway between the running rails.
Extensions to existing third rail systems might also be third rail for uniformity, but dual
voltage AC/DC systems operate very successfully in London. All commuter rail
systems are heavy rail.
Metrorail, (actually METRO) is the name given to heavy rail systems built since
1970 and include WMATA in Washington DC, MARTA in Atlanta; BART in the San
Francisco Bay Area; and the Los Angeles Red Line. Metrorail systems may have
extensive lengths of tunnels and/or elevated sections where an overhead contact
system would be considered unaesthetic or impractical. Consequently, all use DC third
rail systems with voltages of 750 volts, except BART, which uses 1000 volts.
Light Rail, including systems in MTDB, San Diego; RT Sacramento; VTA, San Jose;
Tri-Met, Portland; RTD, Denver; Metro, Buffalo; MTA, Baltimore; RTA, Cleveland;
PAT, Pittsburgh; MUNI, San Francisco, DART, Dallas; UTA, Salt Lake City; Metro,
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Houston; Hiawatha, Minneapolis; Sound Transit Seattle; and Calgary. All of these
agencies use DC overhead contact systems, and much is installed in city streets.
Downtown, a single contact wire may be installed for aesthetic reasons, but
underground parallel feeder cables must supplement it, which makes for a relatively
expensive installation. Low-profile catenary systems with low visual impact can be
considered as a more economical alternative in some cases.
MTDB, RTA and MUNI use 600 volts; Metro Buffalo and PAT, use 650 volts; and
the rest, except Seattle (1500volts), use 750 volts.
Street Car, typified by TTC, Toronto, which still uses trolley poles on their 240
streetcars and operates at 580 volts, even though nearly every other agency which
operated with trolley poles has converted to pantographs. Earlier users of trolley poles
included San Francisco, Boston, Newark, NJ and the Chicago South Shore Line and
every former tramway/streetcar system has since been shut down. This system is now
considered out-of-date, both from an operators standpoint and in terms of aesthetics.
Operationally, any time that the trolley pole dewires, the driver must stop to reattach
the pole to the trolley wire. To do this, the operator must exit the vehicle into possibly
street traffic, which is dangerous, more so at night. Second, the trolley wire must be
held close to the optimum operational path of the trolley pole, which means
registration guy-wires every four feet along the trolley wire at street intersections and
on some sharp curves.
In urban settings using city streets and malls, safety and insulation requirements (due to
the close proximity to buildings, and integration with motor vehicle and pedestrian
traffic) requires that light rail systems use overhead contact systems at voltages of 1500
volts DC or less. On the other hand, rapid transit and commuter rail systems, by virtue
of precluding public access to the tracks, are able to use a third-rail power distribution
system of 600 volts or more if the conductor rail is 'protected' and access to the right-
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of-way is restricted. In these two examples, safety considerations limit the voltages.
Use of lower voltage DC systems is not as efficient as high voltage AC systems. The
high direct currents required at these voltages require heavy conductors, require closely
spaced substations, suffer relatively high line resistance losses, and require mitigation of
stray currents. However, in the case of light rail, there is no safe alternative.
For rapid transit and commuter rail, the use of third rail lowers construction cost of
tunnels by reducing the tunnel bore diameter, as compared to the diameter required for
pantograph operations. At one point, 600 volts DC was the preferred traction voltage
because this allowed the carborne electrical gear to be simpler. However, with modern
equipment this is no longer an issue.
Generally, the economic selection in terms of the cost of traction power for new
mainline electrification and other systems using segregated and restricted right-of-way,
will lead one to use one of the high voltage AC systems such as the 12 kV, 25kV or
25kV/25kV auto-transformer, or a 50kV system. However, every scenario will require
a detailed examination to determine the feasibility of electrifying and the type of
traction power system that will best serve site-specific requirements.
On an AC system, commercial three-phase power comes into the supply stations with
one, two or three main transformers. In order to balance loads evenly between the
phases, substations with two or three transformers will be fed from different phases.
For example, the A-B phase will feed the first transformer, while the second is fed
from the B-C phase. The two transformers will supply two different power sections.
This phase balancing provides one level of redundancy, so that if one transformer is
taken off-line, the remaining power section could be fed by means of circuit breakers
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and disconnect switches. Systems that use frequencies other than that supplied by the
utility will require frequency converters to convert to the operating frequency.
9.7.2 Substations
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Each autotransformer substation has a unique autotransformer for each traction power
section required.
Because components of the traction power system constitute a large capital investment,
different types of protection are incorporated into the design. The cost of the
substation as compared to the cost of protection is a small fraction of the capital cost.
To insure that components last for their intended service life, system sectioning,
primary breakers, secondary breakers, relays, PLC controls, SCADA systems and other
protecting type devices are used.
This means that the substations must be spaced and have reserve capacity to handle
the normal load if any one or more is off-line. Further information on traction power
system dependability is given later in this chapter.
Negative return cables, connecting to the rails or the return conductor back to the
substation.
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Parallel, or along track feeders, are conductors that Figure 9-9 Feeder Cables - Courtesy of
are parallel to the contact system and provide LTK, Inc.
additional power. On single wire systems and third
rail systems, the parallel feeder is tapped every 300 to 500 feet with a connection to
the contact system.
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As the name suggests, a third rail provides the positive supply in a DC powered
traction system from a traction rail that parallels the track. The third rail typically rests
on insulators on the field side of either side of the track. One or both running rails are
used for the negative return, however a fourth rail, also on insulators, may be used.
Overhead contact systems comprise a support system (poles, wall and soffit
attachments, cantilevers, cross-spans, etc.), conductors (which may be arranged in one
of a variety of configurations) and anchorages to tension the conductors.
Contact shoe
For OCS:
Trolley pole or
Pantograph
Contact Shoe
The contact shoe of a third rail
system can be of several different
types. The overrunning system is
most common as it allows for
simple attachment of the conductor
rail to the ties. A contact shoe
slides over the top of the conductor
rail, hence its name. The under
running contact shoe, pictured
Figure 9-12 Third Rail Contact Shoe - Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
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right, runs along the bottom of a conductor rail that is suspended over the end of the
tie. A third type is the side running contact shoe. Here, the contact shoe extends out
horizontally from the vehicle and slides along the conductor rail that is again supported
off the end of the tie.
Trolley Poles
Trolley poles, whose length is typically
14 to 16 feet, are fitted with a trolley
shoe (also called harps or wheels) at
the upper end, which are grooved to
form a channel for the contact
(trolley) wire to slide within. A
constant upward force keeps the
trolley shoe or wheel in contact with
the wire as the wire elevation changes.
Although very commonly used in Figure 9-13 Trolley Pole - Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
the past, trolley poles suffer certain
disadvantages over pantographs. A primary disadvantage is frequent dewirement,
which requires the vehicle operator to exit the vehicle and replace the shoe on the wire
while exposed to both traffic and weather. Second, with the increased power
consumption of light rail vehicles due to improved performance and air-conditioning,
the carbon insert is often electrically overstressed and may need frequent replacement.
Third, trolley harps require many special pieces of hardware to be installed in the trolley
wires for turnouts, wire crossings and on tight curves. Fourth, the alignment of the
trolley wire relative to the track is much more critical than a conventional single wire
simple pantograph system. The trolley requires more overhead equipment and more
maintenance of that equipment. Fifth, depending upon complexity of the track layout
(especially at street intersection in city centers), the quantity of special work in the
overhead trolley system may itself be visually intrusive.
Pantographs
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supports for the overhead contact system, which means a more costly installation, and
more support cantilevers and cross-spans to maintain. There are real short and long-
term benefits to using wide pantograph heads.
At track turnouts and diamonds, the third-rail is interrupted since it cannot pass over
the running rails. The conductor rail is also interrupted at highway grade crossings,
which for the most part, have been eliminated from modern metro systems. If the gap
between the sections of rail exceeds the span between the contact shoes on the power
car, the power car loses power.
The DC third rail system is accompanied by the limitations of voltage, the need for
close substation spacing, complicated feeding arrangements at turnouts, icing of the
third rail, the public safety hazard and the difficult issue of mitigating the effects of
stray return currents, which leak into the ground and could cause electrolytic damage to
underground utilities and civil structures. If not safeguarded, electrolysis causes
corrosion and possible failure of metallic water mains, cable sheaths, gas pipes, steel
ducts, steel bridges and various other metal paths, including reinforced concrete
through which currents flows on its way back to the substations. The problem can be
mitigated by insulating the running rails from ground by placing them on an insulating
plastic pad in open line or surrounding them with a rubber boot if they are embedded
in the street. Electrolysis can also be mitigated by the use of negative feeders or by
reducing sub-station spacing. To minimize this particular problem, the London
Underground uses two conductor rails throughout its system, so that there is no
current in the running rails.
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There are three types of third rail systems: overrunning, under running and side
running. Overrunning systems use a post type insulator to support the conductor rail
so that the contact shoe can slide along the top. An under running system suspends
the conductor rail so that the conductor shoe can slide along underneath. Lastly, a side
running system supports the conductor rail so that a shoe can slide along the side of
the rail.
o Pantographs
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These two configurations (style) of overhead contact system are initially dependent on
whether pantographs or trolley poles are to be used. Note that both types of power
collection can be accommodated with some increase in complexity of the overhead
line.
The differences in the styles are reflected in the design approach as shown below:
Horizontal wire alignment on Wire staggered to wear Wire kept relatively straight
Tangent current collector evenly to minimize wear to pan
shoe
Horizontal alignment on Wire placed to the outside Wire placed to the inside
curves of curves, allowed to of curve, trolley pole
sweep over entire head pulled towards centers of
curves
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Single contact wire systems have a span length similar to that used in the spacing of
downtown streetlights and opportunity therefore exists for joint-use poles, thereby
reducing pole clutter.
Trolley Wire Only systems with trolley poles are few and far between these days since
cities such as San Francisco and Boston have, out of necessity, changed over from
trolley pole operations to pantograph operations.
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A few cities still operate trolley poles in combination with historic cars in tourist areas.
San Francisco continues to run historic trolleys from all over the world, but these
rolling museums are only run on the surface on Market Street where they use the
positive wire of the existing trolleybus overhead.
Catenary Systems
Two-wire systems are referred to as
simple catenary and utilize a contact
wire and above it, a messenger wire.
The messenger wire serves two
purposes (1) to support the contact wire
vertically between structures by use of
hangers and (2) to provide more
electrical conductivity.
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scale version of the most economic simple catenary style. The low profile simple
catenary has reduced visual impact by virtue of requiring only one cross-span wire for
support between poles compared to the necessary two cross-span wires with full
simple catenary as pictured (Figure 9-19). Structure spacing is, however, reduced, thus
increasing the pole count by about 30%.
Nevertheless, it is still only about half the cost of a single contact wire system with
parallel underground feeders, which would be electrically equivalent. Twin contact
wires are also commonplace on light rail systems in Europe. Other systems using three
conductors called compound catenary are operating, but are more costly and are
generally not considered necessary for new installations. Compound catenary utilizes
three or more conductors, with a main messenger being the top conductor, the contact
wire serving as the bottom conductor, and an auxiliary messenger located between the
two. Other styles, which have been installed in the past, include stitched catenary,
triangular catenary and hanging beam catenary, and all continue in use today.
Inclined catenary exists to the present day in the Northeastern United States and
requires the use of the messenger, and on severe curves, an auxiliary messenger to align
the contact wire around curves. This is accomplished by inclining the OCS so that the
messenger wire is moved to the outside of the curve while the contact remains close to
the track centerline. Sloping hangers support the contact wire at a carefully calculated
angle to provide the lateral restraint. Inclined catenary has fixed terminations, which
means that the contact wire moves up and down relative to the track surface as
temperatures change. Thus greater clearances are required under structures and over
grade crossings. Because of the special techniques needed to align inclined catenaries,
the trend today is to replace them with chordal (simple) catenary, where the messenger
is located directly above the contact wire.
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All overhead contact systems exhibit the characteristic of increased sag between
supports and loss of tension when conductor temperatures rise due to solar gain
and/or current heating. Although small variations to sag and tension do not adversely
affect current collection, also called commutation, large variations, say over 6 inches,
can be unacceptable. In order to control conductor sag between supports, two options
are available:
Both options apply to Single Contact Wire (SCW) systems and to multiple conductor
catenary systems to be described later.
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will be set by determining the maximum span-length that is secure against dewirement
from conductors being deflected by wind. Typical spans for constant tension
equipment are as follows:
For single contact wire, SCW, maximum span is typically 125 feet, but auto-tensioned
spans of 160 feet have been used very successfully.
For catenaries, maximum span is 240 feet for a pantograph width up to 6ft.-6in,
although longer spans have been used with wider pantographs, (8ft.-6in) or tighter
track construction and maintenance tolerances.
Other tensioning devices such as hydraulic and pneumatic tensioners have been used,
but with limited success. Spring tensioners are often used on short wire runs of less
than 500 feet, such as at crossovers.
Although the maximum span length on tangent tracks may be 240 feet, the maximum
span lengths on curves will require considerable shortening due to the chording of the
curve by the contact wire. Span length analysis is performed to determine the
span/curve radius relationship.
There is an almost limitless variety of configurations of OCS, but they can be broadly
classified under four general styles:
Economics
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The required cross-sectional area will be determined by traction power analysis, which
factors in the various parameters that represent the proposed electrification operation
including:
Track alignment
Track profile
Train weights
Line speeds
Train frequency
Substation locations
Climatic conditions
For light electrical duty, such as in yards and sidings, a single contact wire without
parallel feeder will be adequate and economic.
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In maintenance shops, conductor rail supported from roof trusses has application in
special circumstances and has the advantage over a single contact wire in that it is
installed untensioned, thereby avoiding horizontal tensile loads on the shop walls or
door frames.
Economics
Catenary economics is a function of the following factors:
Aesthetics
Pole types
Pole quantities
Maintainability
Selected design parameters controlling the type and quantities of poles and
foundations.
Aesthetics
If one includes the cost of the overhead system, paired with the cost of the substation,
duct backs and feeders, an auto-tensioned simple catenary is the most economic OCS
style. However, some find auto-tensioned OCS less appealing aesthetically than a
single contact wire style. The balance weights are often considered to be too unsightly
to be used downtown and in city centers. Consequently single contact wire styles are
often proposed on city streets, even though either of the other two options, Simple
Catenary Fixed-Tensioned, or Low profile Fixed-Tensioned, would be more
economic.
A concern with the single contact wire system when used downtown is that it requires
an underground parallel feeder cable, which though invisible to the public, represents a
large expense in underground ductbank, manholes, hand holes and insulated feeder
cables. Single contact wire systems also have twice the number of poles compared to
simple catenary and requires feeder-riser cables and jumpers. More poles means more
support brackets, which together with the feeder connections makes for more clutter.
In addition, there is more physical plant to maintain, especially because of the
underground feeder cables.
Single contact wire with underground parallel feeder cables is, these days, not the
preferred choice from an economic perspective. It is costly in the first place, and the
underground feeder cables could turn out to be costly to repair and disruptive to road
and rail operations if they fail. For these reasons, low-profile catenary is often used as
an aesthetically friendly and reasonably economic style for use in city streets. Low
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profile catenaries are used in San Diego and Tacoma, and are now recommended for
use on many upcoming projects.
Pole Types
Figure 9-23 Welded Steel Pole on Steel Pile Figure 9-24 Street Light Catenary Pole - Courtesy of LTK,
Foundation - Courtesy of LTK, Inc. Inc.
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agencies use tapered tubular poles for aesthetic reasons (see below right), especially
where the poles need to be in sidewalks. Some transit agencies conceal OCS feeder
cables and/or balance weights inside tubular poles, again for aesthetics, but from a
maintenance point of view. The difficulty in access for repair and adjustment is a
drawback. For transit applications, poles are normally supplied with anchor-bolt type
base plates. However, for mainline applications, direct embedment of poles into
concrete foundations shows economy at the cost of reduced adjustability and flexibility
for replacement.
Pole Quantities
Pole count is the indicator of an efficient and economic OCS layout. The lower the
count of poles per unit length, the better for five reasons:
Lower cost
Faster installation
The lowest pole count is obtained by maximizing the spacing of OCS poles within the
constraints of the design criteria. Contributing factors to consider in maximizing the
length of OCS spans are:
Variations in track cross level must be accounted for when calculating the sweep of the
contact wire across the pantograph head.
The location of poles is also a primary factor in pole count. Double-track transit lines
often have 14-foot track centers and a single pole placed between the two tracks is
ideal. However, center poles limit the redundancy of the OCS. If a center pole is
damaged due to an accident, both tracks of OCS will be affected. While OCS support
poles located to the field side or outside of each track require twice as many poles, a
level of redundancy is achieved by maintaining the independence of each tracks OCS
system.
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All theses styles use the same types of OCS components; only the configurations of
the support and termination assemblies, including cantilevers, cross-spans and head
spans, counter weight terminations and fixed-end terminations are different.
The process of determining the loading conditions starts by examining the National
Electric Safety Code (NESC). The NESC outlines loading conditions ranging from
temperature ranges to wind loading. In addition, criteria are established for
conductor strength requirements and factors of safety. The NESC also specifies
minimum wire heights, minimum insulation levels and required clearances for
various voltages that must be maintained between the OCS and structures and
utilities. State and local agencies may supplement or supercede the NESC with more
stringent requirements, which therefore need to be examined.
An OCS requires its own structure to support the conductors over the track. These
supporting structures include:
Portals
Headspans
Bracket poles
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Cantilever poles
In addition, the OCS can be supported from the underside of bridges, tunnel soffits
or the underside of building roof trusses. In urban areas, cross-spans can be
connected to buildings using eye-bolts, thereby eliminating poles. OCS poles can be
jointly shared with streetlights, traffic signals and signs.
Right-of-Way
Track Structure
Civil Structures
9.8.1 Right-of-Way
Track Layout/Realignment
It is desirable that track alignment and modifications to track crossovers and turnouts
be completed before route electrification occurs. Additionally, track renewals and track
lowering measures, as described below, should have been finished. Future track
improvements may need to be accelerated to avoid the need for later changes. Old
redundant track should be removed before initiating electrification so that cranes are
not impeded by the presence of high voltage catenary wires, conductor rails or cables.
Substations
Typically, 25kV substations require a site area of about an acre in size, with road access
suitable for trucks delivering the largest piece of substation equipment. DC substations
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are smaller, ranging in size from 2000 to 5000 square feet, but are generally more
numerous than AC substations.
On existing main line routes, particularly those with more than two tracks, there will
probably not be enough room between tracks to install OCS pole foundations.
Therefore, the poles will be allocated to the outside of the line. The right-of-way needs
to be examined to insure that structures and any supporting back guys fall within the
ROW without impeding drainage. Since third rail is attached to the end of the ties,
ROW limits are not as critical for third rail systems as for overhead systems.
Systemwide Ductbanks
Ductbanks are required for power distribution cables and should be designed to
accommodate new signal or communication cables, should existing aerial signal and
communication cables need replacement. The location of parallel track and cross-track
ductbanks will need to be coordinated with drainage pipes, foundations for signals and
OCS poles, and emergency walkways.
condition.
Because the running rails will be carrying the high currents of the traction return
system, it is necessary that all bolted rail joints be paralleled with traction bonding
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cables to carry the 1000 amps or more of traction current. Defective bonds can give
rise to severe arcing between the rails and cause enough damage to curtail normal train
operations.
The possible effects of electrolytic corrosion due to leakage (stray) currents from the
track rails, especially with DC power must be addressed. With AC systems, the effects
of leakage currents is considered to be minimal, but still needs to be checked. Leakage
currents can cause and/or accelerate corrosion in underground piping, steel
reinforcement in concrete structures and may damage underground utilities.
Special precautions may also need to be taken to keep the track ballast free from dirt
and fines, which could reduce its natural insulation value. Therefore, steps must be
taken to keep the track rails insulated from ground to prevent leakage currents. Wood
ties placed on good clean ballast will effectively isolate the rails from earth. These
conditions must be maintained. Special rubber boots may be provided where the rails
would otherwise be in direct contact with asphalt or similar road materials, such as at
grade crossings.
Typically, electrical clearances may need to be provided in tunnels and at bridges. New
bridges (such as those resulting from grade-crossing elimination) will need to be built
with adequate electrical clearance. Station canopies that project over platform edges
may need modification. Provisions may need to be made to attach components to
walls. OCS pole anchor bolts will need to be incorporated into any new flyovers.
Tunnels to be Electrified
If complete tunnel replacement or day-lighting is too costly, the existing ballasted track
may be lowered or completely replaced by direct-fixation track. Sometimes sections of
tunnel soffit may require to be chased to provide adequate clearance for pantographs.
To reduce the space required for the OCS, cutouts or pockets in the soffit to house
the OCS supports may be easier to provide than a more costly program of general
clearance reconstruction. Third rail systems do not require the same degree of
additional space as does an overhead system. Because of this, the diameter of a tunnel
bore can be somewhat reduced. This reduction in tunneling requirements is one of the
significant reasons why third rail is used in many of the underground metro systems
around the world.
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Where practical, tracks can be lowered, but this may require that the track sub-base be
lowered too. Such track lowering can be involved and a difficult process that should
be approached with care.
Station Canopies
Existing stations that have
overhanging roofs or canopies may
need to be cut back to allow
clearance for pantographs. Pictured
on the right is an example of a station
that has been designed for the use of
an overhead system.
OCS Attachments
Where OCS poles cannot be installed
because of lack of clearance,
attachments such as wall brackets will
need to be made to civil structures.
Pictured at right is an example of an
OCS cantilever attachment to an
overhead structure. Where existing
overhead bridges and the walls of
boat sections are available, the
design of OCS wall brackets will need
Figure 9-25 OCS Cantilever Attachment to an Overhead
to be coordinated with the structural Structure - Courtesy of LTK, Inc.
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In order for the traction power return circuits in the rails to be maintained without
interfering with the operation of the signaling system, the two systems need to be
immunized from each other. With early DC electric traction, signal circuits were
converted to AC. When AC traction power was introduced, signal circuits were
converted to a frequency immune to the traction frequency.
Some systems were developed that allowed one rail to be used for traction current
return while the other rail was used for the signal system. This solution has a serious
disadvantage in that broken rails could not be detected reliably.
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Traction power distribution systems, including contact rails and overhead contact
systems, are only part of the engineering that goes into an electrified railway. A
number of other railway engineering disciplines (agency technical staff and architects)
will require inclusion in the development of the traction power system design and
installation.
The following list contains interfaces that are typical of light rail systems that share
streets with motor traffic and penetrate neighborhoods. Mainline railways operate on
segregated rights-of-way, which obviously avoid many of the interface issues of light
rail.
Civil consultants
Station designers
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Highway engineers
Geotechnical engineers
Vehicle designers
Common issues for discussion with Agency staff and others, include the following:
Historic trolley
Ornamental poles
Paint colors
Sectionalizing requirements
Maintenance vehicles
Movable bridges
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Station designers/architects:
Yard lighting
Shop OCS
Storage
Track clearances
Track designers:
Special trackwork
Impedance bonds
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Atmospheric pollution
Electrolytic corrosion
Preventive measures
Redundant feeds
Harmonics
Highway engineers:
Joint-use of poles
Geotechnical engineers:
Soil conditions
Utility location
Vehicle designers:
Pantograph criteria
Vehicle envelope
Safety specialists:
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Double insulation
Warning signs
Bibliography
1. Journal of the International Institute of Rail Electrification Engineers, Volume 2 Issue
1, August 2001.
2. Guinness Book of Rail Facts and Feats, John Marshall, 1975.
3. When the Steam Railroads Electrified, W.D. Middleton, Kalmabach Press
(1974).
4. Electrifying the Caltrain/PCS Railroad, Caltrain, 1992.
5. Rail 1950, Jack Simmonds, Metheun, 1975.
6. Design of the 50 kV Overhead Contact System for the British Columbia Railway Tumbler
Ridge Branch Line, L.C. Tait and B. Anderson, IEEE, 1984.
7. The Electric Railway, Fred H. Whipple, 1889.
8. Railways: Mechanical Engineering, J.B. Snell, 1971.
9. The Illustrated Directory of Trains of the World, Brian Hollingsworth, 2000.
10. American Locomotives in Historic Photographs 1858 1949, Ron Ziel, 1993.
11. The Story of the Train, National Railway Museum, UK, 1999.
12. Croydons Transport Through the Ages, UK, John Gent, 2001.
13. Electricity, Steve Parker, 1992.
14. Electricity in Transport, English Electrical, 1951.
15. Ultimate Train, Peter Herring, 2000.
16. Pictorial History of Americas Railroads, Mike Del Vecchio, 1998.
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