Transp Porous Med (2005) 58:287313 Springer 2005

DOI 10.1007/s11242-004-1407-5

Relative Permeability Estimation for Rich

Gas-Condensate Reservoirs

J. F. APP and K. K. MOHANTY

University of Houston, USA

(Received: 29 October 2002; accepted in nal form: 23 May 2004)

Abstract. This study addresses relative permeability prediction from well test data for low
permeability, rich gas-condensate systems. Characteristic of these systems are high velocities
and large pressure gradients within the near wellbore region. Within this region the relative
permeabilties are rate sensitive and non-Darcy eects can be important. This study combines
both the non-linear (in velocity) terms into a single eective relative permeability term.
Eective relative permeabilities are estimated through non-linear regression with both syn-
thetic and eld data. Results show that a two-parameter simplied correlation is adequate for
representing eective relative permeability. These parameters can be obtained by matching
well test data. Mechanical skin was needed to match eld data considered in this study. Non-
Darcy eects can decrease the owing bottom-hole pressures by about 480 kPa in high rate
gas-condensate well tests. A well test design is proposed from which gas and condensate
relative permeabilities can be estimated.

Key words: gas-condensate, relative permeability, non-Darcy coecient, capillary number,

regression.

Nomenclature
bg multiphase inertial coecient, m)1.
b0 single phase inertial coecient, m)1.
brg multiphase inertial coecient, dimensionless.
E(Nc) Corey exponent, capillary number dependent.
FBHP owing bottom-hole pressure, psi.
k absolute permeability, Darcy.
ks skin zone permeability, Darcy.
krc(Sc,Nc) condensate relative permeability.
krg(Nc,Sc) gas relative permeability.
krg*(Nc,Sc,Re) eective gas relative permeability.
Nc capillary number.
Qc condensate production rate, m3/d.
Qg gas production rate, m3/d.
rs skin zone radius, m.
rt pore throat radius, m.
Re Reynolds number.
s skin.
S1 liquid saturation.
Sa saturation of phase a.
Sra residual saturation of phase a.
288 J. F. APP AND K. K. MOHANTY

Swc connate water saturation.

Vg gas supercial velocity, m/sec.

Greek letters
/ porosity.
l viscosity, Poise.
q density, kg/m3.
r interfacial tension, N/m.

Superscripts
o endpoint relative permeability.

Subscripts
c condensate.
g gas.
imm immiscible limit.
th threshold capillary number.
a phase index.

1. Introduction
Well deliverability estimates for rich gas-condensate reservoirs require
accurate prediction of both gas and condensate eective permeability. This is
particularly important within the near wellbore region where the pressures
often fall below dew point causing retrograde condensation. Within this re-
gion pressure gradients in both owing phases are large and the interfacial
tension between the gas and condensate is low. This results in relative per-
meabilities that are rate sensitive. Under these conditions both capillary
number and non-Darcy eects must be considered in modeling of gas-con-
densate ows. The relative permeabilities increase with increasing capillary
number and are reduced by inertial, or non-Darcy ow eects.
Numerous studies on gas condensate well productivity exist in the liter-
ature. Early studies principally addressed productivity impairment due to
the development of two phases within the near wellbore region as pressures
fall below dew point (Barnum et al., 1995; Malachowski et al., 1995; Lee
and Chaverra, 1998). Neither inertial eects nor capillary number eects on
gas and condensate relative permeabilities were investigated. Subsequent
studies considered capillary number dependent eective gas and condensate
relative permeabilities (Ali et al., 1997; Whitson and Fevang, 1997; Blom
and Hagoort, 1998). Blom and Hagoort (1998) studied the impact of cap-
illary number dependent relative permeabilities and inertial eects on gas-
condensate well deliverability through forward simulation. None of these
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY ESTIMATION FOR RESERVOIRS 289

studies, however, attempted to estimate eective gas and condensate relative

permeabilities through history matching either synthetic or eld data.
Narayanaswamy et al. (1999) performed a history match study of the Arun
eld (lean gas) using capillary number dependent gas and condensate rela-
tive permeabilities with inertial eects included in the gas phase. Instead of
matching well tests, however, the objective of their study was to match well
productivity indices as a function of average reservoir pressure. The time
scale for their study was years as opposed to days for the well tests presented
in this paper. The history match process they employed did not utilize non-
linear regression with simplied relative permeability expressions. Simplied
relative permeability expressions oer the advantage of fewer parameters
and can be adjusted to account for both capillary number and inertial
eects.
Pressure transient analysis has been employed to determine productivity
of gas condensate wells. These studies have concentrated on evaluating
permeability, skin and average reservoir pressure. Few studies have been
directed at estimating relative permeabilities from well tests. The analysis
methods can be divided into three categories: (1) single-phase gas pseudo-
pressure analysis; (2) multiphase pseudo-pressure analysis and (3) composi-
tional simulation. Single-phase gas pseudo-pressure analysis has been shown
to provide accurate estimates of permeability if the average reservoir pressure
is above dew point. Estimated skin values, however, are high due to the
buildup of condensate within the near wellbore region as owing bottom-
hole pressures fall below dew point. The single-phase gas pseudo-pressure
method does not require relative permeability information (Thompson et al.,
1993; Marhaendrajana et al., 1999). Multi-phase pseudo-pressure analysis
(two phase analogy) accounts for the mobility of both the condensate and gas
phases (Jones et al., 1989; Ragahavan et al., 1995; Xu and Lee, 1999). This
technique has been shown to provide improved estimates for mechanical
skin. This method requires relative permeability data, which can be related to
pressure or obtained from laboratory data. Fluid properties are treated as a
black oil system. Through compositional simulation and comparison to eld
well tests Gringarten et al. (2000) show the possible existence of a high
mobility, or high capillary number, region. Derivative analysis is used to
identify this region. Relative permeabilities were capillary number dependent
and inertial eects were not considered in their study. Gringarten et al. state,
however, that these results should be used with caution due to the early time
nature and short duration of the high mobility region. Wellbore storage,
mechanical skin or phase redistribution eects can easily obscure this region.
Bertram et al. (1997) analyzed well tests of low permeability gas condensate
reservoirs using compositional simulation. Inertial eects in the gas phase
were considered, however, the inertial coecient was dependent upon static
rock properties and not saturation or relative permeability.
290 J. F. APP AND K. K. MOHANTY

Gas and condensate relative permeabilities are typically determined by

steady state linear coreood experiments (Henderson et al., 1995; Whitson
et al., 1999; Mott et al., 2000). Coreood derived relative permeabilities
represent rock properties of the selected core sample. Therefore, multiple
relative permeability expressions are possible based on the degree of heter-
ogeneity between core samples. Well test derived relative permeabilities
represent lumped multiphase ow properties from the gross interval tested.
System heterogeneities, including layering, saturation and permeability
variations are accounted for within the lumped expressions. Well test data
provides one set of relative permeabilities as opposed to multiple sets from
coreood experiments.
Investigators have experimentally demonstrated an improvement in both
gas and condensate relative permeability at high velocities (Chen et al., 1995;
Henderson et al., 1995). A greater enhancement was observed in the gas
relative permeability as compared to the condensate relative permeability.
They concluded that relative permeabilities depend upon both saturation and
capillary number. Correlations are available within the literature to model
the capillary number dependence of gas and condensate relative permeabil-
ities (Wang et al., 1996; Ali et al., 1997; Whitson and Fevang, 1997; Blom
and Hagoort, 1998).
Inertial, or non-Darcy, ow eects can reduce the gas relative perme-
ability within the near wellbore region of a gas-condensate well. This is due
to the high velocities that develop from the convergent radial ow of gas
and condensate towards a wellbore. Inertial eects for the condensate phase
are normally considered insignicant. Relationships for single and multi-
phase inertial coecients are required for modeling ow in a gas conden-
sate reservoir. Numerous correlations exist for the single-phase inertial
coecient, b, of gas through a porous medium based on laboratory
experiments. The single-phase inertial ow coecient can also be estimated
from properly designed multi-rate well tests. The single-phase inertial
coecient is generally expressed as a function of static rock properties such
as absolute permeability and porosity. The multiphase inertial coecient,
however, depends upon liquid saturation. Furthermore, the multiphase
inertial coecient is larger than the single-phase inertial coecient. This has
been veried through several laboratory studies designed to evaluate the
multiphase inertial coecient for gas in systems with both mobile and
immobile liquid saturations (Gewers and Nichol, 1969; Wong, 1970; Liu
et al., 1995; Lombard et al., 1999). These studies reported an increase in the
inertial coecient for increasing liquid saturations. The multiphase inertial
coecient is generally expressed in terms of liquid saturation or relative
permeability.
Limited studies have been performed to evaluate the interaction between
capillary number and inertial eects on relative permeabilities (Whitson
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY ESTIMATION FOR RESERVOIRS 291

et al., 1999; Henderson et al., 2000; Mott et al., 2000). This work involved
linear coreood steady state experiments with model gas condensate uids.
While these studies provide insight into the coupled eects between capil-
lary number and inertial eects, they were not performed on a eld scale;
either through simulation or analysis of eld well tests. Furthermore, none
of these studies treated both the capillary number eect and the multiphase
inertial coecient in a fully coupled manner. Henderson et al. (2000)
treated the capillary number and non-Darcy eects independently. Contrary
to previous studies, their analysis resulted in a multiphase non-Darcy
coecient that decreased with increasing liquid saturation. This suggests
that capillary number and non-Darcy eects should be treated in a coupled
manner. Mott et al. (2000) assumed, for modeling purposes, that the
multiphase non-Darcy coecient was constant and equivalent to the single-
phase non-Darcy coecient. Their experimental data, however, suggested
that the multiphase non-Darcy coecient was greater than the single-phase
non-Darcy coecient.
For high rate single-phase ow, the non-Darcy term represents the non-
linear term in velocity while the Darcy term represents the linear term. In
high rate multiphase ow; both the non-Darcy and Darcy terms are non-
linear in velocity due to the capillary number dependence of the relative
permeability. Thus it is tempting to combine both the terms into one and
represent it by an eective relative permeability, as shown later in Equa-
tion (6).
The goal of this work is the following: (1) to determine the impact
inertial eects have on gas and condensate eective relative permeabilities
within the near wellbore region; and (2) to develop a method by which gas
and condensate eective relative permeabilities can be estimated from well
test data. This has been conducted for low permeability, rich gas conden-
sate reservoirs.

2. Methodology
A multi-rate well test was numerically simulated using a compositional
nite dierence simulator representing a rich gas condensate reservoir.
Output from the numerically generated well test was used to evaluate the
impact of inertial eects on relative permeabilities, observe near wellbore
eects and to obtain simplied relative permeability correlations for both
gas and condensate.
The simulated well test was a three-rate test followed by a pressure
buildup. Flowing bottom-hole pressures were below dew point for all three
rates to insure a two-phase region within the near-wellbore region. Both
the gas and condensate relative permeabilities were capillary number
292 J. F. APP AND K. K. MOHANTY

dependent using a seven parameter Corey model. Inertial eects were in-
cluded in the gas phase through the multiphase Forchheimer equation.
For comparison purposes, simulations were also generated without inertial
eects.
Simplied relative permeability relationships were developed with only
two parameters as opposed to seven in the original Corey model. Parameters
for these models were determined by history matching the owing bottom-
hole pressures from the numerically generated multi-rate test. The nal
correlations were tested against two eld well tests.

3. Numerically Generated Multi-Rate Test

3.1. MATHEMATICAL MODEL
A nite dierence compositional simulator was used to generate the
numerical well test. The rich gas-condensate system was represented by a 10
component modied Peng Robinson equation of state. The composition of
the system is listed in Table I. This represents a rich gas-condensate system
with a condensate to gas ratio of 0.0014 m3/m3. The dew point of the system
is 34,818 kPa at 110 C.
Simulated reservoir properties selected for this study are shown in
Table II. The mechanical skin is zero. The well test data was simulated with a
one-dimensional radial model with a no ow boundary at the outer radius.
The model was partitioned into 20 cells sized in logarithmic progression from
the wellbore. This incorporated ne gridding within the near wellbore region
to capture the near wellbore eects. The model was sized to insure no
pressure depletion during the test.

Table I. Fluid composition

Component Mole fraction

CO2 0.0324
C1N2 0.6377
C2 0.0968
C3-4 0.0897
C5-6 0.0328
C7-10 0.0562
C11-14 0.0219
C15-20 0.0184
C21-29 0.0103
C30+ 0.0038
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY ESTIMATION FOR RESERVOIRS 293
Table II. Reservoir properties

k (Darcy) 0.022
Porosity (%) 8
Swc (%) 10
Radius (m) 1219
Net thickness (m) 15.2
Mechanical skin 0
Pi (kPa) 35.2E3
b0 (m)1) 5.0E9

3.2. RELATIVE PERMEABILITY MODELS

Capillary number dependent eective gas and condensate relative perme-
abilities were modeled with a Corey type relation (Corey, 1954). This ap-
proach to modeling multiphase ow through porous media has been
validated by numerous investigators through coreood experiments (Chen
et al., 1995; Henderson et al., 1995). For gas condensate uids it has
experimentally been shown that the mobility of both the gas and condensate
phases increases with increasing capillary numbers. The capillary number is a
dimensionless number representing the ratio of viscous to capillary forces
dened as:
kkrPk
Nc : 1
r
Through Darcys law the viscous forces can be shown to be proportional to
kkrPk and capillary forces vary with the interfacial tension, r. For rich gas
condensate uids, which typically exhibit low interfacial tension, capillary
numbers increase with ow rate; hence the relative permeabilities for a rich
gas condensate system are rate sensitive.
The Corey type, capillary number dependent relative permeability can be
expressed as:
2 3Ea Nc
6 Sa
Sra Nc 7
kra Nc ; Sa kora 6
4
7
5 ; 2
Pp
1
Swc
Sra Nc
a1

where Sa corresponds to the saturation of phase a; Swc is the connate or

immobile water saturation, kora is the relative permeability endpoint for phase
a, and p represents the number of mobile phases (App and Mohanty, 2002).
The expression within the square brackets represents a normalized satura-
tion. The capillary number dependence is introduced through the Corey
294 J. F. APP AND K. K. MOHANTY

exponent, Ea Nc , and the residual saturation, Sra Nc. For increasing cap-
illary numbers, the Corey exponent decreases to a minimum of one, and the
residual saturations approach zero. Physically, the decrease in the Corey
exponent corresponds to an increase in phase mobility.
The relative permeabilities were considered capillary number dependent
for capillary numbers between 1E2 and 1E5. For capillary numbers
below 1E5 the relative permeabilities are not assumed to be rate depen-
dent, i.e., the phases behave as two immiscible uids. As the capillary
numbers increase within the capillary number dependent region the phase
mobilities increase and the residual saturations decrease. For capillary
numbers above 1E2 the relative permeabilities are assumed to be
dependent upon the respective phase saturation, i.e., the relative perme-
ability curves approach straight lines and the residual saturations for each
phase are zero. Interpolation of these parameters within the capillary
number dependent region requires two addition parameters: (1) a threshold
capillary number above which phase mobilities do not change; and (2) the
slope of the capillary desaturation curve, or the rate at which the capillary
number changes within the capillary number dependent region. The Corey
relative permeability model requires seven parameters per phase for a total
of 14 parameters (gas and condensate are the only mobile phases). The
values for the parameters in the relative permeability model are listed in
Table III.

3.3. INERTIAL MODEL AND EFFECTIVE GAS RELATIVE PERMEABILITY, krg *

Inertial eects were included in the gas phase through the multiphase
Forchheimer equation (Forehheimer, 1914). The multiphase Forchheimer
equation is one of several models which can be used to describe multiphase
ow in porous media under conditions in which non-Darcy ow is considered
(Ucan and Civan, 1996). For multiphase ow, both the Darcy and non-
Darcy terms are non-linear within the Forchheimer equation. Inertial eects
were not considered for the condensate phase. The multiphase Forchheimer
equation for radial geometry is
dp lg
Vg bg qg V2g : 3
dr kkrg Nc ; Sc
A multiphase inertial coecient for gas, bg , can be expressed in terms of the
gas single-phase inertial coecient, b0 , and gas relative permeability
expressed as (Wang and Mohanty, 2000).
bg b0 k
2
rg Nc ; Sc : 4
From correlations, a b0 value of 5.0E9 m-1 was selected based on a formation
permeability of 0.022 D.
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY ESTIMATION FOR RESERVOIRS 295
Table III. Relative permeability models: Forward model and simplied forms

Forward Relative Permeability Input Parameters Desaturation Threshold

Model curve slope Ncth
(DCS)
Srimm Srth kimm kth Eimm Eth

Gas 0.18 0 1 1 2 1 )0.35 1E)2

condensate
0.20 0 1 1 3 1 )0.35 1E)2

Determination of phase residual saturation and Corey Exponent for Nc < Ncth given by:

Sra Nc Srth DCSSrimm
Srth log Nc
log Ncth ; 0 < Sra < Srimm
Sra Nc
Srth 
Ea Nc 1 Eimm
Eth
Srimm
Srth 

Simplied krg*(Nc, Sc, Re) krc (Nc, Sc)

functional forms


1
Sc
Swc Eg Nc

Ec Nc
1
Swc Sc
I. 1Re 1
Swc



GC GC
IA. Eg Nc G log 1:0 Ec Nc C  log 1:0
Nc Nc



1E
2 1E
2
IB. Eg Nc G log 1:0 Ec Nc C  log 1:0
Nc Nc

Nc > 1E
2; Ea Nc 1


1
Sc
Swc Eg Nc

Ec Nc
1
Swc Sc
Src Nc
II.
1 Re 1
Swc
Src Nc



1E
2 1E
2
Eg Nc G log 1:0 Ec Nc C  log 1:0
Nc Nc


1E
2
Src Nc CR log
Nc
Nc > 1E
2; Ea Nc 1 Src 0

Through rearrangement of the multiphase Forchheimer equation the

inertial term can be lumped into an eective gas relative permeability
dependent upon capillary number, saturation and Reynolds number ex-
pressed as (Whitson et al., 1999):
krg Nc ; Sc krg Nc ; Sc
krg Nc ; Sc ; Re : 5
bg qg kkrg Vg 1 Re
1
lg
296 J. F. APP AND K. K. MOHANTY

The multiphase Forchheimer equation (Equation 3) then becomes

dp lg Vg
: 6
dr kkrg

4. Simplied Relative Permeability Correlations for Gas and Condensate

4.1. SIMPLIFIED CORRELATIONS FOR krg * AND krc
Simplied correlations or functional forms for krg* and krc were selected to
resemble a Corey type relation. The advantage of the simplied correlations
over the forward relative permeability model is that they contain fewer
parameters. This is benecial from a history-matching standpoint.
Table III contains the two simplied correlations investigated in this
study. The eective gas relative permeability, krg*, is dependent upon satu-
ration, capillary number and Reynolds number. The condensate relative
permeability, krc, is considered only saturation and capillary number
dependent.
For correlation I, only the Corey exponent, Ea , is a function of capillary
number, Nc. Residual saturation for both gas and condensates are considered
to be zero since the capillary numbers within the near wellbore region ap-
proach the threshold value of 1E2. In correlation IA, the gas phase term is
modeled by adjusting the parameters, G and GC and the condensate term is
modeled by adjusting the parameters C and GC. The common parameter GC
represents the capillary threshold number, i.e., where the ow properties
become linear with saturation. Three distinct parameters are required to
represent both phases in correlation IA. Correlation IB is similar to IA except
that the parameter GC is held constant at the capillary number threshold
value of 1E2. Two parameters are required to represent both phases in
correlation IB.
In correlation II the Corey exponent, Ea Nc, is modeled for both the gas
and condensate phases in addition to the residual saturation, Src, for the
condensate phase. Since condensate is considered the wetting phase an
assumption of zero residual saturation may not be accurate as is assumed in
Correlation I. Correlation II is a three-parameter model.
The gas relative permeability was not expressed in terms of the krg/krc
ratio and the capillary number as suggested by previous investigators
(Fevang and Whitson, 1995). This formulation is based on steady state
multiphase ow of gas and condensate and well deliverability estimates are
generally based on a single krg/krc ratio representative of the near wellbore
region. These estimates are made at various stages of reservoir depletion.
As a reservoir depletes, the krg/krc ratio increases in response to the gas
mixture becoming leaner. The time duration for this process is on the
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY ESTIMATION FOR RESERVOIRS 297

order of years as opposed to hours or days for a typical well test. As will
be shown later, krg* as a function of the krg*/krc ratio cannot be used to
simulate the pressure response in a well test.

4.2. HISTORY MATCHING krg * AND krc CORRELATIONS

The estimation process involved adjusting the parameters in the gas and
condensate relative permeability correlations to match the owing
bottom-hole pressures generated from the numerical multi-rate well test. A
compositional simulator was used in the regression analysis. A Levenberg
Marquardt algorithm with constraints was used in the regression analysis.
In the regression procedure the Reynolds number was calculated
according to the following equation:
qg Vg rt
Re ; 7
/Sg lg
where Vg is the Darcy or supercial velocity and rt is an average pore throat
radius. This diers from form used in the forward modeling in that it is
independent of the gas relative permeability and assumes a value for the
characteristic length, rt. Both forms, however, are dimensionless and repre-
sent a Reynolds number for ow through porous media. A pore throat radius
of 8E6 m was selected based on the following correlation (Liang et al.,
2000) relating permeability to pore throat radius, porosity and tortuosity (s)
103 rt 2 /
k : 8
32s2

Figure 1. Numerically simulated well test.

298 J. F. APP AND K. K. MOHANTY

Table IV. Data from numerical multi-rate well test

Rate # Qg Qc Min Nc Re Sc (%) Pore GOR

(m3/d) (m3/d) FBHP velocity (m3/m3)
(kPa) (m/d)

1 144,330 154 33.10E3 9.92E)4 0.51 0.40 279 931

2 240,550 243 30.90E3 4.81E)4 0.90 0.44 503 987
3 336,770 326 28.48E3 2.52E)4 1.45 0.46 760 1036

5. Results
5.1. REVIEW OF NUMERICAL WELL TEST DATA
Figure 1 represents a owing bottom-hole pressure plot for the simulated
well test. The test consists of three increasing rates followed by a pressure
buildup. The duration of each rate is 6 h with the buildup lasting 6 h.
Table IV lists specic information for each rate of the test. The data shown in
Table IV represents conditions at the end of each ow period. The capillary
number, Reynolds number and condensate saturation are maximum values
from the two-phase region within the reservoir. The gas interstitial velocity is
determined at a radial distance of approximately one-half meter from the
wellbore. Figures 26 represent proles within the two-phase region of the
reservoir at the end of each rate period. Within the gures the solid lines
represent simulations with inertial eects and the dashed lines represent
simulations without inertial eects included in the gas phase. These are dis-
cussed in detail below.

5.1.1. Pressure Distribution

The pressure distribution within the reservoir at the end of each rate period is
shown in Figure 2. Without inertial eects the reservoir pressure appears to

Figure 2. Pressure distribution within the reservoir.

RELATIVE PERMEABILITY ESTIMATION FOR RESERVOIRS 299

Figure 3. Capillary number distribution.

Figure 4. Condensate saturation prole within the reservoir.

Figure 5. Gas intersitial velocity distribution within the reservoir.

300 J. F. APP AND K. K. MOHANTY

Figure 6. Eective gas relative permeability, krg*.

vary semilog linearly with respect to the reservoir radius. In actual fact, the
pressure response is slightly non-linear due to the capillary number depen-
dent relative permeabilities. As the rates increase the pressures decrease in
response to the higher withdrawal rates. Inertial eects create additional
pressure drop resulting in lower pressures for identical rates.

5.1.2. Capillary Number Prole

The capillary number behavior is shown in Figure 3. At the onset of the two-
phase region the capillary numbers decrease. This is due to the increase in
interfacial tension between the gas and condensate caused by the reduction in
reservoir pressure. The capillary numbers then start increasing due to the
increase in phase velocities as the ow converges towards the wellbore.
Figure 3 clearly shows that capillary numbers are inversely proportional to
rate; lower capillary numbers are observed for higher rates. This is based on
lower reservoir pressures required for higher rates that causes an increase in
the interfacial tension between the gas and condensate. Apparently, the in-
crease in interfacial tension overrides the increase in the phase velocities at
the higher rates. Inertial eects, which increase the pressure drop for a given
rate, increase the capillary number for a given rate and radial location. This
eect is more pronounced within the near wellbore region where phase
velocities and pressure drop are higher.

5.1.3. Condensate Saturation Prole

Condensate saturation as function of radial distance is shown in Figure 4.
A two-phase region extends nearly 350 m into the reservoir by the end of the
third rate. Condensate saturations increase as the ow converges towards the
wellbore. This is due to condensate dropout from the gas phase in response to
the decrease in reservoir pressure. For a given radial position, the condensate
saturations increase with rate. This is also due to increased retrograde con-
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY ESTIMATION FOR RESERVOIRS 301

densation due to lower reservoir pressures at increased rates. The impact of

inertial eects is to reduce the condensate saturation within the near wellbore
region. This is the velocity stripping eect which has been documented by
previous investigators (Henderson et al., 1997). This is the result of a coupled
eect between the eective gas relative permeability and condensate relative
permeability. Inertial eects more severely impact eective gas relative
permeability than condensate relative permeability, which translates into a
larger reduction in gas mobility than condensate mobility. Interestingly, the
velocity stripping eect was not observed when inertial eects were not
considered in the gas phase.

5.1.4. Interstitial Gas Velocity Prole

Interstitial gas velocities as a function of radial distance are shown in
Figure 5. Only values with inertial eects included in the gas phase are
presented. Interstitial velocities increase as the ow converges towards the
wellbore. Gas velocities reach nearly 1800 m/d at the maximum gas rate of
336,770 m3/d. Also shown in Figure 5 is the product rVr plotted as a function
of radial distance. For radial distances less than 20 m this product reaches a
constant value for each rate. The Reynolds number prole mimics the
interstitial gas velocity prole.

5.1.5. Eective Gas Relative Permeability

Eective gas relative permeability versus radial distance is illustrated in
Figure 6. For a given rate, eective gas relative permeability increases with
radial distance in response to increasing gas saturations. With respect to
rates, eective gas relative permeability decreases with increasing rates. This
is in response to reduced gas saturations caused by increased condensate
dropout at the lower reservoir pressures. Inertial eects begin to impact the
eective gas relative permeability at distance of between 3 and 6 m from the
wellbore.

5.1.6. krg  =krc Ratio

From the numerical well test, a semilog linear relationship was developed
between the eective gas relative permeability, krg*, and the krg*/krc ratio.
Using this relationship, an unsuccessful attempt was made to match the
owing pressures. This is shown in Figure 7 which shows the poor match
between the simulated and observed pressures.

5.2. krg * AND krc ESTIMATION (HISTORY MATCH)

Through non-linear regression the eective gas and condensate relative
permeabilities were recovered by matching the owing bottom-hole pressures
generated from the numerical well test. The only adjustable parameters in the
regression process were contained within the relative permeability
302 J. F. APP AND K. K. MOHANTY

Figure 7. Pressure simulation; krg* expressed as a function of krg*/krc ratio.

expressions. All other parameters such as uid properties, absolute perme-

ability, b0 , mechanical skin and ow rates were assumed known. (Mechanical
skin and permeability can be determined from a single rate test followed by a
buildup with owing bottom-hole pressures maintained above dew point.
This requires a reservoir with sucient productivity and separation between
dew point and initial reservoir pressure.)
The regression results are summarized in Table V. Several key regressions
will be discussed in detail below. For each regression the initial and nal
parameter values are tabulated. The pressures selected for history matching
were the last ve points at the end of each ow period. These are highlighted
in Figure 8. All regressions were performed using a single layer model.
Success of each regression can be measured by comparing the initial and nal
residual values. The residual represents the sum of the absolute value dif-
ferences between the predicted and observed owing bottom-hole pressures.
In general, starting pressures at the beginning of each regression were no
more than 1400 kPa above or below the observed pressures.
The threshold capillary number is found to be the most inuential
parameter, represented by the parameter GC in the correlations. Regressions
were more successful when the threshold capillary number was regressed
upon. This is apparent by inspection of the regression results; success was
high with correlation IA while low with correlations IB and II. The param-
eters G and C, representing the slope of the desaturation curve, had negligible
impact on the success of the regressions compared to the threshold capillary
number parameter.
Figure 8 represents a set of regression results using correlation IA, with
b 6 0 and a single layer system. The solid lines represent the owing bot-
tom-hole pressures generated by the initial estimate for the eective gas and
condensate relative permeabilities. Dierent initial estimates were achieved
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY ESTIMATION FOR RESERVOIRS 303
Table V. Regression summary

HM# G C GC CR Initial/nal residual

Correlation IA, b 6 0, single layer

1A 0.18/0.179 0.42/0.419 1.00E)3/3.84E)3 1641/41
1B 0.08/0.090 0.39/0.392 6.25E)3/3.84E)3 581/173
1C 0.18/0.184 0.42/0.42 6.00E)3/3.71E)3 643/35
1D 0.18/0.178 0.42/0.422 9.00E)3/3.88E)3 1254/42
1E 0.09/0.081 0.39/0.395 3.00E)3/9.70E)3 1242/394
1F 0.09/0.094 0.39/0.387 4.00E)3/1.03E)2 1022/231
1G 0.14/0.141 0.39/0.393 9.00E)3/6.32E)3 419/104

Correlation IB, b 6 0, single layer

2A 0.060/0.087 0.300/0.331 IE)2 (xed) 1006/521
2B 0.030/0.061 0.420/0.420 IE)2 (xed) 987/564
2C 0.180/0.101 0.420/0.434 IE)2 (xed) 1420/144
2D 0.055/0.090 0.420/0.417 IE)2 (xed) 647/216
2E 0.080/0.140 0.300/0.290 IE)2 (xed) 748/141
2F 0.040/0.077 0.300/0.311 IE)2 (xed) 1253/746
2H 0.030/0.116 0.200/0.224 IE)2 (xed) 1737/622
2G 0.080/0.100 0.420/0.433 IE)2 (xed) 320/148

Correlation II, b 6 0, single layer

3A 0.087/0.101 0.086/0.092 0.013/0.028 1502/1063
3B 0.130/0.134 0.217/0.216 0.013/0.016 282/202
3C 0.217/0.216 0.217/0.217 0.013/0.012 1110/1086

Correlation IA, b 6 0, two layer, system, history matched with single layer
4A 0.08/0.099 0.42/0.379 2.00E)3/1.14E)2 2139/237
4B 0.18/0.176 0.42/0.424 9.00E)3/2.96E)3 2626/29

Correlation IA, b 0, single layer

5A 0.14/0.132 0.42/0.403 6.00E)3/2.61E)3 888/76
5B 0.18/0.186 0.42/0.422 9.00E)3/1.67E)3 2188/146

by adjusting the parameters in the relative permeability correlations. All

four regressions were successful based on the low nal residual values.
Convergence was achieved with initial estimates both above and below the
observed pressures.
A homogeneous, single layer system has been considered thus far. All
reservoirs have some degree of heterogeneity. Heterogeneity was introduced
by generating owing bottom-hole pressure data with a two-layer model with
dierent horizontal permeability assigned to each layer. The observed data
was then history matched with a single layer model. A single layer model was
304 J. F. APP AND K. K. MOHANTY

Figure 8. Regressions using correlation IA.

selected to history match the owing bottom-hole pressures due to diculties

often encountered in properly characterizing a heterogeneous reservoir.
Regression results were successful using correlation IA (in which threshold
capillary number was allowed to vary) for initial estimates both above and
below the observed pressures.
History matches to owing bottom-hole pressures generated without
inertial eects (b 0) considered within the forward simulations are sum-
marized in Table V to illustrate the versatility of both the regression tech-
nique and the simplied relative permeability correlations. Both history
match cases, 5A and 5B, were successful based on the nal residual values.
Correlation IA was used in these regressions.
Condence intervals (99%) were established for the estimated eective gas
and condensate relative permeabilities using correlation IA. The condence
intervals were determined from linearized covariance analysis (Kerig and
Watson, 1986). Figure 9 represents the estimated eective gas relative per-
meabilities and condence intervals. The dashed lines represent the condence
intervals that nearly overlay the estimated relative permeabilities. This rep-
resents a low degree of uncertainty for the estimated relative permeabilities.

6. Field Test Examples: krg * and krc Estimation

The preceding methodology for estimating eective gas and condensate rel-
ative permeabilities was applied to two eld well tests. The uid systems and
reservoir properties are similar to the numerically generated well test. Both
eld tests are three-rate ow after ow tests followed by pressure buildups.
Table VI contains rate, owing bottom-hole pressure and GOR data for
both tests.
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY ESTIMATION FOR RESERVOIRS 305

Figure 9. 99% condence limits for krg* estimation.

6.1. FIELD TEST #1

The bottom-hole pressure history for this test is shown in Figure 10. Analysis
of the pressure buildup using derivative analysis (Thompson et al., 1993)
provided initial estimates for the total skin and permeability of 33 and
0.031 D respectively. The net thickness of the tested interval was 15.3 m.
Figure 11 represents the pressure derivative and pressure dierence (Dp) plot
of the buildup pressures. The pressure dierence, or Dp, is the change in
pressure from the time the well was shut-in and the pressure derivative is
dened as the derivative of Dp with respect to the natural log of time. The
units of both Dp and the pressure derivative are kPa. The downward trend in
the derivative was interpreted as an increase in reservoir permeability
thickness. The total skin value does not represent the mechanical skin due to
the possibility of two-phase conditions present within the near wellbore re-
gion. The calculated total skin value lumps the mechanical skin due to
drilling or completion damage and the additional pressure drop (skin) due to

Table VI. Field test #1 and #2 production data

Rate # Qg (m3/d) Qc (m3/d) Min FBHP (kPa) GOR (m3/m3) Duration (days)

Field test #1
1 152,820 220 34.6E3 696 0.39
2 223,570 303 31.1E3 737 0.34
3 272,246 350 28.2E3 778 0.43

Field test #2
1 138,670 221 33.8E3 629 0.43
2 203,760 311 29.7E3 654 0.43
3 237,720 350 27.5E3 680 0.57
306 J. F. APP AND K. K. MOHANTY

Figure 10. Field test #1: history match using krg* and krc correlations, radial composite
model, skin zone permeability 0.0028 D.

two-phase ow. Accurate mechanical skin estimation is possible only if the

two-phase eects are correctly modeled. The krg* and krc correlations should
provide an accurate representation of the two-phase eects. These correla-
tions incorporate both inertial and capillary number eects in addition to
reduced ow capacity due to the presence of two mobile phases. Assuming
the two-phase eects are correctly modeled, the additional pressure drop
within the near wellbore region can be attributed to mechanical skin.
The well test was numerically simulated as a single layer with an increase
in permeability within the outer cells to account for the permeabilitythick-
ness increase based on the derivative response. This represents a radial
composite reservoir model in which the reservoir is divided into two con-
centric rings of dierent permeability. The inner ring represents the near-

Figure 11. Field test #1: derivative match using radial composite model.
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY ESTIMATION FOR RESERVOIRS 307

wellbore permeability (outside the skin zone) and the outer ring represents
the far eld permeability.
The well test owing bottom-hole pressures were initially simulated using
the krg* and krc correlations determined from the regression analysis of the
synthetic data for b 6 0. As previously stated, the correlations incorporate
both inertial and the capillary number eects. For a given rate, inertial eects
reduce the owing pressures while the capillary number eects, for two-phase
ow conditions, increase the owing bottom-hole pressures. Mechanical skin
was assumed to be zero. Figure 10 illustrates a comparison of the simulated
owing bottom-hole pressures to the observed pressures. The simulated
bottom-hole pressures represent single-phase ow within the wellbore and
reservoir (dew point 34,818 kPa) and are signicantly higher than the
observed pressures. The simulated pressures representing the last rate are
nearly 10,340 kPa higher than the observed pressures.
To reduce the simulated pressures, either the single-phase inertial coe-
cient and/or the mechanical skin, representing near wellbore damage, must
be increased. Modifying the relative permeability correlations will have no
impact as the simulated pressures are within the single-phase region. An
unacceptably large increase in the single-phase inertial coecient would be
required to increase the pressure drop to match the observed pressures. The
remaining adjustable parameter is mechanical skin. Mechanical skin is
modeled by reducing the permeability of the cells nearest the wellbore to
represent a skin zone.
A skin zone radius of 0.92 m, skin zone permeability of 0.0028 D, near
wellbore permeability of 0.025 D (outside of skin zone) and far eld per-
meability of 0.054 D provided a match to both the pressures and the log-log
derivative. The increase in reservoir permeability was modeled at a radial
distance of 145 m. The pressure match is shown in Figure 10 and the
derivative match is shown in Figure 11. The skin zone radius and perme-
ability values represent a mechanical skin of 13.4 which is substantially lower
than the total skin value of 33 estimated from single phase pressure analysis.
Also shown in Figure 10 is a simulation using the krg* and krc correlations
developed from forward modeling with b 0 and a mechanical skin of 13.4.
For this example, neglecting inertial eects underpredicts the observed
pressures by nearly 480 kPa for the highest rate.
Figure 12 represents the pressure prole within the reservoir at the end of
each rate. Based on a dew point pressure of 34,818 kPa two-phase ow
conditions exist only within the skin zone. Beyond the skin zone, the ow is
single phase. Also apparent from this plot is that the majority of the pressure
drop occurs at radial distances of less than 3 m from the wellbore.
Regressing upon the skin zone permeability and formation permeabilities
using the compositional simulator was not possible due to numerical di-
culties. Due to the large pressure drop and saturation changes within the
308 J. F. APP AND K. K. MOHANTY

Figure 12. Field test #1: pressure distribution within reservoir (skin zone permeabil-
ity 0.0028 D).

near-wellbore region, stability of the solver used in the compositional sim-

ulator required extremely small time-steps. Multiple forward calculations
based on updated relative permeability values from an optimization routine
were therefore not feasible. Hence, the skin zone and reservoir parameters
were determined by manual history matching.

6.2. FIELD TEST #2

The bottom-hole pressure history for this test is shown in Figure 13. A total
skin of 56 and a permeability of 0.035 D were estimated from the pressure
buildup using pressure derivative analysis. The net thickness of the tested
interval was 16.8 m which is equal to the perforated interval. The perme-
ability is considered accurate as the buildup pressures were on the average
4825 kPa above dew point.
The pressure derivative response of the buildup represents a partial pen-
etration completion. This is represented by a spherical ow regime on a
derivative plot as illustrated in Figure 14. Numerical simulation of this test
requires a layered model to properly represent the partial penetration eect.
The total skin value (estimated from the late radial region) includes
mechanical skin, two-phase skin and geometric skin due to spherical ow.
Numerical diculties prohibited properly representing the system with a
layered model. Consequently, a single layer model, which simulates radial
ow, was used to represent the system. The mechanical skin from this model
will be overstated, as the model does not incorporate the additional pressure
drop due to spherical ow.
A skin zone radius of 0.91 m and a skin zone permeability of 0.002 D
provided a match to the owing bottom-hole pressures. These values rep-
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY ESTIMATION FOR RESERVOIRS 309

Figure 13. Field test #2: history match using krg* and krc correlations, radial model,
(skin zone permeability 0.002 D).

resent a mechanical skin of 29. Figure 13 illustrates the match to the ob-
served pressures using the krg* and krc relative permeability correlations
and a mechanical skin of 0 and 29. The simulated pressures using a
mechanical skin of 29 essentially overlay the measured pressures. Figure 13
also illustrates a simulation using the krg* and krc correlations developed
from forward modeling with b 0 and a mechanical skin of 29. Neglecting
inertial eects under predicts the observed pressures by nearly 480 kPa for
the highest rate.
Figure 15 represents the pressure prole within the reservoir at the end of
each rate. Similar to eld test #1 two-phase ow conditions exist only within
the skin zone. Beyond the skin zone the ow is single phase.

Figure 14. Field test #2: derivative plot of buildup illustrating spherical ow due partial
penetration eects.
310 J. F. APP AND K. K. MOHANTY

Figure 15. Field test #2: pressure distribution (skin zone permeability 0.002 D).

7. Well Test Design for Relative Permeability Estimation

The following procedure is recommended for relative permeability estimation
from a well test.

7.1. FORWARD SIMULATION

Perform forward simulations using a compositional simulator to estimate
rates and ow duration to develop two phases within the near wellbore
region. Relative permeability estimation requires that pressures fall below the
dew point within the near wellbore region. Information required for the
forward modeling is an EOS representing the uid system, an estimate of
reservoir permeability and mechanical skin, capillary number dependent
relative permeability expressions and a relationship relating the multiphase
inertial coecient to gas relative permeability. The single-phase inertial
coecient can be obtained from correlations. The pressure drop between the
design rates should be sucient to evaluate inertial eects. Initial parameter
estimates for the simplied relative permeability relations should be devel-
oped from the data generated from the forward simulations.

7.2. TEST DESIGN

1. Perform a single rate test followed by a buildup to estimate permeability

and mechanical skin. A low yet stable rate is recommended to minimize
inertial eects and possibly maintain owing bottom-hole pressures above
dew point. This may not be achievable for low permeability systems if the
reservoir is only slightly undersaturated. If owing bottom-hole pressures
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY ESTIMATION FOR RESERVOIRS 311

fall below dew point the calculated skin may be higher than the true
mechanical skin. With a low ow rate this dierence will be minimized.
The permeability should be accurate as the wellbore buildup pressures
should be above dew point.
2. Modify the rate schedule determined from the forward simulations based
on the permeability and mechanical skin information obtained from the
low rate test.
3. Once the well test has been performed, perform relative permeability
estimation by matching the observed owing bottom-hole pressures
through non-linear regression.

8. Conclusions
This study investigated the coupled behavior of inertial and capillary number
eects on gas and condensate relative permeabilities for a low permeability,
rich gas-condensate system. Key observations and conclusions from this
study are as follows:
1. Inertial eects signicantly reduce the eective gas relative permeability
within the near wellbore region. As rates increase the reduction in eective
gas relative permeability becomes more pronounced. The impact on
condensate relative permeabilities is less pronounced.
2. Eective gas and condensate relative permeabilities can be estimated from
a properly designed multi-rate well test. The estimated relative perme-
abilities treat the inertial and capillary number eects in a coupled manner
and not independently. These results should be used with caution because
eective relative permeabilities are represented with simplied correlations
(three parameters).
3. For the low permeability, rich gas-condensate system studied here, the
velocity stripping eect within the near wellbore region is dependent upon
gas phase inertial eects.

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