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Semiorder 2
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Chapter 1
1/32/3 conjecture
In order theory, a branch of mathematics, the 1/32/3 conjecture states that, if one is comparison sorting a set
of items then, no matter what comparisons may have already been performed, it is always possible to choose the
next comparison in such a way that it will reduce the number of possible sorted orders by a factor of 2/3 or better.
Equivalently, in every nite partially ordered set that is not totally ordered, there exists a pair of elements x and y with
the property that at least 1/3 and at most 2/3 of the linear extensions of the partial order place x earlier than y.
1.1 Example
The partial order formed by three elements a, b, and c with a single comparability relationship, a b, has three linear
extensions, a b c, a c b, and c a b. In all three of these extensions, a is earlier than b. However, a
is earlier than c in only two of them, and later than c in the third. Therefore, the pair of a and c have the desired
property, showing that this partial order obeys the 1/32/3 conjecture.
This example shows that the constants 1/3 and 2/3 in the conjecture are tight; if q is any fraction strictly between
1/3 and 2/3, then there would not exist a pair x, y in which x is earlier than y in a number of partial orderings that is
between q and 1 q times the total number of partial orderings.[1]
More generally, let P be any series composition of three-element partial orders and of one-element partial orders,
such as the one in the gure. Then P forms an extreme case for the 1/32/3 conjecture in the sense that, for each
pair x, y of elements, one of the two elements occurs earlier than the other in at most 1/3 of the linear extensions of
P. Partial orders with this structure are necessarily series-parallel semiorders; they are the only known extreme cases
for the conjecture and can be proven to be the only extreme cases with width two.[2]
1.2 Denitions
A partially ordered set is a set X together with a binary relation that is reexive, antisymmetric, and transitive.
A total order is a partial order in which every pair of elements is comparable. A linear extension of a nite partial
order is a sequential ordering of the elements of X, with the property that if x y in the partial order, then x must
come before y in the linear extension. In other words, it is a total order compatible with the partial order. If a nite
partially ordered set is totally ordered, then it has only one linear extension, but otherwise it will have more than one.
The 1/32/3 conjecture states that one can choose two elements x and y such that, among this set of possible linear
extensions, between 1/3 and 2/3 of them place x earlier than y, and symmetrically between 1/3 and 2/3 of them place
y earlier than x.[3]
There is an alternative and equivalent statement of the 1/32/3 conjecture in the language of probability theory.
One may dene a uniform probability distribution on the linear extensions in which each possible linear extension is
equally likely to be chosen. The 1/32/3 conjecture states that, under this probability distribution, there exists a pair
of elements x and y such that the probability that x is earlier than y in a random linear extension is between 1/3 and
2/3.[3]
Kahn & Saks (1984) dene (P), for any partially ordered set P, to be the largest real number such that P has a pair
x, y with x earlier than y in a number of linear extensions that is between and 1 of the total number of linear
2
1.3. HISTORY 3
extensions. In this notation, the 1/32/3 conjecture states that every nite partial order that is not total has (P)
1/3.
1.3 History
The 1/32/3 conjecture was formulated by Kislitsyn (1968), and later made independently by Michael Fredman[4] and
by Nati Linial (1984).[3] It was listed as a featured unsolved problem at the founding of the journal Order, and remains
unsolved;[3] Brightwell, Felsner & Trotter (1995) call it one of the most intriguing problems in the combinatorial
theory of posets.
A survey of the conjecture is given by Brightwell (1999).
1.4 Partial results

The 1/32/3 conjecture is known to be true for certain special classes of partial orders, including partial orders of
width two,[5] partial orders of height two,[6] partial orders with at most 11 elements,[7] partial orders in which each
element is incomparable to at most six others,[8] series-parallel partial orders,[9] and semiorders.[10] In the limit as n
goes to innity, the proportion of n-element partial orders that obey the 1/32/3 conjecture approaches 100%.[7]
Brightwell, Felsner & Trotter (1995) proved that, for any nite partial order P that is not total, (P) 1/2 5/10
0.276. Their results improve previous weaker bounds of the same type.[11] They use the probabilistic interpretation of
(P) to extend its denition to certain innite partial orders; in that context, they show that their bounds are optimal,
in that there exist innite partial orders with (P) = 1/2 5/10.
1.5 Applications
Kahn & Saks (1984) proposed the following application for the problem: suppose one wishes to comparison sort a
totally ordered set X, for which some partial order information is already known in the form of a partial order on X.
In the worst case, each additional comparison between a pair x and y of elements may yield as little information as
possible, by resolving the comparison in a way that leaves as many linear extensions as possible compatible with the
comparison result. The 1/32/3 conjecture states that, at each step, one may choose a comparison to perform that
reduces the remaining number of linear extensions by a factor of 2/3; therefore, if there are E linear extensions of
the partial order given by the initial information, the sorting problem can be completed in at most log/E additional
comparisons.
However, this analysis neglects the complexity of selecting the optimal pair x and y to compare. Additionally, it
may be possible to sort a partial order using a number of comparisons that is better than this analysis would suggest,
because it may not be possible for this worst-case behavior to occur at each step of a sorting algorithm. In this
direction, it has been conjectured that logE comparisons may suce, where denotes the golden ratio.[7]
A closely related class of comparison sorting problems is considered by Fredman (1976), among them the problem
of comparison sorting a set X when the sorted order of X is known to lie in some set S of permutations of X. Here S
is not necessarily generated as the set of linear extensions of a partial order. Despite this added generality, Fredman
shows that X can be sorted using log2 |S| + O(|X|) comparisons. This same bound applies as well to the case of partial
orders and shows that log2 E + O(n) comparisons suce.
1.6 Generalizations and related results

Kahn & Saks (1984) conjectured that, in the limit as w tends to innity, the value of (P) for partially ordered sets
of width w should tend to 1/2. In particular, they expect that only partially ordered sets of width two can achieve the
worst case value (P) = 1/3, and Aigner (1985) stated this explicitly as a conjecture. The smallest known value of
(P) for posets of width three is 14/39,[12] and computer searches have shown that no smaller value is possible for
width-3 posets with nine or fewer elements.[6]
4 CHAPTER 1. 1/32/3 CONJECTURE
Marcin Peczarski[7][8] has formulated a gold partition conjecture stating that in each partial order that is not a total
order one can nd two consecutive comparisons such that, if ti denotes the number of linear extensions remaining
after i of the comparisons have been made, then (in each of the four possible outcomes of the comparisons) t 0
t 1 + t 2 . If this conjecture is true, it would imply the 1/32/3 conjecture: the rst of the two comparisons must be
between a pair that splits the remaining comparisons by at worst a 1/32/3 ratio. The gold partition conjecture would
also imply that a partial order with E linear extensions can be sorted in at most logE comparisons; the name of the
conjecture is derived from this connection with the golden ratio.
It is #P-complete, given a nite partial order P and a pair of elements x and y, to calculate the proportion of the linear
extensions of P that place x earlier than y.[13]
1.7 Notes
[1] Kahn & Saks (1984); Brightwell, Felsner & Trotter (1995).
[2] Aigner (1985).
[3] Brightwell, Felsner & Trotter (1995).
[4] However, despite the close connection of Fredman (1976) to the problem of sorting partially ordered data and hence to the
1/32/3 conjecture, it is not mentioned in that paper.
[5] Linial (1984), Theorem 2.
[6] Trotter, Gehrlein & Fishburn (1992).
[7] Peczarski (2006).
[8] Peczarski (2008).
[9] Zaguia (2012)
[10] Brightwell (1989).
[11] Kahn & Saks (1984); Khachiyan (1989); Kahn & Linial (1991); Felsner & Trotter (1993).
[12] Saks (1985).
[13] Brightwell & Winkler (1991).
1.8 References
Aigner, Martin (1985), A note on merging, Order, 2 (3): 257264, doi:10.1007/BF00333131 (inactive
2017-01-19).
Brightwell, Graham R. (1989), Semiorders and the 1/32/3 conjecture, Order, 5 (4): 369380, doi:10.1007/BF00353656.
Brightwell, Graham R. (1999), Balanced pairs in partial orders, Discrete Mathematics, 201 (13): 2552,
doi:10.1016/S0012-365X(98)00311-2.
Brightwell, Graham R.; Felsner, Stefan; Trotter, William T. (1995), Balancing pairs and the cross product
conjecture, Order, 12 (4): 327349, MR 1368815, doi:10.1007/BF01110378.
Brightwell, Graham R.; Winkler, Peter (1991), Counting linear extensions, Order, 8 (3): 225242, doi:10.1007/BF00383444.
Felsner, Stefan; Trotter, William T. (1993), Balancing pairs in partially ordered sets, Combinatorics, Paul
Erds is eighty, Bolyai Society Mathematical Studies, 1, Budapest: Jnos Bolyai Mathematical Society, pp.
145157, MR 1249709.
Fredman, M. L. (1976), How good is the information theory bound in sorting?", Theoretical Computer Science,
1 (4): 355361, doi:10.1016/0304-3975(76)90078-5
Kahn, Je; Linial, Nati (1991), Balancing extensions via Brunn-Minkowski, Combinatorica, 11 (4): 363
368, doi:10.1007/BF01275670.
1.8. REFERENCES 5
Kahn, Je; Saks, Michael (1984), Balancing poset extensions, Order, 1 (2): 113126, doi:10.1007/BF00565647.
Khachiyan, Leonid (1989), Optimal algorithms in convex programming decomposition and sorting, in Jar-
avlev, J., Computers and Decision Problems (in Russian), Moscow: Nauka, pp. 161205. As cited by Brightwell,
Felsner & Trotter (1995).
Kislitsyn, S. S. (1968), A nite partially ordered set and its corresponding set of permutations, Mathematical
Notes, 4 (5): 798801, doi:10.1007/BF01111312.
Linial, Nati (1984), The information-theoretic bound is good for merging, SIAM Journal on Computing, 13
(4): 795801, doi:10.1137/0213049.
Peczarski, Marcin (2006), The gold partition conjecture, Order, 23 (1): 8995, doi:10.1007/s11083-006-
9033-1.
Peczarski, Marcin (2008), The gold partition conjecture for 6-thin posets, Order, 25 (2): 91103, doi:10.1007/s11083-
008-9081-9.
Saks, Michael (1985), Balancing linear extensions of ordered sets, Unsolved problems, Order, 2: 327330,
doi:10.1007/BF00333138 (inactive 2017-01-19)
Trotter, William T.; Gehrlein, William V.; Fishburn, Peter C. (1992), Balance theorems for height-2 posets,
Order, 9 (1): 4353, doi:10.1007/BF00419038.
Zaguia, Imed (2012), The 1/3-2/3 Conjecture for N-free ordered sets, Electronic Journal of Combinatorics,
19 (2): P29.
6 CHAPTER 1. 1/32/3 CONJECTURE
Chapter 2
Allegory (category theory)
In the mathematical eld of category theory, an allegory is a category that has some of the structure of the category
of sets and binary relations between them. Allegories can be used as an abstraction of categories of relations, and in
this sense the theory of allegories is a generalization of relation algebra to relations between dierent sorts. Allegories
are also useful in dening and investigating certain constructions in category theory, such as exact completions.
In this article we adopt the convention that morphisms compose from right to left, so RS means rst do S, then do
R".
2.1 Denition
An allegory is a category in which
every morphism R : X Y is associated with an anti-involution, i.e. a morphism R : Y X with satisfying

R = R and (RS) = SR; and
every pair of morphisms R,S : X Y with common domain/codomain is associated with an intersection, i.e.
a morphism RS : X Y
all such that
intersections are idempotent (RR = R), commutative (RS = SR), and associative (RS)T = R(ST);
anti-involution distributes over intersection ((RS) = SR);
composition is semi-distributive over intersection (R(ST)RSRT, (RS)TRTST); and
the modularity law is satised: (RST(RTS)S).
Here, we are abbreviating using the order dened by the intersection: "RS" means "R = RS".
A rst example of an allegory is the category of sets and relations. The objects of this allegory are sets, and a morphism
X Y is a binary relation between X and Y. Composition of morphisms is composition of relations; intersection of
morphisms is intersection of relations.
2.2 Regular categories and allegories
2.2.1 Allegories of relations in regular categories

In a category C, a relation between objects X, Y is a span of morphisms XRY that is jointly-monic. Two such
spans XSY and XTY are considered equivalent when there is an isomorphism between S and T that make
everything commute, and strictly speaking relations are only dened up to equivalence (one may formalise this either
7
8 CHAPTER 2. ALLEGORY (CATEGORY THEORY)
using equivalence classes or using bicategories). If the category C has products, a relation between X and Y is the
same thing as a monomorphism into XY (or an equivalence class of such). In the presence of pullbacks and a proper
factorization system, one can dene the composition of relations. The composition of XRYSZ is found by
rst pulling back the cospan RYS and then taking the jointly-monic image of the resulting span XRSZ.
Composition of relations will be associative if the factorization system is appropriately stable. In this case one can
consider a category Rel(C), with the same objects as C, but where morphisms are relations between the objects. The
identity relations are the diagonals XXX.
Recall that a regular category is a category with nite limits and images in which covers are stable under pullback. A
regular category has a stable regular epi/mono factorization system. The category of relations for a regular category
is always an allegory. Anti-involution is dened by turning the source/target of the relation around, and intersections
are intersections of subobjects, computed by pullback.
2.2.2 Maps in allegories, and tabulations

A morphism R in an allegory A is called a map if it is entire (1RR) and deterministic (RR1). Another way of
saying this: a map is a morphism that has a right adjoint in A, when A is considered, using the local order structure,
as a 2-category. Maps in an allegory are closed under identity and composition. Thus there is a subcategory Map(A)
of A, with the same objects but only the maps as morphisms. For a regular category C, there is an isomorphism of
categories CMap(Rel(C)). In particular, a morphism in Map(Rel(Set)) is just an ordinary set function.
In an allegory, a morphism R:XY is tabulated by a pair of maps f:ZX, g:ZY if gf=R and ffgg=1. An
allegory is called tabular if every morphism has a tabulation. For a regular category C, the allegory Rel(C) is always
tabular. On the other hand, for any tabular allegory A, the category Map(A) of maps is a locally regular category: it
has pullbacks, equalizers and images that are stable under pullback. This is enough to study relations in Map(A) and,
in this setting, ARel(Map(A)).
2.2.3 Unital allegories and regular categories of maps

A unit in an allegory is an object U for which the identity is the largest morphism UU, and such that from every
other object there is an entire relation to U. An allegory with a unit is called unital. Given a tabular allegory A, the
category Map(A) is a regular category (it has a terminal object) if and only if A is unital.
2.2.4 More sophisticated kinds of allegory

Additional properties of allegories can be axiomatized. Distributive allegories have a union-like operation that is
suitably well-behaved, and division allegories have a generalization of the division operation of relation algebra.
Power allegories are distributive division allegories with additional powerset-like structure. The connection between
allegories and regular categories can be developed into a connection between power allegories and toposes.
2.3 References
Peter Freyd, Andre Scedrov (1990). Categories, Allegories. Mathematical Library Vol 39. North-Holland.
ISBN 978-0-444-70368-2.
Peter Johnstone (2003). Sketches of an Elephant: A Topos Theory Compendium. Oxford Science Publications.
OUP. ISBN 0-19-852496-X.
Chapter 3
Alternating multilinear map
In mathematics, more specically in multilinear algebra, an alternating multilinear map is a multilinear map with
all arguments belonging to the same space (e.g., a bilinear form or a multilinear form) that is zero whenever any two
adjacent arguments are equal.
The notion of alternatization (or alternatisation in British English) is used to derive an alternating multilinear map
from any multilinear map with all arguments belonging to the same space.
3.1 Denition
A multilinear map of the form f : V n W is said to be alternating if f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = 0 whenever there exists
1 i n 1 such that xi = xi+1 . [1][2]
3.2 Example
In a Lie algebra, the multiplication is an alternating bilinear map called the Lie bracket.
3.3 Properties
If any distinct pair of components of an alternating multilinear map are equal, then such a map is zero:[1][3]
f (x1 , . . . , xi , . . . , xj , . . . , xn ) = 0 whenever there exist i and j such that i < j and xi = xj .
If the components of an alternating multilinear map are linearly dependent, then such a map is zero.
If any component xi of an alternating multilinear map is replaced by xi + c xj for any j i and c in the base ring
R, then the value of that map is not changed.[3]
Every alternating multilinear map is antisymmetric.[4]
If n! is a unit in the base ring R, then every antisymmetric n-multilinear form is alternating.
3.4 Alternatization
map of the form f : V W , the alternating multilinear map g : V W dened by

n n
Given a multilinear
g(x1 , . . . , xn ) := Sn sgn()f (x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) is said to be the alternatization of f .
Properties
9
10 CHAPTER 3. ALTERNATING MULTILINEAR MAP
The alternatization of an n-multilinear alternating map is n! times itself.
The alternatization of a symmetric map is zero.

The alternatization of a bilinear map is bilinear. Most notably, the alternatization of any cocycle is bilinear. This
fact plays a crucial role in identifying the second cohomology group of a lattice with the group of alternating
bilinear forms on a lattice.
3.5 See also

Alternating algebra
Bilinear map
Exterior algebra Alternating multilinear forms
Map (mathematics)
Multilinear algebra
Multilinear map
Multilinear form
Symmetrization
3.6 Notes
[1] Lang 2002, pp. 511512.
[2] Bourbaki 2007, p. A III.80, 4.
[3] Dummit & Foote 2004, p. 436.
[4] Rotman 1995, p. 235.
3.7 References
Bourbaki, N. (2007). Elments de mathmatique. Algbre Chapitres 1 3 (reprint ed.). Springer.
Dummit, David S.; Foote, Richard M. (2004). Abstract Algebra (3rd ed.). Wiley.
Lang, Serge (2002). Algebra. Graduate Texts in Mathematics. 211 (revised 3rd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-0-
387-95385-4. OCLC 48176673.
Rotman, Joseph J. (1995). An Introduction to the Theory of Groups. Graduate Texts in Mathematics. 148 (4th
ed.). Springer. ISBN 0-387-94285-8. OCLC 30028913.
Chapter 4
Antisymmetric relation
In mathematics, a binary relation R on a set X is anti-symmetric if there is no pair of distinct elements of X each of
which is related by R to the other. More formally, R is anti-symmetric precisely if for all a and b in X
if R(a,b) and R(b,a), then a = b,
or, equivalently,
if R(a,b) with a b, then R(b,a) must not hold.
As a simple example, the divisibility order on the natural numbers is an anti-symmetric relation. And what anti-
symmetry means here is that the only way each of two numbers can be divisible by the other is if the two are, in fact,
the same number; equivalently, if n and m are distinct and n is a factor of m, then m cannot be a factor of n.
In mathematical notation, this is:
a, b X, (aRb bRa) a = b
or, equivalently,
a, b X, (aRb a = b bRa).
The usual order relation on the real numbers is anti-symmetric: if for two real numbers x and y both inequalities
x y and y x hold then x and y must be equal. Similarly, the subset order on the subsets of any given set is
anti-symmetric: given two sets A and B, if every element in A also is in B and every element in B is also in A, then A
and B must contain all the same elements and therefore be equal:
ABB AA=B
Partial and total orders are anti-symmetric by denition. A relation can be both symmetric and anti-symmetric (e.g.,
the equality relation), and there are relations which are neither symmetric nor anti-symmetric (e.g., the preys on
relation on biological species).
Anti-symmetry is dierent from asymmetry, which requires both anti-symmetry and irreexivity.
4.1 Examples
The relation "x is even, y is odd between a pair (x, y) of integers is anti-symmetric:
11
12 CHAPTER 4. ANTISYMMETRIC RELATION
Every asymmetric relation is also an anti-symmetric relation.
4.2 See also

Symmetric relation
Asymmetric relation
Symmetry in mathematics
4.3 References
Weisstein, Eric W. Antisymmetric Relation. MathWorld.
Lipschutz, Seymour; Marc Lars Lipson (1997). Theory and Problems of Discrete Mathematics. McGraw-Hill.
p. 33. ISBN 0-07-038045-7.
Chapter 5
Better-quasi-ordering
In order theory a better-quasi-ordering or bqo is a quasi-ordering that does not admit a certain type of bad array.
Every bqo is well-quasi-ordered.
5.1 Motivation
Though wqo is an appealing notion, many important innitary operations do not preserve wqoness. An example
due to Richard Rado illustrates this.[1] In a 1965 paper Crispin Nash-Williams formulated the stronger notion of
bqo in order to prove that the class of trees of height is wqo under the topological minor relation.[2] Since then,
many quasi-orders have been proven to be wqo by proving them to be bqo. For instance, Richard Laver established
Frass's conjecture by proving that the class of scattered linear order types is bqo.[3] More recently, Carlos Martinez-
Ranero has proven that, under the Proper Forcing Axiom, the class of Aronszajn lines is bqo under the embeddability
relation.[4]
5.2 Denition
It is common in bqo theory to write x for the sequence x with the rst term omitted. Write []< for the set of
nite, strictly increasing sequences with terms in , and dene a relation on []< as follows: s t if and only if
there is u such that s is a strict initial segment of u and t = u . Note that the relation is not transitive.

A block is an innite subset B of []< that contains an initial segment of every innite subset of B . For a quasi-
order Q a Q -pattern is a function from a block B into Q . A Q -pattern f : B Q is said to be bad if f (s) Q f (t)
for every pair s, t B such that s t ; otherwise f is good. A quasi-order Q is better-quasi-ordered (bqo) if there is
no bad Q -pattern.
In order to make this denition easier to work with, Nash-Williams denes a barrier to be a block whose elements
are pairwise incomparable under the inclusion relation . A Q -array is a Q -pattern whose domain is a barrier. By
observing that every block contains a barrier, one sees that Q is bqo if and only if there is no bad Q -array.
5.3 Simpsons alternative denition
Simpson introduced an alternative denition of bqo in terms of Borel maps [] Q , where [] , the set of innite
subsets of , is given the usual (product) topology.[5]
Let Q be a quasi-order and endow Q with the discrete topology. A Q -array is a Borel function [A] Q for
some innite subset A of . A Q -array f is bad if f (X) Q f ( X) for every X [A] ; f is good otherwise.
The quasi-order Q is bqo if there is no bad Q -array in this sense.
13
14 CHAPTER 5. BETTER-QUASI-ORDERING
5.4 Major theorems

Many major results in bqo theory are consequences of the Minimal Bad Array Lemma, which appears in Simpsons
paper[5] as follows. See also Lavers paper,[6] where the Minimal Bad Array Lemma was rst stated as a result. The
technique was present in Nash-Williams original 1965 paper.
Suppose (Q, Q ) is a quasi-order. A partial ranking of Q is a well-founded partial ordering of Q such that
q r q Q r . For bad Q -arrays (in the sense of Simpson) f : [A] Q and g : [B] Q , dene:
g f if B A and g(X) f (X) every for X [B]
g < f if B A and g(X) < f (X) every for X [B]

We say a bad Q -array g is minimal bad (with respect to the partial ranking ) if there is no bad Q -array f such
that f < g . Note that the denitions of and < depend on a partial ranking of Q . Note also that the relation
< is not the strict part of the relation .
Theorem (Minimal Bad Array Lemma). Let Q be a quasi-order equipped with a partial ranking and suppose f is a
bad Q -array. Then there is a minimal bad Q -array g such that g f .
5.5 See also

Well-quasi-ordering
Well-order
5.6 References
[1] Rado, Richard (1954). Partial well-ordering of sets of vectors. Mathematika. 1 (2): 8995. MR 0066441. doi:10.1112/S0025579300000565.
[2] Nash-Williams, C. St. J. A. (1965). On well-quasi-ordering innite trees. Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society. 61 (3): 697720. Bibcode:1965PCPS...61..697N. ISSN 0305-0041. MR 0175814. doi:10.1017/S0305004100039062.
[3] Laver, Richard (1971). On Fraisses Order Type Conjecture. The Annals of Mathematics. 93 (1): 89111. JSTOR
1970754. doi:10.2307/1970754.
[4] Martinez-Ranero, Carlos (2011). Well-quasi-ordering Aronszajn lines. Fundamenta Mathematicae. 213 (3): 197211.
ISSN 0016-2736. MR 2822417. doi:10.4064/fm213-3-1.
[5] Simpson, Stephen G. (1985). BQO Theory and Frass's Conjecture. In Manseld, Richard; Weitkamp, Galen. Recursive
Aspects of Descriptive Set Theory. The Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press. pp. 12438. ISBN 978-0-19-503602-2.
MR 786122.
[6] Laver, Richard (1978). Better-quasi-orderings and a class of trees. In Rota, Gian-Carlo. Studies in foundations and
combinatorics. Academic Press. pp. 3148. ISBN 978-0-12-599101-8. MR 0520553.
Chapter 6
Bidirectional transformation
In computer programming, bidirectional transformations (bx) are programs in which a single piece of code can
be run in several ways, such that the same data are sometimes considered as input, and sometimes as output. For
example, a bx run in the forward direction might transform input I into output O, while the same bx run backward
would take as input versions of I and O and produce a new version of I as its output.
Bidirectional model transformations are an important special case in which a model is input to such a program.
Some bidirectional languages are bijective. The bijectivity of a language is a severe restriction of its bidirectionality,[1]
because a bijective language is merely relating two dierent ways to present the very same information.
More general is a lens language, in which there is a distinguished forward direction (get) that takes a concrete input
to an abstract output, discarding some information in the process: the concrete state includes all the information that
is in the abstract state, and usually some more. The backward direction (put) takes a concrete state and an abstract
state and computes a new concrete state. Lenses are required to obey certain conditions to ensure sensible behaviour.
The most general case is that of symmetric bidirectional transformations. Here the two states that are related typically
share some information, but each also includes some information that is not included in the other.
6.1 Usage
Bidirectional transformations can be used to:
Maintain the consistency of several sources of information[2]
Provide an 'abstract view' to easily manipulate data and write them back to their source
6.2 Vocabulary
A bidirectional program which obeys certain round-trip laws is called a lens.
6.3 Examples of implementations

Boomerang is a programming language which allows writing lenses to process text data formats bidirectionally
Augeas is a conguration management library whose lens language is inspired by the Boomerang project
biXid is a programming language for processing XML data bidirectionally[3]
XSugar allows translation from XML to non-XML formats[4]
15
16 CHAPTER 6. BIDIRECTIONAL TRANSFORMATION
6.4 See also

Bidirectionalization
Reverse computation
6.5 References
[1] http://grace.gsdlab.org/images/e/e2/Nate-short.pdf
[2] http://www.cs.cornell.edu/~{}jnfoster/papers/grace-report.pdf
[3] http://arbre.is.s.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~{}hahosoya/papers/bixid.pdf
[4] http://www.brics.dk/xsugar/
6.6 External links

GRACE International Meeting on Bidirectional Transformations
Bidirectional Transformations: The Bx Wiki

Chapter 7
Bijection
X Y
1 D
2 B
3 C
4 A
A bijective function, f: X Y, where set X is {1, 2, 3, 4} and set Y is {A, B, C, D}. For example, f(1) = D.
In mathematics, a bijection, bijective function or one-to-one correspondence is a function between the elements
of two sets, where each element of one set is paired with exactly one element of the other set, and each element of the
other set is paired with exactly one element of the rst set. There are no unpaired elements. In mathematical terms,
17
18 CHAPTER 7. BIJECTION
a bijective function f: X Y is a one-to-one (injective) and onto (surjective) mapping of a set X to a set Y.
A bijection from the set X to the set Y has an inverse function from Y to X. If X and Y are nite sets, then the existence
of a bijection means they have the same number of elements. For innite sets the picture is more complicated, leading
to the concept of cardinal number, a way to distinguish the various sizes of innite sets.
A bijective function from a set to itself is also called a permutation.
Bijective functions are essential to many areas of mathematics including the denitions of isomorphism, homeomorphism,
dieomorphism, permutation group, and projective map.
7.1 Denition
For more details on notation, see Function (mathematics) Notation.
For a pairing between X and Y (where Y need not be dierent from X) to be a bijection, four properties must hold:
1. each element of X must be paired with at least one element of Y,

2. no element of X may be paired with more than one element of Y,
3. each element of Y must be paired with at least one element of X, and
4. no element of Y may be paired with more than one element of X.
Satisfying properties (1) and (2) means that a bijection is a function with domain X. It is more common to see
properties (1) and (2) written as a single statement: Every element of X is paired with exactly one element of Y.
Functions which satisfy property (3) are said to be "onto Y " and are called surjections (or surjective functions).
Functions which satisfy property (4) are said to be "one-to-one functions" and are called injections (or injective
functions).[1] With this terminology, a bijection is a function which is both a surjection and an injection, or using
other words, a bijection is a function which is both one-to-one and onto.
Bijections are sometimes denoted by a two-headed rightwards arrow with tail (U+2916 RIGHTWARDS TWO-
HEADED ARROW WITH TAIL), as in f : X Y. This symbol is a combination of the two-headed rightwards arrow
(U+21A0 RIGHTWARDS TWO HEADED ARROW) sometimes used to denote surjections and the rightwards
arrow with a barbed tail (U+21A3 RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH TAIL) sometimes used to denote injections.
7.2 Examples
7.2.1 Batting line-up of a baseball or cricket team

Consider the batting line-up of a baseball or cricket team (or any list of all the players of any sports team where every
player holds a specic spot in a line-up). The set X will be the players on the team (of size nine in the case of baseball)
and the set Y will be the positions in the batting order (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.) The pairing is given by which player
is in what position in this order. Property (1) is satised since each player is somewhere in the list. Property (2) is
satised since no player bats in two (or more) positions in the order. Property (3) says that for each position in the
order, there is some player batting in that position and property (4) states that two or more players are never batting
in the same position in the list.
7.2.2 Seats and students of a classroom

In a classroom there are a certain number of seats. A bunch of students enter the room and the instructor asks them
all to be seated. After a quick look around the room, the instructor declares that there is a bijection between the set
of students and the set of seats, where each student is paired with the seat they are sitting in. What the instructor
observed in order to reach this conclusion was that:
1. Every student was in a seat (there was no one standing),

7.3. MORE MATHEMATICAL EXAMPLES AND SOME NON-EXAMPLES 19
2. No student was in more than one seat,
3. Every seat had someone sitting there (there were no empty seats), and
4. No seat had more than one student in it.
The instructor was able to conclude that there were just as many seats as there were students, without having to count
either set.
7.3 More mathematical examples and some non-examples

For any set X, the identity function 1X: X X, 1X(x) = x, is bijective.
The function f: R R, f(x) = 2x + 1 is bijective, since for each y there is a unique x = (y 1)/2 such that f(x)
= y. In more generality, any linear function over the reals, f: R R, f(x) = ax + b (where a is non-zero) is a
bijection. Each real number y is obtained from (paired with) the real number x = (y - b)/a.
The function f: R (-/2, /2), given by f(x) = arctan(x) is bijective since each real number x is paired
with exactly one angle y in the interval (-/2, /2) so that tan(y) = x (that is, y = arctan(x)). If the codomain
(-/2, /2) was made larger to include an integer multiple of /2 then this function would no longer be onto
(surjective) since there is no real number which could be paired with the multiple of /2 by this arctan function.
The exponential function, g: R R, g(x) = ex , is not bijective: for instance, there is no x in R such that g(x) =
1, showing that g is not onto (surjective). However, if the codomain is restricted to the positive real numbers
R+ (0, +) , then g becomes bijective; its inverse (see below) is the natural logarithm function ln.
The function h: R R+ , h(x) = x2 is not bijective: for instance, h(1) = h(1) = 1, showing that h is not one-
0 [0, +) , then h becomes bijective; its inverse
to-one (injective). However, if the domain is restricted to R+
is the positive square root function.
7.4 Inverses
A bijection f with domain X (indicated by f: X Y in functional notation) also denes a relation starting in Y and
going to X (by turning the arrows around). The process of turning the arrows around for an arbitrary function does
not, in general, yield a function, but properties (3) and (4) of a bijection say that this inverse relation is a function with
domain Y. Moreover, properties (1) and (2) then say that this inverse function is a surjection and an injection, that is,
the inverse function exists and is also a bijection. Functions that have inverse functions are said to be invertible. A
function is invertible if and only if it is a bijection.
Stated in concise mathematical notation, a function f: X Y is bijective if and only if it satises the condition
for every y in Y there is a unique x in X with y = f(x).
Continuing with the baseball batting line-up example, the function that is being dened takes as input the name of
one of the players and outputs the position of that player in the batting order. Since this function is a bijection, it has
an inverse function which takes as input a position in the batting order and outputs the player who will be batting in
that position.
7.5 Composition
The composition gf of two bijections f: X Y and g: Y Z is a bijection. The inverse of gf is (g f )1 =
(f 1 ) (g 1 ) .
Conversely, if the composition g f of two functions is bijective, we can only say that f is injective and g is surjective.
X Y Z
1 D P
2 B Q
3 C R
A bijection composed of an injection (left) and a surjection (right).
7.6 Bijections and cardinality

If X and Y are nite sets, then there exists a bijection between the two sets X and Y if and only if X and Y have
the same number of elements. Indeed, in axiomatic set theory, this is taken as the denition of same number of
elements (equinumerosity), and generalising this denition to innite sets leads to the concept of cardinal number,
a way to distinguish the various sizes of innite sets.
7.7 Properties
A function f: R R is bijective if and only if its graph meets every horizontal and vertical line exactly once.
If X is a set, then the bijective functions from X to itself, together with the operation of functional composition
(), form a group, the symmetric group of X, which is denoted variously by S(X), SX, or X! (X factorial).
Bijections preserve cardinalities of sets: for a subset A of the domain with cardinality |A| and subset B of the
codomain with cardinality |B|, one has the following equalities:
|f(A)| = |A| and |f 1 (B)| = |B|.
If X and Y are nite sets with the same cardinality, and f: X Y, then the following are equivalent:
1. f is a bijection.
2. f is a surjection.
3. f is an injection.
For a nite set S, there is a bijection between the set of possible total orderings of the elements and the set of
bijections from S to S. That is to say, the number of permutations of elements of S is the same as the number
of total orderings of that setnamely, n!.
7.8. BIJECTIONS AND CATEGORY THEORY 21
7.8 Bijections and category theory

Bijections are precisely the isomorphisms in the category Set of sets and set functions. However, the bijections are not
always the isomorphisms for more complex categories. For example, in the category Grp of groups, the morphisms
must be homomorphisms since they must preserve the group structure, so the isomorphisms are group isomorphisms
which are bijective homomorphisms.
7.9 Generalization to partial functions

The notion of one-to-one correspondence generalizes to partial functions, where they are called partial bijections,
although partial bijections are only required to be injective. The reason for this relaxation is that a (proper) partial
function is already undened for a portion of its domain; thus there is no compelling reason to constrain its inverse
to be a total function, i.e. dened everywhere on its domain. The set of all partial bijections on a given base set is
called the symmetric inverse semigroup.[2]
Another way of dening the same notion is to say that a partial bijection from A to B is any relation R (which turns
out to be a partial function) with the property that R is the graph of a bijection f:A B, where A is a subset of A
and B is a subset of B.[3]
When the partial bijection is on the same set, it is sometimes called a one-to-one partial transformation.[4] An
example is the Mbius transformation simply dened on the complex plane, rather than its completion to the extended
complex plane.[5]
7.10 Contrast with

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
Multivalued function
7.11 See also

Bijection, injection and surjection
Symmetric group
Bijective numeration
Bijective proof
Category theory
AxGrothendieck theorem
7.12 Notes
[1] There are names associated to properties (1) and (2) as well. A relation which satises property (1) is called a total relation
and a relation satisfying (2) is a single valued relation.
[2] Christopher Hollings (16 July 2014). Mathematics across the Iron Curtain: A History of the Algebraic Theory of Semigroups.
American Mathematical Society. p. 251. ISBN 978-1-4704-1493-1.
[3] Francis Borceux (1994). Handbook of Categorical Algebra: Volume 2, Categories and Structures. Cambridge University
Press. p. 289. ISBN 978-0-521-44179-7.
[4] Pierre A. Grillet (1995). Semigroups: An Introduction to the Structure Theory. CRC Press. p. 228. ISBN 978-0-8247-
9662-4.
[5] John Meakin (2007). Groups and semigroups: connections and contrasts. In C.M. Campbell, M.R. Quick, E.F. Robert-
son, G.C. Smith. Groups St Andrews 2005 Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 367. ISBN 978-0-521-69470-4.
preprint citing Lawson, M. V. (1998). The Mbius Inverse Monoid. Journal of Algebra. 200 (2): 428. doi:10.1006/jabr.1997.7242.
7.13 References
This topic is a basic concept in set theory and can be found in any text which includes an introduction to set theory.
Almost all texts that deal with an introduction to writing proofs will include a section on set theory, so the topic may
be found in any of these:
Wolf (1998). Proof, Logic and Conjecture: A Mathematicians Toolbox. Freeman.
Sundstrom (2003). Mathematical Reasoning: Writing and Proof. Prentice-Hall.

Smith; Eggen; St.Andre (2006). A Transition to Advanced Mathematics (6th Ed.). Thomson (Brooks/Cole).
Schumacher (1996). Chapter Zero: Fundamental Notions of Abstract Mathematics. Addison-Wesley.

O'Leary (2003). The Structure of Proof: With Logic and Set Theory. Prentice-Hall.
Morash. Bridge to Abstract Mathematics. Random House.

Maddox (2002). Mathematical Thinking and Writing. Harcourt/ Academic Press.
Lay (2001). Analysis with an introduction to proof. Prentice Hall.
Gilbert; Vanstone (2005). An Introduction to Mathematical Thinking. Pearson Prentice-Hall.

Fletcher; Patty. Foundations of Higher Mathematics. PWS-Kent.
Iglewicz; Stoyle. An Introduction to Mathematical Reasoning. MacMillan.

Devlin, Keith (2004). Sets, Functions, and Logic: An Introduction to Abstract Mathematics. Chapman & Hall/
CRC Press.
D'Angelo; West (2000). Mathematical Thinking: Problem Solving and Proofs. Prentice Hall.
Cupillari. The Nuts and Bolts of Proofs. Wadsworth.

Bond. Introduction to Abstract Mathematics. Brooks/Cole.
Barnier; Feldman (2000). Introduction to Advanced Mathematics. Prentice Hall.

Ash. A Primer of Abstract Mathematics. MAA.
7.14 External links

Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001) [1994], Bijection, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Science+Business
Media B.V. / Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
Weisstein, Eric W. Bijection. MathWorld.
Earliest Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics: entry on Injection, Surjection and Bijection has the history
of Injection and related terms.
Chapter 8
In mathematics, injections, surjections and bijections are classes of functions distinguished by the manner in which
arguments (input expressions from the domain) and images (output expressions from the codomain) are related or
mapped to each other.
A function maps elements from its domain to elements in its codomain. Given a function f : X Y
The function is injective (one-to-one) if every element of the codomain is mapped to by at most one element
of the domain. An injective function is an injection. Notationally:
x, x X, f (x) = f (x ) x = x .
Or, equivalently (using logical transposition),
x, x X, x = x f (x) = f (x ).
The function is surjective (onto) if every element of the codomain is mapped to by at least one element of the
domain. (That is, the image and the codomain of the function are equal.) A surjective function is a surjection.
Notationally:
y Y, x X that such y = f (x).
The function is bijective (one-to-one and onto or one-to-one correspondence) if every element of the
codomain is mapped to by exactly one element of the domain. (That is, the function is both injective and
surjective.) A bijective function is a bijection.
An injective function need not be surjective (not all elements of the codomain may be associated with arguments),
and a surjective function need not be injective (some images may be associated with more than one argument). The
four possible combinations of injective and surjective features are illustrated in the diagrams to the right.
8.1 Injection
Main article: Injective function
A function is injective (one-to-one) if every possible element of the codomain is mapped to by at most one argument.
Equivalently, a function is injective if it maps distinct arguments to distinct images. An injective function is an
injection. The formal denition is the following.
The function f : X Y is injective i for all x, x X , we have f (x) = f (x ) x = x .
A function f : X Y is injective if and only if X is empty or f is left-invertible; that is, there is a function g :
f(X) X such that g o f = identity function on X. Here f(X) is the image of f.
23
24 CHAPTER 8. BIJECTION, INJECTION AND SURJECTION
X Y Z
1 D P
2 B Q
3 C R
A S
Injective composition: the second function need not be injective.
Since every function is surjective when its codomain is restricted to its image, every injection induces a bijection
onto its image. More precisely, every injection f : X Y can be factored as a bijection followed by an inclusion
as follows. Let fR : X f(X) be f with codomain restricted to its image, and let i : f(X) Y be the inclusion
map from f(X) into Y. Then f = i o fR. A dual factorisation is given for surjections below.
The composition of two injections is again an injection, but if g o f is injective, then it can only be concluded
that f is injective. See the gure at right.
Every embedding is injective.
8.2 Surjection
Main article: Surjective function
A function is surjective (onto) if every possible image is mapped to by at least one argument. In other words, every
element in the codomain has non-empty preimage. Equivalently, a function is surjective if its image is equal to its
codomain. A surjective function is a surjection. The formal denition is the following.
The function f : X Y is surjective i for all y Y , there is x X such that f (x) = y.
A function f : X Y is surjective if and only if it is right-invertible, that is, if and only if there is a function
g: Y X such that f o g = identity function on Y. (This statement is equivalent to the axiom of choice.)
By collapsing all arguments mapping to a given xed image, every surjection induces a bijection dened on a
quotient of its domain. More precisely, every surjection f : X Y can be factored as a non-bijection followed
by a bijection as follows. Let X/~ be the equivalence classes of X under the following equivalence relation: x
~ y if and only if f(x) = f(y). Equivalently, X/~ is the set of all preimages under f. Let P(~) : X X/~ be the
projection map which sends each x in X to its equivalence class [x]~, and let fP : X/~ Y be the well-dened
function given by fP([x]~) = f(x). Then f = fP o P(~). A dual factorisation is given for injections above.
The composition of two surjections is again a surjection, but if g o f is surjective, then it can only be concluded
that g is surjective. See the gure.
8.3. BIJECTION 25
X Y Z
1 D P
2 B Q
3 C R
4 A
Surjective composition: the rst function need not be surjective.
8.3 Bijection
Main article: Bijective function
A function is bijective if it is both injective and surjective. A bijective function is a bijection (one-to-one corre-
spondence). A function is bijective if and only if every possible image is mapped to by exactly one argument. This
equivalent condition is formally expressed as follow.
The function f : X Y is bijective i for all y Y , there is a unique x X such that f (x) = y.
A function f : X Y is bijective if and only if it is invertible, that is, there is a function g: Y X such that
g o f = identity function on X and f o g = identity function on Y. This function maps each image to its unique
preimage.
The composition of two bijections is again a bijection, but if g o f is a bijection, then it can only be concluded
that f is injective and g is surjective. (See the gure at right and the remarks above regarding injections and
surjections.)
The bijections from a set to itself form a group under composition, called the symmetric group.
8.4 Cardinality
Suppose you want to dene what it means for two sets to have the same number of elements. One way to do this is
to say that two sets have the same number of elements if and only if all the elements of one set can be paired with
the elements of the other, in such a way that each element is paired with exactly one element. Accordingly, we can
dene two sets to have the same number of elements if there is a bijection between them. We say that the two sets
have the same cardinality.
Likewise, we can say that set X has fewer than or the same number of elements as set Y if there is an injection
from X to Y . We can also say that set X has fewer than the number of elements in set Y if there is an injection
from X to Y but not a bijection between X and Y .
26 CHAPTER 8. BIJECTION, INJECTION AND SURJECTION
X Y Z
1 D P
2 B Q
3 C R
Bijective composition: the rst function need not be surjective and the second function need not be injective.
8.5 Examples
It is important to specify the domain and codomain of each function since by changing these, functions which we
think of as the same may have dierent jectivity.
8.5.1 Injective and surjective (bijective)
For every set X the identity function idX and thus specically R R : x 7 x .

R+ R+ : x 7 x2 and thus also its inverse R+ R+ : x 7 x .
The exponential function exp : R R+ : x 7 ex and thus also its inverse the natural logarithm ln : R+
R : x 7 ln x
8.5.2 Injective and non-surjective
The exponential function exp : R R : x 7 ex
8.5.3 Non-injective and surjective
R R : x 7 (x 1)x(x + 1) = x3 x
R [1, 1] : x 7 sin(x)
8.5.4 Non-injective and non-surjective
R R : x 7 sin(x)
8.6. PROPERTIES 27
8.6 Properties
For every function f, subset X of the domain and subset Y of the codomain we have X f 1 (f(X)) and
f(f 1 (Y)) Y. If f is injective we have X = f 1 (f(X)) and if f is surjective we have f(f 1 (Y)) = Y.
For every function h : X Y we can dene a surjection H : X h(X) : x h(x) and an injection I : h(X)
Y : x x. It follows that h = I H. This decomposition is unique up to isomorphism.
8.7 Category theory

In the category of sets, injections, surjections, and bijections correspond precisely to monomorphisms, epimorphisms,
and isomorphisms, respectively.
8.8 History
This terminology was originally coined by the Bourbaki group.
8.9 See also

Bijective function
Horizontal line test
Injective module
Injective function
Permutation
Surjective function
8.10 External links

Earliest Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics: entry on Injection, Surjection and Bijection has the history
of Injection and related terms.
Chapter 9
Homogeneous relation
Relation (mathematics)" redirects here. For a more general notion of relation, see nitary relation. For a more
combinatorial viewpoint, see theory of relations. For other uses, see Relation (disambiguation).
In mathematics, a binary relation on a set A is a collection of ordered pairs of elements of A. In other words, it is a
subset of the Cartesian product A2 = A A. More generally, a binary relation between two sets A and B is a subset
of A B. The terms correspondence, dyadic relation and 2-place relation are synonyms for binary relation.
An example is the "divides" relation between the set of prime numbers P and the set of integers Z, in which every
prime p is associated with every integer z that is a multiple of p (but with no integer that is not a multiple of p). In
this relation, for instance, the prime 2 is associated with numbers that include 4, 0, 6, 10, but not 1 or 9; and the
prime 3 is associated with numbers that include 0, 6, and 9, but not 4 or 13.
Binary relations are used in many branches of mathematics to model concepts like "is greater than", "is equal to", and
divides in arithmetic, "is congruent to" in geometry, is adjacent to in graph theory, is orthogonal to in linear
algebra and many more. The concept of function is dened as a special kind of binary relation. Binary relations are
also heavily used in computer science.
A binary relation is the special case n = 2 of an n-ary relation R A1 An, that is, a set of n-tuples where the
jth component of each n-tuple is taken from the jth domain Aj of the relation. An example for a ternary relation on
ZZZ is " ... lies between ... and ..., containing e.g. the triples (5,2,8), (5,8,2), and (4,9,7).
In some systems of axiomatic set theory, relations are extended to classes, which are generalizations of sets. This
extension is needed for, among other things, modeling the concepts of is an element of or is a subset of in set
theory, without running into logical inconsistencies such as Russells paradox.
9.1 Formal denition
A binary relation R between arbitrary sets (or classes) X (the set of departure) and Y (the set of destination or
codomain) is specied by its graph G, which is a subset of the Cartesian product X Y. The binary relation R itself
is usually identied with its graph G, but some authors dene it as an ordered triple (X, Y, G), which is otherwise
referred to as a correspondence.[1]
The statement (x, y) G is read "x is R-related to y", and is denoted by xRy or R(x, y). The latter notation corresponds
to viewing R as the characteristic function of the subset G of X Y, i.e. R(x, y) equals to 1 (true), if (x, y) G, and
0 (false) otherwise.
The order of the elements in each pair of G is important: if a b, then aRb and bRa can be true or false, independently
of each other. Resuming the above example, the prime 3 divides the integer 9, but 9 doesn't divide 3.
The domain of R is the set of all x such that xRy for at least one y. The range of R is the set of all y such that xRy
for at least one x. The eld of R is the union of its domain and its range.[2][3][4]
28
9.2. SPECIAL TYPES OF BINARY RELATIONS 29
9.1.1 Is a relation more than its graph?

According to the denition above, two relations with identical graphs but dierent domains or dierent codomains
are considered dierent. For example, if G = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 7)} , then (Z, Z, G) , (R, N, G) , and (N, R, G) are
three distinct relations, where Z is the set of integers, R is the set of real numbers and N is the set of natural numbers.
Especially in set theory, binary relations are often dened as sets of ordered pairs, identifying binary relations with
their graphs. The domain of a binary relation R is then dened as the set of all x such that there exists at least one
y such that (x, y) R , the range of R is dened as the set of all y such that there exists at least one x such that
(x, y) R , and the eld of R is the union of its domain and its range.[2][3][4]
A special case of this dierence in points of view applies to the notion of function. Many authors insist on distin-
guishing between a functions codomain and its range. Thus, a single rule, like mapping every real number x to
x2 , can lead to distinct functions f : R R and f : R R+ , depending on whether the images under that
rule are understood to be reals or, more restrictively, non-negative reals. But others view functions as simply sets of
ordered pairs with unique rst components. This dierence in perspectives does raise some nontrivial issues. As an
example, the former camp considers surjectivityor being ontoas a property of functions, while the latter sees it
as a relationship that functions may bear to sets.
Either approach is adequate for most uses, provided that one attends to the necessary changes in language, notation,
and the denitions of concepts like restrictions, composition, inverse relation, and so on. The choice between the two
denitions usually matters only in very formal contexts, like category theory.
9.1.2 Example
Example: Suppose there are four objects {ball, car, doll, gun} and four persons {John, Mary, Ian, Venus}. Suppose
that John owns the ball, Mary owns the doll, and Venus owns the car. Nobody owns the gun and Ian owns nothing.
Then the binary relation is owned by is given as
R = ({ball, car, doll, gun}, {John, Mary, Ian, Venus}, {(ball, John), (doll, Mary), (car, Venus)}).
Thus the rst element of R is the set of objects, the second is the set of persons, and the last element is a set of ordered
pairs of the form (object, owner).
The pair (ball, John), denoted by RJ means that the ball is owned by John.
Two dierent relations could have the same graph. For example: the relation
({ball, car, doll, gun}, {John, Mary, Venus}, {(ball, John), (doll, Mary), (car, Venus)})
is dierent from the previous one as everyone is an owner. But the graphs of the two relations are the same.
Nevertheless, R is usually identied or even dened as G(R) and an ordered pair (x, y) G(R)" is usually denoted as
"(x, y) R".[5]
9.2 Special types of binary relations

Some important types of binary relations R between two sets X and Y are listed below. To emphasize that X and Y
can be dierent sets, some authors call such binary relations heterogeneous.[6][7]
Uniqueness properties:
injective (also called left-unique[8] ): for all x and z in X and y in Y it holds that if xRy and zRy then x = z. For
example, the green relation in the diagram is injective, but the red relation is not, as it relates e.g. both x = 5
and z = +5 to y = 25.
functional (also called univalent[9] or right-unique[8] or right-denite[10] ): for all x in X, and y and z in Y
it holds that if xRy and xRz then y = z; such a binary relation is called a partial function. Both relations in
the picture are functional. An example for a non-functional relation can be obtained by rotating the red graph
clockwise by 90 degrees, i.e. by considering the relation x=y2 which relates e.g. x=25 to both y=5 and z=+5.
30 CHAPTER 9. HOMOGENEOUS RELATION
Example relations between real numbers. Red: y=x2 . Green: y=2x+20.
one-to-one (also written 1-to-1): injective and functional. The green relation is one-to-one, but the red is not.
Totality properties (only denable if the sets of departure X resp. destination Y are specied; not to be confused with
a total relation):
left-total:[8] for all x in X there exists a y in Y such that xRy. For example, R is left-total when it is a function
or a multivalued function. Note that this property, although sometimes also referred to as total, is dierent
from the denition of total in the next section. Both relations in the picture are left-total. The relation x=y2 ,
obtained from the above rotation, is not left-total, as it doesn't relate, e.g., x = 14 to any real number y.
surjective (also called right-total[8] or onto): for all y in Y there exists an x in X such that xRy. The green
relation is surjective, but the red relation is not, as it doesn't relate any real number x to e.g. y = 14.
9.3. RELATIONS OVER A SET 31
Uniqueness and totality properties:
A function: a relation that is functional and left-total. Both the green and the red relation are functions.
An injective function: a relation that is injective, functional, and left-total.
A surjective function or surjection: a relation that is functional, left-total, and right-total.
A bijection: a surjective one-to-one or surjective injective function is said to be bijective, also known as
one-to-one correspondence.[11] The green relation is bijective, but the red is not.
9.2.1 Difunctional
Less commonly encountered is the notion of difunctional (or regular) relation, dened as a relation R such that
R=RR1 R.[12]
To understand this notion better, it helps to consider a relation as mapping every element xX to a set xR = { yY
| xRy }.[12] This set is sometimes called the successor neighborhood of x in R; one can dene the predecessor
neighborhood analogously.[13] Synonymous terms for these notions are afterset and respectively foreset.[6]
A difunctional relation can then be equivalently characterized as a relation R such that wherever x1 R and x2 R have a
non-empty intersection, then these two sets coincide; formally x1 R x2 R implies x1 R = x2 R.[12]
As examples, any function or any functional (right-unique) relation is difunctional; the converse doesn't hold. If one
considers a relation R from set to itself (X = Y), then if R is both transitive and symmetric (i.e. a partial equivalence
relation), then it is also difunctional.[14] The converse of this latter statement also doesn't hold.
A characterization of difunctional relations, which also explains their name, is to consider two functions f: A C
and g: B C and then dene the following set which generalizes the kernel of a single function as joint kernel: ker(f,
g) = { (a, b) A B | f(a) = g(b) }. Every difunctional relation R A B arises as the joint kernel of two functions
f: A C and g: B C for some set C.[15]
In automata theory, the term rectangular relation has also been used to denote a difunctional relation. This ter-
minology is justied by the fact that when represented as a boolean matrix, the columns and rows of a difunctional
relation can be arranged in such a way as to present rectangular blocks of true on the (asymmetric) main diagonal.[16]
Other authors however use the term rectangular to denote any heterogeneous relation whatsoever.[7]
9.3 Relations over a set

If X = Y then we simply say that the binary relation is over X, or that it is an endorelation over X.[17] In computer
science, such a relation is also called a homogeneous (binary) relation.[7][17][18] Some types of endorelations are
widely studied in graph theory, where they are known as simple directed graphs permitting loops.
The set of all binary relations Rel(X) on a set X is the set 2X X which is a Boolean algebra augmented with the
involution of mapping of a relation to its inverse relation. For the theoretical explanation see Relation algebra.
Some important properties that a binary relation R over a set X may have are:
reexive: for all x in X it holds that xRx. For example, greater than or equal to () is a reexive relation but
greater than (>) is not.
irreexive (or strict): for all x in X it holds that not xRx. For example, > is an irreexive relation, but is not.
coreexive relation: for all x and y in X it holds that if xRy then x = y.[19] An example of a coreexive relation
is the relation on integers in which each odd number is related to itself and there are no other relations. The
equality relation is the only example of a both reexive and coreexive relation, and any coreexive relation is
a subset of the identity relation.
The previous 3 alternatives are far from being exhaustive; e.g. the red relation y=x2 from the
above picture is neither irreexive, nor coreexive, nor reexive, since it contains the pair
(0,0), and (2,4), but not (2,2), respectively.
symmetric: for all x and y in X it holds that if xRy then yRx. Is a blood relative of is a symmetric relation,
because x is a blood relative of y if and only if y is a blood relative of x.
antisymmetric: for all x and y in X, if xRy and yRx then x = y. For example, is anti-symmetric; so is >, but
vacuously (the condition in the denition is always false).[20]
asymmetric: for all x and y in X, if xRy then not yRx. A relation is asymmetric if and only if it is both
anti-symmetric and irreexive.[21] For example, > is asymmetric, but is not.
transitive: for all x, y and z in X it holds that if xRy and yRz then xRz. For example, is ancestor of is transitive,
while is parent of is not. A transitive relation is irreexive if and only if it is asymmetric.[22]
total: for all x and y in X it holds that xRy or yRx (or both). This denition for total is dierent from left total
in the previous section. For example, is a total relation.
trichotomous: for all x and y in X exactly one of xRy, yRx or x = y holds. For example, > is a trichotomous
relation, while the relation divides on natural numbers is not.[23]
Right Euclidean: for all x, y and z in X it holds that if xRy and xRz, then yRz.
Left Euclidean: for all x, y and z in X it holds that if yRx and zRx, then yRz.
Euclidean: A Euclidean relation is both left and right Euclidean. Equality is a Euclidean relation because if
x=y and x=z, then y=z.
serial: for all x in X, there exists y in X such that xRy. "Is greater than" is a serial relation on the integers. But
it is not a serial relation on the positive integers, because there is no y in the positive integers such that 1>y.[24]
However, "is less than" is a serial relation on the positive integers, the rational numbers and the real numbers.
Every reexive relation is serial: for a given x, choose y=x. A serial relation can be equivalently characterized
as every element having a non-empty successor neighborhood (see the previous section for the denition of this
notion). Similarly an inverse serial relation is a relation in which every element has non-empty predecessor
neighborhood.[13]
set-like (or local): for every x in X, the class of all y such that yRx is a set. (This makes sense only if relations
on proper classes are allowed.) The usual ordering < on the class of ordinal numbers is set-like, while its inverse
> is not.
A relation that is reexive, symmetric, and transitive is called an equivalence relation. A relation that is symmetric,
transitive, and serial is also reexive. A relation that is only symmetric and transitive (without necessarily being
reexive) is called a partial equivalence relation.
A relation that is reexive, antisymmetric, and transitive is called a partial order. A partial order that is total is called
a total order, simple order, linear order, or a chain.[25] A linear order where every nonempty subset has a least element
is called a well-order.
9.4 Operations on binary relations

If R, S are binary relations over X and Y, then each of the following is a binary relation over X and Y:
Union: R S X Y, dened as R S = { (x, y) | (x, y) R or (x, y) S }. For example, is the union of >
and =.
Intersection: R S X Y, dened as R S = { (x, y) | (x, y) R and (x, y) S }.
If R is a binary relation over X and Y, and S is a binary relation over Y and Z, then the following is a binary relation
over X and Z: (see main article composition of relations)
9.4. OPERATIONS ON BINARY RELATIONS 33
Composition: S R, also denoted R ; S (or R S), dened as S R = { (x, z) | there exists y Y, such that (x, y)
R and (y, z) S }. The order of R and S in the notation S R, used here agrees with the standard notational
order for composition of functions. For example, the composition is mother of is parent of yields is
maternal grandparent of, while the composition is parent of is mother of yields is grandmother of.
A relation R on sets X and Y is said to be contained in a relation S on X and Y if R is a subset of S, that is, if x R y
always implies x S y. In this case, if R and S disagree, R is also said to be smaller than S. For example, > is contained
in .
If R is a binary relation over X and Y, then the following is a binary relation over Y and X:
Inverse or converse: R 1 , dened as R 1 = { (y, x) | (x, y) R }. A binary relation over a set is equal to its
inverse if and only if it is symmetric. See also duality (order theory). For example, is less than (<) is the
inverse of is greater than (>).
If R is a binary relation over X, then each of the following is a binary relation over X:
Reexive closure: R = , dened as R = = { (x, x) | x X } R or the smallest reexive relation over X containing
R. This can be proven to be equal to the intersection of all reexive relations containing R.
Reexive reduction: R , dened as R
= R \ { (x, x) | x X } or the largest irreexive relation over X
contained in R.
Transitive closure: R + , dened as the smallest transitive relation over X containing R. This can be seen to be
equal to the intersection of all transitive relations containing R.
Reexive transitive closure: R *, dened as R * = (R + ) = , the smallest preorder containing R.
Reexive transitive symmetric closure: R , dened as the smallest equivalence relation over X containing
R.
9.4.1 Complement
If R is a binary relation over X and Y, then the following too:
The complement S is dened as x S y if not x R y. For example, on real numbers, is the complement of >.
The complement of the inverse is the inverse of the complement.

If X = Y, the complement has the following properties:
If a relation is symmetric, the complement is too.

The complement of a reexive relation is irreexive and vice versa.
The complement of a strict weak order is a total preorder and vice versa.
The complement of the inverse has these same properties.
9.4.2 Restriction
The restriction of a binary relation on a set X to a subset S is the set of all pairs (x, y) in the relation for which x and
y are in S.
If a relation is reexive, irreexive, symmetric, antisymmetric, asymmetric, transitive, total, trichotomous, a partial
order, total order, strict weak order, total preorder (weak order), or an equivalence relation, its restrictions are too.
However, the transitive closure of a restriction is a subset of the restriction of the transitive closure, i.e., in general
not equal. For example, restricting the relation "x is parent of y" to females yields the relation "x is mother of
the woman y"; its transitive closure doesn't relate a woman with her paternal grandmother. On the other hand, the
transitive closure of is parent of is is ancestor of"; its restriction to females does relate a woman with her paternal
grandmother.
Also, the various concepts of completeness (not to be confused with being total) do not carry over to restrictions.
For example, on the set of real numbers a property of the relation "" is that every non-empty subset S of R with an
upper bound in R has a least upper bound (also called supremum) in R. However, for a set of rational numbers this
supremum is not necessarily rational, so the same property does not hold on the restriction of the relation "" to the
set of rational numbers.
The left-restriction (right-restriction, respectively) of a binary relation between X and Y to a subset S of its domain
(codomain) is the set of all pairs (x, y) in the relation for which x (y) is an element of S.
9.4.3 Algebras, categories, and rewriting systems

Various operations on binary endorelations can be treated as giving rise to an algebraic structure, known as relation
algebra. It should not be confused with relational algebra which deals in nitary relations (and in practice also nite
and many-sorted).
For heterogenous binary relations, a category of relations arises.[7]
Despite their simplicity, binary relations are at the core of an abstract computation model known as an abstract
rewriting system.
9.5 Sets versus classes

Certain mathematical relations, such as equal to, member of, and subset of, cannot be understood to be binary
relations as dened above, because their domains and codomains cannot be taken to be sets in the usual systems of
axiomatic set theory. For example, if we try to model the general concept of equality as a binary relation =, we
must take the domain and codomain to be the class of all sets, which is not a set in the usual set theory.
In most mathematical contexts, references to the relations of equality, membership and subset are harmless because
they can be understood implicitly to be restricted to some set in the context. The usual work-around to this problem
is to select a large enough set A, that contains all the objects of interest, and work with the restriction =A instead of
=. Similarly, the subset of relation needs to be restricted to have domain and codomain P(A) (the power set of
a specic set A): the resulting set relation can be denoted A. Also, the member of relation needs to be restricted
to have domain A and codomain P(A) to obtain a binary relation A that is a set. Bertrand Russell has shown that
assuming to be dened on all sets leads to a contradiction in naive set theory.
Another solution to this problem is to use a set theory with proper classes, such as NBG or MorseKelley set theory,
and allow the domain and codomain (and so the graph) to be proper classes: in such a theory, equality, membership,
and subset are binary relations without special comment. (A minor modication needs to be made to the concept of
the ordered triple (X, Y, G), as normally a proper class cannot be a member of an ordered tuple; or of course one
can identify the function with its graph in this context.)[26] With this denition one can for instance dene a function
relation between every set and its power set.
9.6 The number of binary relations

2
The number of distinct binary relations on an n-element set is 2n (sequence A002416 in the OEIS):
Notes:
The number of irreexive relations is the same as that of reexive relations.

The number of strict partial orders (irreexive transitive relations) is the same as that of partial orders.
The number of strict weak orders is the same as that of total preorders.
The total orders are the partial orders that are also total preorders. The number of preorders that are neither
a partial order nor a total preorder is, therefore, the number of preorders, minus the number of partial orders,
minus the number of total preorders, plus the number of total orders: 0, 0, 0, 3, and 85, respectively.
9.7. EXAMPLES OF COMMON BINARY RELATIONS 35
the number of equivalence relations is the number of partitions, which is the Bell number.
The binary relations can be grouped into pairs (relation, complement), except that for n = 0 the relation is its own
complement. The non-symmetric ones can be grouped into quadruples (relation, complement, inverse, inverse com-
plement).
9.7 Examples of common binary relations

order relations, including strict orders:
greater than
greater than or equal to
less than
less than or equal to
divides (evenly)
is a subset of
equivalence relations:
equality
is parallel to (for ane spaces)
is in bijection with
isomorphy
dependency relation, a nite, symmetric, reexive relation.
independency relation, a symmetric, irreexive relation which is the complement of some dependency relation.
9.8 See also

Conuence (term rewriting)
Hasse diagram
Incidence structure
Logic of relatives
Order theory
Triadic relation
9.9 Notes
[1] Encyclopedic dictionary of Mathematics. MIT. 2000. pp. 13301331. ISBN 0-262-59020-4.
[2] Suppes, Patrick (1972) [originally published by D. van Nostrand Company in 1960]. Axiomatic Set Theory. Dover. ISBN
0-486-61630-4.
[3] Smullyan, Raymond M.; Fitting, Melvin (2010) [revised and corrected republication of the work originally published in
1996 by Oxford University Press, New York]. Set Theory and the Continuum Problem. Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-47484-7.
[4] Levy, Azriel (2002) [republication of the work published by Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg and New York in 1979].
Basic Set Theory. Dover. ISBN 0-486-42079-5.
[5] Megill, Norman (5 August 1993). df-br (Metamath Proof Explorer)". Retrieved 18 November 2016.
[6] Christodoulos A. Floudas; Panos M. Pardalos (2008). Encyclopedia of Optimization (2nd ed.). Springer Science & Business
Media. pp. 299300. ISBN 978-0-387-74758-3.
[7] Michael Winter (2007). Goguen Categories: A Categorical Approach to L-fuzzy Relations. Springer. pp. xxi. ISBN
978-1-4020-6164-6.
[8] Kilp, Knauer and Mikhalev: p. 3. The same four denitions appear in the following:
Peter J. Pahl; Rudolf Damrath (2001). Mathematical Foundations of Computational Engineering: A Handbook.
Springer Science & Business Media. p. 506. ISBN 978-3-540-67995-0.
Eike Best (1996). Semantics of Sequential and Parallel Programs. Prentice Hall. pp. 1921. ISBN 978-0-13-
460643-9.
Robert-Christoph Riemann (1999). Modelling of Concurrent Systems: Structural and Semantical Methods in the High
Level Petri Net Calculus. Herbert Utz Verlag. pp. 2122. ISBN 978-3-89675-629-9.
[9] Gunther Schmidt, 2010. Relational Mathematics. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-76268-7, Chapt. 5
[10] Ms, Stephan (2007), Reasoning on Spatial Semantic Integrity Constraints, Spatial Information Theory: 8th International
Conference, COSIT 2007, Melbourne, Australia, September 1923, 2007, Proceedings, Lecture Notes in Computer Science,
4736, Springer, pp. 285302, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74788-8_18
[11] Note that the use of correspondence here is narrower than as general synonym for binary relation.
[12] Chris Brink; Wolfram Kahl; Gunther Schmidt (1997). Relational Methods in Computer Science. Springer Science &
Business Media. p. 200. ISBN 978-3-211-82971-4.
[13] Yao, Y. (2004). Semantics of Fuzzy Sets in Rough Set Theory. Transactions on Rough Sets II. Lecture Notes in Computer
Science. 3135. p. 309. ISBN 978-3-540-23990-1. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-27778-1_15.
[14] William Craig (2006). Semigroups Underlying First-order Logic. American Mathematical Soc. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-8218-
6588-0.
[15] Gumm, H. P.; Zarrad, M. (2014). Coalgebraic Simulations and Congruences. Coalgebraic Methods in Computer Science.
Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 8446. p. 118. ISBN 978-3-662-44123-7. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-44124-4_7.
[16] Julius Richard Bchi (1989). Finite Automata, Their Algebras and Grammars: Towards a Theory of Formal Expressions.
Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 3537. ISBN 978-1-4613-8853-1.
[17] M. E. Mller (2012). Relational Knowledge Discovery. Cambridge University Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-521-19021-3.
[18] Peter J. Pahl; Rudolf Damrath (2001). Mathematical Foundations of Computational Engineering: A Handbook. Springer
Science & Business Media. p. 496. ISBN 978-3-540-67995-0.
[19] Fonseca de Oliveira, J. N., & Pereira Cunha Rodrigues, C. D. J. (2004). Transposing Relations: From Maybe Functions
to Hash Tables. In Mathematics of Program Construction (p. 337).
[20] Smith, Douglas; Eggen, Maurice; St. Andre, Richard (2006), A Transition to Advanced Mathematics (6th ed.), Brooks/Cole,
p. 160, ISBN 0-534-39900-2
[21] Nievergelt, Yves (2002), Foundations of Logic and Mathematics: Applications to Computer Science and Cryptography,
Springer-Verlag, p. 158.
[22] Flaka, V.; Jeek, J.; Kepka, T.; Kortelainen, J. (2007). Transitive Closures of Binary Relations I (PDF). Prague: School
of Mathematics Physics Charles University. p. 1. Lemma 1.1 (iv). This source refers to asymmetric relations as strictly
antisymmetric.
[23] Since neither 5 divides 3, nor 3 divides 5, nor 3=5.
[24] Yao, Y.Y.; Wong, S.K.M. (1995). Generalization of rough sets using relationships between attribute values (PDF).
Proceedings of the 2nd Annual Joint Conference on Information Sciences: 3033..
[25] Joseph G. Rosenstein, Linear orderings, Academic Press, 1982, ISBN 0-12-597680-1, p. 4
[26] Tarski, Alfred; Givant, Steven (1987). A formalization of set theory without variables. American Mathematical Society. p.
3. ISBN 0-8218-1041-3.
9.10. REFERENCES 37
9.10 References
M. Kilp, U. Knauer, A.V. Mikhalev, Monoids, Acts and Categories: with Applications to Wreath Products and
Graphs, De Gruyter Expositions in Mathematics vol. 29, Walter de Gruyter, 2000, ISBN 3-11-015248-7.
Gunther Schmidt, 2010. Relational Mathematics. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-76268-7.
9.11 External links

Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001) [1994], Binary relation, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Science+Business
Chapter 10
Cointerpretability
In mathematical logic, cointerpretability is a binary relation on formal theories: a formal theory T is cointerpretable
in another such theory S, when the language of S can be translated into the language of T in such a way that S proves
every formula whose translation is a theorem of T. The translation here is required to preserve the logical structure
of formulas.
This concept, in a sense dual to interpretability, was introduced by Japaridze (1993), who also proved that, for theories
of Peano arithmetic and any stronger theories with eective axiomatizations, cointerpretability is equivalent to 1
-conservativity.
10.1 See also

Cotolerance
interpretability logic.
Tolerance (in logic)
10.2 References
Japaridze (Dzhaparidze), Giorgi (Giorgie) (1993), A generalized notion of weak interpretability and the corre-
sponding modal logic, Annals of Pure and Applied Logic, 61 (1-2): 113160, MR 1218658, doi:10.1016/0168-
0072(93)90201-N.
Japaridze, Giorgi; de Jongh, Dick (1998), The logic of provability, in Buss, Samuel R., Handbook of Proof
Theory, Studies in Logic and the Foundations of Mathematics, 137, Amsterdam: North-Holland, pp. 475546,
MR 1640331, doi:10.1016/S0049-237X(98)80022-0.
38
Chapter 11
Comparability graph
In graph theory, a comparability graph is an undirected graph that connects pairs of elements that are comparable to
each other in a partial order. Comparability graphs have also been called transitively orientable graphs, partially
orderable graphs, and containment graphs.[1] An incomparability graph is an undirected graph that connects
pairs of elements that are not comparable to each other in a partial order.
11.1 Denitions and characterization
A A D
C D C B
Hasse diagram of a poset (left) and its comparability graph (right)
For any strict partially ordered set (S,<), the comparability graph of (S, <) is the graph (S, ) of which the vertices
are the elements of S and the edges are those pairs {u, v} of elements such that u < v. That is, for a partially ordered
set, take the directed acyclic graph, apply transitive closure, and remove orientation.
Equivalently, a comparability graph is a graph that has a transitive orientation,[2] an assignment of directions to the
edges of the graph (i.e. an orientation of the graph) such that the adjacency relation of the resulting directed graph is
transitive: whenever there exist directed edges (x,y) and (y,z), there must exist an edge (x,z).
One can represent any partial order as a family of sets, such that x < y in the partial order whenever the set correspond-
ing to x is a subset of the set corresponding to y. In this way, comparability graphs can be shown to be equivalent to
containment graphs of set families; that is, a graph with a vertex for each set in the family and an edge between two
sets whenever one is a subset of the other.[3]
Alternatively,[4] a comparability graph is a graph such that, for every generalized cycle of odd length, one can nd an
edge (x,y) connecting two vertices that are at distance two in the cycle. Such an edge is called a triangular chord. In
this context, a generalized cycle is dened to be a closed walk that uses each edge of the graph at most once in each
direction.
Comparability graphs can also be characterized by a list of forbidden induced subgraphs.[5]
39
40 CHAPTER 11. COMPARABILITY GRAPH
c d
e f
One of the forbidden induced subgraphs of a comparability graph. The generalized cycle abdfdcecba in this graph has
odd length (nine) but has no triangular chords.
11.2 Relation to other graph families
Every complete graph is a comparability graph, the comparability graph of a total order. All acyclic orientations of a
complete graph are transitive. Every bipartite graph is also a comparability graph. Orienting the edges of a bipartite
graph from one side of the bipartition to the other results in a transitive orientation, corresponding to a partial order
of height two. As Seymour (2006) observes, every comparability graph that is neither complete nor bipartite has a
skew partition.
The complement of any interval graph is a comparability graph. The comparability relation is called an interval order.
Interval graphs are exactly the graphs that are chordal and that have comparability graph complements.[6]
A permutation graph is a containment graph on a set of intervals.[7] Therefore, permutation graphs are another subclass
of comparability graphs.
The trivially perfect graphs are the comparability graphs of rooted trees.[8] Cographs can be characterized as the
comparability graphs of series-parallel partial orders; thus, cographs are also comparability graphs.[9]
Threshold graphs are another special kind of comparability graph.
Every comparability graph is perfect. The perfection of comparability graphs is Mirskys theorem, and the perfection
of their complements is Dilworths theorem; these facts, together with the complementation property of perfect graphs
can be used to prove Dilworths theorem from Mirskys theorem or vice versa.[10] More specically, comparability
graphs are perfectly orderable graphs, a subclass of perfect graphs: a greedy coloring algorithm for a topological
ordering of a transitive orientation of the graph will optimally color them.[11]
11.3. ALGORITHMS 41
The complement of every comparability graph is a string graph.[12]
11.3 Algorithms
A transitive orientation of a graph, if it exists, can be found in linear time.[13] However, the algorithm for doing so
will assign orientations to the edges of any graph, so to complete the task of testing whether a graph is a comparability
graph, one must test whether the resulting orientation is transitive, a problem provably equivalent in complexity to
matrix multiplication.
Because comparability graphs are perfect, many problems that are hard on more general classes of graphs, including
graph coloring and the independent set problem, can be computed in polynomial time for comparability graphs.
11.4 Notes
[1] Golumbic (1980), p. 105; Brandstdt, Le & Spinrad (1999), p. 94.
[2] Ghouila-Houri (1962); see Brandstdt, Le & Spinrad (1999), theorem 1.4.1, p. 12. Although the orientations coming from
partial orders are acyclic, it is not necessary to include acyclicity as a condition of this characterization.
[3] Urrutia (1989); Trotter (1992); Brandstdt, Le & Spinrad (1999), section 6.3, pp. 9496.
[4] Ghouila-Houri (1962) and Gilmore & Homan (1964). See also Brandstdt, Le & Spinrad (1999), theorem 6.1.1, p. 91.
[5] Gallai (1967); Trotter (1992); Brandstdt, Le & Spinrad (1999), p. 91 and p. 112.
[6] Transitive orientability of interval graph complements was proven by Ghouila-Houri (1962); the characterization of interval
graphs is due to Gilmore & Homan (1964). See also Golumbic (1980), prop. 1.3, pp. 1516.
[7] Dushnik & Miller (1941). Brandstdt, Le & Spinrad (1999), theorem 6.3.1, p. 95.
[8] Brandstdt, Le & Spinrad (1999), theorem 6.6.1, p. 99.
[9] Brandstdt, Le & Spinrad (1999), corollary 6.4.1, p. 96; Jung (1978).
[10] Golumbic (1980), theorems 5.34 and 5.35, p. 133.
[11] Maray (2003).
[12] Golumbic, Rotem & Urrutia (1983) and Lovsz (1983). See also Fox & Pach (2012).
[13] McConnell & Spinrad (1997); see Brandstdt, Le & Spinrad (1999), p. 91.
11.5 References
Brandstdt, Andreas; Le, Van Bang; Spinrad, Jeremy (1999), Graph Classes: A Survey, SIAM Monographs on
Discrete Mathematics and Applications, ISBN 0-89871-432-X.
Dushnik, Ben; Miller, E. W. (1941), Partially ordered sets, American Journal of Mathematics, The Johns
Hopkins University Press, 63 (3): 600610, JSTOR 2371374, MR 0004862, doi:10.2307/2371374.
Fox, J.; Pach, J. (2012), String graphs and incomparability graphs (PDF), Advances in Mathematics, 230 (3):
13811401, doi:10.1016/j.aim.2012.03.011.
Gallai, Tibor (1967), Transitiv orientierbare Graphen, Acta Math. Acad. Sci. Hung., 18: 2566, MR
0221974, doi:10.1007/BF02020961.
Ghouila-Houri, Alain (1962), Caractrisation des graphes non orients dont on peut orienter les arrtes de
manire obtenir le graphe d'une relation d'ordre, Les Comptes rendus de l'Acadmie des sciences, 254: 1370
1371, MR 0172275.
Gilmore, P. C.; Homan, A. J. (1964), A characterization of comparability graphs and of interval graphs,
Canadian Journal of Mathematics, 16: 539548, MR 0175811, doi:10.4153/CJM-1964-055-5.
42 CHAPTER 11. COMPARABILITY GRAPH
Golumbic, Martin Charles (1980), Algorithmic Graph Theory and Perfect Graphs, Academic Press, ISBN 0-
12-289260-7.
Golumbic, M.; Rotem, D.; Urrutia, J. (1983), Comparability graphs and intersection graphs, Discrete Math-
ematics, 43 (1): 3746, doi:10.1016/0012-365X(83)90019-5.
Jung, H. A. (1978), On a class of posets and the corresponding comparability graphs, Journal of Combina-
torial Theory, Series B, 24 (2): 125133, MR 0491356, doi:10.1016/0095-8956(78)90013-8.
Lovsz, L. (1983), Perfect graphs, Selected Topics in Graph Theory, 2, London: Academic Press, pp. 5587.
Maray, Frdric (2003), On the coloration of perfect graphs, in Reed, Bruce A.; Sales, Cludia L., Recent
Advances in Algorithms and Combinatorics, CMS Books in Mathematics, 11, Springer-Verlag, pp. 6584,
doi:10.1007/0-387-22444-0_3.
McConnell, R. M.; Spinrad, J. (1997), Linear-time transitive orientation, 8th ACM-SIAM Symposium on
Discrete Algorithms, pp. 1925.
Seymour, Paul (2006), How the proof of the strong perfect graph conjecture was found (PDF), Gazette des
Mathmaticiens (109): 6983, MR 2245898.
Trotter, William T. (1992), Combinatorics and Partially Ordered Sets Dimension Theory, Johns Hopkins
University Press.
Urrutia, Jorge (1989), Rival, I., ed., Partial orders and Euclidean geometry, Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp.
327436.
Chapter 12
Composition of relations
In mathematics, the composition of binary relations is a concept of forming a new relation S R from two given
relations R and S, having as its best-known special case the composition of functions.
12.1 Denition
If R X Y and S Y Z are two binary relations, then their composition S R is the relation
S R = {(x, z) X Z | y Y : (x, y) R (y, z) S}.
In other words, S R X Z is dened by the rule that says (x, z) S R if and only if there is an element
y Y such that x R y S z (i.e. (x, y) R and (y, z) S ).
In particular elds, authors might denote by R S what is dened here to be S R. The convention chosen here is
such that function composition (with the usual notation) is obtained as a special case, when R and S are functional
relations. Some authors[1] prefer to write l and r explicitly when necessary, depending whether the left or the right
relation is the rst one applied.
A further variation encountered in computer science is the Z notation: is used to denote the traditional (right)
composition, but ; (a fat open semicolon with Unicode code point U+2A3E) denotes left composition.[2][3] This use
of semicolon coincides with the notation for function composition used (mostly by computer scientists) in Category
theory,[4] as well as the notation for dynamic conjunction within linguistic dynamic semantics.[5] The semicolon
notation (with this semantic) was introduced by Ernst Schrder in 1895.[6]
The binary relations R X Y are sometimes regarded as the morphisms R : X Y in a category Rel which
has the sets as objects. In Rel, composition of morphisms is exactly composition of relations as dened above. The
category Set of sets is a subcategory of Rel that has the same objects but fewer morphisms. A generalization of this
is found in the theory of allegories.
12.2 Properties
Composition of relations is associative.
The inverse relation of S R is (S R)1 = R1 S 1 . This property makes the set of all binary relations on a set a
semigroup with involution.
The composition of (partial) functions (i.e. functional relations) is again a (partial) function.
If R and S are injective, then S R is injective, which conversely implies only the injectivity of R.
If R and S are surjective, then S R is surjective, which conversely implies only the surjectivity of S.
The set of binary relations on a set X (i.e. relations from X to X) together with (left or right) relation composition
forms a monoid with zero, where the identity map on X is the neutral element, and the empty set is the zero element.
43
44 CHAPTER 12. COMPOSITION OF RELATIONS
12.3 Join: another form of composition

Main article: Join (relational algebra)
Other forms of composition of relations, which apply to general n-place relations instead of binary relations, are
found in the join operation of relational algebra. The usual composition of two binary relations as dened here can
be obtained by taking their join, leading to a ternary relation, followed by a projection that removes the middle
component.
12.4 Composition in terms of matrices

If R is a relation between two nite sets then one obtains an associated adjacency matrix MR (see here). Then if R
and S are two relations which can be composed, the matrix MSR is exactly the matrix product MR MS , where it is
understood that 1 + 1 = 1 . (Note also the reversal of order of R and S .)
12.5 See also

Binary relation
Relation algebra
Demonic composition
Function composition
Join (SQL)
Logical matrix
12.6 Notes
[1] Kilp, Knauer & Mikhalev, p. 7
[2] ISO/IEC 13568:2002(E), p. 23
[3] http://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/char/2a3e/index.htm
[4] http://www.math.mcgill.ca/triples/Barr-Wells-ctcs.pdf, p. 6
[5] http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dynamic-semantics/#EncDynTypLog
[6] Paul Taylor (1999). Practical Foundations of Mathematics. Cambridge University Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-521-63107-5.
A free HTML version of the book is available at http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/~{}pt/Practical_Foundations/
12.7 References
M. Kilp, U. Knauer, A.V. Mikhalev, Monoids, Acts and Categories with Applications to Wreath Products and
Chapter 13
Contour set
In mathematics, contour sets generalize and formalize the everyday notions of
everything superior to something

everything superior or equivalent to something
everything inferior to something
everything inferior or equivalent to something.
13.1 Formal denitions

Given a relation on pairs of elements of set X
X2
and an element x of X
xX
The upper contour set of x is the set of all y that are related to x :
{y y x}
The lower contour set of x is the set of all y such that x is related to them:
{y x y}
The strict upper contour set of x is the set of all y that are related to x without x being in this way related to any
of them:
{y (y x) (x y)}
The strict lower contour set of x is the set of all y such that x is related to them without any of them being in this
way related to x :
{y (x y) (y x)}
45
46 CHAPTER 13. CONTOUR SET
The formal expressions of the last two may be simplied if we have dened
= {(a, b) (a b) (b a)}
so that a is related to b but b is not related to a , in which case the strict upper contour set of x is
{y y x}
and the strict lower contour set of x is
{y x y}
13.1.1 Contour sets of a function

In the case of a function f () considered in terms of relation , reference to the contour sets of the function is implicitly
to the contour sets of the implied relation
(a b) [f (a) f (b)]
13.2 Examples
13.2.1 Arithmetic
Consider a real number x , and the relation . Then
the upper contour set of x would be the set of numbers that were greater than or equal to x ,
the strict upper contour set of x would be the set of numbers that were greater than x ,
the lower contour set of x would be the set of numbers that were less than or equal to x , and
the strict lower contour set of x would be the set of numbers that were less than x .
Consider, more generally, the relation
(a b) [f (a) f (b)]
Then
the upper contour set of x would be the set of all y such that f (y) f (x) ,
the strict upper contour set of x would be the set of all y such that f (y) > f (x) ,
the lower contour set of x would be the set of all y such that f (x) f (y) , and
the strict lower contour set of x would be the set of all y such that f (x) > f (y) .
It would be technically possible to dene contour sets in terms of the relation
(a b) [f (a) f (b)]
13.3. COMPLEMENTARITY 47
though such denitions would tend to confound ready understanding.

In the case of a real-valued function f () (whose arguments might or might not be themselves real numbers), reference
to the contour sets of the function is implicitly to the contour sets of the relation
(a b) [f (a) f (b)]
Note that the arguments to f () might be vectors, and that the notation used might instead be
[(a1 , a2 , . . .) (b1 , b2 , . . .)] [f (a1 , a2 , . . .) f (b1 , b2 , . . .)]
13.2.2 Economic
In economics, the set X could be interpreted as a set of goods and services or of possible outcomes, the relation
as strict preference, and the relationship as weak preference. Then
the upper contour set, or better set,[1] of x would be the set of all goods, services, or outcomes that were at
least as desired as x ,
the strict upper contour set of x would be the set of all goods, services, or outcomes that were more desired
than x ,
the lower contour set, or worse set,[1] of x would be the set of all goods, services, or outcomes that were no
more desired than x , and
the strict lower contour set of x would be the set of all goods, services, or outcomes that were less desired than
x.
Such preferences might be captured by a utility function u() , in which case
the upper contour set of x would be the set of all y such that u(y) u(x) ,
the strict upper contour set of x would be the set of all y such that u(y) > u(x) ,
the lower contour set of x would be the set of all y such that u(x) u(y) , and
the strict lower contour set of x would be the set of all y such that u(x) > u(y) .
13.3 Complementarity
On the assumption that is a total ordering of X , the complement of the upper contour set is the strict lower contour
set.
X 2 \ {y y x} = {y x y}
X 2 \ {y x y} = {y y x}
and the complement of the strict upper contour set is the lower contour set.
X 2 \ {y y x} = {y x y}
X 2 \ {y x y} = {y y x}
48 CHAPTER 13. CONTOUR SET
13.4 See also

Epigraph
Hypograph
13.5 References
[1] Robert P. Gilles (1996). Economic Exchange and Social Organization: The Edgeworthian Foundations of General Equilib-
rium Theory. Springer. p. 35.
13.6 Bibliography
Andreu Mas-Colell, Michael D. Whinston, and Jerry R. Green, Microeconomic Theory (LCC HB172.M6247
1995), p43. ISBN 0-19-507340-1 (cloth) ISBN 0-19-510268-1 (paper)
Chapter 14
Demonic composition
In mathematics, demonic composition is an operation on binary relations that is somewhat comparable to ordinary
composition of relations but is robust to renement of the relations into (partial) functions or injective relations.
Unlike ordinary composition of relations, demonic composition is not associative.
14.1 Denition
Suppose R is a binary relation between X and Y and S is a relation between Y and Z. Their right demonic composition
R ; S is a relation between X and Z. Its graph is dened as
{(x, z) | x (S R) z y Y (x R y y S z)}.
Conversely, their left demonic composition R ; S is dened by
{(x, z) | x (S R) z y Y (y S z x R y)}.
14.2 References
Backhouse, Roland; van der Woude, Jaap (1993), Demonic operators and monotype factors, Mathematical
Structures in Computer Science, 3 (4): 417433, MR 1249420, doi:10.1017/S096012950000030X.
49
Chapter 15
15.1 Formal denition
50

15.1.2 Example
"(x, y) R".[5]

and z = +5 to y = 25.
a total relation):
15.3. RELATIONS OVER A SET 53
15.2.1 Difunctional
R=RR1 R.[12]

neighborhood.[13]
> is not.

and =.
in .
contained in R.
R.
15.4.1 Complement


15.4.2 Restriction
y are in S.
grandmother.

and many-sorted).
rewriting system.


2
Notes:

15.7. EXAMPLES OF COMMON BINARY RELATIONS 57
plement).

greater than
less than
divides (evenly)
is a subset of
equality
isomorphy
15.8 See also

Hasse diagram
Incidence structure
Logic of relatives
Order theory
Triadic relation
15.9 Notes
0-486-61630-4.
Media. pp. 299300. ISBN 978-0-387-74758-3.
978-1-4020-6164-6.
460643-9.
4736, Springer, pp. 285302, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74788-8_18
6588-0.
p. 160, ISBN 0-534-39900-2
antisymmetric.
3. ISBN 0-8218-1041-3.
15.10. REFERENCES 59
15.10 References
15.11 External links

Chapter 16
Directed set
In mathematics, a directed set (or a directed preorder or a ltered set) is a nonempty set A together with a reexive
and transitive binary relation (that is, a preorder), with the additional property that every pair of elements has an
upper bound.[1] In other words, for any a and b in A there must exist c in A with a c and b c.
The notion dened above is sometimes called an upward directed set. A downward directed set is dened
analogously,[2] meaning when every pair of elements is bounded below.[3] Some authors (and this article) assume
that a directed set is directed upward, unless otherwise stated. Beware that other authors call a set directed if and
only if it is directed both upward and downward.[4]
Directed sets are a generalization of nonempty totally ordered sets. That is, all totally ordered sets are directed sets
(contrast partially ordered sets, which need not be directed). Join semilattices (which are partially ordered sets) are
directed sets as well, but not conversely. Likewise, lattices are directed sets both upward and downward.
In topology, directed sets are used to dene nets, which generalize sequences and unite the various notions of limit
used in analysis. Directed sets also give rise to direct limits in abstract algebra and (more generally) category theory.
16.1 Equivalent denition

In addition to the denition above, there is an equivalent denition. A directed set is a set A with a preorder such
that every nite subset of A has an upper bound. In this denition, the existence of an upper bound of the empty
subset implies that A is nonempty.
16.2 Examples
Examples of directed sets include:
The set of natural numbers N with the ordinary order is a directed set (and so is every totally ordered set).
Let D1 and D2 be directed sets. Then the Cartesian product set D1 D2 can be made into a directed set by
dening (n1 , n2 ) (m1 , m2 ) if and only if n1 m1 and n2 m2 . In analogy to the product order this is the
product direction on the Cartesian product.
It follows from previous example that the set N N of pairs of natural numbers can be made into a directed
set by dening (n0 , n1 ) (m0 , m1 ) if and only if n0 m0 and n1 m1 .
If x0 is a real number, we can turn the set R {x0 } into a directed set by writing a b if and only if
|a x0 | |b x0 |. We then say that the reals have been directed towards x0 . This is an example of a directed
set that is not ordered (neither totally nor partially).
A (trivial) example of a partially ordered set that is not directed is the set {a, b}, in which the only order
relations are a a and b b. A less trivial example is like the previous example of the reals directed towards
x0 " but in which the ordering rule only applies to pairs of elements on the same side of x0 .
60
16.3. CONTRAST WITH SEMILATTICES 61
If T is a topological space and x0 is a point in T, we turn the set of all neighbourhoods of x0 into a directed set
by writing U V if and only if U contains V.
For every U: U U; since U contains itself.

For every U,V,W: if U V and V W, then U W; since if U contains V and V contains W then U
contains W.
For every U, V: there exists the set U V such that U U V and V U V; since both U and V
contain U V.
In a poset P, every lower closure of an element, i.e. every subset of the form {a| a in P, a x} where x is a
xed element from P, is directed.
16.3 Contrast with semilattices
Witness
Directed sets are a more general concept than (join) semilattices: every join semilattice is a directed set, as the join
or least upper bound of two elements is the desired c. The converse does not hold however, witness the directed set
62 CHAPTER 16. DIRECTED SET
{1000,0001,1101,1011,1111} ordered bitwise (e.g. 1000 1011 holds, but 0001 1000 does not, since in the last
bit 1 > 0), where {1000,0001} has three upper bounds but no least upper bound, cf. picture. (Also note that without
1111, the set is not directed.)
16.4 Directed subsets

The order relation in a directed set is not required to be antisymmetric, and therefore directed sets are not always
partial orders. However, the term directed set is also used frequently in the context of posets. In this setting, a subset
A of a partially ordered set (P,) is called a directed subset if it is a directed set according to the same partial order:
in other words, it is not the empty set, and every pair of elements has an upper bound. Here the order relation on the
elements of A is inherited from P; for this reason, reexivity and transitivity need not be required explicitly.
A directed subset of a poset is not required to be downward closed; a subset of a poset is directed if and only if its
downward closure is an ideal. While the denition of a directed set is for an upward-directed set (every pair of
elements has an upper bound), it is also possible to dene a downward-directed set in which every pair of elements
has a common lower bound. A subset of a poset is downward-directed if and only if its upper closure is a lter.
Directed subsets are used in domain theory, which studies directed complete partial orders.[5] These are posets in
which every upward-directed set is required to have a least upper bound. In this context, directed subsets again
provide a generalization of convergent sequences.
16.5 See also

Filtered category
Centered set
Linked set
16.6 Notes
[1] Kelley, p. 65.
[2] Robert S. Borden (1988). A Course in Advanced Calculus. Courier Corporation. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-486-15038-3.
[3] Arlen Brown; Carl Pearcy (1995). An Introduction to Analysis. Springer. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-4612-0787-0.
[4] Siegfried Carl; Seppo Heikkil (2010). Fixed Point Theory in Ordered Sets and Applications: From Dierential and Integral
Equations to Game Theory. Springer. p. 77. ISBN 978-1-4419-7585-0.
[5] Gierz, p. 2.
16.7 References
J. L. Kelley (1955), General Topology.
Gierz, Hofmann, Keimel, et al. (2003), Continuous Lattices and Domains, Cambridge University Press. ISBN
0-521-80338-1.
Chapter 17
Euclidean relation
In mathematics, Euclidean relations are a class of binary relations that formalizes Euclid's Common Notion 1 in
The Elements: things which equal the same thing also equal one another.
17.1 Denition
A binary relation R on a set X is Euclidean (sometimes called right Euclidean) if it satises the following: for every
a, b, c in X, if a is related to b and c, then b is related to c.[1]
To write this in predicate logic:
a, b, c X (a R b a R c b R c).
Dually, a relation R on X is left Euclidean if for every a, b, c in X, if b is related to a and c is related to a, then b is
related to c:
a, b, c X (b R a c R a b R c).
17.2 Relation to transitivity

The property of being Euclidean is dierent from transitivity. A transitive relation is Euclidean only if it is also
symmetric. Only a symmetric Euclidean relation is transitive.
A relation which is both Euclidean and reexive is also symmetric and therefore an equivalence relation.[1]
17.3 References
[1] Fagin, Ronald (2003), Reasoning About Knowledge, MIT Press, p. 60, ISBN 978-0-262-56200-3.
63
Chapter 18
Exceptional isomorphism
In mathematics, an exceptional isomorphism, also called an accidental isomorphism, is an isomorphism between

members ai and bj of two families (usually innite) of mathematical objects, that is not an example of a pattern of
such isomorphisms.[note 1] These coincidences are at times considered a matter of trivia,[1] but in other respects they
can give rise to other phenomena, notably exceptional objects.[1] In the below, coincidences are listed in all places
they occur.
18.1 Groups
18.1.1 Finite simple groups

The exceptional isomorphisms between the series of nite simple groups mostly involve projective special linear
groups and alternating groups, and are:[1]
L2 (4)
= L2 (5)
= A5 , the smallest non-abelian simple group (order 60);
L2 (7)
= L3 (2), the second-smallest non-abelian simple group (order 168) PSL(2,7);
L2 (9)
= A6 ,
L4 (2)
= A8 ,
PSU4 (2)
= PSp4 (3), between a projective special orthogonal group and a projective symplectic group.
18.1.2 Groups of Lie type

In addition to the aforementioned, there are some isomorphisms involving SL, PSL, GL, PGL, and the natural maps
between these. For example, the groups over F5 have a number of exceptional isomorphisms:
PSL(2, 5)
= A5
= I, the alternating group on ve elements, or equivalently the icosahedral group;
PGL(2, 5)
= S5 , the symmetric group on ve elements;
SL(2, 5)
= 2 A5
= 2I, the double cover of the alternating group A5 , or equivalently the binary icosahedral
group.
18.1.3 Alternating groups and symmetric groups

There are coincidences between alternating groups and small groups of Lie type:
L2 (4)
= L2 (5)
= A5 ,
64
18.1. GROUPS 65
The compound of ve tetrahedra expresses the exceptional isomorphism between the icosahedral group and the alternating group on
ve letters.
L2 (9)
= Sp4 (2)
= A6 ,
Sp4 (2)
= S6 ,
L4 (2)
= O6 (+, 2)
= A8 ,
O6 (+, 2)
= S8 .
These can all be explained in a systematic way by using linear algebra (and the action of Sn on ane n -space) to
dene the isomorphism going from the right side to the left side. (The above isomorphisms for A8 and S8 are linked
via the exceptional isomorphism SL4 /2 = SO6 .) There are also some coincidences with symmetries of regular
polyhedra: the alternating group A5 agrees with the icosahedral group (itself an exceptional object), and the double
cover of the alternating group A5 is the binary icosahedral group.
18.1.4 Cyclic groups

Cyclic groups of small order especially arise in various ways, for instance:
C2
= {1}
= O(1)
= Spin(1)
= Z , the last being the group of units of the integers
66 CHAPTER 18. EXCEPTIONAL ISOMORPHISM
18.1.5 Spheres
The spheres S0 , S1 , and S3 admit group structures, which arise in various ways:
S0
= O(1) ,
S1
= SO(2)
= U(1)
= Spin(2) ,
S3
= Spin(3)
= SU(2)
= Sp(1) .
18.1.6 Coxeter groups
B2 C2
A3 D3

A4 E 4
D5 E 5
The exceptional isomorphisms of connected Dynkin diagrams.

18.2. LIE THEORY 67
There are some exceptional isomorphisms of Coxeter diagrams, yielding isomorphisms of the corresponding Coxeter
groups and of polytopes realizing the symmetries. These are:
A2 = I2(2) (2-simplex is regular 3-gon/triangle);

BC2 = I2(4) (2-cube (square) = 2-cross-polytope (diamond) = regular 4-gon)
A3 = D3 (3-simplex (tetrahedron) is 3-demihypercube (demicube), as per diagram)
A1 = B1 = C1 (= D1?)
D2 = A1 A1
A4 = E4
D5 = E5
Closely related ones occur in Lie theory for Dynkin diagrams.
18.2 Lie theory

In low dimensions, there are isomorphisms among the classical Lie algebras and classical Lie groups called acciden-
tal isomorphisms. For instance, there are isomorphisms between low-dimensional spin groups and certain classical
Lie groups, due to low-dimensional isomorphisms between the root systems of the dierent families of simple Lie
algebras, visible as isomorphisms of the corresponding Dynkin diagrams:
Trivially, A0 = B0 = C0 = D0
A1 = B1 = C1, or sl2
= so3
= sp1
B2 = C2, or so5
= sp2
D2 = A1 A1, or so4
= sl2 sl2 ; note that these are disconnected, but part of the D-series
A3 = D3 sl4
= so6
A4 = E4; the E-series usually starts at 6, but can be started at 4, yielding isomorphisms
D5 = E5
Spin(1) = O(1)
Spin(2) = U(1) = SO(2)
Spin(3) = Sp(1) = SU(2)
Spin(4) = Sp(1) Sp(1)
Spin(5) = Sp(2)
Spin(6) = SU(4)
18.3 See also

Exceptional object
Mathematical coincidence, for numerical coincidences
18.4 Notes
[1] Because these series of objects are presented dierently, they are not identical objects (do not have identical descriptions),
but turn out to describe the same object, hence one refers to this as an isomorphism, not an equality (identity).
68 CHAPTER 18. EXCEPTIONAL ISOMORPHISM
18.5 References
[1] Wilson, Robert A. (2009), Chapter 1: Introduction, The nite simple groups, Graduate Texts in Mathematics 251, 251,
Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-1-84800-987-5, Zbl 1203.20012, doi:10.1007/978-1-84800-988-2, 2007
preprint; Chapter doi:10.1007/978-1-84800-988-2_1.
Chapter 19
Fiber (mathematics)
In mathematics, the term ber (or bre in British English) can have two meanings, depending on the context:
1. In naive set theory, the ber of the element y in the set Y under a map f : X Y is the inverse image of the
singleton {y} under f.
2. In algebraic geometry, the notion of a ber of a morphism of schemes must be dened more carefully because,
in general, not every point is closed.
19.1 Denitions
19.1.1 Fiber in naive set theory

Let f : X Y be a map. The ber of an element y Y , commonly denoted by f 1 (y) , is dened as
f 1 ({y}) = {x X | f (x) = y}.
In various applications, this is also called:
the inverse image of {y} under the map f

the preimage of {y} under the map f
the level set of the function f at the point y.
The term level set is only used if f maps into the real numbers and so y is simply a number. If f is a continuous
function and if y is in the image of f, then the level set of y under f is a curve in 2D, a surface in 3D, and more
generally a hypersurface of dimension d-1.
19.1.2 Fiber in algebraic geometry

In algebraic geometry, if f : X Y is a morphism of schemes, the ber of a point p in Y is the bered product
X Y Spec k(p) where k(p) is the residue eld at p.
19.2 Terminological variance

The recommended practice is to use the terms ber, inverse image, preimage, and level set as follows:
the ber of the element y under the map f
69
70 CHAPTER 19. FIBER (MATHEMATICS)
the inverse image of the set {y} under the map f

the preimage of the set {y} under the map f
the level set of the function f at the point y.
By abuse of language, the following terminology is sometimes used but should be avoided:
the ber of the map f at the element y

the inverse image of the map f at the element y
the preimage of the map f at the element y
the level set of the point y under the map f.
19.3 See also

Fibration
Fiber bundle
Fiber product
Image (category theory)
Image (mathematics)
Inverse relation
Kernel (mathematics)
Level set
Preimage
Relation
Zero set
Chapter 20
Finitary relation
This article is about the set-theoretic notion of relation. For the common case, see binary relation.
For other uses, see Relation (disambiguation).
In mathematics, a nitary relation has a nite number of places. In set theory and logic, a relation is a property
that assigns truth values to k -tuples of individuals. Typically, the property describes a possible connection between
the components of a k -tuple. For a given set of k -tuples, a truth value is assigned to each k -tuple according to
whether the property does or does not hold.
An example of a ternary relation (i.e., between three individuals) is: " X was introduced to Y by Z ", where (X, Y, Z)
is a 3-tuple of persons; for example, "Beatrice Wood was introduced to Henri-Pierre Roch by Marcel Duchamp" is
true, while "Karl Marx was introduced to Friedrich Engels by Queen Victoria" is false.
20.1 Informal introduction

Relation is formally dened in the next section. In this section we introduce the concept of a relation with a familiar
everyday example. Consider the relation involving three roles that people might play, expressed in a statement of the
form "X thinks that Y likes Z ". The facts of a concrete situation could be organized in a table like the following:
Each row of the table records a fact or makes an assertion of the form "X thinks that Y likes Z ". For instance, the
rst row says, in eect, Alice thinks that Bob likes Denise. The table represents a relation S over the set P of people
under discussion:
P = {Alice, Bob, Charles, Denise}.
The data of the table are equivalent to the following set of ordered triples:
S = {(Alice, Bob, Denise), (Charles, Alice, Bob), (Charles, Charles, Alice), (Denise, Denise, Denise)}.
By a slight abuse of notation, it is usual to write S(Alice, Bob, Denise) to say the same thing as the rst row of
the table. The relation S is a ternary relation, since there are three items involved in each row. The relation itself
is a mathematical object dened in terms of concepts from set theory (i.e., the relation is a subset of the Cartesian
product on {Person X, Person Y, Person Z}), that carries all of the information from the table in one neat package.
Mathematically, then, a relation is simply an ordered set.
The table for relation S is an extremely simple example of a relational database. The theoretical aspects of databases
are the specialty of one branch of computer science, while their practical impacts have become all too familiar in our
everyday lives. Computer scientists, logicians, and mathematicians, however, tend to see dierent things when they
look at these concrete examples and samples of the more general concept of a relation.
For one thing, databases are designed to deal with empirical data, and experience is always nite, whereas mathematics
at the very least concerns itself with potential innity. This dierence in perspective brings up a number of ideas that
may be usefully introduced at this point, if by no means covered in depth.
71
72 CHAPTER 20. FINITARY RELATION
20.2 Relations with a small number of places

The variable k giving the number of "places" in the relation, 3 for the above example, is a non-negative integer,
called the relations arity, adicity, or dimension. A relation with k places is variously called a k -ary, a k -adic, or
a k -dimensional relation. Relations with a nite number of places are called nite-place or nitary relations. It
is possible to generalize the concept to include innitary relations between innitudes of individuals, for example
innite sequences; however, in this article only nitary relations are discussed, which will from now on simply be
called relations.
Since there is only one 0-tuple, the so-called empty tuple ( ), there are only two zero-place relations: the one that
always holds, and the one that never holds. They are sometimes useful for constructing the base case of an induction
argument. One-place relations are called unary relations. For instance, any set (such as the collection of Nobel
laureates) can be viewed as a collection of individuals having some property (such as that of having been awarded
the Nobel prize). Two-place relations are called binary relations or, in the past, dyadic relations. Binary relations are
very common, given the ubiquity of relations such as:
Equality and inequality, denoted by signs such as ' = ' and ' < ' in statements like ' 5 < 12 ';
Being a divisor of, denoted by the sign ' | ' in statements like ' 13 | 143 ';
Set membership, denoted by the sign ' ' in statements like ' 1 N '.
A k -ary relation is a straightforward generalization of a binary relation.
20.3 Formal denitions

When two objects, qualities, classes, or attributes, viewed together by the mind, are seen under some
connexion, that connexion is called a relation.
Augustus De Morgan[1]
The simpler of the two denitions of k-place relations encountered in mathematics is:
Denition 1. A relation L over the sets X1 , , Xk is a subset of their Cartesian product, written L X1 Xk.
Relations are classied according to the number of sets in the dening Cartesian product, in other words, according
to the number of terms following L. Hence:
Lu denotes a unary relation or property;

Luv or uLv denote a binary relation;
Luvw denotes a ternary relation;
Luvwx denotes a quaternary relation.
Relations with more than four terms are usually referred to as k-ary or n-ary, for example, a 5-ary relation. A k-ary
relation is simply a set of k-tuples.
The second denition makes use of an idiom that is common in mathematics, stipulating that such and such is an
n-tuple in order to ensure that such and such a mathematical object is determined by the specication of n component
mathematical objects. In the case of a relation L over k sets, there are k + 1 things to specify, namely, the k sets plus
a subset of their Cartesian product. In the idiom, this is expressed by saying that L is a (k + 1)-tuple.
Denition 2. A relation L over the sets X1 , , Xk is a (k + 1)-tuple L = (X1 , , Xk, G(L)), where G(L) is a subset
of the Cartesian product X1 Xk. G(L) is called the graph of L.
Elements of a relation are more briey denoted by using boldface characters, for example, the constant element a =
(a1 , , ak) or the variable element x = (x1 , , xk).
A statement of the form "a is in the relation L " or "a satises L " is taken to mean that a is in L under the rst
denition and that a is in G(L) under the second denition.
The following considerations apply under either denition:
20.4. HISTORY 73
The sets Xj for j = 1 to k are called the domains of the relation. Under the rst denition, the relation does not
uniquely determine a given sequence of domains.
If all of the domains Xj are the same set X, then it is simpler to refer to L as a k-ary relation over X.
If any of the domains Xj is empty, then the dening Cartesian product is empty, and the only relation over such
a sequence of domains is the empty relation L = . Hence it is commonly stipulated that all of the domains
be nonempty.
As a rule, whatever denition best ts the application at hand will be chosen for that purpose, and anything that falls
under it will be called a relation for the duration of that discussion. If it becomes necessary to distinguish the two
denitions, an entity satisfying the second denition may be called an embedded or included relation.
If L is a relation over the domains X1 , , Xk, it is conventional to consider a sequence of terms called variables, x1 ,
, xk, that are said to range over the respective domains.
Let a Boolean domain B be a two-element set, say, B = {0, 1}, whose elements can be interpreted as logical values,
typically 0 = false and 1 = true. The characteristic function of the relation L, written L or (L), is the Boolean-valued
function L : X1 Xk B, dened in such a way that L( x ) = 1 just in case the k-tuple x is in the relation L.
Such a function can also be called an indicator function, particularly in probability and statistics, to avoid confusion
with the notion of a characteristic function in probability theory.
It is conventional in applied mathematics, computer science, and statistics to refer to a Boolean-valued function like L
as a k-place predicate. From the more abstract viewpoint of formal logic and model theory, the relation L constitutes
a logical model or a relational structure that serves as one of many possible interpretations of some k-place predicate
symbol.
Because relations arise in many scientic disciplines as well as in many branches of mathematics and logic, there
is considerable variation in terminology. This article treats a relation as the set-theoretic extension of a relational
concept or term. A variant usage reserves the term relation to the corresponding logical entity, either the logical
comprehension, which is the totality of intensions or abstract properties that all of the elements of the relation in
extension have in common, or else the symbols that are taken to denote these elements and intensions. Further, some
writers of the latter persuasion introduce terms with more concrete connotations, like relational structure, for the
set-theoretic extension of a given relational concept.
20.4 History
The logician Augustus De Morgan, in work published around 1860, was the rst to articulate the notion of relation
in anything like its present sense. He also stated the rst formal results in the theory of relations (on De Morgan and
relations, see Merrill 1990). Charles Sanders Peirce restated and extended De Morgans results. Bertrand Russell
(1938; 1st ed. 1903) was historically important, in that it brought together in one place many 19th century results on
relations, especially orders, by Peirce, Gottlob Frege, Georg Cantor, Richard Dedekind, and others. Russell and A.
N. Whitehead made free use of these results in their Principia Mathematica.
20.5 Notes
[1] De Morgan, A. (1858) On the syllogism, part 3 in Heath, P., ed. (1966) On the syllogism and other logical writings.
Routledge. P. 119,
20.6 See also

Correspondence (mathematics)
Functional relation
Incidence structure
Hypergraph
74 CHAPTER 20. FINITARY RELATION
Logic of relatives
Logical matrix
Partial order
Projection (set theory)
Reexive relation
Relation algebra
Sign relation
Transitive relation
Relational algebra
Relational model
Predicate (mathematical logic)
20.7 References
Peirce, C.S. (1870), Description of a Notation for the Logic of Relatives, Resulting from an Amplication
of the Conceptions of Booles Calculus of Logic, Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 9,
31778, 1870. Reprinted, Collected Papers CP 3.45149, Chronological Edition CE 2, 359429.
Ulam, S.M. and Bednarek, A.R. (1990), On the Theory of Relational Structures and Schemata for Parallel
Computation, pp. 477508 in A.R. Bednarek and Franoise Ulam (eds.), Analogies Between Analogies: The
Mathematical Reports of S.M. Ulam and His Los Alamos Collaborators, University of California Press, Berkeley,
CA.
20.8 Bibliography
Bourbaki, N. (1994) Elements of the History of Mathematics, John Meldrum, trans. Springer-Verlag.
Carnap, Rudolf (1958) Introduction to Symbolic Logic with Applications. Dover Publications.
Halmos, P.R. (1960) Naive Set Theory. Princeton NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company.
Lawvere, F.W., and R. Rosebrugh (2003) Sets for Mathematics, Cambridge Univ. Press.
Lucas, J. R. (1999) Conceptual Roots of Mathematics. Routledge.
Maddux, R.D. (2006) Relation Algebras, vol. 150 in 'Studies in Logic and the Foundations of Mathematics.
Elsevier Science.
Merrill, Dan D. (1990) Augustus De Morgan and the logic of relations. Kluwer.
Peirce, C.S. (1984) Writings of Charles S. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Volume 2, 1867-1871. Peirce
Edition Project, eds. Indiana University Press.
Russell, Bertrand (1903/1938) The Principles of Mathematics, 2nd ed. Cambridge Univ. Press.
Suppes, Patrick (1960/1972) Axiomatic Set Theory. Dover Publications.
Tarski, A. (1956/1983) Logic, Semantics, Metamathematics, Papers from 1923 to 1938, J.H. Woodger, trans.
1st edition, Oxford University Press. 2nd edition, J. Corcoran, ed. Indianapolis IN: Hackett Publishing.
Ulam, S.M. (1990) Analogies Between Analogies: The Mathematical Reports of S.M. Ulam and His Los Alamos
Collaborators in A.R. Bednarek and Franoise Ulam, eds., University of California Press.
R. Frass, Theory of Relations (North Holland; 2000).
Chapter 21
Foundational relation
In set theory, a foundational relation on a set or proper class lets each nonempty subset admit a relational minimal
element.
Formally, let (A, R) be a binary relation structure, where A is a class (set or proper class), and R is a binary relation
dened on A. Then (A, R) is a foundational relation if and only if any nonempty subset in A has a R-minimal element.
In predicate logic,
( )
(S) S A S = (x S)(S R1 {x} = ) , [1]
in which denotes the empty set, and R1 {x} denotes the class of the elements that precede x in the relation R. That
is,
R1 {x} = {y|yRx}. [2]
Here x is an R-minimal element in the subset S, since none of its R-predecessors is in S.
21.1 See also

Binary relation
Well-order
21.2 References
[1] See Denition 6.21 in Zaring W.M., G. Takeuti (1971). Introduction to axiomatic set theory (2nd, rev. ed.). New York:
Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0387900241.
[2] See Theorem 6.19 and Denition 6.20 in Zaring W.M., G. Takeuti (1971). Introduction to axiomatic set theory (2nd, rev.
ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0387900241.
75
Chapter 22
Glossary of order theory
This is a glossary of some terms used in various branches of mathematics that are related to the elds of order, lattice,
and domain theory. Note that there is a structured list of order topics available as well. Other helpful resources might
be the following overview articles:
completeness properties of partial orders
distributivity laws of order theory
preservation properties of functions between posets.
In the following, partial orders will usually just be denoted by their carrier sets. As long as the intended meaning is
clear from the context, will suce to denote the corresponding relational symbol, even without prior introduction.
Furthermore, < will denote the strict order induced by .
Contents :
Top
09
76
22.1. A 77
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
22.1 A
Acyclic. A binary relation is acyclic if it contains no cycles": equivalently, its transitive closure is antisymmetric.[1]
Adjoint. See Galois connection.
Alexandrov topology. For a preordered set P, any upper set O is Alexandrov-open. Inversely, a topology is
Alexandrov if any intersection of open sets is open.
Algebraic poset. A poset is algebraic if it has a base of compact elements.
Antichain. An antichain is a poset in which no two elements are comparable, i.e., there are no two distinct
elements x and y such that x y. In other words, the order relation of an antichain is just the identity relation.
Approximates relation. See way-below relation.
A relation R on a set X is antisymmetric, if x R y and y R x implies x = y, for all elements x, y in X.
An antitone function f between posets P and Q is a function for which, for all elements x, y of P, x y (in
P) implies f(y) f(x) (in Q). Another name for this property is order-reversing. In analysis, in the presence
of total orders, such functions are often called monotonically decreasing, but this is not a very convenient
description when dealing with non-total orders. The dual notion is called monotone or order-preserving.
Asymmetric. A relation R on a set X is asymmetric, if x R y implies not y R x, for all elements x, y in X.
An atom in a poset P with least element 0, is an element that is minimal among all elements that are unequal
to 0.
A atomic poset P with least element 0 is one in which, for every non-zero element x of P, there is an atom a
of P with a x.
22.2 B
Base. See continuous poset.
A Boolean algebra is a distributive lattice with least element 0 and greatest element 1, in which every element
x has a complement x, such that x x = 0 and x x = 1.
A bounded poset is one that has a least element and a greatest element.
A poset is bounded complete if every of its subsets with some upper bound also has a least such upper bound.
The dual notion is not common.
78 CHAPTER 22. GLOSSARY OF ORDER THEORY
22.3 C
Chain. A chain is a totally ordered set or a totally ordered subset of a poset. See also total order.
Chain complete. A partially ordered set in which every chain has a least upper bound.
Closure operator. A closure operator on the poset P is a function C : P P that is monotone, idempotent,
and satises C(x) x for all x in P.
Compact. An element x of a poset is compact if it is way below itself, i.e. x<<x. One also says that such an x
is nite.
Comparable. Two elements x and y of a poset P are comparable if either x y or y x.
Comparability graph. The comparability graph of a poset (P, ) is the graph with vertex set P in which
the edges are those pairs of distinct elements of P that are comparable under (and, in particular, under its
reexive reduction <).
Complete Boolean algebra. A Boolean algebra that is a complete lattice.
Complete Heyting algebra. A Heyting algebra that is a complete lattice is called a complete Heyting algebra.
This notion coincides with the concepts frame and locale.
Complete lattice. A complete lattice is a poset in which arbitrary (possibly innite) joins (suprema) and meets
(inma) exist.
Complete partial order. A complete partial order, or cpo, is a directed complete partial order (q.v.) with
least element.
Complete relation. Synonym for Total relation.
Complete semilattice. The notion of a complete semilattice is dened in dierent ways. As explained in the
article on completeness (order theory), any poset for which either all suprema or all inma exist is already a
complete lattice. Hence the notion of a complete semilattice is sometimes used to coincide with the one of a
complete lattice. In other cases, complete (meet-) semilattices are dened to be bounded complete cpos, which
is arguably the most complete class of posets that are not already complete lattices.
Completely distributive lattice. A complete lattice is completely distributive if arbitrary joins distribute over
arbitrary meets.
Completion. A completion of a poset is an order-embedding of the poset in a complete lattice.
Continuous poset. A poset is continuous if it has a base, i.e. a subset B of P such that every element x of P
is the supremum of a directed set contained in {y in B | y<<x}.
Continuous function. See Scott-continuous.
Converse. The converse < of an order < is that in which x < y whenever y < x.
Cover. An element y of a poset P is said to cover an element x of P (and is called a cover of x) if x < y and
there is no element z of P such that x < z < y.
cpo. See complete partial order.
22.4 D
dcpo. See directed complete partial order.
A dense poset P is one in which, for all elements x and y in P with x < y, there is an element z in P, such that
x < z < y. A subset Q of P is dense in P if for any elements x < y in P, there is an element z in Q such that x <
z < y.
Directed. A non-empty subset X of a poset P is called directed, if, for all elements x and y of X, there is an
element z of X such that x z and y z. The dual notion is called ltered.
22.5. E 79
Directed complete partial order. A poset D is said to be a directed complete poset, or dcpo, if every directed
subset of D has a supremum.
Distributive. A lattice L is called distributive if, for all x, y, and z in L, we nd that x (y z) = (x y)

(x z). This condition is known to be equivalent to its order dual. A meet-semilattice is distributive if for all
elements a, b and x, a b x implies the existence of elements a' a and b' b such that a' b' = x. See
also completely distributive.
Domain. Domain is a general term for objects like those that are studied in domain theory. If used, it requires
further denition.
Down-set. See lower set.
Dual. For a poset (P, ), the dual order P d = (P, ) is dened by setting x y if and only if y x. The
dual order of P is sometimes denoted by P op , and is also called opposite or converse order. Any order theoretic
notion induces a dual notion, dened by applying the original statement to the order dual of a given set. This
exchanges and , meets and joins, zero and unit.
22.5 E
Extension. For partial orders and on a set X, is an extension of provided that for all elements x and
y of X, x y implies that x y.
22.6 F
Filter. A subset X of a poset P is called a lter if it is a ltered upper set. The dual notion is called ideal.
Filtered. A non-empty subset X of a poset P is called ltered, if, for all elements x and y of X, there is an
element z of X such that z x and z y. The dual notion is called directed.
Finite element. See compact.
Frame. A frame Fis a complete

lattice, in which, for every x in F and every subset Y of F, the innite
distributive law x Y = {x y | y in Y} holds. Frames are also known as locales and as complete Heyting
algebras.
22.7 G
Galois connection. Given two posets P and Q, a pair of monotone functions F:P Q and G:Q P is called a
Galois connection, if F(x) y is equivalent to x G(y), for all x in P and y in Q. F is called the lower adjoint
of G and G is called the upper adjoint of F.
Greatest element. For a subset X of a poset P, an element a of X is called the greatest element of X, if x a
for every element x in X. The dual notion is called least element.
Ground set. The ground set of a poset (X, ) is the set X on which the partial order is dened.
22.8 H
Heyting algebra. A Heyting algebra H is a bounded lattice in which the function fa: H H, given by fa(x)
= a x is the lower adjoint of a Galois connection, for every element a of H. The upper adjoint of fa is then
denoted by ga, with ga(x) = a x. Every Boolean algebra is a Heyting algebra.
Hasse diagram. A Hasse diagram is a type of mathematical diagram used to represent a nite partially ordered
set, in the form of a drawing of its transitive reduction.
22.9 I
An ideal is a subset X of a poset P that is a directed lower set. The dual notion is called lter.
The incidence algebra of a poset is the associative algebra of all scalar-valued functions on intervals, with
addition and scalar multiplication dened pointwise, and multiplication dened as a certain convolution; see
incidence algebra for the details.
Inmum. For a poset P and a subset X of P, the greatest element in the set of lower bounds of X (if it exists,

which it may not) is called the inmum, meet, or greatest lower bound of X. It is denoted by inf X or X.
The inmum of two elements may be written as inf{x,y} or x y. If the set X is nite, one speaks of a nite
inmum. The dual notion is called supremum.
Interval. For two elements a, b of a partially ordered set P, the interval [a,b] is the subset {x in P | a x b}
of P. If a b does not hold the interval will be empty.
Interval nite poset. A partially ordered set P is interval nite if every interval of the form {x in P | x a}
is a nite set.[2]
Inverse. See converse.
Irreexive. A relation R on a set X is irreexive, if there is no element x in X such that x R x.
Isotone. See monotone.
22.10 J
Join. See supremum.
22.11 L
Lattice. A lattice is a poset in which all non-empty nite joins (suprema) and meets (inma) exist.
Least element. For a subset X of a poset P, an element a of X is called the least element of X, if a x for
every element x in X. The dual notion is called greatest element.
The length of a chain is the number of elements less one. A chain with 1 element has length 0, one with 2
elements has length 1, etc.
Linear. See total order.
Linear extension. A linear extension of a partial order is an extension that is a linear order, or total order.
Locale. A locale is a complete Heyting algebra. Locales are also called frames and appear in Stone duality and
pointless topology.
Locally nite poset. A partially ordered set P is locally nite if every interval [a, b] = {x in P | a x b} is
a nite set.
Lower bound. A lower bound of a subset X of a poset P is an element b of P, such that b x, for all x in X.
The dual notion is called upper bound.
Lower set. A subset X of a poset P is called a lower set if, for all elements x in X and p in P, p x implies
that p is contained in X. The dual notion is called upper set.
22.12. M 81
22.12 M
Maximal chain. A chain in a poset to which no element can be added without losing the property of being
totally ordered. This is stronger than being a saturated chain, as it also excludes the existence of elements either
less than all elements of the chain or greater than all its elements. A nite saturated chain is maximal if and
only if it contains both a minimal and a maximal element of the poset.
Maximal element. A maximal element of a subset X of a poset P is an element m of X, such that m x

implies m = x, for all x in X. The dual notion is called minimal element.
Maximum element. Synonym of greatest element. For a subset X of a poset P, an element a of X is called
the maximum element of X if x a for every element x in X. A maximum element is necessarily maximal, but
the converse need not hold.
Meet. See inmum.
Minimal element. A minimal element of a subset X of a poset P is an element m of X, such that x m implies
m = x, for all x in X. The dual notion is called maximal element.
Minimum element. Synonym of least element. For a subset X of a poset P, an element a of X is called the
minimum element of X if x a for every element x in X. A minimum element is necessarily minimal, but the
converse need not hold.
Monotone. A function f between posets P and Q is monotone if, for all elements x, y of P, x y (in P) implies
f(x) f(y) (in Q). Other names for this property are isotone and order-preserving. In analysis, in the presence
of total orders, such functions are often called monotonically increasing, but this is not a very convenient
description when dealing with non-total orders. The dual notion is called antitone or order reversing.
22.13 O
Order-dual. The order dual of a partially ordered set is the same set with the partial order relation replaced
by its converse.
Order-embedding. A function f between posets P and Q is an order-embedding if, for all elements x, y of P,
x y (in P) is equivalent to f(x) f(y) (in Q).
Order isomorphism. A mapping f: P Q between two posets P and Q is called an order isomorphism,
if it is bijective and both f and f 1 are monotone. Equivalently, an order isomorphism is a surjective order
embedding.
Order-preserving. See monotone.
Order-reversing. See antitone.
22.14 P
Partial order. A partial order is a binary relation that is reexive, antisymmetric, and transitive. In a slight
abuse of terminology, the term is sometimes also used to refer not to such a relation, but to its corresponding
partially ordered set.
Partially ordered set. A partially ordered set (P, ), or poset for short, is a set P together with a partial order
on P.
Poset. A partially ordered set.
Preorder. A preorder is a binary relation that is reexive and transitive. Such orders may also be called
quasiorders. The term preorder is also used to denote an acyclic binary relation (also called an acyclic digraph).
Preserving. A function f between posets P and Q is said to preserve suprema (joins), if, for all subsets X of P
that have a supremum sup X in P, we nd that sup{f(x): x in X} exists and is equal to f(sup X). Such a function
is also called join-preserving. Analogously, one says that f preserves nite, non-empty, directed, or arbitrary
joins (or meets). The converse property is called join-reecting.
Prime. An ideal I in a lattice L is said to be prime, if, for all elements x and y in L, x y in I implies x in I or
y in I. The dual notion is called a prime lter. Equivalently, a set is a prime lter if and only if its complement
is a prime ideal.
Principal. A lter is called principal lter if it has a least element. Dually, a principal ideal is an ideal with a
greatest element. The least or greatest elements may also be called principal elements in these situations.
Projection (operator). A self-map on a partially ordered set that is monotone and idempotent under function
composition. Projections play an important role in domain theory.
Pseudo-complement. In a Heyting algebra, the element x 0 is called the pseudo-complement of x. It is
also given by sup{y : y x = 0}, i.e. as the least upper bound of all elements y with y x = 0.
22.15 Q
Quasiorder. See preorder.
Quasitransitive. A relation is quasitransitive if the relation on distinct elements is transitive. Transitive implies
quasitransitive and quasitransitive implies acyclic.[1]
22.16 R
Reecting. A function f between posets P and Q is said to reect suprema (joins), if, for all subsets X of P
for which the supremum sup{f(x): x in X} exists and is of the form f(s) for some s in P, then we nd that sup
X exists and that sup X = s . Analogously, one says that f reects nite, non-empty, directed, or arbitrary joins
(or meets). The converse property is called join-preserving.
Reexive. A binary relation R on a set X is reexive, if x R x holds for all elements x, y in X.
Residual. A dual map attached to a residuated mapping.
Residuated mapping. A monotone map for which the preimage of a principal down-set is again principal.
Equivalently, one component of a Galois connection.
22.17 S
Saturated chain. A chain such that no element can be added between two of its elements without losing the
property of being totally ordered. If the chain is nite, this means that in every pair of successive elements the
larger one covers the smaller one. See also maximal chain.
Scattered. A total order is scattered if it has no densely ordered subset.
Scott-continuous. A monotone function f : P Q between posets P and Q is Scott-continuous if, for every
directed set D that has a supremum sup D in P, the set {fx | x in D} has the supremum f(sup D) in Q. Stated
dierently, a Scott-continuous function is one that preserves all directed suprema. This is in fact equivalent to
being continuous with respect to the Scott topology on the respective posets.
Scott domain. A Scott domain is a partially ordered set which is a bounded complete algebraic cpo.
Scott open. See Scott topology.
Scott topology. For a poset P, a subset O is Scott-open if it is an upper set and all directed sets D that have a
supremum in O have non-empty intersection with O. The set of all Scott-open sets forms a topology, the Scott
topology.
22.18. T 83
Semilattice. A semilattice is a poset in which either all nite non-empty joins (suprema) or all nite non-empty
meets (inma) exist. Accordingly, one speaks of a join-semilattice or meet-semilattice.
Smallest element. See least element.
Sperner property of a partially ordered set
Sperner poset
Strictly Sperner poset
Strongly Sperner poset
Strict order. A strict order is a binary relation that is antisymmetric, transitive, and irreexive.
Supremum. For a poset P and a subset X of P, the least element in the set of upper bounds of X (if it exists,

which it may not) is called the supremum, join, or least upper bound of X. It is denoted by sup X or X.
The supremum of two elements may be written as sup{x,y} or x y. If the set X is nite, one speaks of a nite
supremum. The dual notion is called inmum.
Suzumura consistency. A binary relation R is Suzumura consistent if x R y implies that x R y or not y R x.[1]
Symmetric. A relation R on a set X is symmetric, if x R y implies y R x, for all elements x, y in X.
22.18 T
Top. See unit.
Total order. A total order T is a partial order in which, for each x and y in T, we have x y or y x. Total
orders are also called linear orders or chains.
Total relation. A total or complete relation R on a set X has the property that for all elements x, y of X, at
least one of x R y or y R x holds.
Transitive. A relation R on a set X is transitive, if x R y and y R z imply x R z, for all elements x, y, z in X.
Transitive closure. The transitive closure R of a relation R consists of all pairs x,y for which there cists a
nite chain x R a, a R b, ..., z R y.[1]
22.19 U
Unit. The greatest element of a poset P can be called unit or just 1 (if it exists). Another common term for
this element is top. It is the inmum of the empty set and the supremum of P. The dual notion is called zero.
Up-set. See upper set.
Upper bound. An upper bound of a subset X of a poset P is an element b of P, such that x b, for all x in X.
The dual notion is called lower bound.
Upper set. A subset X of a poset P is called an upper set if, for all elements x in X and p in P, x p implies
that p is contained in X. The dual notion is called lower set.
22.20 V
Valuation. Given a lattice X , a valuation : X [0, 1] is strict (i.e., () = 0 ), monotone, modular (i.e.,
(U ) + (V ) = (U V ) + (U V ) ) and positive. Continuous valuations are a generalization of measures.
22.21 W
Way-below relation. In a poset P, some element x is way below y, written x<<y, if for all directed subsets D
of P which have a supremum, y sup D implies x d for some d in D. One also says that x approximates y.
See also domain theory.
Weak order. A partial order on a set X is a weak order provided that the poset (X, ) is isomorphic to a
countable collection of sets ordered by comparison of cardinality.
22.22 Z
Zero. The least element of a poset P can be called zero or just 0 (if it exists). Another common term for this
element is bottom. Zero is the supremum of the empty set and the inmum of P. The dual notion is called
unit.
22.23 Notes
[1] Bossert, Walter; Suzumura, Ktar (2010). Consistency, choice and rationality. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674052994.
[2] Deng 2008, p. 22
22.24 References
The denitions given here are consistent with those that can be found in the following standard reference books:
B. A. Davey and H. A. Priestley, Introduction to Lattices and Order, 2nd Edition, Cambridge University Press,
2002.
G. Gierz, K. H. Hofmann, K. Keimel, J. D. Lawson, M. Mislove and D. S. Scott, Continuous Lattices and
Domains, In Encyclopedia of Mathematics and its Applications, Vol. 93, Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Specic denitions:
Deng, Bangming (2008), Finite dimensional algebras and quantum groups, Mathematical surveys and mono-
graphs, 150, American Mathematical Society, ISBN 978-0-8218-4186-0
Chapter 23
85

23.1.2 Example
"(x, y) R".[5]

and z = +5 to y = 25.
a total relation):
23.2.1 Difunctional
R=RR1 R.[12]

neighborhood.[13]
> is not.

and =.
in .
contained in R.
R.
23.4.1 Complement


23.4.2 Restriction
y are in S.
23.5. SETS VERSUS CLASSES 91
grandmother.

and many-sorted).
rewriting system.


2
Notes:

plement).

greater than
less than
divides (evenly)
is a subset of
equality
isomorphy
23.8 See also

Hasse diagram
Incidence structure
Logic of relatives
Order theory
Triadic relation
23.9 Notes
0-486-61630-4.
23.9. NOTES 93
Media. pp. 299300. ISBN 978-0-387-74758-3.
978-1-4020-6164-6.
460643-9.
4736, Springer, pp. 285302, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74788-8_18
6588-0.
p. 160, ISBN 0-534-39900-2
antisymmetric.
3. ISBN 0-8218-1041-3.
23.10 References

Chapter 24
Hypostatic abstraction
Hypostatic abstraction in mathematical logic, also known as hypostasis or subjectal abstraction, is a formal
operation that transforms a predicate into a relation; for example Honey is sweet is transformed into Honey has
sweetness. The relation is created between the original subject and a new term that represents the property expressed
by the original predicate.
Hypostasis changes a propositional formula of the form X is Y to another one of the form X has the property of being
Y or X has Y-ness. The logical functioning of the second object Y-ness consists solely in the truth-values of those
propositions that have the corresponding abstract property Y as the predicate. The object of thought introduced in
this way may be called a hypostatic object and in some senses an abstract object and a formal object.
The above denition is adapted from the one given by Charles Sanders Peirce (CP 4.235, The Simplest Mathematics
(1902), in Collected Papers, CP 4.227323). As Peirce describes it, the main point about the formal operation of
hypostatic abstraction, insofar as it operates on formal linguistic expressions, is that it converts an adjective or predicate
into an extra subject, thus increasing by one the number of subject slots -- called the arity or adicity -- of the main
predicate.
The transformation of honey is sweet into honey possesses sweetness can be viewed in several ways:
The grammatical trace of this hypostatic transformation is a process that extracts the adjective sweet from the
predicate is sweet, replacing it by a new, increased-arity predicate possesses, and as a by-product of the reaction,
as it were, precipitating out the substantive sweetness as a second subject of the new predicate.
The abstraction of hypostasis takes the concrete physical sense of taste found in honey is sweet and gives it formal
metaphysical characteristics in honey has sweetness.
95
96 CHAPTER 24. HYPOSTATIC ABSTRACTION
24.1 See also
24.2 References
Peirce, C.S., Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, vols. 16 (19311935), Charles Hartshorne and Paul
Weiss, eds., vols. 78 (1958), Arthur W. Burks, ed., Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
24.3 External links

J. Jay Zeman, Peirce on Abstraction
Chapter 25
Idempotence
For the concept in matrix algebra, see Idempotent matrix.
Idempotence (UK: /dmpotns/;[1] US: /admpotns/ EYE-dm-POH-tns)[2] is the property of certain operations
in mathematics and computer science, that can be applied multiple times without changing the result beyond the initial
application. The concept of idempotence arises in a number of places in abstract algebra (in particular, in the theory of
projectors and closure operators) and functional programming (in which it is connected to the property of referential
transparency).
The term was introduced by Benjamin Peirce[3] in the context of elements of algebras that remain invariant when
raised to a positive integer power, and literally means "(the quality of having) the same power, from idem + potence
(same + power).
There are several meanings of idempotence, depending on what the concept is applied to:
A unary operation (or function) is idempotent if, whenever it is applied twice to any value, it gives the same
result as if it were applied once; i.e., ((x)) (x). For example, the absolute value function, where abs(abs(x))
abs(x), is idempotent.
Given a binary operation, an idempotent element (or simply an idempotent) for the operation is a value for
which the operation, when given that value for both of its operands, gives that value as the result. For example,
the number 1 is an idempotent of multiplication: 1 1 = 1.
A binary operation is called idempotent if all elements are idempotent elements with respect to the operation.
In other words, whenever it is applied to two equal values, it gives that value as the result. For example, the
function giving the maximum value of two equal values is idempotent: max(x, x) x.
25.1 Denitions
25.1.1 Unary operation
A unary operation f , that is, a map from some set S into itself, is called idempotent if, for all x in S ,
f (f (x)) = f (x)
In particular, the identity function idS , dened by idS (x) = x , is idempotent, as is the constant function Kc , where
c is an element of S , dened by Kc (x) = c .
An important class of idempotent functions is given by projections in a vector space. An example of a projection is
the function xy dened by xy (x, y, z) = (x, y, 0) , which projects an arbitrary point in 3D space to a point on the
xy -plane, where the third coordinate ( z ) is equal to 0.
97
98 CHAPTER 25. IDEMPOTENCE
A unary operation f : S S is idempotent if it maps each element of S to a xed point of f . We can partition a
set with n elements into k chosen xed points and n k non-xed points, and then k nk is the number of dierent
idempotent functions. Hence, taking into account all possible partitions,
n ( )
n
k nk
k
k=0
is the total number of possible idempotent functions on the set. The integer sequence of the number of idempotent
functions as given by the sum above for n = {0, 1, 2, . . . } starts with 1, 1, 3, 10, 41, 196, 1057, 6322, 41393, . . . .
(sequence A000248 in the OEIS)
Neither the property of being idempotent nor that of being not is preserved under composition of unary functions.[4]
As an example for the former, f(x) = x mod 3 and g(x) = max(x, 5) are both idempotent, but f g is not,[5] although
g f happens to be.[6] As an example for the latter, the negation function on truth values isn't idempotent, but
is.
25.1.2 Idempotent elements and binary operations
Given a binary operation on a set S , an element x is said to be idempotent (with respect to ) if:
x x = x.
In particular an identity element of , if it exists, is idempotent with respect to the operation , and the same is
true of an absorbing element. The binary operation itself is called idempotent if every element of S is idempotent.
That is, for all x S where denotes set membership:
x x = x.
For example, the operations of set union and set intersection are both idempotent, as are logical conjunction and
logical disjunction, and, in general, the meet and join operations of a lattice.
25.1.3 Connections
The connections between the three notions are as follows.
The statement that the binary operation on a set S is idempotent, is equivalent to the statement that every
element of S is idempotent for .
The dening property of unary idempotence, f(f(x)) = f(x) for x in the domain of f, can equivalently be
rewritten as f f = f, using the binary operation of function composition denoted by . Thus, the statement
that f is an idempotent unary operation on S is equivalent to the statement that f is an idempotent element with
respect to the function composition operation on functions from S to S.
25.2 Common examples
25.2.1 Functions
As mentioned above, the identity map and the constant maps are always idempotent maps. The absolute value function
of a real or complex argument, and the oor function of a real argument are idempotent.
The function that assigns to every subset U of some topological space X the closure of U is idempotent on the power
set P (X) of X . It is an example of a closure operator; all closure operators are idempotent functions.
25.3. COMPUTER SCIENCE MEANING 99
The operation of subtracting the mean of a list of numbers from every number in the list is idempotent. For example,
consider the numbers 3, 6, 8, 8, and10 . The mean is 3+6+8+8+10 5 = 35
5 = 7 . Subtracting 7 from every number in
(4)+(1)+1+1+3
the list yields (4) , (1) , 1, 1, 3 . The mean of that list is 5 = 05 = 0 . Subtracting 0 from every
number in that list yields the same list.
25.2.2 Formal languages

The Kleene star and Kleene plus operators used to express repetition in formal languages are idempotent.
25.2.3 Idempotent ring elements

Main article: Idempotent (ring theory)
An idempotent element of a ring is, by denition, an element that is idempotent for the rings multiplication.[7] That
is, an element a is idempotent precisely when a2 = a.
Idempotent elements of rings yield direct decompositions of modules, and play a role in describing other homological
properties of the ring. While idempotent usually refers to the multiplication operation of a ring, there are rings in
which both operations are idempotent: Boolean algebras are such an example.
25.2.4 Other examples

In Boolean algebra, both the logical and and the logical or operations are idempotent. This implies that every element
of Boolean algebra is idempotent with respect to both of these operations. Specically, x x = x and x x = x
for all x . In linear algebra, projections are idempotent. In fact, the projections of a vector space are exactly the
idempotent elements of the ring of linear transformations of the vector space. After xing a basis, it can be shown
that the matrix of a projection with respect to this basis is an idempotent matrix. An idempotent semiring (also
sometimes called a dioid) is a semiring whose addition (not multiplication) is idempotent. If both operations of the
semiring are idempotent, then the semiring is called doubly idempotent.[8]
25.3 Computer science meaning

See also: Referential transparency (computer science), Reentrant (subroutine), and Stable sort
In computer science, the term idempotent is used more comprehensively to describe an operation that will produce
the same results if executed once or multiple times.[9] This may have a dierent meaning depending on the context
in which it is applied. In the case of methods or subroutine calls with side eects, for instance, it means that the
modied state remains the same after the rst call. In functional programming, though, an idempotent function is
one that has the property f(f(x)) = f(x) for any value x.[10]
This is a very useful property in many situations, as it means that an operation can be repeated or retried as often
as necessary without causing unintended eects. With non-idempotent operations, the algorithm may have to keep
track of whether the operation was already performed or not.
25.3.1 Examples
A function looking up a customers name and address in a database is typically idempotent, since this will not cause
the database to change. Similarly, changing a customers address is typically idempotent, because the nal address
will be the same no matter how many times it is submitted. However, placing an order for a car for the customer is
typically not idempotent, since running the call several times will lead to several orders being placed. Canceling an
order is idempotent, because the order remains canceled no matter how many requests are made.
A composition of idempotent methods or subroutines, however, is not necessarily idempotent if a later method in
the sequence changes a value that an earlier method depends on idempotence is not closed under composition. For
100 CHAPTER 25. IDEMPOTENCE
example, suppose the initial value of a variable is 3 and there is a sequence that reads the variable, then changes it to 5,
and then reads it again. Each step in the sequence is idempotent: both steps reading the variable have no side eects
and changing a variable to 5 will always have the same eect no matter how many times it is executed. Nonetheless,
executing the entire sequence once produces the output (3, 5), but executing it a second time produces the output (5,
5), so the sequence is not idempotent.[11]
In the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), idempotence and safety are the major attributes that separate HTTP
verbs. Of the major HTTP verbs, GET, PUT, and DELETE should be implemented in an idempotent manner
according to the standard, but POST need not be.[11] GET retrieves a resource; PUT stores content at a resource;
and DELETE eliminates a resource. As in the example above, reading data usually has no side eects, so it is
idempotent (in fact nullipotent). Storing and deleting a given set of content are each usually idempotent as long as the
request species a location or identier that uniquely identies that resource and only that resource again in the future.
The PUT and DELETE operations with unique identiers reduce to the simple case of assignment to an immutable
variable of either a value or the null-value, respectively, and are idempotent for the same reason; the end result is
always the same as the result of the initial execution.
Violation of the unique identication requirement in storage or deletion typically causes violation of idempotence.
For example, storing or deleting a given set of content without specifying a unique identier: POST requests, which
do not need to be idempotent, often do not contain unique identiers, so the creation of the identier is delegated
to the receiving system which then creates a corresponding new record. Similarly, PUT and DELETE requests with
nonspecic criteria may result in dierent outcomes depending on the state of the system - for example, a request to
delete the most recent record. In each case, subsequent executions will further modify the state of the system, so they
are not idempotent.
In Event Stream Processing, idempotence refers to the ability of a system to produce the same outcome, even if an
event or message is received more than once.
In a load-store architecture, instructions that might possibly cause a page fault are idempotent. So if a page fault
occurs, the OS can load the page from disk and then simply re-execute the faulted instruction. In a processor where
such instructions are not idempotent, dealing with page faults is much more complex.
When reformatting output, pretty-printing is expected to be idempotent. In other words, if the output is already
pretty, there should be nothing to do for the pretty-printer.
25.4 Applied examples

Applied examples that many people could encounter in their day-to-day lives include elevator call buttons and cross-
walk buttons.[12] The initial activation of the button moves the system into a requesting state, until the request is
satised. Subsequent activations of the button between the initial activation and the request being satised have no
eect.
25.5 See also

Closure operator
Fixed point (mathematics)
Idempotent of a code
Nilpotent
Idempotent matrix
Idempotent relation a generalization of idempotence to binary relations
List of matrices
Pure function
Referential transparency
Iterated function
Biordered set
Involution (mathematics)
25.6 References
[1] idempotence. Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. 2010.
[2] idemptent. Merriam-Webster.
[3] Polcino & Sehgal (2002), p. 127.
[4] If f and g commute, i.e. if f g = g f, then idempotency of both f and g implies that of f g, since (f g) (f g) = (f
f) (g g) = f g, using the associativity of composition.
[5] e.g. f(g(7)) = f(7) = 1, but f(g(1)) = f(5) = 2 1
[6] also showing that commutation of f and g is not a necessary condition for idempotency preservation
[7] See Hazewinkel et al. (2004), p. 2.
[8] Gondran & Minoux. Graphs, dioids and semirings. Springer, 2008, p. 34
[9] Rodriguez, Alex. RESTful Web services: The basics. IBM developerWorks. IBM. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
[10] http://foldoc.org/idempotent
[11] IETF, Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP/1.1): Semantics and Content. See also HyperText Transfer Protocol.
[12] https://web.archive.org/web/20110523081716/http://www.nclabor.com/elevator/geartrac.pdf For example, this design spec-

ication includes detailed algorithm for when elevator cars will respond to subsequent calls for service
25.7 Further reading

idempotent at FOLDOC
Goodearl, K. R. (1991), von Neumann regular rings (2 ed.), Malabar, FL: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co.
Inc., pp. xviii+412, ISBN 0-89464-632-X, MR 1150975 (93m:16006)
Gunawardena, Jeremy (1998), An introduction to idempotency, in Gunawardena, Jeremy, Idempotency.

Based on a workshop, Bristol, UK, October 37, 1994 (PDF), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.
149, Zbl 0898.16032
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001) [1994], Idempotent, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Science+Business
Hazewinkel, Michiel; Gubareni, Nadiya; Kirichenko, V. V. (2004), Algebras, rings and modules. vol. 1,
Mathematics and its Applications, 575, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. xii+380, ISBN 1-4020-
2690-0, MR 2106764 (2006a:16001)
Lam, T. Y. (2001), A rst course in noncommutative rings, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 131 (2 ed.), New
York: Springer-Verlag, pp. xx+385, ISBN 0-387-95183-0, MR 1838439 (2002c:16001)
Lang, Serge (1993), Algebra (Third ed.), Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-0-201-55540-0, Zbl
0848.13001 p. 443
Peirce, Benjamin. Linear Associative Algebra 1870.
Polcino Milies, Csar; Sehgal, Sudarshan K. (2002), An introduction to group rings, Algebras and Applications,
1, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. xii+371, ISBN 1-4020-0238-6, MR 1896125 (2003b:16026)
Chapter 26
Indierence graph
0 1 2 3 4 5
An indierence graph, formed from a set of points on the real line by connecting pairs of points whose distance is at most one
In graph theory, a branch of mathematics, an indierence graph is an undirected graph constructed by assigning a
real number to each vertex and connecting two vertices by an edge when their numbers are within one unit of each
other.[1] Indierence graphs are also the intersection graphs of sets of unit intervals, or of properly nested intervals
(intervals none of which contains any other one). Based on these two types of interval representations, these graphs
are also called unit interval graphs or proper interval graphs; they form a subclass of the interval graphs.
26.1 Equivalent characterizations

The nite indierence graphs may be equivalently characterized as
The intersection graphs of unit intervals,[1]
The intersection graphs of sets of intervals no two of which are nested (one containing the other),[1][2]
The claw-free interval graphs,[1][2]
The graphs that do not have an induced subgraph isomorphic to a claw K,, net (a triangle with a degree-one
vertex adjacent to each of the triangle vertices), sun (a triangle surrounded by three other triangles that each
share one edge with the central triangle), or hole (cycle of length four or more),[3]
The incomparability graphs of semiorders,[1]
The undirected graphs that have a linear order such that, for every three-vertex path uvw whose vertices are
ordered u v w , the path endpoints u and w are adjacent,[4]
The graphs with no astral triple, three vertices connected pairwise by paths that avoid the third vertex and
also do not contain two consecutive neighbors of the third vertex,[5]
The graphs in which each connected component contains a path in which each clique of the component forms
a contiguous sub-path,[6]
102
26.2. PROPERTIES 103
Forbidden induced subgraphs for the indierence graphs: the claw, sun, and net (top, leftright) and cycles of length four or more
(bottom)
The graphs whose vertices can be numbered in such a way that every shortest path forms a monotonic se-
quence,[6]
The graphs whose adjacency matrices can be ordered such that, in each row and each column, the nonzeros of
the matrix form a contiguous interval adjacent to the main diagonal of the matrix.[7]
The induced subgraphs of powers of chordless paths.[8]
The leaf powers having a leaf root which is a caterpillar.[8]
For innite graphs, some of these denitions may dier.
26.2 Properties
Because they are special cases of interval graphs, indierence graphs have all the properties of interval graphs; in
particular they are a special case of the chordal graphs and of the perfect graphs. They are also a special case of the
circle graphs, something that is not true of interval graphs more generally.
In the ErdsRnyi model of random graphs, an n -vertex graph whose number of edges is signicantly less than
n2/3 will be an indierence graph with high probability, whereas a graph whose number of edges is signicantly more
than n2/3 will not be an indierence graph with high probability.[9]
The bandwidth of an arbitrary graph G is one less than the size of the maximum clique in an indierence graph
that contains G as a subgraph and is chosen to minimize the size of the maximum clique.[10] This property parallels
similar relations between pathwidth and interval graphs, and between treewidth and chordal graphs. A weaker notion
of width, the clique-width, may be arbitrarily large on indierence graphs.[11] However, every proper subclass of the
indierence graphs that is closed under induced subgraphs has bounded clique-width.[12]
Every connected indierence graph has a Hamiltonian path.[13] An indierence graph has a Hamiltonian cycle if and
only if it is biconnected.[14]
Indierence graphs obey the reconstruction conjecture: they are uniquely determined by their vertex-deleted subgraphs.[15]
104 CHAPTER 26. INDIFFERENCE GRAPH
26.3 Algorithms
As with higher dimensional unit disk graphs, it is possible to transform a set of points into their indierence graph, or
a set of unit intervals into their unit interval graph, in linear time as measured in terms of the size of the output graph.
The algorithm rounds the points (or interval centers) down to the nearest smaller integer, uses a hash table to nd all
pairs of points whose rounded integers are within one of each other (the xed-radius near neighbors problem), and
lters the resulting list of pairs for the ones whose unrounded values are also within one of each other.[16]
It is possible to test whether a given graph is an indierence graph in linear time, by using PQ trees to construct
an interval representation of the graph and then testing whether a vertex ordering derived from this representation
satises the properties of an indierence graph.[4] It is also possible to base a recognition algorithm for indierence
graphs on chordal graph recognition algorithms.[14] Several alternative linear time recognition algorithms are based
on breadth-rst search or lexicographic breadth-rst search rather than on the relation between indierence graphs
and interval graphs.[17][18][19][20]
Once the vertices have been sorted by the numerical values that describe an indierence graph (or by the sequence of
unit intervals in an interval representation) the same ordering can be used to nd an optimal graph coloring for these
graphs, to solve the shortest path problem, and to construct Hamiltonian paths and maximum matchings, all in linear
time.[4] A Hamiltonian cycle can be found from a proper interval representation of the graph in time O(n log n) ,[13]
but when the graph itself is given as input, the same problem admits linear-time solution that can be generalized to
interval graphs.[21][22]
List coloring remains NP-complete even when restricted to indierence graphs.[23] However, it is xed-parameter
tractable when parameterized by the total number of colors in the input.[12]
26.4 Applications
In mathematical psychology, indierence graphs arise from utility functions, by scaling the function so that one
unit represents a dierence in utilities small enough that individuals can be assumed to be indierent to it. In this
application, pairs of items whose utilities have a large dierence may be partially ordered by the relative order of
their utilities, giving a semiorder.[1][24]
In bioinformatics, the problem of augmenting a colored graph to a properly colored unit interval graph can be used
to model the detection of false negatives in DNA sequence assembly from complete digests.[25]
26.5 See also

Threshold graph, a graph whose edges are determined by sums of vertex labels rather than dierences of labels
Trivially perfect graph, interval graphs for which every pair of intervals is nested or disjoint rather than properly
intersecting
26.6 References
[1] Roberts, Fred S. (1969), Indierence graphs, Proof Techniques in Graph Theory (Proc. Second Ann Arbor Graph Theory
Conf., Ann Arbor, Mich., 1968), Academic Press, New York, pp. 139146, MR 0252267.
[2] Bogart, Kenneth P.; West, Douglas B. (1999), A short proof that proper = unit"", Discrete Mathematics, 201 (1-3): 2123,
MR 1687858, doi:10.1016/S0012-365X(98)00310-0.
[3] Wegner, G. (1967), Eigenschaften der Nerven homologisch-einfacher Familien im Rn , Ph.D. thesis, Gttingen, Germany:
Gttingen University. As cited by Hell & Huang (2004).
[4] Looges, Peter J.; Olariu, Stephan (1993), Optimal greedy algorithms for indierence graphs, Computers & Mathematics
with Applications, 25 (7): 1525, MR 1203643, doi:10.1016/0898-1221(93)90308-I.
[5] Jackowski, Zygmunt (1992), A new characterization of proper interval graphs, Discrete Mathematics, 105 (1-3): 103
109, MR 1180196, doi:10.1016/0012-365X(92)90135-3.
26.7. EXTERNAL LINKS 105
[6] Gutierrez, M.; Oubia, L. (1996), Metric characterizations of proper interval graphs and tree-clique graphs, Journal of
Graph Theory, 21 (2): 199205, MR 1368745, doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0118(199602)21:2<199::AID-JGT9>3.0.CO;2-
M.
[7] Mertzios, George B. (2008), A matrix characterization of interval and proper interval graphs, Applied Mathematics Letters,
21 (4): 332337, MR 2406509, doi:10.1016/j.aml.2007.04.001.
[8] Brandstdt, Andreas; Hundt, Christian; Mancini, Federico; Wagner, Peter (2010), Rooted directed path graphs are leaf
powers, Discrete Mathematics, 310: 897910, doi:10.1016/j.disc.2009.10.006.
[9] Cohen, Joel E. (1982), The asymptotic probability that a random graph is a unit interval graph, indierence graph, or
proper interval graph, Discrete Mathematics, 40 (1): 2124, MR 676708, doi:10.1016/0012-365X(82)90184-4.
[10] Kaplan, Haim; Shamir, Ron (1996), Pathwidth, bandwidth, and completion problems to proper interval graphs with small
cliques, SIAM Journal on Computing, 25 (3): 540561, MR 1390027, doi:10.1137/S0097539793258143.
[11] Golumbic, Martin Charles; Rotics, Udi (1999), The clique-width of unit interval graphs is unbounded, Proceedings of the
Thirtieth Southeastern International Conference on Combinatorics, Graph Theory, and Computing (Boca Raton, FL, 1999),
Congressus Numerantium, 140, pp. 517, MR 1745205.
[12] Lozin, Vadim V. (2008), From tree-width to clique-width: excluding a unit interval graph, Algorithms and computation,
Lecture Notes in Comput. Sci., 5369, Springer, Berlin, pp. 871882, MR 2539978, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-92182-0_76.
[13] Bertossi, Alan A. (1983), Finding Hamiltonian circuits in proper interval graphs, Information Processing Letters, 17 (2):
97101, MR 731128, doi:10.1016/0020-0190(83)90078-9.
[14] Panda, B. S.; Das, Sajal K. (2003), A linear time recognition algorithm for proper interval graphs, Information Processing
Letters, 87 (3): 153161, MR 1986780, doi:10.1016/S0020-0190(03)00298-9.
[15] von Rimscha, Michael (1983), Reconstructibility and perfect graphs, Discrete Mathematics, 47 (2-3): 283291, MR
724667, doi:10.1016/0012-365X(83)90099-7.
[16] Bentley, Jon L.; Stanat, Donald F.; Williams, E. Hollins, Jr. (1977), The complexity of nding xed-radius near neigh-
bors, Information Processing Letters, 6 (6): 209212, MR 0489084, doi:10.1016/0020-0190(77)90070-9.
[17] Corneil, Derek G.; Kim, Hiryoung; Natarajan, Sridhar; Olariu, Stephan; Sprague, Alan P. (1995), Simple linear time
recognition of unit interval graphs, Information Processing Letters, 55 (2): 99104, MR 1344787, doi:10.1016/0020-
0190(95)00046-F.
[18] Herrera de Figueiredo, Celina M.; Meidanis, Joo; Picinin de Mello, Clia (1995), A linear-time algorithm for proper in-
terval graph recognition, Information Processing Letters, 56 (3): 179184, MR 1365411, doi:10.1016/0020-0190(95)00133-
W.
[19] Corneil, Derek G. (2004), A simple 3-sweep LBFS algorithm for the recognition of unit interval graphs, Discrete Applied
Mathematics, 138 (3): 371379, MR 2049655, doi:10.1016/j.dam.2003.07.001.
[20] Hell, Pavol; Huang, Jing (2004), Certifying LexBFS recognition algorithms for proper interval graphs and proper interval
bigraphs, SIAM Journal on Discrete Mathematics, 18 (3): 554570, MR 2134416, doi:10.1137/S0895480103430259.
[21] Keil, J. Mark (1985), Finding Hamiltonian circuits in interval graphs, Information Processing Letters, 20 (4): 201206,
MR 801816, doi:10.1016/0020-0190(85)90050-X.
[22] Ibarra, Louis (2009), A simple algorithm to nd Hamiltonian cycles in proper interval graphs, Information Processing
Letters, 109 (18): 11051108, MR 2552898, doi:10.1016/j.ipl.2009.07.010.
[23] Marx, Dniel (2006), Precoloring extension on unit interval graphs, Discrete Applied Mathematics, 154 (6): 9951002,
MR 2212549, doi:10.1016/j.dam.2005.10.008.
[24] Roberts, Fred S. (1970), On nontransitive indierence, Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 7: 243258, MR 0258486,
doi:10.1016/0022-2496(70)90047-7.
[25] Goldberg, Paul W.; Golumbic, Martin C.; Kaplan, Haim; Shamir, Ron (2009), Four strikes against physical mapping of
DNA, Journal of Computational Biology, 2 (2), PMID 7497116, doi:10.1089/cmb.1995.2.139.
26.7 External links

Information System on Graph Class Inclusions: unit interval graph
Chapter 27
Interval order
In mathematics, especially order theory, the interval order for a collection of intervals on the real line is the partial
order corresponding to their left-to-right precedence relationone interval, I 1 , being considered less than another, I 2 ,
if I 1 is completely to the left of I 2 . More formally, a poset P = (X, ) is an interval order if and only if there exists
a bijection from X to a set of real intervals, so xi 7 (i , ri ) , such that for any xi , xj X we have xi < xj in P
exactly when ri < j . Such posets may be equivalently characterized as those with no induced subposet isomorphic
to the pair of two element chains, the (2 + 2) free posets .[1]
The subclass of interval orders obtained by restricting the intervals to those of unit length, so they all have the form
(i , i + 1) , is precisely the semiorders.
The complement of the comparability graph of an interval order ( X , ) is the interval graph (X, ) .
Interval orders should not be confused with the interval-containment orders, which are the containment orders on
intervals on the real line (equivalently, the orders of dimension 2).
27.1 Interval dimension

The interval dimension of a partial order can be dened as the minimal number of interval order extensions realiz-
ing this order, in a similar way to the denition of the order dimension which uses linear extensions. The interval
dimension of an order is always less than its order dimension,[2] but interval orders with high dimensions are known
to exist. While the problem of determining the order dimension of general partial orders is known to be NP-hard,
the complexity of determining the order dimension of an interval order is unknown.[3]
27.2 Combinatorics
In addition to being isomorphic to (2+2) free posets, unlabeled interval orders on [n] are also in bijection with a subset
of xed point free involutions on ordered sets with cardinality 2n .[4] These are the involutions with no left or right
neighbor nestings where, for f an involution on [2n] , a left nesting is an i [2n] such that i < i+1 < f (i+1) < f (i)
and a right nesting is an i [2n] such that f (i) < f (i + 1) < i < i + 1 .
Such involutions, according to semi-length, have ordinary generating function [5]
n
F (t) = n0 i=1 (1 (1 t)i ) .
Hence the number of unlabeled interval orders of size n is given by the coecient of tn in the expansion of F (t) .
1, 2, 5, 15, 53, 217, 1014, 5335, 31240, 201608, 1422074, 10886503, 89903100, 796713190, 7541889195,
75955177642, (sequence A022493 in the OEIS)
27.3 Notes
[1] Fishburn (1970)
106
[2] Felsner, Habib & Mhring (1994).
[3] Felsner (1992), p. 47
[4] Bousquet-Mlou et al. (2010)
[5] Zagier (2001)
27.4 References
Bousquet-Mlou, Mireille; Claesson, Anders; Dukes, Mark; Kitaev, Sergey (2010), "(2+2) free posets, ascent
sequences and pattern avoiding permutations, Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series A, 117 (7): 884909,
MR 2652101, doi:10.1016/j.jcta.2009.12.007.
Felsner, S. (1992), Interval Orders: Combinatorial Structure and Algorithms (PDF), Ph.D. dissertation, Tech-
nical University of Berlin.
Felsner, S.; Habib, M.; Mhring, R. H. (1994), On the interplay between interval dimension and dimension
(PDF), SIAM Journal on Discrete Mathematics, 7 (1): 3240, MR 1259007, doi:10.1137/S089548019121885X.
Fishburn, Peter C. (1970), Intransitive indierence with unequal indierence intervals, Journal of Mathe-
matical Psychology, 7 (1): 144149, MR 0253942, doi:10.1016/0022-2496(70)90062-3.
Zagier, Don (2001), Vassiliev invariants and a strange identity related to the Dedekind eta-function, Topology,
40 (5): 945960, MR 1860536, doi:10.1016/s0040-9383(00)00005-7.
27.5 Additional reading

Fishburn, Peter (1985), Interval Orders and Interval Graphs: A Study of Partially Ordered Sets, John Wiley
Chapter 28
Intransitivity
This article is about intransitivity in mathematics. For other uses, see Intransitive (disambiguation).
In mathematics, intransitivity (sometimes called nontransitivity) is a property of binary relations that are not
transitive relations. This may include any relation that is not transitive, or the stronger property of antitransitiv-
ity, which describes a relation that is never transitive.
28.1 Intransitivity
A relation is transitive if, whenever it relates some A to some B, and that B to some C, it also relates that A to that C.
Some authors call a relation intransitive if it is not transitive, i.e. (if the relation in question is named R )
(a, b, c : aRb bRc aRc) .
This statement is equivalent to
a, b, c : aRb bRc (aRc)
For instance, in the food chain, wolves feed on deer, and deer feed on grass, but wolves do not feed on grass.[1] Thus,
the feed on relation among life forms is intransitive, in this sense.
Another example that does not involve preference loops arises in freemasonry: in some instances lodge A recognizes
lodge B, and lodge B recognizes lodge C, but lodge A does not recognize lodge C. Thus the recognition relation
among Masonic lodges is intransitive.
28.2 Antitransitivity
Often the term intransitive is used to refer to the stronger property of antitransitivity.
We just saw that the feed on relation is not transitive, but it still contains some transitivity: for instance: humans feed
on rabbits, rabbits feed on carrots, and humans also feed on carrots.
A relation is antitransitive if this never occurs at all, i.e.,
a, b, c : aRb bRc aRc
Many authors use the term intransitivity to mean antitransitivity.[2][3]

An example of an antitransitive relation: the defeated relation in knockout tournaments. If player A defeated player
B and player B defeated player C, A can have never played C, and therefore, A has not defeated C.
108
28.3. CYCLES 109
28.3 Cycles
The term intransitivity is often used when speaking of scenarios in which a relation describes the relative preferences
between pairs of options, and weighing several options produces a loop of preference:
A is preferred to B
B is preferred to C
C is preferred to A
Rock, paper, scissors; Nontransitive dice; and Penneys game are examples. Real combative relations of competing
species [4] and strategies of individual animals [5] can be cyclic as well.
Assuming no option is preferred to itself i.e. the relation is irreexive, a preference relation with a loop is not transitive.
For if it is, each option in the loop is preferred to each option, including itself. This can be illustrated for this example
of a loop among A, B, and C. Assume the relation is transitive. Then, since A is preferred to B and B is preferred to
C, also A is preferred to C. But then, since C is preferred to A, also A is preferred to A.
Therefore such a preference loop (or "cycle") is known as an intransitivity.
Notice that a cycle is neither necessary nor sucient for a binary relation to be not transitive. For example, an
equivalence relation possesses cycles but is transitive. Now, consider the relation is an enemy of and suppose that
the relation is symmetric and satises the condition that for any country, any enemy of an enemy of the country is
not itself an enemy of the country. This is an example of an antitransitive relation that does not have any cycles. In
particular, by virtue of being antitransitive the relation is not transitive.
Finally, let us work with the example of rock, paper, scissors, calling the three options A, B, and C. Now, the relation
over A, B, and C is defeats and the standard rules of the game are such that A defeats B, B defeats C, and C defeats
A. Furthermore, it is also true that B does not defeat A, C does not defeat B, and A does not defeat C. Finally, it is
also true that no option defeats itself. This information can be depicted in a table:
The rst argument of the relation is a row and the second one is a column. Ones indicate the relation holds, zero
indicates that it does not hold. Now, notice that the following statement is true for any pair of elements x and y drawn
(with replacement) from the set {A, B, C}: If x defeats y, and y defeats z, then x does not defeat z. Hence the relation
is antitransitive.
Thus, a cycle is neither necessary nor sucient for a binary relation to be antitransitive.
28.4 Occurrences in preferences

Intransitivity can occur under majority rule, in probabilistic outcomes of game theory, and in the Condorcet
voting method in which ranking several candidates can produce a loop of preference when the weights are
compared (see voting paradox). Intransitive dice demonstrate that probabilities are not necessarily transitive.
In psychology, intransitivity often occurs in a persons system of values (or preferences, or tastes), potentially
leading to unresolvable conicts.
Analogously, in economics intransitivity can occur in a consumers preferences. This may lead to consumer
behaviour that does not conform to perfect economic rationality. In recent years, economists and philosophers
have questioned whether violations of transitivity must necessarily lead to 'irrational behaviour' (see Anand
(1993)).
28.5 Likelihood
It has been suggested that Condorcet voting tends to eliminate intransitive loops when large numbers of voters
participate because the overall assessment criteria for voters balances out. For instance, voters may prefer candidates
on several dierent units of measure such as by order of social consciousness or by order of most scally conservative.
In such cases intransitivity reduces to a broader equation of numbers of people and the weights of their units of
measure in assessing candidates.
110 CHAPTER 28. INTRANSITIVITY
Such as:
30% favor 60/40 weighting between social consciousness and scal conservatism
50% favor 50/50 weighting between social consciousness and scal conservatism
20% favor a 40/60 weighting between social consciousness and scal conservatism
While each voter may not assess the units of measure identically, the trend then becomes a single vector on which
the consensus agrees is a preferred balance of candidate criteria.
28.6 References
[1] Wolves do in fact eat grass see Engel, Cindy (2003). Wild Health: Lessons in Natural Wellness from the Animal Kingdom
(paperback ed.). Houghton Miin. p. 141. ISBN 0-618-34068-8..
[2] Guide to Logic, Relations II
[3] IntransitiveRelation
[4] Kerr B., Riley M.A., Feldman M.W., & Bohannan B.J.M. (2002). Local dispersal promotes biodiversity in a real-life game
of rockpaperscissors. Nature. 418(171174)
[5] Leutwyler, K. (2000). Mating Lizards Play a Game of Rock-Paper-Scissors. Scientic American.

Anand, P (1993). Foundations of Rational Choice Under Risk. Oxford: Oxford University Press..
Poddiakov, A., & Valsiner, J. (2013). Intransitivity cycles and their transformations: How dynamically adapting
systems function. In: L. Rudolph (Ed.). Qualitative mathematics for the social sciences: Mathematical models
for research on cultural dynamics. Abingdon, NY: Routledge. Pp. 343391.
Chapter 29
Inverse relation
For inverse relationships in statistics, see negative relationship.
In mathematics, the inverse relation of a binary relation is the relation that occurs when the order of the elements is
switched in the relation. For example, the inverse of the relation 'child of' is the relation 'parent of'. In formal terms,
if X and Y are sets and L X Y is a relation from X to Y, then L1 is the relation dened so that y L1 x if and only
if x L y. In set-builder notation, L1 = {(y, x) Y X | (x, y) L}.
The notation is analogous with that for an inverse function. Although many functions do not have an inverse, every
relation does have a unique inverse. Despite the notation and terminology, the inverse relation is not an inverse in
the sense of group inverse. However, the unary operation that maps a relation to the inverse relation is an involution,
so it induces the structure of a semigroup with involution on the binary relations on a set, or, more generally, induces
a dagger category on the category of relations as detailed below. As a unary operation, taking the inverse (some-
times called inversion) commutes with the order-related operations of relation algebra, i.e., it commutes with union,
intersection, complement etc.
The inverse relation is also called the converse relation or transpose relation the latter in view of its similarity
with the transpose of a matrix.[1] It has also been called the opposite or dual of the original relation.[2] Other notations
for the inverse relation include LC , LT , L~ or L or L or L .
29.1 Examples
For usual (maybe strict or partial) order relations, the converse is the naively expected opposite order, e.g. 1 =
, <1 = > , etc.
29.1.1 Inverse relation of a function
A function is invertible if and only if its inverse relation is a function, in which case the inverse relation is the inverse
function.
The inverse relation of a function f : X Y is the relation f 1 : Y X dened by graph f 1 = {(y, x) | y =
f (x)} .
This is not necessarily a function: One necessary condition is that f be injective, since else f 1 is multi-valued. This
condition is sucient for f 1 being a partial function, and it is clear that f 1 then is a (total) function if and only if
f is surjective. In that case, i.e. if f is bijective, f 1 may be called the inverse function of f.
For example, the function f (x) = 2x + 2 has the inverse function f 1 (x) = x/2 1 .
111
112 CHAPTER 29. INVERSE RELATION
29.2 Properties
In the monoid of binary endorelations on a set (with the binary operation on relations being the composition of
relations), the inverse relation does not satisfy the denition of an inverse from group theory, i.e. if L is an arbitrary
relation on X, then L L1 does not equal the identity relation on X in general. The inverse relation does satisfy the
(weaker) axioms of a semigroup with involution: (L1 )1 = L and (L R)1 = R1 L1 .[3]
Since one may generally consider relations between dierent sets (which form a category rather than a monoid,
namely the category of relations Rel), in this context the inverse relation conforms to the axioms of a dagger category
(aka category with involution).[3] A relation equal to its inverse is a symmetric relation; in the language of dagger
categories, it is self-adjoint.
Furthermore, the semigroup of endorelations on a set is also a partially ordered structure (with inclusion of relations
as sets), and actually an involutive quantale. Similarly, the category of heterogenous relations, Rel is also an ordered
category.[3]
In relation algebra (which is an abstraction of the properties of the algebra of endorelations on a set), inversion (the
operation of taking the inverse relation) commutes with other binary operations of union and intersection. Inversion
also commutes with unary operation of complementation as well as with taking suprema and inma. Inversion is also
compatible with the ordering of relations by inclusion.[1]
order, total order, strict weak order, total preorder (weak order), or an equivalence relation, its inverse is too.
29.3 See also

Bijection
Function (mathematics)
Inverse function
Relation (mathematics)
Transpose graph
29.4 References
[1] Gunther Schmidt; Thomas Strhlein (1993). Relations and Graphs: Discrete Mathematics for Computer Scientists. Springer
Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 910. ISBN 978-3-642-77970-1.
[2] Celestina Cotti Ferrero; Giovanni Ferrero (2002). Nearrings: Some Developments Linked to Semigroups and Groups.
Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4613-0267-4.
[3] Joachim Lambek (2001). Relations Old and New. In Ewa Orlowska, Andrzej Szalas. Relational Methods for Computer
Science Applications. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 135146. ISBN 978-3-7908-1365-4.
Halmos, Paul R. (1974), Naive Set Theory, p. 40, ISBN 978-0-387-90092-6

Chapter 30
Inverse trigonometric functions
In mathematics, the inverse trigonometric functions (occasionally also called arcus functions,[1][2][3][4][5] an-
titrigonometric functions[6] or cyclometric functions[7][8][9] ) are the inverse functions of the trigonometric func-
tions (with suitably restricted domains). Specically, they are the inverses of the sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent,
secant, and cosecant functions, and are used to obtain an angle from any of the angles trigonometric ratios. Inverse
trigonometric functions are widely used in engineering, navigation, physics, and geometry.
30.1 Notation
There are several notations used for the inverse trigonometric functions.
The most common convention is to name inverse trigonometric functions using an arc- prex, e.g., arcsin(x), arccos(x),
arctan(x), etc.[6] This convention is used throughout the article. When measuring in radians, an angle of radians
will correspond to an arc whose length is r, where r is the radius of the circle. Thus, in the unit circle, the arc
whose cosine is x is the same as the angle whose cosine is x, because the length of the arc of the circle in radii is
the same as the measurement of the angle in radians.[10] Similarly, in computer programming languages the inverse
trigonometric functions are usually called asin, acos, atan.
The notations sin1 (x), cos1 (x), tan1 (x), etc., as introduced by John Herschel in 1813,[11][12] are often used as
well in English[6] sources, but this convention logically conicts with the common semantics for expressions like
sin2 (x), which refer to numeric power rather than function composition, and therefore may result in confusion between
multiplicative inverse and compositional inverse. The confusion is somewhat ameliorated by the fact that each of the
reciprocal trigonometric functions has its own namefor example, (cos(x))1 = sec(x). Nevertheless, certain authors
advise against using it for its ambiguity.[6][13]
Another convention used by a few authors[14] is to use a majuscule (capital/upper-case) rst letter along with a 1
superscript, e.g., Sin1 (x), Cos1 (x), Tan1 (x), etc., which avoids confusing them with the multiplicative inverse,
which should be represented by sin1 (x), cos1 (x), etc.
30.2 Basic properties
30.2.1 Principal values
Since none of the six trigonometric functions are one-to-one, they are restricted in order to have inverse functions.
Therefore the ranges of the inverse functions are proper subsets of the domains of the original functions
For example, using function in the sense of multivalued functions, just as the square root function y = x could be
dened from y2 = x, the function y = arcsin(x) is dened so that sin(y) = x. For a given real number x, with 1 x
1, there are multiple (in fact, countably innitely many) numbers y such that sin(y) = x; for example, sin(0) = 0,
but also sin() = 0, sin(2) = 0, etc. When only one value is desired, the function may be restricted to its principal
branch. With this restriction, for each x in the domain the expression arcsin(x) will evaluate only to a single value,
called its principal value. These properties apply to all the inverse trigonometric functions.
113
114 CHAPTER 30. INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
The principal inverses are listed in the following table.

(Note: Some authors dene the range of arcsecant to be ( 0 y < /2 or y < 3/2 ), because the tangent
function is nonnegative on this domain. This makes some computations more consistent. For example using this
range, tan(arcsec(x)) = x2 1, whereas with the range ( 0 y < /2 or /2 < y ), we would have to write
tan(arcsec(x)) = x2 1, since tangent is nonnegative on 0 y < /2 but nonpositive on /2 < y . For a similar
reason, the same authors dene the range of arccosecant to be < y /2 or 0 < y /2.)
If x is allowed to be a complex number, then the range of y applies only to its real part.
30.2.2 Relationships between trigonometric functions and inverse trigonometric func-

tions
Trigonometric functions of inverse trigonometric functions are tabulated below. A quick way to derive them is by
considering the geometry of a right-angled triangle, with one side of length 1, and another side of length x (any real
number between 0 and 1), then applying the Pythagorean theorem and denitions of the trigonometric ratios. Purely
algebraic derivations are longer.
30.2.3 Relationships among the inverse trigonometric functions
Complementary angles:

arccos(x) = arcsin(x)
2

arccot(x) = arctan(x)
2

arccsc(x) = arcsec(x)
2
Negative arguments:
arcsin(x) = arcsin(x)
arccos(x) = arccos(x)
arctan(x) = arctan(x)
arccot(x) = arccot(x)
arcsec(x) = arcsec(x)
arccsc(x) = arccsc(x)
Reciprocal arguments:
30.2. BASIC PROPERTIES 115
( )
1
arccos = arcsec(x)
x
( )
1
arcsin = arccsc(x)
x
( )
1
arctan = arctan(x) = arccot(x) , if x > 0
x 2
( )
1
arctan = arctan(x) = arccot(x) , if x < 0
x 2
( )
1
arccot = arccot(x) = arctan(x) , if x > 0
x 2
( )
1 3
arccot = arccot(x) = + arctan(x) , if x < 0
x 2
( )
1
arcsec = arccos(x)
x
( )
1
arccsc = arcsin(x)
x
If you only have a fragment of a sine table:
( )
arccos(x) = arcsin 1 x2 , if 0 x 1
1 ( )
arccos(x) = arccos 2x2 1 , if 0 x 1
2
1 ( )
arcsin(x) = arccos 1 2x2 , if 0 x 1
2 ( )
x
arctan(x) = arcsin
x2 + 1
Whenever the square root of a complex number is used here, we choose the root with the positive real part (or positive
imaginary part if the square was negative real).
( ) sin()
From the half-angle formula, tan 2 = 1+cos() , we get:
( )
x
arcsin(x) = 2 arctan
1 + 1 x2
( )
1 x2
arccos(x) = 2 arctan , if 1 < x +1
1+x
( )
x
arctan(x) = 2 arctan
1 + 1 + x2
30.2.4 Arctangent addition formula

( )
u+v
arctan(u) + arctan(v) = arctan (mod ) , uv = 1 .
1 uv
This is derived from the tangent addition formula
tan() + tan()
tan( + ) = ,
1 tan() tan()
by letting
= arctan(u) , = arctan(v) .
30.3 In calculus
30.3.1 Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions
Main article: Dierentiation of trigonometric functions
The derivatives for complex values of z are as follows:
d 1
arcsin(z) = ; z = 1, +1
dz 1 z2
d 1
arccos(z) = ; z = 1, +1
dz 1 z2
d 1
arctan(z) = ; z = i, +i
dz 1 + z2
d 1
arccot(z) = ; z = i, +i
dz 1 + z2
d 1
arcsec(z) = ; z = 1, 0, +1
dz z 1 1
2
z2
d 1
arccsc(z) = ; z = 1, 0, +1
dz z2 1 1
z2
Only for real values of x:
d 1
arcsec(x) = ; |x| > 1
dx |x| x2 1
d 1
arccsc(x) = ; |x| > 1
dx |x| x2 1
For a sample derivation: if = arcsin(x) , we get:
d arcsin(x) d d 1 1 1
= = = = =
dx d sin() cos()d cos()
1 sin2 () 1 x2
30.3.2 Expression as denite integrals
Integrating the derivative and xing the value at one point gives an expression for the inverse trigonometric function
as a denite integral:
30.3. IN CALCULUS 117
x
1
arcsin(x) = dz , |x| 1
0 1 z2
1
1
arccos(x) = dz , |x| 1
1 z2
xx
1
arctan(x) = 2+1
dz ,
z
0
1
arccot(x) = 2+1
dz ,
x z
x 1
1 1
arcsec(x) = dz = + dz , x1
z z 12 z z2 1
1 x x
1 1
arccsc(x) = dz = dz , x1
x z z 12
z z 1
2
When x equals 1, the integrals with limited domains are improper integrals, but still well-dened.
30.3.3 Innite series

Like the sine and cosine functions, the inverse trigonometric functions can be calculated using power series, as follows.
1
For arcsine, the series can be derived by expanding its derivative, 1z 2
, as a binomial series, and integrating term
by term (using the integral denition as above). The series for arctangent can similarly be derived by expanding its
1
derivative 1+z 2 in a geometric series and applying the integral denition above (see Leibniz series).
( ) 3 ( ) ( )
1 z 1 3 z5 1 3 5 z7
arcsin(z) = z + + + +
2 3 24 5 246 7

(2n 1)!! z 2n+1
=
n=0
(2n)!! 2n + 1
(2n)
2n+1
n z
= ; |z| 1
n=0
4n (2n + 1)

z3 z5 z7 (1)n z 2n+1
arctan(z) = z + + = ; |z| 1 z = i, i
3 5 7 n=0
2n + 1
Series for the other inverse trigonometric functions can be given in terms of these according to the relationships given
above. For example, arccos(x) = /2 arcsin(x) , arccsc(x) = arcsin(1/x) , and so on. Another series is given
by:[15]
( ( x ))2
x2n
2 arcsin = ( )
2 n=1
n2 2n
n
Leonhard Euler found a more ecient series for the arctangent, which is:
n
z 2kz 2
arctan(z) = 2
.
1 + z n=0 (2k + 1)(1 + z 2 )
k=1
(Notice that the term in the sum for n = 0 is the empty product which is 1.)
Alternatively, this can be expressed:

22n (n!)2 z 2n+1
arctan(z) =
n=0
(2n + 1)! (1 + z 2 )n+1
Variant: Continued fractions for arctangent
Two alternatives to the power series for arctangent are these generalized continued fractions:
z z
arctan(z) = =
(1z)2 (1z)2
1+ 1+
(3z)2 (2z)2
3 1z 2 + 3+
(5z)2 (3z)2
5 3z 2 + 5+
(7z)2 (4z)2
7 5z 2 + 7+
. .
9 7z 2 + . . 9 + ..
The second of these is valid in the cut complex plane. There are two cuts, from i to the point at innity, going down
the imaginary axis, and from i to the point at innity, going up the same axis. It works best for real numbers running
from 1 to 1. The partial denominators are the odd natural numbers, and the partial numerators (after the rst) are
just (nz)2 , with each perfect square appearing once. The rst was developed by Leonhard Euler; the second by Carl
Friedrich Gauss utilizing the Gaussian hypergeometric series.
30.3.4 Indenite integrals of inverse trigonometric functions

For real and complex values of z:

arcsin(z) dz = z arcsin(z) + 1 z2 + C

arccos(z) dz = z arccos(z) 1 z2 + C
1 ( )
arctan(z) dz = z arctan(z) ln 1 + z 2 + C
2
1 ( )
arccot(z) dz = z arccot(z) + ln 1 + z 2 + C
2
[ ( )]
z2 1
arcsec(z) dz = z arcsec(z) ln z 1 + +C
z2
[ ( )]
z2 1
arccsc(z) dz = z arccsc(z) + ln z 1 + +C
z2
For real x 1:
( )
arcsec(x) dx = x arcsec(x) ln x + x2 1 + C
( )
arccsc(x) dx = x arccsc(x) + ln x + x2 1 + C
For all real x not between 1 and 1:
( )

arcsec(x) dx = x arcsec(x) sgn(x) ln x + x2 1 + C
( )

arccsc(x) dx = x arccsc(x) + sgn(x) ln x + x2 1 + C
The absolute value is necessary to compensate for both negative and positive values of the arcsecant and arccosecant
functions. The signum function is also necessary due to the absolute values in the derivatives of the two functions,
which create two dierent solutions for positive and negative values of x. These can be further simplied using the
logarithmic denitions of the inverse hyperbolic functions:
30.4. EXTENSION TO COMPLEX PLANE 119
arcsec(x) dx = x arcsec(x) arcosh(|x|) + C
arccsc(x) dx = x arccsc(x) + arcosh(|x|) + C
The absolute value in the argument of the arcosh function creates a negative half of its graph, making it identical to
the signum logarithmic function shown above.
All of these antiderivatives can be derived using integration by parts and the simple derivative forms shown above.
Example

Using u dv = uv v du (i.e. integration by parts), set
u = arcsin(x) dv = dx
dx
du = v=x
1 x2
Then

x
arcsin(x) dx = x arcsin(x) dx,
1 x2
which by a simple substitution yields the nal result:

arcsin(x) dx = x arcsin(x) + 1 x2 + C
30.4 Extension to complex plane

Since the inverse trigonometric functions are analytic functions, they can be extended from the real line to the complex
plane. This results in functions with multiple sheets and branch points. One possible way of dening the extensions
is:
z
dx
arctan(z) = z = i, +i
0 1 + x2
where the part of the imaginary axis which does not lie strictly between i and +i is the cut between the principal
sheet and other sheets;
( )
z
arcsin(z) = arctan z = 1, +1
1 z2
where (the square-root function has its cut along the negative real axis and) the part of the real axis which does not
lie strictly between 1 and +1 is the cut between the principal sheet of arcsin and other sheets;

arccos(z) = arcsin(z) z = 1, +1
2
which has the same cut as arcsin;

arccot(z) = arctan(z) z = i, i
2
which has the same cut as arctan;
( )
1
arcsec(z) = arccos z = 1, 0, +1
z
where the part of the real axis between 1 and +1 inclusive is the cut between the principal sheet of arcsec and other
sheets;
( )
1
arccsc(z) = arcsin z = 1, 0, +1
z
which has the same cut as arcsec.
30.4.1 Logarithmic forms

These functions may also be expressed using complex logarithms. This extends in a natural fashion their domain to
the complex plane.
( ) ( )
1
arcsin(z) = i ln iz + 1 z2 = arccsc
z
( ) ( ) ( )
1
arccos(z) = i ln z + z 2 1 = + i ln iz + 1 z 2 = arcsin(z) = arcsec
2 2 z
( )
1
arctan(z) = 1
2 i [ln (1 iz) ln (1 + iz)] = arccot
z
[ ( ) ( )] ( )
i i 1
arccot(z) = 1
2i ln 1 ln 1 + = arctan
z z z
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 i 1
arcsec(z) = i ln 2
1+ = i ln 1 2 + + = arccsc(z) = arccos
z z z z 2 2 z
( ) ( )
1 i 1
arccsc(z) = i ln 1 2 + = arcsin
z z z
Elementary proofs of these relations proceed via expansion to exponential forms of the trigonometric functions.
Example proof
sin() = z
= arcsin(z)
Using the exponential denition of sine, one obtains
ei ei
z=
2i
Let
= ei
30.5. APPLICATIONS 121
Solving for
1

z=
2i
1
2iz =

1
2iz =0

2 2iz 1 = 0

= iz 1 z 2 = ei
( )
i = ln iz 1 z 2
( )
= i ln iz 1 z 2
(the positive branch is chosen)
( )
= arcsin(z) = i ln iz + 1 z 2
30.5 Applications
30.5.1 General solutions
Each of the trigonometric functions is periodic in the real part of its argument, running through all its values twice in
each interval of 2. Sine and cosecant begin their period at 2k /2 (where k is an integer), nish it at 2k + /2,
and then reverse themselves over 2k + /2 to 2k + 3/2. Cosine and secant begin their period at 2k, nish it at
2k + , and then reverse themselves over 2k + to 2k + 2. Tangent begins its period at 2k /2, nishes it at
2k + /2, and then repeats it (forward) over 2k + /2 to 2k + 3/2. Cotangent begins its period at 2k, nishes
it at 2k + , and then repeats it (forward) over 2k + to 2k + 2.
This periodicity is reected in the general inverses where k is some integer:
sin(y) = x y = arcsin(x) + 2k or y = arcsin(x) + 2k
sin(y) = x y = (1)k arcsin(x) + k.
cos(y) = x y = arccos(x) + 2k or y = 2 arccos(x) + 2k
cos(y) = x y = arccos(x) + 2k.
tan(y) = x y = arctan(x) + k
cot(y) = x y = arccot(x) + k
sec(y) = x y = arcsec(x) + 2k or y = 2 arcsec(x) + 2k
csc(y) = x y = arccsc(x) + 2k or y = arccsc(x) + 2k

Application: nding the angle of a right triangle
Inverse trigonometric functions are useful when trying to determine the remaining two angles of a right triangle when
the lengths of the sides of the triangle are known. Recalling the right-triangle denitions of sine, for example, it
follows that
( )
opposite
= arcsin .
hypotenuse
Often, the hypotenuse is unknown and would need to be calculated before using arcsine or arccosine using the
Pythagorean Theorem: a2 + b2 = h2 where h is the length of the hypotenuse. Arctangent comes in handy in
this situation, as the length of the hypotenuse is not needed.
( )
opposite
= arctan .
adjacent
For example, suppose a roof drops 8 feet as it runs out 20 feet. The roof makes an angle with the horizontal, where
may be computed as follows:
( ) ( ) ( )
opposite rise 8
= arctan = arctan = arctan 21.8 .
adjacent run 20
30.5.2 In computer science and engineering

Two-argument variant of arctangent
Main article: atan2
The two-argument atan2 function computes the arctangent of y / x given y and x, but with a range of (, ]. In
other words, atan2(y, x) is the angle between the positive x-axis of a plane and the point (x, y) on it, with positive
sign for counter-clockwise angles (upper half-plane, y > 0), and negative sign for clockwise angles (lower half-plane,
y < 0). It was rst introduced in many computer programming languages, but it is now also common in other elds
of science and engineering.
In terms of the standard arctan function, that is with range of (/2, /2), it can be expressed as follows:

y
arctan( x ) x>0

arctan( xy ) + y0, x<0

arctan( y ) y<0, x<0
atan2(y, x) = x

y>0, x=0

2

2

y<0, x=0

undened y=0, x=0
It also equals the principal value of the argument of the complex number x + iy.
This function may also be dened using the tangent half-angle formulae as follows:
( )
y
atan2(y, x) = 2 arctan
x2 + y 2 + x
provided that either x > 0 or y 0. However this fails if given x 0 and y = 0 so the expression is unsuitable for
computational use.
The above argument order (y, x) seems to be the most common, and in particular is used in ISO standards such as
the C programming language, but a few authors may use the opposite convention (x, y) so some caution is warranted.
These variations are detailed at atan2.
30.6. SEE ALSO 123
Arctangent function with location parameter
In many applications the solution y of the equation x = tan(y) is to come as close as possible to a given value
< < . The adequate solution is produced by the parameter modied arctangent function
( )
arctan(x)
y = arctan (x) := arctan(x) + rni .

The function rni rounds to the nearest integer.
Numerical accuracy
For angles near 0 and , arccosine is ill-conditioned and will thus calculate the angle with reduced accuracy in a
computer implementation (due to the limited number of digits).[16] Similarly, arcsine is inaccurate for angles near
/2 and /2.
30.6 See also

Inverse exsecant
Inverse versine
Inverse hyperbolic function
List of integrals of inverse trigonometric functions
List of trigonometric identities
Trigonometric function
30.7 References
[1] Taczanowski, Stefan (1978-10-01). On the optimization of some geometric parameters in 14 MeV neutron activation
analysis. Nuclear Instruments and Methods. ScienceDirect. 155 (3): 543546. Retrieved 2017-07-26.
[2] Hazewinkel, Michiel (1994) [1987]. Encyclopaedia of Mathematics (unabridged reprint ed.). Kluwer Academic Publishers
/ Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-155608010-4. ISBN 1556080107.
[3] Ebner, Dieter (2005-07-25). Preparatory Course in Mathematics (PDF) (6 ed.). Department of Physics, University of
Konstanz. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-07-26. Retrieved 2017-07-26.
[4] Mejlbro, Leif (2010-11-11). Stability, Riemann Surfaces, Conformal Mappings - Complex Functions Theory (PDF) (1 ed.).
Ventus Publishing ApS / Bookboon. ISBN 978-87-7681-702-2. ISBN 87-7681-702-4. Archived (PDF) from the original
on 2017-07-26. Retrieved 2017-07-26.
[5] Durn, Mario (2012). Mathematical methods for wave propagation in science and engineering. 1: Fundamentals (1 ed.).
Ediciones UC. p. 88. ISBN 978-956141314-6. ISBN 956141314-0.
[6] Hall, Arthur Graham; Frink, Fred Goodrich (January 1909). Chapter II. The Acute Angle [14] Inverse trigonometric
functions. Written at Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA. Trigonometry. Part I: Plane Trigonometry. New York, USA: Henry
Holt and Company / Norwood Press / J. S. Cushing Co. - Berwick & Smith Co., Norwood, Massachusetts, USA. p.
15. Retrieved 2017-08-12. [] = arcsin m: It is frequently read "arc-sine m" or "anti-sine m, since two mutually
inverse functions are said each to be the anti-function of the other. [] A similar symbolic relation holds for the other
trigonometric functions. [] This notation is universally used in Europe and is fast gaining ground in this country. A less
desirable symbol, = sin1 m, is still found in English and American texts. The notation = inv sin m is perhaps better
still on account of its general applicability. []
[7] Klein, Christian Felix (1924) [1902]. Elementarmathematik vom hheren Standpunkt aus: Arithmetik, Algebra, Analysis
(in German). 1 (3rd ed.). Berlin: J. Springer.
[8] Klein, Christian Felix (2004) [1932]. Elementary Mathematics from an Advanced Standpoint: Arithmetic, Algebra, Analysis.
Translated by Hedrick, E. R.; Noble, C. A. (Translation of 3rd German ed.). Dover Publications, Inc. / The Macmillan
Company. ISBN 978-0-48643480-3. ISBN 0-48643480-X. Retrieved 2017-08-13.
[9] Drrie, Heinrich (1965). Triumph der Mathematik. Translated by Antin, David. Dover Publications. p. 69. ISBN 0-486-
61348-8.
[10] Beach, Frederick Converse; Rines, George Edwin, eds. (1912). Inverse trigonometric functions. The Americana: a
universal reference library. 21.
[11] Cajori, Florian (1919). A History of Mathematics (2 ed.). New York, USA: The Macmillan Company. p. 272.
[12] Herschel, John Frederick William (1813). On a remarkable Application of Cotess Theorem. Philosophical Transactions.
Royal Society, London. 103 (1): 8.
[13] Korn, Grandino Arthur; Korn, Theresa M. (2000) [1961]. 21.2.4. Inverse Trigonometric Functions. Mathematical
handbook for scientists and engineers: Denitions, theorems, and formulars for reference and review (3 ed.). Mineola, New
York, USA: Dover Publications, Inc. p. 811. ISBN 978-0-486-41147-7.
[14] Bhatti, Sanaullah; Nawab-ud-Din; Ahmed, Bashir; Yousuf, S. M.; Taheem, Allah Bukhsh (1999). Dierentiation of
Trigonometric, Logarithmic and Exponential Functions. In Ellahi, Mohammad Maqbool; Dar, Karamat Hussain; Hussain,
Faheem. Calculus and Analytic Geometry (1 ed.). Lahore: Punjab Textbook Board. p. 140.
[15] Borwein, Jonathan; Bailey, David; Gingersohn, Roland (2004). Experimentation in Mathematics: Computational Paths to
Discovery (1 ed.). Wellesley, MA, USA: :A. K. Peters. p. 51. ISBN 1-56881-136-5.
[16] Gade, Kenneth (2010). A non-singular horizontal position representation (PDF). The Journal of Navigation. Cambridge
University Press. 63 (3): 395417. doi:10.1017/S0373463309990415.
30.8 External links

Weisstein, Eric W. Inverse Trigonometric Functions. MathWorld.
Weisstein, Eric W. Inverse Tangent. MathWorld.

The usual principal values of the arctan(x) and arccot(x) functions graphed on the cartesian plane.
Principal values of the arcsec(x) and arccsc(x) functions graphed on the cartesian plane.
A right triangle.
Chapter 31
Near sets
Figure 1. Descriptively, very near sets
In mathematics, near sets are either spatially close or descriptively close. Spatially close sets have nonempty intersection.
In other words, spatially close sets are not disjoint sets, since they always have at least one element in common. De-
scriptively close sets contain elements that have matching descriptions. Such sets can be either disjoint or non-disjoint
sets. Spatially near sets are also descriptively near sets.
The underlying assumption with descriptively close sets is that such sets contain elements that have location and
measurable features such as colour and frequency of occurrence. The description of the element of a set is dened
by a feature vector. Comparison of feature vectors provides a basis for measuring the closeness of descriptively near
128
129
Figure 2. Descriptively, minimally near sets
sets. Near set theory provides a formal basis for the observation, comparison, and classication of elements in sets
based on their closeness, either spatially or descriptively. Near sets oer a framework for solving problems based on
human perception that arise in areas such as image processing, computer vision as well as engineering and science
problems.
Near sets have a variety of applications in areas such as topology[37] , pattern detection and classication[50] , abstract al-
gebra[51] , mathematics in computer science[38] , and solving a variety of problems based on human perception[42][82][47][52][56]
that arise in areas such as image analysis[54][14][46][17][18] , image processing[40] , face recognition[13] , ethology[64] , as
well as engineering and science problems[55][64][42][19][17][18] . From the beginning, descriptively near sets have proved
to be useful in applications of topology[37] , and visual pattern recognition [50] , spanning a broad spectrum of applica-
tions that include camouage detection, micropaleontology, handwriting forgery detection, biomedical image analy-
sis, content-based image retrieval, population dynamics, quotient topology, textile design, visual merchandising, and
topological psychology.
As an illustration of the degree of descriptive nearness between two sets, consider an example of the Henry colour
model for varying degrees of nearness between sets of picture elements in pictures (see, e.g.,[17] 4.3). The two pairs
of ovals in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 contain coloured segments. Each segment in the gures corresponds to an equivalence
class where all pixels in the class have similar descriptions, i.e., picture elements with similar colours. The ovals in
Fig.1 are closer to each other descriptively than the ovals in Fig. 2.
130 CHAPTER 31. NEAR SETS
31.1 History
It has been observed that the simple concept of nearness unies various concepts of topological structures[20] inas-
much as the category Near of all nearness spaces and nearness preserving maps contains categories sTop (symmetric
topological spaces and continuous maps[3] ), Prox (proximity spaces and -maps[8][67] ), Unif (uniform spaces and uni-
formly continuous maps[81][77] ) and Cont (contiguity spaces and contiguity maps[24] ) as embedded full subcategories[20][59] .
The categories AN ear and AM er are shown to be full supercategories of various well-known categories, in-
cluding the category sT op of symmetric topological spaces and continuous maps, and the category M et of
extended metric spaces and nonexpansive maps. The notation A , B reads category A is embedded in category B
. The categories AM er and AN ear are supercategories for a variety of familiar categories[76] shown in Fig. 3.
Let AN ear denote the category of all -approach nearness spaces and contractions, and let AM er denote the
category of all -approach merotopic spaces and contractions.
Figure 3. Supercats
Among these familiar categories is sT op , the symmetric form of T op (see category of topological spaces), the cat-
egory with objects that are topological spaces and morphisms that are continuous maps between them[1][32] . M et
with objects that are extended metric spaces is a subcategory of AP (having objects -approach spaces and con-
tractions) (see also[57][75] ). Let X , Y be extended pseudometrics on nonempty sets X, Y , respectively. The map
f : (X, X ) (Y, Y ) is a contraction if and only if f : (X, DX ) (Y, DY ) is a contraction. For
nonempty subsets A, B 2X , the distance function D : 2X 2X [0, ] is dened by
{
inf {(a, b) : a A, b B}, ifA and Bempty not are ,
D (A, B) =
, ifA or Bempty is .
Thus AP is embedded as a full subcategory in AN ear by the functor F : AP AN ear dened by
F ((X, )) = (X, D ) and F (f ) = f . Then f : (X, X ) (Y, Y ) is a contraction if and only if f :
31.1. HISTORY 131
(X, DX ) (Y, DY ) is a contraction. Thus AP is embedded as a full subcategory in AN ear by the

functor F : AP AN ear dened by F ((X, )) = (X, D ) and F (f ) = f. Since the category M et
of extended metric spaces and nonexpansive maps is a full subcategory of AP , therefore, AN ear is also a full
supercategory of M et . The category AN ear is a topological construct[76] .
Figure 4. Frigyes Riesz, 1880-1956
The notions of near and far[A] in mathematics can be traced back to works by Johann Benedict Listing and Felix
Hausdor. The related notions of resemblance and similarity can be traced back to J.H. Poincar, who introduced
sets of similar sensations (nascent tolerance classes) to represent the results of G.T. Fechners sensation sensitivity
experiments[10] and a framework for the study of resemblance in representative spaces as models of what he termed
physical continua[63][60][61] . The elements of a physical continuum (pc) are sets of sensations. The notion of a pc
and various representative spaces (tactile, visual, motor spaces) were introduced by Poincar in an 1894 article on
the mathematical continuum[63] , an 1895 article on space and geometry[60] and a compendious 1902 book on science
and hypothesis[61] followed by a number of elaborations, e.g.,[62] . The 1893 and 1895 articles on continua (Pt. 1,
ch. II) as well as representative spaces and geometry (Pt. 2, ch IV) are included as chapters in[61] . Later, F. Riesz
introduced the concept of proximity or nearness of pairs of sets at the International Congress of Mathematicians
(ICM) in 1908[65] .
During the 1960s, E.C. Zeeman introduced tolerance spaces in modelling visual perception[83] . A.B. Sossinsky
observed in 1986[71] that the main idea underlying tolerance space theory comes from Poincar, especially[60] . In
2002, Z. Pawlak and J. Peters[B] considered an informal approach to the perception of the nearness of physical objects
such as snowakes that was not limited to spatial nearness. In 2006, a formal approach to the descriptive nearness of
objects was considered by J. Peters, A. Skowron and J. Stepaniuk[C] in the context of proximity spaces[39][33][35][21] .
In 2007, descriptively near sets were introduced by J. Peters[D][E] followed by the introduction of tolerance near
sets[41][45] . Recently, the study of descriptively near sets has led to algebraic[22][51] , topological and proximity space[37]
foundations of such sets.
31.2 Nearness of sets

The adjective near in the context of near sets is used to denote the fact that observed feature value dierences of
distinct objects are small enough to be considered indistinguishable, i.e., within some tolerance.
The exact idea of closeness or 'resemblance' or of 'being within tolerance' is universal enough to appear, quite naturally,
in almost any mathematical setting (see, e.g.,[66] ). It is especially natural in mathematical applications: practical
problems, more often than not, deal with approximate input data and only require viable results with a tolerable level
of error[71] .
The words near and far are used in daily life and it was an incisive suggestion of F. Riesz[65] that these intuitive
concepts be made rigorous. He introduced the concept of nearness of pairs of sets at the ICM in Rome in 1908. This
concept is useful in simplifying teaching calculus and advanced calculus. For example, the passage from an intuitive
denition of continuity of a function at a point to its rigorous epsilon-delta denition is sometime dicult for teachers
to explain and for students to understand. Intuitively, continuity can be explained using nearness language, i.e., a
function f : R R is continuous at a point c , provided points {x} near c go into points {f (x)} near f (c) . Using
Rieszs idea, this denition can be made more precise and its contrapositive is the familiar denition[4][36] .
31.3 Generalization of set intersection

From a spatial point of view, nearness (aka proximity) is considered a generalization of set intersection. For disjoint
sets, a form of nearness set intersection is dened in terms of a set of objects (extracted from disjoint sets) that have
similar features within some tolerance (see, e.g., 3 in[80] ). For example, the ovals in Fig. 1 are considered near each
other, since these ovals contain pairs of classes that display similar (visually indistinguishable) colours.
31.4 Efremovi proximity space

Let X denote a metric topological space that is endowed with one or more proximity relations and let 2X denote the
collection of all subsets of X . The collection 2X is called the power set of X .
There are many ways to dene Efremovi proximities on topological spaces (discrete proximity, standard proximity,
metric proximity, ech proximity, Alexandro proximity, and Freudenthal proximity), For details, see 2, pp. 93
94 in[6] . The focus here is on standard proximity on a topological space. For A, B X , A is near B (denoted by
A B ), provided their closures share a common point.
The closure of a subset A 2X (denoted by cl(A) ) is the usual Kuratowski closure of a set[F] , introduced in 4, p.
20[27] , is dened by
cl(A) = {x X : D(x, A) = 0} , where

D(x, A) = inf {d(x, a) : a A} .
i.e. cl(A) is the set of all points x in X that are close to A ( D(x, A) is the Hausdor distance (see 22, p. 128,
31.5. VISUALIZATION OF EF-AXIOM 133
in[15] ) between x and the set A and d(x, a) = |x a| (standard distance)). A standard proximity relation is dened
by
{ }
= (A, B) 2X 2X : cl(A) cl(B) = .
Whenever sets A and B have no points in common, the sets are farfrom each other (denoted A B ).
The following EF-proximity[G] space axioms are given by Jurij Michailov Smirnov[67] based on what Vadim Arsenye-
vi Efremovi introduced during the rst half of the 1930s[8] . Let A, B, E 2X .
EF.1 If the set A is close to B , then B is close to A .
EF.2 A B is close to E , if and only if, at least one of the sets A or B is close to E .
EF.3 Two points are close, if and only if, they are the same point.
EF.4 All sets are far from the empty set .
EF.5 For any two sets A and B which are far from each other, there exists C, D 2X , C D = X , such that A
is far from C and B is far from D (Efremovi-axiom).
The pair (X, ) is called an EF-proximity space. In this context, a space is a set with some added structure. With
a proximity space X , the structure of X is induced by the EF-proximity relation . In a proximity space X , the
closure of A in X coincides with the intersection of all closed sets that contain A .
Theorem 1[67] The closure of any set A in the proximity space X is the set of points x X that are close to A .
31.5 Visualization of EF-axiom

Let the set X be represented by the points inside the rectangular region in Fig. 5. Also, let A, B be any two non-
intersection subsets (i.e. subsets spatially far from each other) in X , as shown in Fig. 5. Let C c = X\C (complement
of the set C ). Then from the EF-axiom, observe the following:
A B,
B C,
D = C c,
X = D C,
A D, hence, we can write
A B A C and B D, for some C, D in X so that C D = X.
31.6 Descriptive proximity space

Descriptively near sets were introduced as a means of solving classication and pattern recognition problems arising
from disjoint sets that resemble each other[44][43] . Recently, the connections between near sets in EF-spaces and near
sets in descriptive EF-proximity spaces have been explored in[53][48] .
Again, let X be a metric topological space and let = {1 , . . . , n } a set of probe functions that represent features
of each x X . The assumption made here is X contains non-abstract points that have measurable features such as
gradient orientation. A non-abstract point has a location and features that can be measured (see 3 in [26] ).
A probe function : X R represents a feature of a sample point in X . The mapping : X Rn is dened
by (x) = (1 (x), . . . , n (x)) , where Rn is an n-dimensional real Euclidean vector space. (x) is a feature vector
for x , which provides a description of x X . For example, this leads to a proximal view of sets of picture points
in digital images[48] .
X
Cc C
B
A
Figure 5. Example of a descriptive EF-proximity relation between sets A, B , and C c
To obtain a descriptive proximity relation (denoted by ), one rst chooses a set of probe functions. Let Q : 2X
n n
2R be a mapping on a subset of 2X into a subset of 2R . For example, let A, B 2X and Q(A), Q(B) denote
sets of descriptions of points in A, B , respectively. That is,
Q(A) = {(a) : a A} ,
Q(B) = {(b) : b B} .
The expression A B reads A is descriptively near B . Similarly, A B reads A is descriptively far from B . The
descriptive proximity of A and B is dened by
A B Q(cl(A)) Q(cl(B)) = .
The descriptive intersection of A and B is dened by
A B = {x A B : Q(A) Q(B)} .
That is, x A B is in A B , provided (x) = (a) = (b) for some a A, b B . Observe that A and B
can be disjoint and yet A B can be nonempty. The descriptive proximity relation is dened by
{ }
= (A, B) 2X 2X : cl(A) cl(B) = .
Whenever sets A and B have no points with matching descriptions, the sets are descriptively far from each other
(denoted by A B ).
The binary relation is a descriptive EF-proximity, provided the following axioms are satised for A, B, E X .
31.7. PROXIMAL RELATOR SPACES 135
dEF.1 If the set A is descriptively close to B , then B is descriptively close to A .

dEF.2 A B is descriptively close to E , if and only if, at least one of the sets A or B is descriptively close to E .
dEF.3 Two points x, y X are descriptively close, if and only if, the description of x matches the description of
y.
dEF.4 All nonempty sets are descriptively far from the empty set .
dEF.5 For any two sets A and B which are descriptively far from each other, there exists C, D 2X , C D = X
, such that A is descriptively far from C and B is descriptively far from D (Descriptive Efremovi axiom).
The pair (X, ) is called a descriptive proximity space.
31.7 Proximal relator spaces

A relator is a nonvoid family of relations R on a nonempty set X [72] . The pair (X, R) (also denoted X(R) ) is
called a relator space. Relator spaces are natural generalizations of ordered sets and uniform spaces[73][74] }. With the
introduction of a family of proximity relations R on X , we obtain a proximal relator space (X, R ) . For simplicity,
we consider only two proximity relations, namely, the Efremovi proximity [8] and the descriptive proximity in
dening the descriptive relator R [53][48] . The pair (X, R ) is called a proximal relator space [49] . In this work, X
denotes a metric topological space that is endowed with the relations in a proximal relator. With the introduction of
(X, R ) , the traditional closure of a subset (e.g., [9][7] ) can be compared with the more recent descriptive closure
of a subset.
In a proximal relator space X , the descriptive closure of a set A (denoted by cl (A) ) is dened by
cl (A) = {x X : (x)Q(cl(A))} .
That is, x X is in the descriptive closure of A , provided the closure of (x) and the closure of Q(cl(A)) have at
least one element in common.
Theorem 2 [50] The descriptive closure of any set A in the descriptive EF-proximity space (X, R ) is the set of
points x X that are descriptively close to A .
Theorem 3 [50] Kuratowski closure of a set A is a subset of the descriptive closure of A in a descriptive EF-proximity
space.
Theorem 4 [49] Let (X, R ) be a proximal relator space, A X . Then cl(A) cl (A) .
Proof Let (x) Q(X \ cl(A)) such that (x) = (a) for some a clA . Consequently, (x) Q(cl (A)) .
Hence, cl(A) cl (A)
In a proximal relator space, EF-proximity leads to the following results for descriptive proximity .
Theorem 5 [49] Let (X, R ) be a proximal relator space, A, B, C X . Then
1
A B implies A B .
2
(A B) C implies (A B) C .
3
clA clB implies clA clB .
Proof
1
A B A B = . For x A B, (x) Q(A) and (x) Q(B) . Consequently, A B .
1 2
3
clA clB implies that clA and clA have at least one point in common. Hence, 1 o 3o .
31.8 Descriptive -neighbourhoods
X
X \E 2 E2
B
E1
A
Figure 6. Example depicting -neighbourhoods
In a pseudometric proximal relator space X , the neighbourhood of a point x X (denoted by Nx, ), for > 0 , is
dened by
Nx, = {y X : d(x, y) < } .
The interior of a set A (denoted by int(A) ) and boundary of A (denoted by bdy(A) ) in a proximal relator space X
are dened by
int(A) = {x X : Nx, A} .
bdy(A) = cl(A) \ int(A).

31.9. TOLERANCE NEAR SETS 137
A set A has a natural strong inclusion in a set B associated with [5][6] } (denoted by A B ), provided A intB
, i.e., A X \ intB ( A is far from the complement of intB ). Correspondingly, a set A has a descriptive strong
inclusion in a set B associated with (denoted by A B ), provided Q(A) Q(intB) , i.e., A X \ intB (
Q(A) is far from the complement of intB ).
Let be a descriptive -neighbourhood relation dened by
{ }
= (A, B) 2X 2X : Q(A) Q(intB) .
That is, A B , provided the description of each a A is contained in the set of descriptions of the points b intB
. Now observe that any A, B in the proximal relator space X such that A B have disjoint -neighbourhoods,
i.e.,
A B A E1, B E2, for some E1, E2 X (See Fig. 6).
Theorem 6 [50] Any two sets descriptively far from each other belong to disjoint descriptive -neighbourhoods in
a descriptive proximity space X .
A consideration of strong containment of a nonempty set in another set leads to the study of hit-and-miss topologies
and the Wijsman topology[2] .
31.9 Tolerance near sets

Let be a real number greater than zero. In the study of sets that are proximally near within some tolerance, the set
of proximity relations R is augmented with a pseudometric tolerance proximity relation (denoted by , ) dened
by
D (A, B) = inf {d((a), (a)) : (a) Q(A), (a) Q(B)} ,

n
d((a), (a)) = |i (a) i (b)|,
{ i=1 }
, = (A, B) 2X 2X : |D(cl(A), cl(B))| < .
Let R, = R {, } . In other words, a nonempty set equipped with the proximal relator R, has underlying
structure provided by the proximal relator R and provides a basis for the study of tolerance near sets in X that are
near within some tolerance. Sets A, B in a descriptive pseudometric proximal relator space (X, R, ) are tolerance
near sets (i.e., A , B ), provided
D (A, B) < .
31.10 Tolerance classes and preclasses

Relations with the same formal properties as similarity relations of sensations considered by Poincar[62] are nowadays,
after Zeeman[83] , called tolerance relations. A tolerance on a set O is a relation O O that is reexive and
symmetric. In algebra, the term tolerance relation is also used in a narrow sense to denote reexive and symmetric
relations dened on universes of algebras that are also compatible with operations of a given algebra, i.e., they are
generalizations of congruence relations (see e.g.,[12] ). In referring to such relations, the term algebraic tolerance or
the term algebraic tolerance relation is used. Transitive tolerance relations are equivalence relations. A set O together
with a tolerance is called a tolerance space (denoted (O, ) ). A set A O is a -preclass (or briey preclass
when is understood) if and only if for any x, y A , (x, y) .
The family of all preclasses of a tolerance space is naturally ordered by set inclusion and preclasses that are maximal
with respect to set inclusion are called -classes or just classes, when is understood. The family of all classes of
the space (O, ) is particularly interesting and is denoted by H (O) . The family H (O) is a covering of O [58] .
The work on similarity by Poincar and Zeeman presage the introduction of near sets[44][43] and research on similarity
relations, e.g.,[79] . In science and engineering, tolerance near sets are a practical application of the study of sets that
are near within some tolerance. A tolerance (0, ] is directly related to the idea of closeness or resemblance
(i.e., being within some tolerance) in comparing objects. By way of application of Poincar's approach in dening
visual spaces and Zeemans approach to tolerance relations, the basic idea is to compare objects such as image patches
in the interior of digital images.
31.10.1 Examples
Simple Example
The following simple example demonstrates the construction of tolerance classes from real data. Consider the 20
objects in the table below with || = 1 .
Let a tolerance relation be dened as
= = {(x, y) O O : (x) (y) 2 }
Then, setting = 0.1 gives the following tolerance classes:
= (O) ={{x1 , x8 , x10 , x11 }, {x1 , x9 , x10 , x11 , x14 },

H
{x2 , x7 , x18 , x19 },
{x3 , x12 , x17 },
{x4 , x13 , x20 }, {x4 , x18 },
{x5 , x6 , x15 , x16 }, {x5 , x6 , x15 , x20 },
{x6 , x13 , x20 }}.
Observe that each object in a tolerance class satises the condition (x) (y) 2 , and that almost all of the
objects appear in more than one class. Moreover, there would be twenty classes if the indiscernibility relation was
used since there are no two objects with matching descriptions.
Image Processing Example
Figure 7. Example of images that are near each other. (a) and (b) Images from the freely available LeavesDataset (see, e.g.,
www.vision.caltech.edu/archive.html).
The following example provides an example based on digital images. Let a subimage be dened as a small subset of
pixels belonging to a digital image such that the pixels contained in the subimage form a square. Then, let the sets X
and Y respectively represent the subimages obtained from two dierent images, and let O = {X Y } . Finally, let
the description of an object be given by the Green component in the RGB color model. The next step is to nd all
31.11. NEARNESS MEASURE 139
the tolerance classes using the tolerance relation dened in the previous example. Using this information, tolerance
classes can be formed containing objects that have similar (within some small ) values for the Green component
in the RGB colour model. Furthermore, images that are near (similar) to each other should have tolerance classes
divided among both images (instead of a tolerance classes contained solely in one of the images). For example, the
gure accompanying this example shows a subset of the tolerance classes obtained from two leaf images. In this
gure, each tolerance class is assigned a separate colour. As can be seen, the two leaves share similar tolerance
classes. This example highlights a need to measure the degree of nearness of two sets.
31.11 Nearness measure

Let (U, R, ) denote a particular descriptive pseudometric EF-proximal relator space equipped with the proximity
relation , and with nonempty subsets X, Y 2U and with the tolerance relation =, dened in terms of a set of
probes and with (0, ] , where
Figure 8. Examples of degree of nearness between two sets: (a) High degree of nearness, and (b) Low degree of nearness.
, = {(x, y) U U | |(x) (y)| }.

Further, assume Z = X Y and let H, (Z) denote the family of all classes in the space (Z, , ) .
Let A X, B Y . The distance DtN M : 2U 2U : [0, ] is dened by
{
1 tN M (A, B), if X and Y are not empty,
DtN M (X, Y ) =
, if X or Y is empty,
where
( )1
min(|C A|, |[C B|)
tN M (A, B) = |C| |C| .
max(|C A|, |C B|)
CH, (Z) CH, (Z)
The details concerning tN M are given in[14][16][17] . The idea behind tN M is that sets that are similar should have
a similar number of objects in each tolerance class. Thus, for each tolerance class obtained from the covering of
Z = X Y , tN M counts the number of objects that belong to X and Y and takes the ratio (as a proper fraction) of
their cardinalities. Furthermore, each ratio is weighted by the total size of the tolerance class (thus giving importance
to the larger classes) and the nal result is normalized by dividing by the sum of all the cardinalities. The range of
tN M is in the interval [0,1], where a value of 1 is obtained if the sets are equivalent (based on object descriptions)
and a value of 0 is obtained if they have no descriptions in common.
As an example of the degree of nearness between two sets, consider gure below in which each image consists of two
sets of objects, X and Y . Each colour in the gures corresponds to a set where all the objects in the class share the
same description. The idea behind tN M is that the nearness of sets in a perceptual system is based on the cardinality
of tolerance classes that they share. Thus, the sets in left side of the gure are closer (more near) to each other in
terms of their descriptions than the sets in right side of the gure.
31.12 Near set evaluation and recognition (NEAR) system
Figure 9. NEAR system GUI.
The Near set Evaluation and Recognition (NEAR) system, is a system developed to demonstrate practical applications
of near set theory to the problems of image segmentation evaluation and image correspondence. It was motivated
by a need for a freely available software tool that can provide results for research and to generate interest in near
set theory. The system implements a Multiple Document Interface (MDI) where each separate processing task is
performed in its own child frame. The objects (in the near set sense) in this system are subimages of the images being
processed and the probe functions (features) are image processing functions dened on the subimages. The system
was written in C++ and was designed to facilitate the addition of new processing tasks and probe functions. Currently,
the system performs six major tasks, namely, displaying equivalence and tolerance classes for an image, performing
segmentation evaluation, measuring the nearness of two images, performing Content Based Image Retrieval (CBIR),
and displaying the output of processing an image using a specic probe function.
31.13 Proximity System

The Proximity System is an application developed to demonstrate descriptive-based topological approaches to near-
ness and proximity within the context of digital image analysis. The Proximity System grew out of the work of S.
Naimpally and J. Peters on Topological Spaces. The Proximity System was written in Java and is intended to run in
two dierent operating environments, namely on Android smartphones and tablets, as well as desktop platforms run-
31.14. SEE ALSO 141
Figure 10. The Proximity System.
ning the Java Virtual Machine. With respect to the desktop environment, the Proximity System is a cross-platform
Java application for Windows, OSX, and Linux systems, which has been tested on Windows 7 and Debian Linux
using the Sun Java 6 Runtime. In terms of the implementation of the theoretical approaches, both the Android and
the desktop based applications use the same back-end libraries to perform the description-based calculations, where
the only dierences are the user interface and the Android version has less available features due to restrictions on
system resources.
31.14 See also

Alternative set theory
Category:Mathematical relations
Category:Topology
Feature vector
Proximity space
Rough set
Topology
31.15 Notes
1. ^ J.R. Isbell observed that the notions near and far are important in a uniform space. Sets A, B are far
(uniformaly distal), provided the {A, B} is a discrete collection. A nonempty set U is a uniform neighbour-
hood of a set A , provided the complement of U is far from U . See, 33 in [23]
2. ^ The intuition that led to the discovery of descriptively near sets is given in Pawlak, Z.;Peters, J.F. (2002,
2007) Jak blisko (How Near)". Systemy Wspomagania Decyzji I 57 (109)
3. ^ Descriptively near sets are introduced in[48] . The connections between traditional EF-proximity and descrip-
tive EF-proximity are explored in [37] .
4. ^ Reminiscent of M. Pavels approach, descriptions of members of sets objects are dened relative to vectors
of values obtained from real-valued functions called probes. See, Pavel, M. (1993). Fundamentals of pattern
recognition. 2nd ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, for the introduction of probe functions considered in the
context of image registration.
5. ^ A non-spatial view of near sets appears in, C.J. Mozzochi, M.S. Gagrat, and S.A. Naimpally, Symmetric
generalized topological structures, Exposition Press, Hicksville, NY, 1976., and, more recently, nearness of
disjoint sets X and Y based on resemblance between pairs of elements x X, y Y (i.e. x and y have
similar feature vectors (x), (y) and the norm (x) (y) p < ) See, e.g.,[43][42][53] .
6. ^ The basic facts about closure of a set were rst pointed out by M. Frchet in[11] , and elaborated by B. Knaster
and C. Kuratowski in[25] .
7. ^ Observe that up to the 1970s, proximity meant EF-proximity, since this is the one that was studied intensively.
The pre-1970 work on proximity spaces is exemplied by the series of papers by J. M. Smirnov during the
rst half of the 1950s[68][67][69][70] , culminating in the compendious collection of results by S.A. Naimpally and
B.D. Warrack[34] . But in view of later developments, there is a need to distinguish between various proximities.
A basic proximity or ech-proximity was introduced by E. ech during the late 1930s (see 25 A.1, pp. 439-
440 in [78] ). The conditions for the non-symmetric case for a proximity were introduced by S. Leader[28] and
for the symmetric case by M.W. Lodato[29][30][31] .
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bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. x+128 Missing or empty |title= (help)
40. ^ Pal, S. K.; Peters, J. F. (2010). Rough fuzzy image analysis. Foundations and methodologies. London, UK,:
CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 9781439803295.
41. ^ Peters, J. F. (2009). Tolerance near sets and image correspondence. International Journal of Bio-Inspired
Computation. 1 (4): 239245. doi:10.1504/ijbic.2009.024722.
42. ^ a b c Peters, J. F.; Wasilewski, P. (2009). Foundations of near sets. Information Sciences. 179 (18): 3091
3109. doi:10.1016/j.ins.2009.04.018.
43. ^ a b c Peters, J. F. (2007). Near sets. General theory about nearness of objects. Applied Mathematical
Sciences. 1 (53): 26092629.
44. ^ a b Peters, J. F. (2007). Near sets. Special theory about nearness of objects. Fundamenta Informaticae. 75
(14): 407433.
45. ^ Peters, J. F. (2010). Corrigenda and addenda: Tolerance near sets and image correspondence. International
Journal of Bio-Inspired Computation. 2 (5): 310318. doi:10.1504/ijbic.2010.036157.
46. ^ Peters, J. F. (2011), How near are Zdzisaw Pawlaks paintings? Merotopic distance between regions of
interest, in Skowron, A.; Suraj, S., Intelligent Systems Reference Library volume dedicated to Prof. Zdzisaw
Pawlak, Berlin: Springer, pp. 119 Missing or empty |title= (help)
47. ^ Peters, J. F. (2011), Suciently near sets of neighbourhoods, in Yao, J. T.; Ramanna, S.; Wang, G.; et al.,
Lecture Notes in Articial Intelligence 6954, Berlin: Springer, pp. 1724 Missing or empty |title= (help)
48. ^ a b c d Peters, J. F. (2013). Near sets: An introduction. Mathematics in Computer Science. 7 (1): 39.
doi:10.1007/s11786-013-0149-6.
49. ^ a b c Peters, J. F. (2014). Proximal relator spaces. FILOMAT: 15 (in press).
50. ^ a b c d e Peters, J. F. (2014). Topology of Digital Images. Visual Pattern Discovery in Proximity Spaces. 63.
Springer. p. 342. ISBN 978-3-642-53844-5.
51. ^ a b Peters, J. F.; nan, E.; ztrk, M. A. (2014). Spatial and descriptive isometries in proximity spaces.
General Mathematics Notes. 21 (2): 125134.
52. ^ Peters, J. F.; Naimpally, S. A. (2011). Approach spaces for near families. General Mathematics Notes. 2
(1): 159164.
53. ^ a b c Peters, J. F.; Naimpally, S. A. (2011). General Mathematics Notes. 2 (1): 159164. Missing or empty
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54. ^ Peters, J. F.; Puzio, L. (2009). Image analysis with anisotropic wavelet-based nearness measures. Interna-
tional Journal of Computational Intelligence Systems. 2 (3): 168183. doi:10.1016/j.ins.2009.04.018.
55. ^ Peters, J. F.; Shahfar, S.; Ramanna, S.; Szturm, T. (2007), Biologically-inspired adaptive learning: A near
set approach, Frontiers in the Convergence of Bioscience and Information Technologies, Korea Missing or
empty |title= (help)
56. ^ Peters, J. F.; Tiwari, S. (2011). Approach merotopies and near lters. Theory and application. General
Mathematics Notes. 3 (1): 3245.
57. ^ Peters, J. F.; Tiwari, S. (2011). Approach merotopies and near lters. Theory and application. General
Mathematics Notes. 3 (1): 3245.
58. ^ Peters, J. F.; Wasilewski, P. (2012). Tolerance spaces: Origins, theoretical aspects and applications. In-
formation Sciences. 195: 211225. doi:10.1016/j.ins.2012.01.023.
59. ^ Picado, J. Weil nearness spaces. Portugaliae Mathematica. 55 (2): 233254.
60. ^ a b c Poincar, J. H. (1895). L'espace et la gomtrie. Revue de m'etaphysique et de morale. 3: 631646.
61. ^ a b c Poincar, J. H. (1902). Sur certaines surfaces algbriques; troisime complment 'a l'analysis situs.
Bulletin de la Socit de France. 30: 4970.
62. ^ a b Poincar, J. H. (1913 & 2009). Dernires penses, trans. by J.W. Bolduc as Mathematics and science: Last
essays. Paris & NY: Flammarion & Kessinger. Check date values in: |date= (help)
63. ^ a b Poincar, J. H. (1894). Sur la nature du raisonnement mathmatique. Revue de maphysique et de
morale. 2: 371384.
64. ^ a b Ramanna, S.; Meghdadi, A. H. (2009). Measuring resemblances between swarm behaviours: A percep-
tual tolerance near set approach. Fundamenta Informaticae. 95 (4): 533552. doi:10.3233/FI-2009-163.
65. ^ a b Riesz, F. (1908). Stetigkeitsbegri und abstrakte mengenlehre (PDF). Atti del IV Congresso Inter-
nazionale dei Matematici II: 1824.
66. ^ Shreider, J. A. (1975). Equality, resemblance, and order. Russia: Mir Publishers. p. 279.
67. ^ a b c d Smirnov, J. M. (1952). On proximity spaces. Mat. Sb. (N.S.). 31 (73): 543574 (English translation:
Amer. Math. Soc. Trans. Ser. 2, 38, 1964, 535).
68. ^ Smirnov, J. M. (1952). On proximity spaces in the sense of V.A. Efremovi". Math. Sb. (N.S.). 84:
895898, English translation: Amer. Math. Soc. Trans. Ser. 2, 38, 1964, 14.
69. ^ Smirnov, J. M. (1954). On the completeness of proximity spaces. I.. Trudy Moskov. Mat. Ob. 3:
70. ^ Smirnov, J. M. (1955). On the completeness of proximity spaces. II.. Trudy Moskov. Mat. Ob. 4:
71. ^ a b Sossinsky, A. B. (1986). Tolerance space theory and some applications. Acta Applicandae Mathemati-
cae. 5 (2): 137167. doi:10.1007/bf00046585.
72. ^ Szz, . (1997). Uniformly, proximally and topologically compact relators. Mathematica Pannonica. 8
(1): 103116.
73. ^ Szz, . (1987). Basic tools and mild continuities in relator spaces. Acta Mathematica Hungarica. 50:
177201. doi:10.1007/bf01903935.
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75. ^ Tiwari, S. (2010), Some aspects of general topology and applications. Approach merotopic structures and
applications, Ph.D. thesis, Dept. of Math., Allahabad (U.P.), India, supervisor: M. khare
76. ^ a b Tiwari, S.; Peters, J. F. (2013). A new approach to the study of extended metric spaces. Mathematica
Aeterna. 3 (7): 565577.
77. ^ Tukey, J. W. (1940), Convergence and uniformity in topology, Annals of Mathematics Studies, AM2,
Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, p. 90 Missing or empty |title= (help)
78. ^ ech, E. (1966). Topological spaces, revised ed. by Z. Frolik and M. Kattov. London: John Wiley & Sons.
p. 893.
79. ^ Wasilewski, P. (2004), On selected similarity relations and their applications into cognitive science, Ph.D.
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80. ^ Wasilewski, P.; Peters, J. F.; Ramanna, S. (2011). Perceptual tolerance intersection. Transactions on
Rough Sets XIII: 159174.
81. ^ Weil, A. (1938), Sur les espaces structure uniforme et sur la topologie gnrale, Actualits scientique
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82. ^ Wolski, M. (2010). Perception and classication. A note on near sets and rough sets. Fundamenta Infor-
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83. ^ a b Zeeman, E. C. (1962), The topology of the brain and visual perception, in Fort, Jr., M. K., Topology
of 3-Manifolds and Related Topics, University of Georgia Institute Conference Proceedings (1962): Prentice-
Hall, pp. 240256 Missing or empty |title= (help)

Naimpally, S. A.; Peters, J. F. (2013). Topology with Applications. Topological Spaces via Near and Far.
World Scientic Publishing . Co. Pte. Ltd. ISBN 978-981-4407-65-6.
Naimpally, S. A.; Peters, J. F.; Wolski, M. (2013), Near Set Theory and Applications, Mathematics in Computer
Science, 7 (1), Berlin: Springer
Peters, J. F. (2014), Topology of Digital Images. Visual Pattern Discovery in Proximity Spaces, Intelligent
Systems Reference Library, 63, Berlin: Springer
Henry, C. J.; Peters, J. F. (2012), Near set evaluation and recognition (NEAR) system V3.0, UM CI Laboratory
Technical Report No. TR-2009-015, Computational Intelligence Laboratory, University of Manitoba
Concilio, A. Di (2014). Proximity: A powerful tool in extension theory, function spaces, hyperspaces, boolean
algebras and point-free geometry. Computational Intelligence Laboratory, University of Manitoba. UM CI
Laboratory Technical Report No. TR-2009-021.
Peters, J. F.; Naimpally, S. A. (2012). Applications of near sets (PDF). Notices of the American Mathematical
Society. 59 (4): 536542. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.371.7903 .
Chapter 32
Order dimension
b1 b2 b3 b4
a1 a2 a3 a4
a2 < a3 < a4 < b1 < a1 < b2 < b3 < b4
a1 < a3 < a4 < b2 < a2 < b1 < b3 < b4
a1 < a2 < a4 < b3 < a3 < b1 < b2 < b4
a1 < a2 < a3 < b4 < a4 < b1 < b2 < b3
A partial order of dimension 4 (shown as a Hasse diagram) and four total orderings that form a realizer for this partial order.
In mathematics, the dimension of a partially ordered set (poset) is the smallest number of total orders the intersection
of which gives rise to the partial order. This concept is also sometimes called the order dimension or the Dushnik
Miller dimension of the partial order. Dushnik & Miller (1941) rst studied order dimension; for a more detailed
treatment of this subject than provided here, see Trotter (1992).
147
148 CHAPTER 32. ORDER DIMENSION

The dimension of a poset P is the least integer t for which there exists a family
R = (<1 , . . . , <t )
of linear extensions of P so that, for every x and y in P, x precedes y in P if and only if it precedes y in each of the
linear extensions. That is,

t
P = R= <i .
i=1
An alternative denition of order dimension is as the minimal number of total orders such that P embeds to the
product of these total orders for the componentwise ordering, in which x y if and only if xi yi for all i (Hiraguti
1955, Milner & Pouzet 1990).
32.2 Realizers
A family R = (<1 , . . . , <t ) of linear orders on X is called a realizer of a poset P = (X, <P) if

<P = R
which is to say that for any x and y in X, x <P y precisely when x <1 y, x <2 y, ..., and x <t y. Thus, an equivalent
denition of the dimension of a poset P is the least cardinality of a realizer of P.
It can be shown that any nonempty family R of linear extensions is a realizer of a nite partially ordered set P if and
only if, for every critical pair (x,y) of P, y <i x for some order <i in R.
32.3 Example
Let n be a positive integer, and let P be the partial order on the elements ai and bi (for 1 i n) in which ai bj
whenever i j, but no other pairs are comparable. In particular, ai and bi are incomparable in P; P can be viewed as
an oriented form of a crown graph. The illustration shows an ordering of this type for n = 4.
Then, for each i, any realizer must contain a linear order that begins with all the aj except ai (in some order), then
includes bi, then ai, and ends with all the remaining bj. This is so because if there were a realizer that didn't include
such an order, then the intersection of that realizers orders would have ai preceding bi, which would contradict the
incomparability of ai and bi in P. And conversely, any family of linear orders that includes one order of this type for
each i has P as its intersection. Thus, P has dimension exactly n. In fact, P is known as the standard example of a
poset of dimension n, and is usually denoted by Sn.
32.4 Order dimension two

The partial orders with order dimension two may be characterized as the partial orders whose comparability graph is
the complement of the comparability graph of a dierent partial order (Baker, Fishburn & Roberts 1971). That is,
P is a partial order with order dimension two if and only if there exists a partial order Q on the same set of elements,
such that every pair x, y of distinct elements is comparable in exactly one of these two partial orders. If P is realized
by two linear extensions, then partial order Q complementary to P may be realized by reversing one of the two linear
extensions. Therefore, the comparability graphs of the partial orders of dimension two are exactly the permutation
graphs, graphs that are both themselves comparability graphs and complementary to comparability graphs.
The partial orders of order dimension two include the series-parallel partial orders (Valdes, Tarjan & Lawler 1982).
They are exactly the partial orders whose Hasse diagrams have dominance drawings, which can be obtained by using
the positions in the two permutations of a realizer as Cartesian coordinates.
32.5. COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY 149
32.5 Computational complexity

It is possible to determine in polynomial time whether a given nite partially ordered set has order dimension at most
two, for instance, by testing whether the comparability graph of the partial order is a permutation graph. However,
for any k 3, it is NP-complete to test whether the order dimension is at most k (Yannakakis 1982).
32.6 Incidence posets of graphs

The incidence poset of any undirected graph G has the vertices and edges of G as its elements; in this poset, x y if
either x = y or x is a vertex, y is an edge, and x is an endpoint of y. Certain kinds of graphs may be characterized by the
order dimensions of their incidence posets: a graph is a path graph if and only if the order dimension of its incidence
poset is at most two, and according to Schnyders theorem it is a planar graph if and only if the order dimension of
its incidence poset is at most three (Schnyder 1989).
For a complete graph on n vertices, the order dimension of the incidence poset is (log log n) (Hoten & Morris
1999). It follows that all simple n-vertex graphs have incidence posets with order dimension O(log log n) .
32.7 k-dimension and 2-dimension

A generalization of dimension is the notion of k-dimension (written dimk ) which is the minimal number of chains
of length at most k in whose product the partial order can be embedded. In particular, the 2-dimension of an order
can be seen as the size of the smallest set such that the order embeds in the containment order on this set.
32.8 See also

Interval dimension
32.9 References
Baker, K. A.; Fishburn, P.; Roberts, F. S. (1971), Partial orders of dimension 2, Networks, 2 (1): 1128,
doi:10.1002/net.3230020103.
Dushnik, Ben; Miller, E. W. (1941), Partially ordered sets, American Journal of Mathematics, 63 (3): 600
610, JSTOR 2371374, doi:10.2307/2371374.
Hiraguti, Tosio (1955), On the dimension of orders (PDF), The Science Reports of the Kanazawa University,
4 (1): 120, MR 0077500.
Hoten, Serkan; Morris, Walter D., Jr. (1999), The order dimension of the complete graph, Discrete Math-
ematics, 201 (1-3): 133139, MR 1687882, doi:10.1016/S0012-365X(98)00315-X.
Milner, E. C.; Pouzet, M. (1990), A note on the dimension of a poset, Order, 7 (1): 101102, MR 1086132,
doi:10.1007/BF00383178.
Schnyder, W. (1989), Planar graphs and poset dimension, Order, 5 (4): 323343, doi:10.1007/BF00353652.
Trotter, William T. (1992), Combinatorics and partially ordered sets: Dimension theory, Johns Hopkins Series
in the Mathematical Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-4425-6.
Valdes, Jacobo; Tarjan, Robert E.; Lawler, Eugene L. (1982), The recognition of series parallel digraphs,
SIAM Journal on Computing, 11 (2): 298313, doi:10.1137/0211023.
Yannakakis, Mihalis (1982), The complexity of the partial order dimension problem, SIAM Journal on Al-
gebraic and Discrete Methods, 3 (3): 351358, doi:10.1137/0603036.
Chapter 33
Partial function
Not to be confused with partial function of a multilinear map or the mathematical concept of a piecewise function.
In mathematics, a partial function from X to Y (written as f: X Y) is a function f: X Y, for some subset X

of X. It generalizes the concept of a function f: X Y by not forcing f to map every element of X to an element
of Y (only some subset X of X). If X = X, then f is called a total function and is equivalent to a function. Partial
functions are often used when the exact domain, X, is not known (e.g. many functions in computability theory).
Specically, we will say that for any x X, either:
f(x) = y Y (it is dened as a single element in Y) or

f(x) is undened.
For example, we can consider the square root function restricted to the integers
g: Z Z

g(n) = n.
Thus g(n) is only dened for n that are perfect squares (i.e., 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, ...). So, g(25) = 5, but g(26) is undened.
33.1 Basic concepts

There are two distinct meanings in current mathematical usage for the notion of the domain of a partial function.
Most mathematicians, including recursion theorists, use the term domain of f" for the set of all values x such that
f(x) is dened (X' above). But some, particularly category theorists, consider the domain of a partial function f:X
Y to be X, and refer to X' as the domain of denition. Similarly, the term range can refer to either the codomain or
the image of a function.
Occasionally, a partial function with domain X and codomain Y is written as f: X Y, using an arrow with vertical
stroke.
A partial function is said to be injective or surjective when the total function given by the restriction of the partial
function to its domain of denition is. A partial function may be both injective and surjective.
Because a function is trivially surjective when restricted to its image, the term partial bijection denotes a partial
function which is injective.[1]
An injective partial function may be inverted to an injective partial function, and a partial function which is both
injective and surjective has an injective function as inverse. Furthermore, a total function which is injective may be
inverted to an injective partial function.
The notion of transformation can be generalized to partial functions as well. A partial transformation is a function
f: A B, where both A and B are subsets of some set X.[1]
150
33.2. TOTAL FUNCTION 151
33.2 Total function

Total function is a synonym for function. The use of the adjective total is to suggest that it is a special case of a
partial function (specically, a total function with domain X is a special case of a partial function over X). The adjective
will typically be used for clarity in contexts where partial functions are common, for example in computability theory.
33.3 Discussion and examples

The rst diagram above represents a partial function that is not a total function since the element 1 in the left-hand set
is not associated with anything in the right-hand set. Whereas, the second diagram represents a total function since
every element on the left-hand set is associated with exactly one element in the right hand set.
33.3.1 Natural logarithm

Consider the natural logarithm function mapping the real numbers to themselves. The logarithm of a non-positive
real is not a real number, so the natural logarithm function doesn't associate any real number in the codomain with
any non-positive real number in the domain. Therefore, the natural logarithm function is not a total function when
viewed as a function from the reals to themselves, but it is a partial function. If the domain is restricted to only include
the positive reals (that is, if the natural logarithm function is viewed as a function from the positive reals to the reals),
then the natural logarithm is a total function.
33.3.2 Subtraction of natural numbers

Subtraction of natural numbers (non-negative integers) can be viewed as a partial function:
f :NNN
f (x, y) = x y.
It is dened only when x y .
33.3.3 Bottom element

In denotational semantics a partial function is considered as returning the bottom element when it is undened.
In computer science a partial function corresponds to a subroutine that raises an exception or loops forever. The IEEE
oating point standard denes a not-a-number value which is returned when a oating point operation is undened
and exceptions are suppressed, e.g. when the square root of a negative number is requested.
In a programming language where function parameters are statically typed, a function may be dened as a partial
function because the languages type system cannot express the exact domain of the function, so the programmer
instead gives it the smallest domain which is expressible as a type and contains the true domain.
33.3.4 In Category theory

In Category theory, when considering the operation of morphism composition in Concrete Categories, the compo-
sition operation : hom(C) hom(C) hom(C) is a total function if and only if ob(C) has one element. The
reason for this is that two morphisms f : X Y and g : U V can only be composed as g f if Y = U , that is,
the codomain of f must equal the domain of g .
The category of sets and partial functions is equivalent to but not isomorphic with the category of pointed sets and
point-preserving maps.[2] One textbook notes that This formal completion of sets and partial maps by adding im-
proper, innite elements was reinvented many times, in particular, in topology (one-point compactication) and
in theoretical computer science.[3]
The category of sets and partial bijections is equivalent to its dual.[4] It is the prototypical inverse category.[5]
152 CHAPTER 33. PARTIAL FUNCTION
33.3.5 In abstract algebra

Partial algebra generalizes the notion of universal algebra to partial operations. An example would be a eld, in which
the multiplicative inversion is the only proper partial operation (because division by zero is not dened).[6]
The set of all partial functions (partial transformations) on a given base set, X, forms a regular semigroup called the
semigroup of all partial transformations (or the partial transformation semigroup on X), typically denoted by PT X
.[7][8][9] The set of all partial bijections on X forms the symmetric inverse semigroup.[7][8]
33.3.6 Charts and atlases for manifolds and ber bundles

Charts in the atlases which specify the structure of manifolds and ber bundles are partial functions. In the case of
manifolds, the domain is the point set of the manifold. In the case of ber bundles, the domain is the total space of
the ber bundle. In these applications, the most important construction is the transition map, which is the composite
of one chart with the inverse of another. The initial classication of manifolds and ber bundles is largely expressed
in terms of constraints on these transition maps.
The reason for the use of partial functions instead of total functions is to permit general global topologies to be
represented by stitching together local patches to describe the global structure. The patches are the domains where
the charts are dened.
33.4 See also

Bijection
Injective function
Surjective function
Multivalued function
Densely dened operator
33.5 References
[1] Christopher Hollings (2014). Mathematics across the Iron Curtain: A History of the Algebraic Theory of Semigroups.
American Mathematical Society. p. 251. ISBN 978-1-4704-1493-1.
[2] Lutz Schrder (2001). Categories: a free tour. In Jrgen Koslowski and Austin Melton. Categorical Perspectives. Springer
[3] Neal Koblitz; B. Zilber; Yu. I. Manin (2009). A Course in Mathematical Logic for Mathematicians. Springer Science &
[4] Francis Borceux (1994). Handbook of Categorical Algebra: Volume 2, Categories and Structures. Cambridge University
Press. p. 289. ISBN 978-0-521-44179-7.
[5] Marco Grandis (2012). Homological Algebra: The Interplay of Homology with Distributive Lattices and Orthodox Semi-
groups. World Scientic. p. 55. ISBN 978-981-4407-06-9.
[6] Peter Burmeister (1993). Partial algebras an introductory survey. In Ivo G. Rosenberg and Gert Sabidussi. Algebras
and Orders. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-7923-2143-9.
[7] Alfred Hoblitzelle Cliord; G. B. Preston (1967). The Algebraic Theory of Semigroups. Volume II. American Mathematical
Soc. p. xii. ISBN 978-0-8218-0272-4.
[8] Peter M. Higgins (1992). Techniques of semigroup theory. Oxford University Press, Incorporated. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-19-
853577-5.
[9] Olexandr Ganyushkin; Volodymyr Mazorchuk (2008). Classical Finite Transformation Semigroups: An Introduction.
Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 16 and 24. ISBN 978-1-84800-281-4.
Martin Davis (1958), Computability and Unsolvability, McGrawHill Book Company, Inc, New York. Re-
published by Dover in 1982. ISBN 0-486-61471-9.
Stephen Kleene (1952), Introduction to Meta-Mathematics, North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam,
Netherlands, 10th printing with corrections added on 7th printing (1974). ISBN 0-7204-2103-9.
Harold S. Stone (1972), Introduction to Computer Organization and Data Structures, McGrawHill Book Com-
pany, New York.
Chapter 34
Partially ordered set
{x,y,z}
{x,y} {x,z} {y,z}
{x} {y} {z}
The Hasse diagram of the set of all subsets of a three-element set {x, y, z}, ordered by inclusion. Sets on the same horizontal level
are incomparable with each other. Some other pairs, such as {x} and {y,z}, are also incomparable.
In mathematics, especially order theory, a partially ordered set (also poset) formalizes and generalizes the intuitive
concept of an ordering, sequencing, or arrangement of the elements of a set. A poset consists of a set together with
a binary relation indicating that, for certain pairs of elements in the set, one of the elements precedes the other in
the ordering. The word partial in the names partial order or partially ordered set is used as an indication that
not every pair of elements need be comparable. That is, there may be pairs of elements for which neither element
precedes the other in the poset. Partial orders thus generalize total orders, in which every pair is comparable.
To be a partial order, a binary relation must be reexive (each element is comparable to itself), antisymmetric (no
two dierent elements precede each other), and transitive (the start of a chain of precedence relations must precede
the end of the chain).
One familiar example of a partially ordered set is a collection of people ordered by genealogical descendancy. Some
154
34.1. FORMAL DEFINITION 155
pairs of people bear the descendant-ancestor relationship, but other pairs of people are incomparable, with neither
being a descendent of the other.
A poset can be visualized through its Hasse diagram, which depicts the ordering relation.[1]

A (non-strict) partial order[2] is a binary relation over a set P satisfying particular axioms which are discussed
below. When a b, we say that a is related to b. (This does not imply that b is also related to a, because the relation
need not be symmetric.)
The axioms for a non-strict partial order state that the relation is reexive, antisymmetric, and transitive. That is,
for all a, b, and c in P, it must satisfy:
1. a a (reexivity: every element is related to itself).

2. if a b and b a, then a = b (antisymmetry: two distinct elements cannot be related in both directions).
3. if a b and b c, then a c (transitivity: if a rst element is related to a second element, and, in turn, that
element is related to a third element, then the rst element is related to the third element).
In other words, a partial order is an antisymmetric preorder.

A set with a partial order is called a partially ordered set (also called a poset). The term ordered set is sometimes
also used, as long as it is clear from the context that no other kind of order is meant. In particular, totally ordered sets
can also be referred to as ordered sets, especially in areas where these structures are more common than posets.
For a, b, elements of a partially ordered set P, if a b or b a, then a and b are comparable. Otherwise they are
incomparable. In the gure on top-right, e.g. {x} and {x,y,z} are comparable, while {x} and {y} are not. A partial
order under which every pair of elements is comparable is called a total order or linear order; a totally ordered
set is also called a chain (e.g., the natural numbers with their standard order). A subset of a poset in which no two
distinct elements are comparable is called an antichain (e.g. the set of singletons {{x}, {y}, {z}} in the top-right
gure). An element a is said to be covered by another element b, written a<:b, if a is strictly less than b and no third
element c ts between them; formally: if both ab and ab are true, and acb is false for each c with acb. A
more concise denition will be given below using the strict order corresponding to "". For example, {x} is covered
by {x,z} in the top-right gure, but not by {x,y,z}.
34.2 Examples
Standard examples of posets arising in mathematics include:
The real numbers ordered by the standard less-than-or-equal relation (a totally ordered set as well).
The set of subsets of a given set (its power set) ordered by inclusion (see the gure on top-right). Similarly, the
set of sequences ordered by subsequence, and the set of strings ordered by substring.
The set of natural numbers equipped with the relation of divisibility.
The vertex set of a directed acyclic graph ordered by reachability.
The set of subspaces of a vector space ordered by inclusion.
For a partially ordered set P, the sequence space containing all sequences of elements from P, where sequence
a precedes sequence b if every item in a precedes the corresponding item in b. Formally, (an)n (bn)n
if and only if an bn for all n in , i.e. a componentwise order.
For a set X and a partially ordered set P, the function space containing all functions from X to P, where f g
if and only if f(x) g(x) for all x in X.
A fence, a partially ordered set dened by an alternating sequence of order relations a < b > c < d ...
The set of events in special relativity, where for two events X and Y, X Y if and only if Y is in the future
light cone of X. An event Y can only be causally aected by X if X Y.
156 CHAPTER 34. PARTIALLY ORDERED SET
34.3 Extrema
There are several notions of greatest and least element in a poset P, notably:
Greatest element and least element: An element g in P is a greatest element if for every element a in P, a g.
An element m in P is a least element if for every element a in P, a m. A poset can only have one greatest or
least element.
Maximal elements and minimal elements: An element g in P is a maximal element if there is no element a in
P such that a > g. Similarly, an element m in P is a minimal element if there is no element a in P such that a <
m. If a poset has a greatest element, it must be the unique maximal element, but otherwise there can be more
than one maximal element, and similarly for least elements and minimal elements.
Upper and lower bounds: For a subset A of P, an element x in P is an upper bound of A if a x, for each
element a in A. In particular, x need not be in A to be an upper bound of A. Similarly, an element x in P is a
lower bound of A if a x, for each element a in A. A greatest element of P is an upper bound of P itself, and
a least element is a lower bound of P.
For example, consider the positive integers, ordered by divisibility: 1 is a least element, as it divides all other elements;
on the other hand this poset does not have a greatest element (although if one would include 0 in the poset, which
is a multiple of any integer, that would be a greatest element; see gure). This partially ordered set does not even
have any maximal elements, since any g divides for instance 2g, which is distinct from it, so g is not maximal. If the
number 1 is excluded, while keeping divisibility as ordering on the elements greater than 1, then the resulting poset
does not have a least element, but any prime number is a minimal element for it. In this poset, 60 is an upper bound
(though not a least upper bound) of the subset {2,3,5,10}, which does not have any lower bound (since 1 is not in the
poset); on the other hand 2 is a lower bound of the subset of powers of 2, which does not have any upper bound.
34.4 Orders on the Cartesian product of partially ordered sets

In order of increasing strength, i.e., decreasing sets of pairs, three of the possible partial orders on the Cartesian
product of two partially ordered sets are (see gures):
the lexicographical order: (a,b) (c,d) if a < c or (a = c and b d);

the product order: (a,b) (c,d) if a c and b d;
the reexive closure of the direct product of the corresponding strict orders: (a,b) (c,d) if (a < c and b < d)
or (a = c and b = d).
All three can similarly be dened for the Cartesian product of more than two sets.
Applied to ordered vector spaces over the same eld, the result is in each case also an ordered vector space.
See also orders on the Cartesian product of totally ordered sets.
34.5 Sums of partially ordered sets

Another way to combine two posets is the ordinal sum[3] (or linear sum[4] ), Z = X Y, dened on the union of the
underlying sets X and Y by the order a Z b if and only if:
a, b X with a X b, or
a, b Y with a Y b, or
a X and b Y.
If two posets are well-ordered, then so is their ordinal sum.[5] The ordinal sum operation is one of two operations
used to form series-parallel partial orders, and in this context is called series composition. The other operation used
to form these orders, the disjoint union of two partially ordered sets (with no order relation between elements of one
set and elements of the other set) is called in this context parallel composition.
34.6. STRICT AND NON-STRICT PARTIAL ORDERS 157
Series composition
Parallel composition
Hasse diagram of a series-parallel partial order, formed as the ordinal sum of three smaller partial orders.
34.6 Strict and non-strict partial orders

In some contexts, the partial order dened above is called a non-strict (or reexive, or weak) partial order. In these
contexts, a strict (or irreexive) partial order "<" is a binary relation that is irreexive, transitive and asymmetric,
i.e. which satises for all a, b, and c in P:
not a < a (irreexivity),

if a < b and b < c then a < c (transitivity), and
if a < b then not b < a (asymmetry; implied by irreexivity and transitivity[6] ).
Strict and non-strict partial orders are closely related. A non-strict partial order may be converted to a strict partial
order by removing all relationships of the form a a. Conversely, a strict partial order may be converted to a non-
strict partial order by adjoining all relationships of that form. Thus, if "" is a non-strict partial order, then the
corresponding strict partial order "<" is the irreexive kernel given by:
a < b if a b and a b
Conversely, if "<" is a strict partial order, then the corresponding non-strict partial order "" is the reexive closure
given by:
a b if a < b or a = b.
This is the reason for using the notation "".

Using the strict order "<", the relation "a is covered by b" can be equivalently rephrased as "a<b, but not a<c<b for
any c". Strict partial orders are useful because they correspond more directly to directed acyclic graphs (dags): every
strict partial order is a dag, and the transitive closure of a dag is both a strict partial order and also a dag itself.
34.7 Inverse and order dual

The inverse or converse of a partial order relation satises xy if and only if yx. The inverse of a partial
order relation is reexive, transitive, and antisymmetric, and hence itself a partial order relation. The order dual of a
partially ordered set is the same set with the partial order relation replaced by its inverse. The irreexive relation > is
to as < is to .
Any one of the four relations , <, , and > on a given set uniquely determines the other three.
In general two elements x and y of a partial order may stand in any of four mutually exclusive relationships to each
other: either x < y, or x = y, or x > y, or x and y are incomparable (none of the other three). A totally ordered set is one
that rules out this fourth possibility: all pairs of elements are comparable and we then say that trichotomy holds. The
natural numbers, the integers, the rationals, and the reals are all totally ordered by their algebraic (signed) magnitude
whereas the complex numbers are not. This is not to say that the complex numbers cannot be totally ordered; we
could for example order them lexicographically via x+iy < u+iv if and only if x < u or (x = u and y < v), but this is not
ordering by magnitude in any reasonable sense as it makes 1 greater than 100i. Ordering them by absolute magnitude
yields a preorder in which all pairs are comparable, but this is not a partial order since 1 and i have the same absolute
magnitude but are not equal, violating antisymmetry.
34.8 Mappings between partially ordered sets

Given two partially ordered sets (S,) and (T,), a function f: S T is called order-preserving, or monotone,
or isotone, if for all x and y in S, xy implies f(x) f(y). If (U,) is also a partially ordered set, and both f: S
T and g: T U are order-preserving, their composition (gf): S U is order-preserving, too. A function f:
S T is called order-reecting if for all x and y in S, f(x) f(y) implies xy. If f is both order-preserving and
order-reecting, then it is called an order-embedding of (S,) into (T,). In the latter case, f is necessarily injective,
since f(x) = f(y) implies x y and y x. If an order-embedding between two posets S and T exists, one says that S
can be embedded into T. If an order-embedding f: S T is bijective, it is called an order isomorphism, and the
partial orders (S,) and (T,) are said to be isomorphic. Isomorphic orders have structurally similar Hasse diagrams
(cf. right picture). It can be shown that if order-preserving maps f: S T and g: T S exist such that gf and fg
yields the identity function on S and T, respectively, then S and T are order-isomorphic. [7]
For example, a mapping f: () from the set of natural numbers (ordered by divisibility) to the power set of
natural numbers (ordered by set inclusion) can be dened by taking each number to the set of its prime divisors. It
is order-preserving: if x divides y, then each prime divisor of x is also a prime divisor of y. However, it is neither
injective (since it maps both 12 and 6 to {2,3}) nor order-reecting (since besides 12 doesn't divide 6). Taking
instead each number to the set of its prime power divisors denes a map g: () that is order-preserving, order-
reecting, and hence an order-embedding. It is not an order-isomorphism (since it e.g. doesn't map any number to
the set {4}), but it can be made one by restricting its codomain to g(). The right picture shows a subset of and its
isomorphic image under g. The construction of such an order-isomorphism into a power set can be generalized to a
wide class of partial orders, called distributive lattices, see "Birkhos representation theorem".
34.9 Number of partial orders

Sequence A001035 in OEIS gives the number of partial orders on a set of n labeled elements:
34.10. LINEAR EXTENSION 159
The number of strict partial orders is the same as that of partial orders.
If the count is made only up to isomorphism, the seqeuence 1, 1, 2, 5, 16, 63, 318, (sequence A000112 in the
OEIS) is obtained.
34.10 Linear extension

A partial order * on a set X is an extension of another partial order on X provided that for all elements x and y
of X, whenever x y, it is also the case that x * y. A linear extension is an extension that is also a linear (i.e., total)
order. Every partial order can be extended to a total order (order-extension principle).[8]
In computer science, algorithms for nding linear extensions of partial orders (represented as the reachability orders
of directed acyclic graphs) are called topological sorting.
34.11 In category theory

Every poset (and every preorder) may be considered as a category in which every hom-set has at most one element.
More explicitly, let hom(x, y) = {(x, y)} if x y (and otherwise the empty set) and (y, z)(x, y) = (x, z). Such
categories are sometimes called posetal.
Posets are equivalent to one another if and only if they are isomorphic. In a poset, the smallest element, if it exists,
is an initial object, and the largest element, if it exists, is a terminal object. Also, every preordered set is equivalent
to a poset. Finally, every subcategory of a poset is isomorphism-closed.
34.12 Partial orders in topological spaces

Main article: Partially ordered space
If P is a partially ordered set that has also been given the structure of a topological space, then it is customary to
assume that {(a, b) : a b} is a closed subset of the topological product space P P . Under this assumption partial
order relations are well behaved at limits in the sense that if ai a , bi b and ai bi for all i, then a b.[9]
34.13 Interval
For a b, the closed interval [a,b] is the set of elements x satisfying a x b (i.e. a x and x b). It contains at
least the elements a and b.
Using the corresponding strict relation "<", the open interval (a,b) is the set of elements x satisfying a < x < b (i.e. a
< x and x < b). An open interval may be empty even if a < b. For example, the open interval (1,2) on the integers is
empty since there are no integers i such that 1 < i < 2.
Sometimes the denitions are extended to allow a > b, in which case the interval is empty.
The half-open intervals [a,b) and (a,b] are dened similarly.
A poset is locally nite if every interval is nite. For example, the integers are locally nite under their natural order-
ing. The lexicographical order on the cartesian product is not locally nite, since e.g. (1,2)(1,3)(1,4)(1,5)...(2,1).
Using the interval notation, the property "a is covered by b" can be rephrased equivalently as [a,b] = {a,b}.
This concept of an interval in a partial order should not be confused with the particular class of partial orders known
as the interval orders.
34.14 See also

antimatroid, a formalization of orderings on a set that allows more general families of orderings than posets
causal set
comparability graph
complete partial order
directed set
graded poset
incidence algebra
lattice
locally nite poset
Mbius function on posets
ordered group
poset topology, a kind of topological space that can be dened from any poset
Scott continuity continuity of a function between two partial orders.
semilattice
semiorder
stochastic dominance
strict weak ordering strict partial order "<" in which the relation neither a < b nor b < a" is transitive.
Zorns lemma
34.15 Notes
[1] Merrield, Richard E.; Simmons, Howard E. (1989). Topological Methods in Chemistry. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
p. 28. ISBN 0-471-83817-9. Retrieved 27 July 2012. A partially ordered set is conveniently represented by a Hasse
diagram...
[2] Simovici, Dan A. & Djeraba, Chabane (2008). Partially Ordered Sets. Mathematical Tools for Data Mining: Set Theory,
Partial Orders, Combinatorics. Springer. ISBN 9781848002012.
[3] Neggers, J.; Kim, Hee Sik (1998), 4.2 Product Order and Lexicographic Order, Basic Posets, World Scientic, pp. 6263,
ISBN 9789810235895
[4] Davey, B. A.; Priestley, H. A., Introduction to Lattices and Order (Second Edition), 2002, p. 17-18
[5] P. R. Halmos (1974). Naive Set Theory. Springer. p. 82. ISBN 978-1-4757-1645-0.
of Mathematics - Physics Charles University. p. 1. Lemma 1.1 (iv). Note that this source refers to asymmetric relations
as strictly antisymmetric.
[7] Davey, B. A.; Priestley, H. A. (2002). Maps between ordered sets. Introduction to Lattices and Order (2nd ed.). New
York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 2324. ISBN 0-521-78451-4. MR 1902334.
[8] Jech, Thomas (2008) [1973]. The Axiom of Choice. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-46624-8.
[9] Ward, L. E. Jr (1954). Partially Ordered Topological Spaces. Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society. 5 (1):
144161. doi:10.1090/S0002-9939-1954-0063016-5
34.16 References
Deshpande, Jayant V. (1968). On Continuity of a Partial Order. Proceedings of the American Mathematical
Society. 19 (2): 383386. doi:10.1090/S0002-9939-1968-0236071-7.
Schmidt, Gunther (2010). Relational Mathematics. Encyclopedia of Mathematics and its Applications. 132.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76268-7.
Schrder, Bernd S. W. (2003). Ordered Sets: An Introduction. Birkhuser, Boston.

Stanley, Richard P. Enumerative Combinatorics 1. Cambridge Studies in Advanced Mathematics. 49. Cam-
bridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66351-2.

A001035: Number of posets with n labeled elements in the OEIS
A000112: Number of posets with n unlabeled elements in the OEIS

Chapter 35
Preorder
This article is about binary relations. For the graph vertex ordering, see Depth-rst search. For purchase orders for
unreleased products, see Pre-order. For other uses, see Preorder (disambiguation).
Quasiorder redirects here. For irreexive transitive relations, see strict order.
In mathematics, especially in order theory, a preorder or quasiorder is a binary relation that is reexive and transitive.
Preorders are more general than equivalence relations and (non-strict) partial orders, both of which are special cases
of a preorder.
The name 'preorder' comes from the idea that preorders (that are not partial orders) are 'almost' (partial) orders,
but not quite; they're neither necessarily anti-symmetric nor symmetric. Because a preorder is a binary relation,
the symbol can be used as the notational device for the relation. However, because they are not necessarily anti-
symmetric, some of the ordinary intuition associated to the symbol may not apply. On the other hand, a preorder
can be used, in a straightforward fashion, to dene a partial order and an equivalence relation. Doing so, however, is
not always useful or worthwhile, depending on the problem domain being studied.
In words, when a b, one may say that b covers a or that a precedes b, or that b reduces to a. Occasionally, the
notation or is used instead of .
To every preorder, there corresponds a directed graph, with elements of the set corresponding to vertices, and the
order relation between pairs of elements corresponding to the directed edges between vertices. The converse is not
true: most directed graphs are neither reexive nor transitive. In general, the corresponding graphs may contain cycles.
A preorder that is antisymmetric no longer has cycles; it is a partial order, and corresponds to a directed acyclic graph.
A preorder that is symmetric is an equivalence relation; it can be thought of as having lost the direction markers on the
edges of the graph. In general, a preorders corresponding directed graph may have many disconnected components.

Consider some set P and a binary relation on P. Then is a preorder, or quasiorder, if it is reexive and transitive,
i.e., for all a, b and c in P, we have that:
a a (reexivity)
if a b and b c then a c (transitivity)
A set that is equipped with a preorder is called a preordered set (or proset).[1]
If a preorder is also antisymmetric, that is, a b and b a implies a = b, then it is a partial order.
On the other hand, if it is symmetric, that is, if a b implies b a, then it is an equivalence relation.
Equivalently, the notion of a preordered set P can be formulated in a categorical framework as a thin category, i.e.
as a category with at most one morphism from an object to another. Here the objects correspond to the elements
of P, and there is one morphism for objects which are related, zero otherwise. Alternately, a preordered set can be
understood as an enriched category, enriched over the category 2 = (01).
162
35.2. EXAMPLES 163
A preordered class is a class equipped with a preorder. Every set is a class and so every preordered set is a preordered
class.
35.2 Examples
The reachability relationship in any directed graph (possibly containing cycles) gives rise to a preorder, where
x y in the preorder if and only if there is a path from x to y in the directed graph. Conversely, every preorder
is the reachability relationship of a directed graph (for instance, the graph that has an edge from x to y for every
pair (x, y) with x y). However, many dierent graphs may have the same reachability preorder as each other.
In the same way, reachability of directed acyclic graphs, directed graphs with no cycles, gives rise to partially
ordered sets (preorders satisfying an additional anti-symmetry property).
Every nite topological space gives rise to a preorder on its points by dening x y if and only if x belongs to
every neighborhood of y. Every nite preorder can be formed as the specialization preorder of a topological
space in this way. That is, there is a one-to-one correspondence between nite topologies and nite preorders.
However, the relation between innite topological spaces and their specialization preorders is not one-to-one.
A net is a directed preorder, that is, each pair of elements has an upper bound. The denition of convergence
via nets is important in topology, where preorders cannot be replaced by partially ordered sets without losing
important features.
The relation dened by x y if f (x) f (y) , where f is a function into some preorder.
The relation dened by x y if there exists some injection from x to y. Injection may be replaced by surjection,
or any type of structure-preserving function, such as ring homomorphism, or permutation.
The embedding relation for countable total orderings.
The graph-minor relation in graph theory.
A category with at most one morphism from any object x to any other object y is a preorder. Such categories
are called thin. In this sense, categories generalize preorders by allowing more than one relation between
objects: each morphism is a distinct (named) preorder relation.
In computer science, one can nd examples of the following preorders.
Many-one and Turing reductions are preorders on complexity classes.

The subtyping relations are usually preorders.
Simulation preorders are preorders (hence the name).
Reduction relations in abstract rewriting systems.
The encompassment preorder on the set of terms, dened by st if a subterm of t is a substitution instance of
s.
Example of a total preorder:
Preference, according to common models.
35.3 Uses
Preorders play a pivotal role in several situations:
Every preorder can be given a topology, the Alexandrov topology; and indeed, every preorder on a set is in
one-to-one correspondence with an Alexandrov topology on that set.
Preorders may be used to dene interior algebras.
Preorders provide the Kripke semantics for certain types of modal logic.
164 CHAPTER 35. PREORDER
35.4 Constructions
Every binary relation R on a set S can be extended to a preorder on S by taking the transitive closure and reexive
closure, R+= . The transitive closure indicates path connection in R: x R+ y if and only if there is an R-path from x to
y.
Given a preorder on S one may dene an equivalence relation ~ on S such that a ~ b if and only if a b and b
a. (The resulting relation is reexive since a preorder is reexive, transitive by applying transitivity of the preorder
twice, and symmetric by denition.)
Using this relation, it is possible to construct a partial order on the quotient set of the equivalence, S / ~, the set of
all equivalence classes of ~. Note that if the preorder is R+= , S / ~ is the set of R-cycle equivalence classes: x [y]
if and only if x = y or x is in an R-cycle with y. In any case, on S / ~ we can dene [x] [y] if and only if x y.
By the construction of ~, this denition is independent of the chosen representatives and the corresponding relation
is indeed well-dened. It is readily veried that this yields a partially ordered set.
Conversely, from a partial order on a partition of a set S one can construct a preorder on S. There is a 1-to-1 corre-
spondence between preorders and pairs (partition, partial order).
For a preorder " ", a relation "<" can be dened as a < b if and only if (a b and not b a), or equivalently, using
the equivalence relation introduced above, (a b and not a ~ b). It is a strict partial order; every strict partial order
can be the result of such a construction. If the preorder is anti-symmetric, hence a partial order "", the equivalence
is equality, so the relation "<" can also be dened as a < b if and only if (a b and a b).
(We do not dene the relation "<" as a < b if and only if (a b and a b). Doing so would cause problems if
the preorder was not anti-symmetric, as the resulting relation "<" would not be transitive (think of how equivalent
non-equal elements relate).)
Conversely we have a b if and only if a < b or a ~ b. This is the reason for using the notation " "; "" can be
confusing for a preorder that is not anti-symmetric, it may suggest that a b implies that a < b or a = b.
Note that with this construction multiple preorders " " can give the same relation "<", so without more information,
such as the equivalence relation, " " cannot be reconstructed from "<". Possible preorders include the following:
Dene a b as a < b or a = b (i.e., take the reexive closure of the relation). This gives the partial order
associated with the strict partial order "<" through reexive closure; in this case the equivalence is equality, so
we don't need the notations and ~.
Dene a b as not b < a" (i.e., take the inverse complement of the relation), which corresponds to dening a
~ b as neither a < b nor b < a"; these relations and ~ are in general not transitive; however, if they are, ~ is
an equivalence; in that case "<" is a strict weak order. The resulting preorder is total, that is, a total preorder.
35.5 Number of preorders

As explained above, there is a 1-to-1 correspondence between preorders and pairs (partition, partial order). Thus the
number of preorders is the sum of the number of partial orders on every partition. For example:
for n=3:
1 partition of 3, giving 1 preorder
3 partitions of 2+1, giving 3 3 = 9 preorders
1 partition of 1+1+1, giving 19 preorders
i.e. together 29 preorders.
for n=4:
1 partition of 4, giving 1 preorder
7 partitions with two classes (4 of 3+1 and 3 of 2+2), giving 7 3 = 21 preorders
6 partitions of 2+1+1, giving 6 19 = 114 preorders
35.6. INTERVAL 165
1 partition of 1+1+1+1, giving 219 preorders
i.e. together 355 preorders.
35.6 Interval
For a b, the interval [a,b] is the set of points x satisfying a x and x b, also written a x b. It contains at
least the points a and b. One may choose to extend the denition to all pairs (a,b). The extra intervals are all empty.
Using the corresponding strict relation "<", one can also dene the interval (a,b) as the set of points x satisfying a <
x and x < b, also written a < x < b. An open interval may be empty even if a < b.
Also [a,b) and (a,b] can be dened similarly.
35.7 See also

Partial order preorder that is antisymmetric
Equivalence relation preorder that is symmetric
Total preorder preorder that is total

Total order preorder that is antisymmetric and total
Directed set
Category of preordered sets
Prewellordering
Well-quasi-ordering
35.8 Notes
[1] For proset, see e.g. Eklund, Patrik; Ghler, Werner (1990), Generalized Cauchy spaces, Mathematische Nachrichten,
147: 219233, MR 1127325, doi:10.1002/mana.19901470123.
35.9 References
Schmidt, Gunther, Relational Mathematics, Encyclopedia of Mathematics and its Applications, vol. 132,
Cambridge University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-76268-7
Schrder, Bernd S. W. (2002), Ordered Sets: An Introduction, Boston: Birkhuser, ISBN 0-8176-4128-9
Chapter 36
Prewellordering
In set theory, a prewellordering is a binary relation that is transitive, total, and wellfounded (more precisely, the
relation x y y x is wellfounded). In other words, if is a prewellordering on a set X , and if we dene by
x y x y y x
then is an equivalence relation on X , and induces a wellordering on the quotient X/ . The order-type of this
induced wellordering is an ordinal, referred to as the length of the prewellordering.
A norm on a set X is a map from X into the ordinals. Every norm induces a prewellordering; if : X Ord is a
norm, the associated prewellordering is given by
x y (x) (y)
Conversely, every prewellordering is induced by a unique regular norm (a norm : X Ord is regular if, for any
x X and any < (x) , there is y X such that (y) = ).
36.1 Prewellordering property

If is a pointclass of subsets of some collection F of Polish spaces, F closed under Cartesian product, and if is a
prewellordering of some subset P of some element X of F , then is said to be a -prewellordering of P if the
relations < and are elements of , where for x, y X ,
1. x < y x P [y
/ P {x y y x}]
2. x y x P [y
/ P x y]
is said to have the prewellordering property if every set in admits a -prewellordering.

The prewellordering property is related to the stronger scale property; in practice, many pointclasses having the
prewellordering property also have the scale property, which allows drawing stronger conclusions.
36.1.1 Examples
11 and 12 both have the prewellordering property; this is provable in ZFC alone. Assuming sucient large cardinals,
for every n , 12n+1 and 12n+2 have the prewellordering property.
36.1.2 Consequences
166
36.2. SEE ALSO 167
Reduction
If is an adequate pointclass with the prewellordering property, then it also has the reduction property: For any
space X F and any sets A, B X , A and B both in , the union A B may be partitioned into sets A , B ,
both in , such that A A and B B .
Separation
If is an adequate pointclass whose dual pointclass has the prewellordering property, then has the separation
property: For any space X F and any sets A, B X , A and B disjoint sets both in , there is a set C X
such that both C and its complement X \ C are in , with A C and B C = .
For example, 11 has the prewellordering property, so 11 has the separation property. This means that if A and B
are disjoint analytic subsets of some Polish space X , then there is a Borel subset C of X such that C includes A and
is disjoint from B .
36.2 See also

Descriptive set theory
Scale property
Graded poset a graded poset is analogous to a prewellordering with a norm, replacing a map to the ordinals
with a map to the integers
36.3 References
Moschovakis, Yiannis N. (1980). Descriptive Set Theory. North Holland. ISBN 0-444-70199-0.
Chapter 37
Propositional function
A propositional function in logic, is a sentence expressed in a way that would assume the value of true or false, except
that within the sentence is a variable (x) that is not dened or specied, which leaves the statement undetermined.
Of course, the sentence can consist of several such variables (e.g. n variables, in which case the function takes n
arguments). As a mathematical function, A(x) or A(x1 , x2 , , xn), the propositional function is abstracted from
predicates or propositional forms. As an example, lets imagine the predicate, x is hot. The substitution of any
entity for x will produce a specic proposition that can be described as either true or false, even though "x is hot on
its own has no value as either a true or false statement. However, when you assign x a value, such as lava, the function
then has the value true; while if you assign x a value like ice, the function then has the value false.
Propositional functions are useful in set theory for the formation of sets. For example, in 1903 Bertrand Russell wrote
in The Principles of Mathematics (page 106):
"...it has become necessary to take propositional function as a primitive notion.
Later Russell examined the problem of whether propositional functions were predicative or not, and he proposed two
theories to try to get at this question: the zig-zag theory and the ramied theory of types.[1]
A Propositional Function, or a predicate, in a variable x is a sentence p(x) involving x that becomes a proposition
when we give x a denite value from the set of values it can take.
37.1 See also

Predicate (mathematical logic)
Boolean-valued function
Formula (logic)
Sentence (logic)
Open sentence
37.2 References
[1] Tiles, Mary (2004). The philosophy of set theory an historical introduction to Cantors paradise (Dover ed.). Mineola, N.Y.:
Dover Publications. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-486-43520-6. Retrieved 1 February 2013.
168
Chapter 38
Quasi-commutative property
In mathematics, the quasi-commutative property is an extension or generalization of the general commutative

property. This property is used in specic applications with various denitions.
38.1 Applied to matrices

Two matrices p and q are said to have the commutative property whenever
pq = qp
The quasi-commutative property in matrices is dened[1] as follows. Given two non-commutable matrices x and y
xy yx = z
satisfy the quasi-commutative property whenever z satises the following properties:
xz = zx
yz = zy
An example is found in the matrix mechanics introduced by Heisenberg as a version of quantum mechanics. In this
mechanics, p and q are innite matrices corresponding respectively to the momentum and position variables of a
particle.[1] These matrices are written out at Matrix mechanics#Harmonic oscillator, and z = i times the innite unit
matrix, where is the reduced Planck constant.
38.2 Applied to functions

A function f, dened as follows:
f :X Y X
is said to be quasi-commutative[2] if for all x X and for all y1 , y2 Y ,
f (f (x, y1 ), y2 ) = f (f (x, y2 ), y1 )
169
170 CHAPTER 38. QUASI-COMMUTATIVE PROPERTY
38.3 See also

Commutative property
Accumulator (cryptography)
38.4 References
[1] Neal H. McCoy. On quasi-commutative matrices. Transactions of the American Mathematical Society, 36(2), 327340.
[2] Benaloh, J., & De Mare, M. (1994, January). One-way accumulators: A decentralized alternative to digital signatures. In
Advances in CryptologyEUROCRYPT93 (pp. 274285). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
Chapter 39
Quasitransitive relation
Quasitransitivity is a weakened version of transitivity that is used in social choice theory or microeconomics. In-
formally, a relation is quasitransitive if it is symmetric for some values and transitive elsewhere. The concept was
introduced by Sen (1969) to study the consequences of Arrows theorem.

A binary relation T over a set X is quasitransitive if for all a, b, and c in X the following holds:
(a T b) (b T a) (b T c) (c T b) (a T c) (c T a).
If the relation is also antisymmetric, T is transitive.

Alternately, for a relation T, dene the asymmetric or strict part P:
(a P b) (a T b) (b T a).
Then T is quasitransitive i P is transitive.
39.2 Examples
Preferences are assumed to be quasitransitive (rather than transitive) in some economic contexts. The classic example
is a person indierent between 10 and 11 grams of sugar and indierent between 11 and 12 grams of sugar, but who
prefers 12 grams of sugar to 10. Similarly, the Sorites paradox can be resolved by weakening assumed transitivity of
certain relations to quasitransitivity.
39.3 Properties
Every transitive relation is quasitransitive; every quasitransitive relation is an acyclic relation. In each case the
converse does not hold in general.
39.4 See also

Intransitivity
Reexive relation
171
172 CHAPTER 39. QUASITRANSITIVE RELATION
39.5 References
Bossert, Walter; Suzumura, Ktar (2010). Consistency, choice and rationality. Harvard University Press.
ISBN 0674052994.
Sen, A. (1969). Quasi-transitivity, rational choice and collective decisions. Rev. Econ. Stud. 36: 381393.
Zbl 0181.47302. doi:10.2307/2296434.
Chapter 40
Quotient by an equivalence relation
This article is about a generalization to category theory, used in scheme theory. For the common meaning, see
Equivalence class.
In mathematics, given a category C, a quotient of an object X by an equivalence relation f : R X X is a

coequalizer for the pair of maps
f pr
RX X X,
i
i = 1, 2,
where R is an object in C and "f is an equivalence relation means that, for any object T in C, the image (which is
a set) of f : R(T ) = Mor(T, R) X(T ) X(T ) is an equivalence relation; that is, (x, y) is in it if and only if
(y, x) is in it, etc.
The basic case in practice is when C is the category of all schemes over some scheme S. But the notion is exible and
one can also take C to be the category of sheaves.
40.1 Examples
Let X be a set and consider some equivalence relation on it. Let Q be the set of all equivalence classes in X.
Then the map q : X Q that sends an element x to an equivalence class to which x belong is a quotient.
In the above example, Q is a subset of the power set H of X. In algebraic geometry, one might replace H
by a Hilbert scheme or disjoint union of Hilbert schemes. In fact, Grothendieck constructed a relative Picard
scheme of a at projective scheme X[1] as a quotient Q (of the scheme Z parametrizing relative eective divisors
on X) that is a closed scheme of a Hilbert scheme H. The quotient map q : Z Q can then be thought of as
a relative version of the Abel map.
40.2 See also
categorical quotient, a special case
40.3 Notes
[1] One also needs to assume the geometric bers are integral schemes; Mumfords example shows the integral cannot be
omitted.
173
174 CHAPTER 40. QUOTIENT BY AN EQUIVALENCE RELATION
40.4 References
Nitsure, N. Construction of Hilbert and Quot schemes. Fundamental algebraic geometry: Grothendiecks FGA
explained, Mathematical Surveys and Monographs 123, American Mathematical Society 2005, 105137.
Chapter 41
Reduct
This article is about a relation on algebraic structures. For reducts in abstract rewriting, see Conuence (abstract
rewriting).
In universal algebra and in model theory, a reduct of an algebraic structure is obtained by omitting some of the
operations and relations of that structure. The converse of reduct is expansion.
41.1 Denition
Let A be an algebraic structure (in the sense of universal algebra) or equivalently a structure in the sense of model
theory, organized as a set X together with an indexed family of operations and relations on that set, with index set
I. Then the reduct of A dened by a subset J of I is the structure consisting of the set X and J-indexed family of
operations and relations whose j-th operation or relation for jJ is the j-th operation or relation of A. That is, this
reduct is the structure A with the omission of those operations and relations i for which i is not in J.
A structure A is an expansion of B just when B is a reduct of A. That is, reduct and expansion are mutual converses.
41.2 Examples
The monoid (Z, +, 0) of integers under addition is a reduct of the group (Z, +, , 0) of integers under addition and
negation, obtained by omitting negation. By contrast, the monoid (N,+,0) of natural numbers under addition is not
the reduct of any group.
Conversely the group (Z, +, , 0) is the expansion of the monoid (Z, +, 0), expanding it with the operation of negation.
41.3 References
Burris, Stanley N.; H. P. Sankappanavar (1981). A Course in Universal Algebra. Springer. ISBN 3-540-90578-
2.
Hodges, Wilfrid (1993). Model theory. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30442-3.
175
Chapter 42
Reexive relation
In mathematics, a binary relation R over a set X is reexive if every element of X is related to itself.[1][2] Formally,
this may be written x X : x R x.
An example of a reexive relation is the relation "is equal to" on the set of real numbers, since every real number is
equal to itself. A reexive relation is said to have the reexive property or is said to possess reexivity. Along with
symmetry and transitivity, reexivity is one of three properties dening equivalence relations.
42.1 Related terms
A relation that is irreexive, or anti-reexive, is a binary relation on a set where no element is related to itself. An
example is the greater than relation (x > y) on the real numbers. Note that not every relation which is not reexive
is irreexive; it is possible to dene relations where some elements are related to themselves but others are not (i.e.,
neither all nor none are). For example, the binary relation the product of x and y is even is reexive on the set of
even numbers, irreexive on the set of odd numbers, and neither reexive nor irreexive on the set of natural numbers.
A relation ~ on a set S is called quasi-reexive if every element that is related to some element is also related to
itself, formally: x, y S : x ~ y (x ~ x y ~ y). An example is the relation has the same limit as on the set of
sequences of real numbers: not every sequence has a limit, and thus the relation is not reexive, but if a sequence has
the same limit as some sequence, then it has the same limit as itself.
The reexive closure of a binary relation ~ on a set S is the smallest reexive relation on S that is a superset of ~.
Equivalently, it is the union of ~ and the identity relation on S, formally: () = (~) (=). For example, the reexive
closure of x < y is x y.
The reexive reduction, or irreexive kernel, of a binary relation ~ on a set S is the smallest relation such that
shares the same reexive closure as ~. It can be seen in a way as the opposite of the reexive closure. It is equivalent
to the complement of the identity relation on S with regard to ~, formally: () = (~) \ (=). That is, it is equivalent to
~ except for where x~x is true. For example, the reexive reduction of x y is x < y.
176
42.2. EXAMPLES 177
42.2 Examples
Examples of reexive relations include:
is equal to (equality)
is a subset of (set inclusion)
divides (divisibility)
is greater than or equal to
is less than or equal to
Examples of irreexive relations include:
is not equal to
is coprime to (for the integers>1, since 1 is coprime to itself)
is a proper subset of
is greater than
is less than
42.3 Number of reexive relations

2
The number of reexive relations on an n-element set is 2n n [3]
.
42.4 Philosophical logic

Authors in philosophical logic often use dierent terminology. Reexive relations in the mathematical sense are
called totally reexive in philosophical logic, and quasi-reexive relations are called reexive.[4][5]
42.5 See also

178 CHAPTER 42. REFLEXIVE RELATION
42.6 Notes
[1] Levy 1979:74
[2] Relational Mathematics, 2010
[3] On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences A053763
[4] Alan Hausman; Howard Kahane; Paul Tidman (2013). Logic and Philosophy A Modern Introduction. Wadsworth. ISBN
1-133-05000-X. Here: p.327-328
[5] D.S. Clarke; Richard Behling (1998). Deductive Logic An Introduction to Evaluation Techniques and Logical Theory.
University Press of America. ISBN 0-7618-0922-8. Here: p.187
42.7 References
Levy, A. (1979) Basic Set Theory, Perspectives in Mathematical Logic, Springer-Verlag. Reprinted 2002,
Dover. ISBN 0-486-42079-5
Lidl, R. and Pilz, G. (1998). Applied abstract algebra, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics, Springer-Verlag.
ISBN 0-387-98290-6
Quine, W. V. (1951). Mathematical Logic, Revised Edition. Reprinted 2003, Harvard University Press. ISBN
0-674-55451-5
42.8 External links

Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001) [1994], Reexivity, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Science+Business
Chapter 43
Relation algebra
Not to be confused with relational algebra, a framework for nitary relations and relational databases.
In mathematics and abstract algebra, a relation algebra is a residuated Boolean algebra expanded with an involution
called converse, a unary operation. The motivating example of a relation algebra is the algebra 2X of all binary
relations on a set X, that is, subsets of the cartesian square X2 , with RS interpreted as the usual composition of
binary relations R and S, and with the converse of R interpreted as the inverse relation.
Relation algebra emerged in the 19th-century work of Augustus De Morgan and Charles Peirce, which culminated
in the algebraic logic of Ernst Schrder. The equational form of relation algebra treated here was developed by
Alfred Tarski and his students, starting in the 1940s. Tarski and Givant (1987) applied relation algebra to a variable-
free treatment of axiomatic set theory, with the implication that mathematics founded on set theory could itself be
conducted without variables.
43.1 Denition
A relation algebra (L, , , , 0, 1, , I, ) is an algebraic structure equipped with the Boolean operations of conjunc-
tion xy, disjunction xy, and negation x , the Boolean constants 0 and 1, the relational operations of composition
xy and converse x, and the relational constant I, such that these operations and constants satisfy certain equations
constituting an axiomatization of relation algebras. Roughly, a relation algebra is to a system of binary relations on a
set containing the empty (0), complete (1), and identity (I) relations and closed under these ve operations as a group
is to a system of permutations of a set containing the identity permutation and closed under composition and inverse.
However, the rst order theory of relation algebras is not complete for such systems of binary relations.
Following Jnsson and Tsinakis (1993) it is convenient to dene additional operations xy = xy, and, dually, xy
= xy . Jnsson and Tsinakis showed that Ix = xI, and that both were equal to x. Hence a relation algebra can
equally well be dened as an algebraic structure (L, , , , 0, 1, , I, , ). The advantage of this signature over
the usual one is that a relation algebra can then be dened in full simply as a residuated Boolean algebra for which
Ix is an involution, that is, I(Ix) = x . The latter condition can be thought of as the relational counterpart of the
equation 1/(1/x) = x for ordinary arithmetic reciprocal, and some authors use reciprocal as a synonym for converse.
Since residuated Boolean algebras are axiomatized with nitely many identities, so are relation algebras. Hence the
latter form a variety, the variety RA of relation algebras. Expanding the above denition as equations yields the
following nite axiomatization.
43.1.1 Axioms
The axioms B1-B10 below are adapted from Givant (2006: 283), and were rst set out by Tarski in 1948.[1]
L is a Boolean algebra under binary disjunction, , and unary complementation () :
B1: A B = B A
B2: A (B C) = (A B) C
179
180 CHAPTER 43. RELATION ALGEBRA
B3: (A B) (A B ) = A
This axiomatization of Boolean algebra is due to Huntington (1933). Note that the meet of the implied Boolean
algebra is not the operator (even though it distributes over like a meet does), nor is the 1 of the Boolean algebra
the I constant.
L is a monoid under binary composition () and nullary identity I:
B4: A(BC) = (AB)C

B5: AI = A
Unary converse () is an involution with respect to composition:
B6: A = A
B7: (AB) = BA
Axiom B6 denes conversion as an involution, whereas B7 expresses the antidistributive property of conversion
relative to composition.[2]
Converse and composition distribute over disjunction:
B8: (AB) = AB
B9: (AB)C = (AC)(BC)
B10 is Tarskis equational form of the fact, discovered by Augustus De Morgan, that AB C AC B CB
A .
B10: (A(AB) )B = B
These axioms are ZFC theorems; for the purely Boolean B1-B3, this fact is trivial. After each of the following axioms
is shown the number of the corresponding theorem in Chapter 3 of Suppes (1960), an exposition of ZFC: B4 27, B5
45, B6 14, B7 26, B8 16, B9 23.
43.2 Expressing properties of binary relations in RA

The following table shows how many of the usual properties of binary relations can be expressed as succinct RA
equalities or inequalities. Below, an inequality of the form AB is shorthand for the Boolean equation AB = B.
The most complete set of results of this nature is Chapter C of Carnap (1958), where the notation is rather distant
from that of this entry. Chapter 3.2 of Suppes (1960) contains fewer results, presented as ZFC theorems and using a
notation that more resembles that of this entry. Neither Carnap nor Suppes formulated their results using the RA of
this entry, or in an equational manner.
43.3 Expressive power

The metamathematics of RA are discussed at length in Tarski and Givant (1987), and more briey in Givant (2006).
RA consists entirely of equations manipulated using nothing more than uniform replacement and the substitution of
equals for equals. Both rules are wholly familiar from school mathematics and from abstract algebra generally. Hence
RA proofs are carried out in a manner familiar to all mathematicians, unlike the case in mathematical logic generally.
RA can express any (and up to logical equivalence, exactly the) rst-order logic (FOL) formulas containing no more
than three variables. (A given variable can be quantied multiple times and hence quantiers can be nested arbitrarily
deeply by reusing variables.) Surprisingly, this fragment of FOL suces to express Peano arithmetic and almost
all axiomatic set theories ever proposed. Hence RA is, in eect, a way of algebraizing nearly all mathematics,
43.4. EXAMPLES 181
while dispensing with FOL and its connectives, quantiers, turnstiles, and modus ponens. Because RA can express
Peano arithmetic and set theory, Gdels incompleteness theorems apply to it; RA is incomplete, incompletable, and
undecidable. (N.B. The Boolean algebra fragment of RA is complete and decidable.)
The representable relation algebras, forming the class RRA, are those relation algebras isomorphic to some re-
lation algebra consisting of binary relations on some set, and closed under the intended interpretation of the RA
operations. It is easily shown, e.g. using the method of pseudoelementary classes, that RRA is a quasivariety, that
is, axiomatizable by a universal Horn theory. In 1950, Roger Lyndon proved the existence of equations holding in
RRA that did not hold in RA. Hence the variety generated by RRA is a proper subvariety of the variety RA. In
1955, Alfred Tarski showed that RRA is itself a variety. In 1964, Donald Monk showed that RRA has no nite
axiomatization, unlike RA, which is nitely axiomatized by denition.
43.3.1 Q-Relation Algebras

An RA is a Q-Relation Algebra (QRA) if, in addition to B1-B10, there exist some A and B such that (Tarski and
Givant 1987: 8.4):
Q0: AA I
Q1: BB I
Q2: AB = 1
Essentially these axioms imply that the universe has a (non-surjective) pairing relation whose projections are A and
B. It is a theorem that every QRA is a RRA (Proof by Maddux, see Tarski & Givant 1987: 8.4(iii) ).
Every QRA is representable (Tarski and Givant 1987). That not every relation algebra is representable is a fun-
damental way RA diers from QRA and Boolean algebras, which, by Stones representation theorem for Boolean
algebras, are always representable as sets of subsets of some set, closed under union, intersection, and complement.
43.4 Examples
1. Any Boolean algebra can be turned into a RA by interpreting conjunction as composition (the monoid multipli-
cation ), i.e. xy is dened as xy. This interpretation requires that converse interpret identity ( = y), and that both
residuals y\x and x/y interpret the conditional yx (i.e., yx).
2. The motivating example of a relation algebra depends on the denition of a binary relation R on a set X as any
subset R X, where X is the Cartesian square of X. The power set 2X consisting of all binary relations on X is
a Boolean algebra. While 2X can be made a relation algebra by taking RS = RS, as per example (1) above, the
standard interpretation of is instead x(RS)z = y:xRy.ySz. That is, the ordered pair (x,z) belongs to the relation RS
just when there exists y X such that (x,y) R and (y,z) S. This interpretation uniquely determines R\S as consisting
of all pairs (y,z) such that for all x X, if xRy then xSz. Dually, S/R consists of all pairs (x,y) such that for all z X,
if yRz then xSz. The translation = (y\I) then establishes the converse R of R as consisting of all pairs (y,x) such
that (x,y) R.
3. An important generalization of the previous example is the power set 2E where E X is any equivalence relation on
the set X. This is a generalization because X is itself an equivalence relation, namely the complete relation consisting
of all pairs. While 2E is not a subalgebra of 2X when E X (since in that case it does not contain the relation X,
the top element 1 being E instead of X), it is nevertheless turned into a relation algebra using the same denitions
of the operations. Its importance resides in the denition of a representable relation algebra as any relation algebra
isomorphic to a subalgebra of the relation algebra 2E for some equivalence relation E on some set. The previous
section says more about the relevant metamathematics.
4. Let G be group. Then the power set 2G is a relation algebra with the obvious boolean algebra operations, com-
position given by the product of group subsets, the converse by the inverse subset ( A1 = {a1 | a A} ), and
the identity by the singleton subset {e} . There is a relation algebra homomorphism embedding 2G in 2GG which
sends each subset A G to the relation RA = {(g, h) G G | h Ag} . The image of this homomorphism is
the set of all right-invariant relations on G .
5. If group sum or product interprets composition, group inverse interprets converse, group identity interprets I, and
if R is a one-to-one correspondence, so that RR = RR = I,[3] then L is a group as well as a monoid. B4-B7 become
182 CHAPTER 43. RELATION ALGEBRA
well-known theorems of group theory, so that RA becomes a proper extension of group theory as well as of Boolean
algebra.
43.5 Historical remarks

DeMorgan founded RA in 1860, but C. S. Peirce took it much further and became fascinated with its philosophical
power. The work of DeMorgan and Peirce came to be known mainly in the extended and denitive form Ernst
Schrder gave it in Vol. 3 of his Vorlesungen (18901905). Principia Mathematica drew strongly on Schrders RA,
but acknowledged him only as the inventor of the notation. In 1912, Alwin Korselt proved that a particular formula
in which the quantiers were nested four deep had no RA equivalent.[4] This fact led to a loss of interest in RA until
Tarski (1941) began writing about it. His students have continued to develop RA down to the present day. Tarski
returned to RA in the 1970s with the help of Steven Givant; this collaboration resulted in the monograph by Tarski
and Givant (1987), the denitive reference for this subject. For more on the history of RA, see Maddux (1991, 2006).
43.6 Software
RelMICS / Relational Methods in Computer Science maintained by Wolfram Kahl
Carsten Sinz: ARA / An Automatic Theorem Prover for Relation Algebras
43.7 See also
43.8 Footnotes
[1] Alfred Tarski (1948) Abstract: Representation Problems for Relation Algebras, Bulletin of the AMS 54: 80.
[2] Chris Brink; Wolfram Kahl; Gunther Schmidt (1997). Relational Methods in Computer Science. Springer. pp. 4 and 8.
ISBN 978-3-211-82971-4.
[3] Tarski, A. (1941), p. 87.
[4] Korselt did not publish his nding. It was rst published in Leopold Loewenheim (1915) "ber Mglichkeiten im Rela-
tivkalkl, Mathematische Annalen 76: 447470. Translated as On possibilities in the calculus of relatives in Jean van
Heijenoort, 1967. A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 18791931. Harvard Univ. Press: 228251.
43.9 References
Rudolf Carnap (1958) Introduction to Symbolic Logic and its Applications. Dover Publications.
Givant, Steven (2006). The calculus of relations as a foundation for mathematics. Journal of Automated
Reasoning. 37: 277322. doi:10.1007/s10817-006-9062-x.
Halmos, P. R., 1960. Naive Set Theory. Van Nostrand.
Leon Henkin, Alfred Tarski, and Monk, J. D., 1971. Cylindric Algebras, Part 1, and 1985, Part 2. North
Holland.
Hirsch R., and Hodkinson, I., 2002, Relation Algebra by Games, vol. 147 in Studies in Logic and the Foundations
of Mathematics. Elsevier Science.
Jnsson, Bjarni; Tsinakis, Constantine (1993). Relation algebras as residuated Boolean algebras. Algebra
Universalis. 30: 46978. doi:10.1007/BF01195378.
Maddux, Roger (1991). The Origin of Relation Algebras in the Development and Axiomatization of the
Calculus of Relations (PDF). Studia Logica. 50 (34): 421455. doi:10.1007/BF00370681.
--------, 2006. Relation Algebras, vol. 150 in Studies in Logic and the Foundations of Mathematics. Elsevier
Science.
Patrick Suppes, 1960. Axiomatic Set Theory. Van Nostrand. Dover reprint, 1972. Chapter 3.
Gunther Schmidt, 2010. Relational Mathematics. Cambridge University Press.

Tarski, Alfred (1941). On the calculus of relations. Journal of Symbolic Logic. 6: 7389. JSTOR 2268577.
doi:10.2307/2268577.
------, and Givant, Steven, 1987. A Formalization of Set Theory without Variables. Providence RI: American
Mathematical Society.

Yohji AKAMA, Yasuo Kawahara, and Hitoshi Furusawa, "Constructing Allegory from Relation Algebra and
Representation Theorems."
Richard Bird, Oege de Moor, Paul Hoogendijk, "Generic Programming with Relations and Functors."
R.P. de Freitas and Viana, "A Completeness Result for Relation Algebra with Binders."
Peter Jipsen:
Relation algebras. In Mathematical structures. If there are problems with LaTeX, see an old HTML
version here.
"Foundations of Relations and Kleene Algebra."
"Computer Aided Investigations of Relation Algebras."
"A Gentzen System And Decidability For Residuated Lattices.
Vaughan Pratt:
"Origins of the Calculus of Binary Relations." A historical treatment.

"The Second Calculus of Binary Relations."
Priss, Uta:
"An FCA interpretation of Relation Algebra."

"Relation Algebra and FCA" Links to publications and software
Kahl, Wolfram, and Schmidt, Gunther, "Exploring (Finite) Relation Algebras Using Tools Written in Haskell."
See homepage of the whole project.
Chapter 44
Relation construction
In logic and mathematics, relation construction and relational constructibility have to do with the ways that one
relation is determined by an indexed family or a sequence of other relations, called the relation dataset. The relation
in the focus of consideration is called the faciendum. The relation dataset typically consists of a specied relation
over sets of relations, called the constructor, the factor, or the method of construction, plus a specied set of other
relations, called the faciens, the ingredients, or the makings.
Relation composition and relation reduction are special cases of relation constructions.
44.1 See also

Projection
Relation
Relation composition
Relation reduction
184
Chapter 45
Representation (mathematics)
In mathematics, representation is a very general relationship that expresses similarities between objects. Roughly
speaking, a collection Y of mathematical objects may be said to represent another collection X of objects, provided
that the properties and relationships existing among the representing objects yi conform in some consistent way to
those existing among the corresponding represented objects xi. Somewhat more formally, for a set of properties
and relations, a -representation of some structure X is a structure Y that is the image of X under a s homomorphism
that preserves . The label representation is sometimes also applied to the homomorphism itself.
45.1 Representation theory

Perhaps the most well-developed example of this general notion is the subeld of abstract algebra called representation
theory, which studies the representing of elements of algebraic structures by linear transformations of vector spaces.
45.2 Other examples

Although the term representation theory is well established in the algebraic sense discussed above, there are many
other uses of the term representation throughout mathematics.
45.2.1 Graph theory

An active area of graph theory is the exploration of isomorphisms between graphs and other structures. A key
class of such problems stems from the fact that, like adjacency in undirected graphs, intersection of sets (or, more
precisely, non-disjointness) is a symmetric relation. This gives rise to the study of intersection graphs for innumerable
families of sets.[1] One foundational result here, due to Paul Erds and colleagues, is that every n-vertex graph may
be represented in terms of intersection among subsets of a set of size no more than n2 /4.[2]
Representing a graph by such algebraic structures as its adjacency matrix and Laplacian matrix gives rise to the eld
of spectral graph theory.[3]
45.2.2 Order theory

Dual to the observation above that every graph is an intersection graph is the fact that every partially ordered set is
isomorphic to a collection of sets ordered by the containment (or inclusion) relation . Among the posets that arise
as the containment orders for natural classes of objects are the Boolean lattices and the orders of dimension n.[4]
Many partial orders arise from (and thus can be represented by) collections of geometric objects. Among them are
the n-ball orders. The 1-ball orders are the interval-containment orders, and the 2-ball orders are the so-called circle
orders, the posets representable in terms of containment among disks in the plane. A particularly nice result in this
eld is the characterization of the planar graphs as those graphs whose vertex-edge incidence relations are circle
orders.[5]
185
186 CHAPTER 45. REPRESENTATION (MATHEMATICS)
There are also geometric representations that are not based on containment. Indeed, one of the best studied classes
among these are the interval orders,[6] which represent the partial order in terms of what might be called disjoint
precedence of intervals on the real line: each element x of the poset is represented by an interval [x1 , x2 ] such that for
any y and z in the poset, y is below z if and only if y2 < z1 .
45.2.3 Polysemy
Under certain circumstances, a single function f:X Y is at once an isomorphism from several mathematical struc-
tures on X. Since each of those structures may be thought of, intuitively, as a meaning of the image Yone of the
things that Y is trying to tell usthis phenomenon is called polysemy, a term borrowed from linguistics. Examples
include:
intersection polysemypairs of graphs G1 and G2 on a common vertex set V that can be simultaneously
represented by a single collection of sets Sv such that any distinct vertices u and w in V...
are adjacent in G1 if and only if their corresponding sets intersect ( Su Sw ), and

are adjacent in G2 if and only if the complements do ( SuC SwC ).[7]
competition polysemymotivated by the study of ecological food webs, in which pairs of species may have
prey in common or have predators in common. A pair of graphs G1 and G2 on one vertex set is competition
polysemic if and only if there exists a single directed graph D on the same vertex set such that any distinct
vertices u and v...
are adjacent in G1 if and only if there is a vertex w such that both uw and vw are arcs in D,
and
are adjacent in G2 if and only if there is a vertex w such that both wu and wv are arcs in D.[8]
interval polysemypairs of posets P 1 and P 2 on a common ground set that can be simultaneously represented
by a single collection of real intervals that is an interval-order representation of P 1 and an interval-containment
representation of P 2 .[9]
45.3 See also

Representation theorems
Model theory
45.4 References
[1] McKee, Terry A.; McMorris, F. R. (1999), Topics in Intersection Graph Theory, SIAM Monographs on Discrete
Mathematics and Applications, Philadelphia: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, ISBN 0-89871-430-
3, MR 1672910
[2] Erds, Paul; Goodman, A. W.; Psa, Louis (1966), The representation of a graph by set intersections, Canadian Journal
of Mathematics, 18 (1): 106112, MR 0186575, doi:10.4153/cjm-1966-014-3
[3] Biggs, Norman (1994), Algebraic Graph Theory, Cambridge Mathematical Library, Cambridge University Press,
ISBN 978-0-521-45897-9, MR 1271140
[4] Trotter, William T. (1992), Combinatorics and Partially Ordered Sets: Dimension Theory, Johns Hopkins Series in the
Mathematical Sciences, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-4425-6, MR 1169299
[5] Scheinerman, Edward (1991), A note on planar graphs and circle orders, SIAM Journal on Discrete Mathematics,
4 (3): 448451, MR 1105950, doi:10.1137/0404040
[6] Fishburn, Peter C. (1985), Interval Orders and Interval Graphs: A Study of Partially Ordered Sets, Wiley-Interscience
Series in Discrete Mathematics, John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-471-81284-5, MR 0776781
[7] Tanenbaum, Paul J. (1999), Simultaneous intersection representation of pairs of graphs, Journal of Graph Theory,
32 (2): 171190, MR 1709659, doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0118(199910)32:2<171::AID-JGT7>3.0.CO;2-N
[8] Fischermann, Miranca; Knoben, Werner; Kremer, Dirk; Rautenbachh, Dieter (2004), Competition polysemy,
Discrete Mathematics, 282 (13): 251255, MR 2059526, doi:10.1016/j.disc.2003.11.014
[9] Tanenbaum, Paul J. (1996), Simultaneous representation of interval and interval-containment orders, Order, 13
(4): 339350, MR 1452517, doi:10.1007/BF00405593
Chapter 46
Semiorder
In order theory, a branch of mathematics, a semiorder is a type of ordering that may be determined for a set of
items with numerical scores by declaring two items to be incomparable when their scores are within a given margin
of error of each other, and by using the numerical comparison of their scores when those scores are suciently far
apart. Semiorders were introduced and applied in mathematical psychology by Luce (1956) as a model of human
preference without the assumption that indierence is transitive. They generalize strict weak orderings, form a special
case of partial orders and interval orders, and can be characterized among the partial orders by two forbidden four-
item suborders.
46.1 Denition
Let X be a set of items, and let < be a binary relation on X. Items x and y are said to be incomparable, written here as
x ~ y, if neither x < y nor y < x is true. Then the pair (X,<) is a semiorder if it satises the following three axioms:[1]
For all x and y, it is not possible for both x < y and y < x to be true. That is, < must be an irreexive,
antisymmetric relation
For all x, y, z, and w, if it is true that x < y, y ~ z, and z < w, then it must also be true that x < w.
For all x, y, z, and w, if it is true that x < y, y < z, and y ~ w, then it cannot also be true that x ~ w and z ~ w
simultaneously.
It follows from the rst axiom that x ~ x, and therefore the second axiom (with y = z) implies that < is a transitive
relation.
One may dene a partial order (X,) from a semiorder (X,<) by declaring that x y whenever either x < y or x = y. Of
the axioms that a partial order is required to obey, reexivity follows automatically from this denition, antisymmetry
follows from the rst semiorder axiom, and transitivity follows from the second semiorder axiom. Conversely, from
a partial order dened in this way, the semiorder may be recovered by declaring that x < y whenever x y and x
y. The rst of the semiorder axioms listed above follows automatically from the axioms dening a partial order, but
the others do not. The second and third semiorder axioms forbid partial orders of four items forming two disjoint
chains: the second axiom forbids two chains of two items each, while the third item forbids a three-item chain with
one unrelated item.
46.2 Utility
The original motivation for introducing semiorders was to model human preferences without assuming (as strict weak
orderings do) that incomparability is a transitive relation. For instance, if x, y, and z represent three quantities of the
same material, and x and z dier by the smallest amount that is perceptible as a dierence, while y is halfway between
the two of them, then it is reasonable for a preference to exist between x and z but not between the other two pairs,
violating transitivity.[2]
188
46.2. UTILITY 189
An example of a semiorder, shown by its Hasse diagram. The horizontal blue lines indicate the spacing of the y-coordinates of the
points; two points are comparable when their y coordinates dier by at least one unit.
Thus, suppose that X is a set of items, and u is a utility function that maps the members of X to real numbers. A strict
weak ordering can be dened on x by declaring two items to be incomparable when they have equal utilities, and
otherwise using the numerical comparison, but this necessarily leads to a transitive incomparability relation. Instead,
if one sets a numerical threshold (which may be normalized to 1) such that utilities within that threshold of each other
are declared incomparable, then a semiorder arises.
Specically, dene a binary relation < from X and u by setting x < y whenever u(x) u(y) 1. Then (X,<) is a
semiorder.[3] It may equivalently be dened as the interval order dened by the intervals [u(x),u(x) + 1].[4]
In the other direction, not every semiorder can be dened from numerical utilities in this way. For instance, if a
semiorder (X,<) includes an uncountable totally ordered subset then there do not exist suciently many suciently
well-spaced real-numbers to represent this subset numerically. However, every nite semiorder can be dened from
a utility function.[5] Fishburn (1973) supplies a precise characterization of the semiorders that may be dened nu-
190 CHAPTER 46. SEMIORDER
merically.
46.3 Other results

The number of distinct semiorders on n unlabeled items is given by the Catalan numbers
2n
( )
1
n+1 n , [6]
while the number of semiorders on n labeled items is given by the sequence
1, 1, 3, 19, 183, 2371, 38703, 763099, 17648823, ... (sequence A006531 in the OEIS).[7]
Any nite semiorder has order dimension at most three.[8]

Among all partial orders with a xed number of elements and a xed number of comparable pairs, the partial orders
that have the largest number of linear extensions are semiorders.[9]
Semiorders are known to obey the 1/32/3 conjecture: in any nite semiorder that is not a total order, there exists
a pair of elements x and y such that x appears earlier than y in between 1/3 and 2/3 of the linear extensions of the
semiorder.[10]
The set of semiorders on an n-element set is well-graded: if two semiorders on the same set dier from each other
by the addition or removal of k order relations, then it is possible to nd a path of k steps from the rst semiorder to
the second one, in such a way that each step of the path adds or removes a single order relation and each intermediate
state in the path is itself a semiorder.[11]
The incomparability graphs of semiorders are called indierence graphs, and are a special case of the interval
graphs.[12]
If a semiorder is given only in terms of the order relation between its pairs of elements, then it is possible to construct
a utility function that represents the order in time O(n2 ), where n is the number of elements in the semiorder.[13]
46.4 Notes
[1] Luce (1956) describes an equivalent set of four axioms, the rst two of which combine the denition of incomparability
and the rst axiom listed here.
[2] Luce (1956), p. 179.
[3] Luce (1956), Theorem 3 describes a more general situation in which the threshold for comparability between two utilities
is a function of the utility rather than being identically 1.
[4] Fishburn (1970).
[5] This result is typically credited to Scott & Suppes (1958); see, e.g., Rabinovitch (1977). However, Luce (1956), Theorem
2 proves a more general statement, that a nite semiorder can be dened from a utility function and a threshold function
whenever a certain underlying weak order can be dened numerically. For nite semiorders, it is trivial that the weak order
can be dened numerically with a unit threshold function.
[6] Kim & Roush (1978).
[7] Chandon, Lemaire & Pouget (1978).
[8] Rabinovitch (1978).
[9] Fishburn & Trotter (1992).
[10] Brightwell (1989).
[11] Doignon & Falmagne (1997).
[12] Roberts (1969).
[13] Avery (1992).

46.5 References
Avery, Peter (1992), An algorithmic proof that semiorders are representable, Journal of Algorithms, 13 (1):
144147, MR 1146337, doi:10.1016/0196-6774(92)90010-A.
Brightwell, Graham R. (1989), Semiorders and the 1/32/3 conjecture, Order, 5 (4): 369380, doi:10.1007/BF00353656.
Chandon, J.-L.; Lemaire, J.; Pouget, J. (1978), Dnombrement des quasi-ordres sur un ensemble ni, Centre
de Mathmatique Sociale. cole Pratique des Hautes tudes. Mathmatiques et Sciences Humaines (62): 6180,
83, MR 517680.
Doignon, Jean-Paul; Falmagne, Jean-Claude (1997), Well-graded families of relations, Discrete Mathematics,
173 (1-3): 3544, MR 1468838, doi:10.1016/S0012-365X(96)00095-7.
Fishburn, Peter C. (1970), Intransitive indierence with unequal indierence intervals, J. Mathematical
Psychology, 7: 144149, MR 0253942, doi:10.1016/0022-2496(70)90062-3.
Fishburn, Peter C. (1973), Interval representations for interval orders and semiorders, J. Mathematical Psy-
chology, 10: 91105, MR 0316322, doi:10.1016/0022-2496(73)90007-2.
Fishburn, Peter C.; Trotter, W. T. (1992), Linear extensions of semiorders: a maximization problem, Discrete
Mathematics, 103 (1): 2540, MR 1171114, doi:10.1016/0012-365X(92)90036-F.
Kim, K. H.; Roush, F. W. (1978), Enumeration of isomorphism classes of semiorders, Journal of Combina-
torics, Information &System Sciences, 3 (2): 5861, MR 538212.
Luce, R. Duncan (1956), Semiorders and a theory of utility discrimination, Econometrica, 24: 178191,
JSTOR 1905751, MR 0078632, doi:10.2307/1905751.
Rabinovitch, Issie (1977), The Scott-Suppes theorem on semiorders, J. Mathematical Psychology, 15 (2):
209212, MR 0437404, doi:10.1016/0022-2496(77)90030-x.
Rabinovitch, Issie (1978), The dimension of semiorders, Journal of Combinatorial Theory. Series A, 25 (1):
5061, MR 0498294, doi:10.1016/0097-3165(78)90030-4.
Roberts, Fred S. (1969), Indierence graphs, Proof Techniques in Graph Theory (Proc. Second Ann Arbor
Graph Theory Conf., Ann Arbor, Mich., 1968), Academic Press, New York, pp. 139146, MR 0252267.
Scott, Dana; Suppes, Patrick (1958), Foundational aspects of theories of measurement, The Journal of Sym-
bolic Logic, 23: 113128, MR 0115919, doi:10.2307/2964389.
46.6 Additional reading

Pirlot, M.; Vincke, Ph. (1997), Semiorders: Properties, representations, applications, Theory and Decision
Library. Series B: Mathematical and Statistical Methods, 36, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers Group,
ISBN 0-7923-4617-3, MR 1472236.
Chapter 47
Sequential composition
In computer science, the process calculi (or process algebras) are a diverse family of related approaches for for-
mally modelling concurrent systems. Process calculi provide a tool for the high-level description of interactions,
communications, and synchronizations between a collection of independent agents or processes. They also provide
algebraic laws that allow process descriptions to be manipulated and analyzed, and permit formal reasoning about
equivalences between processes (e.g., using bisimulation). Leading examples of process calculi include CSP, CCS,
ACP, and LOTOS.[1] More recent additions to the family include the -calculus, the ambient calculus, PEPA, the
fusion calculus and the join-calculus.
47.1 Essential features

While the variety of existing process calculi is very large (including variants that incorporate stochastic behaviour,
timing information, and specializations for studying molecular interactions), there are several features that all process
calculi have in common:[2]
Representing interactions between independent processes as communication (message-passing), rather than as

modication of shared variables.
Describing processes and systems using a small collection of primitives, and operators for combining those
primitives.
Dening algebraic laws for the process operators, which allow process expressions to be manipulated using
equational reasoning.
47.2 Mathematics of processes

To dene a process calculus, one starts with a set of names (or channels) whose purpose is to provide means of
communication. In many implementations, channels have rich internal structure to improve eciency, but this is
abstracted away in most theoretic models. In addition to names, one needs a means to form new processes from old.
The basic operators, always present in some form or other, allow:[3]
parallel composition of processes
specication of which channels to use for sending and receiving data
sequentialization of interactions
hiding of interaction points
recursion or process replication
192
47.2. MATHEMATICS OF PROCESSES 193
47.2.1 Parallel composition
Parallel composition of two processes P and Q , usually written P |Q , is the key primitive distinguishing the process
calculi from sequential models of computation. Parallel composition allows computation in P and Q to proceed
simultaneously and independently. But it also allows interaction, that is synchronisation and ow of information from
P to Q (or vice versa) on a channel shared by both. Crucially, an agent or process can be connected to more than one
channel at a time.
Channels may be synchronous or asynchronous. In the case of a synchronous channel, the agent sending a message
waits until another agent has received the message. Asynchronous channels do not require any such synchronization.
In some process calculi (notably the -calculus) channels themselves can be sent in messages through (other) channels,
allowing the topology of process interconnections to change. Some process calculi also allow channels to be created
during the execution of a computation.
47.2.2 Communication
Interaction can be (but isn't always) a directed ow of information. That is, input and output can be distinguished as
dual interaction primitives. Process calculi that make such distinctions typically dene an input operator (e.g. x(v)
) and an output operator (e.g. xy ), both of which name an interaction point (here x ) that is used to synchronise
with a dual interaction primitive.
Information should be exchanged, it will ow from the outputting to the inputting process. The output primitive will
specify the data to be sent. In xy , this data is y . Similarly, if an input expects to receive data, one or more bound
variables will act as place-holders to be substituted by data, when it arrives. In x(v) , v plays that role. The choice of
the kind of data that can be exchanged in an interaction is one of the key features that distinguishes dierent process
calculi.
47.2.3 Sequential composition
Sometimes interactions must be temporally ordered. For example, it might be desirable to specify algorithms such as:
rst receive some data on x and then send that data on y . Sequential composition can be used for such purposes. It is
well known from other models of computation. In process calculi, the sequentialisation operator is usually integrated
with input or output, or both. For example, the process x(v) P will wait for an input on x . Only when this input
has occurred will the process P be activated, with the received data through x substituted for identier v .
47.2.4 Reduction semantics
The key operational reduction rule, containing the computational essence of process calculi, can be given solely in
terms of parallel composition, sequentialization, input, and output. The details of this reduction vary among the
calculi, but the essence remains roughly the same. The reduction rule is:
xy P | x(v) Q P | Q[y/v ]
The interpretation to this reduction rule is:
1. The process xy P sends a message, here y , along the channel x . Dually, the process x(v) Q receives that
message on channel x .
2. Once the message has been sent, xy P becomes the process P , while x(v) Q becomes the process Q[y/v ]
, which is Q with the place-holder v substituted by y , the data received on x .
The class of processes that P is allowed to range over as the continuation of the output operation substantially inu-
ences the properties of the calculus.
194 CHAPTER 47. SEQUENTIAL COMPOSITION
47.2.5 Hiding
Processes do not limit the number of connections that can be made at a given interaction point. But interaction points
allow interference (i.e. interaction). For the synthesis of compact, minimal and compositional systems, the ability to
restrict interference is crucial. Hiding operations allow control of the connections made between interaction points
when composing agents in parallel. Hiding can be denoted in a variety of ways. For example, in the -calculus the
hiding of a name x in P can be expressed as ( x)P , while in CSP it might be written as P \ {x} .
47.2.6 Recursion and replication
The operations presented so far describe only nite interaction and are consequently insucient for full computability,
which includes non-terminating behaviour. Recursion and replication are operations that allow nite descriptions
of innite behaviour. Recursion is well known from the sequential world. Replication !P can be understood as
abbreviating the parallel composition of a countably innite number of P processes:
!P = P |!P
47.2.7 Null process
Process calculi generally also include a null process (variously denoted as nil , 0 , STOP , , or some other appropriate
symbol) which has no interaction points. It is utterly inactive and its sole purpose is to act as the inductive anchor on
top of which more interesting processes can be generated.
47.3 Discrete and continuous process algebra

Process algebra has been studied for discrete time and continuous time (real time or dense time).[4]
47.4 History
In the rst half of the 20th century, various formalisms were proposed to capture the informal concept of a com-
putable function, with -recursive functions, Turing machines and the lambda calculus possibly being the best-known
examples today. The surprising fact that they are essentially equivalent, in the sense that they are all encodable into
each other, supports the Church-Turing thesis. Another shared feature is more rarely commented on: they all are
most readily understood as models of sequential computation. The subsequent consolidation of computer science re-
quired a more subtle formulation of the notion of computation, in particular explicit representations of concurrency
and communication. Models of concurrency such as the process calculi, Petri nets in 1962, and the actor model in
1973 emerged from this line of inquiry.
Research on process calculi began in earnest with Robin Milner's seminal work on the Calculus of Communicating
Systems (CCS) during the period from 1973 to 1980. C.A.R. Hoare's Communicating Sequential Processes (CSP)
rst appeared in 1978, and was subsequently developed into a full-edged process calculus during the early 1980s.
There was much cross-fertilization of ideas between CCS and CSP as they developed. In 1982 Jan Bergstra and
Jan Willem Klop began work on what came to be known as the Algebra of Communicating Processes (ACP), and
introduced the term process algebra to describe their work.[1] CCS, CSP, and ACP constitute the three major branches
of the process calculi family: the majority of the other process calculi can trace their roots to one of these three calculi.
47.5 Current research

Various process calculi have been studied and not all of them t the paradigm sketched here. The most prominent
example may be the ambient calculus. This is to be expected as process calculi are an active eld of study. Currently
research on process calculi focuses on the following problems.
47.6. SOFTWARE IMPLEMENTATIONS 195
Developing new process calculi for better modeling of computational phenomena.
Finding well-behaved subcalculi of a given process calculus. This is valuable because (1) most calculi are fairly
wild in the sense that they are rather general and not much can be said about arbitrary processes; and (2)
computational applications rarely exhaust the whole of a calculus. Rather they use only processes that are very
constrained in form. Constraining the shape of processes is mostly studied by way of type systems.
Logics for processes that allow one to reason about (essentially) arbitrary properties of processes, following the
ideas of Hoare logic.
Behavioural theory: what does it mean for two processes to be the same? How can we decide whether two
processes are dierent or not? Can we nd representatives for equivalence classes of processes? Generally,
processes are considered to be the same if no context, that is other processes running in parallel, can detect a
dierence. Unfortunately, making this intuition precise is subtle and mostly yields unwieldy characterisations of
equality (which in most cases must also be undecidable, as a consequence of the halting problem). Bisimulations
are a technical tool that aids reasoning about process equivalences.
Expressivity of calculi. Programming experience shows that certain problems are easier to solve in some
languages than in others. This phenomenon calls for a more precise characterisation of the expressivity of
calculi modeling computation than that aorded by the Church-Turing thesis. One way of doing this is to
consider encodings between two formalisms and see what properties encodings can potentially preserve. The
more properties can be preserved, the more expressive the target of the encoding is said to be. For process
calculi, the celebrated results are that the synchronous -calculus is more expressive than its asynchronous
variant, has the same expressive power as the higher-order -calculus, but is less than the ambient calculus.
Using process calculus to model biological systems (stochastic -calculus, BioAmbients, Beta Binders, BioPEPA,
Brane calculus). It is thought by some that the compositionality oered by process-theoretic tools can help bi-
ologists to organise their knowledge more formally.
47.6 Software implementations

The ideas behind process algebra have given rise to several tools including:
CADP
Concurrency Workbench
mCRL2 toolset
47.7 Relationship to other models of concurrency

The history monoid is the free object that is generically able to represent the histories of individual communicating
processes. A process calculus is then a formal language imposed on a history monoid in a consistent fashion.[5] That
is, a history monoid can only record a sequence of events, with synchronization, but does not specify the allowed
state transitions. Thus, a process calculus is to a history monoid what a formal language is to a free monoid (a formal
language is a subset of the set of all possible nite-length strings of an alphabet generated by the Kleene star).
The use of channels for communication is one of the features distinguishing the process calculi from other models of
concurrency, such as Petri nets and the Actor model (see Actor model and process calculi). One of the fundamental
motivations for including channels in the process calculi was to enable certain algebraic techniques, thereby making
it easier to reason about processes algebraically.
47.8 See also

Stochastic probe
196 CHAPTER 47. SEQUENTIAL COMPOSITION
47.9 References
[1] Baeten, J.C.M. (2004). A brief history of process algebra (PDF). Rapport CSR 04-02. Vakgroep Informatica, Technische
Universiteit Eindhoven.
[2] Pierce, Benjamin. Foundational Calculi for Programming Languages. The Computer Science and Engineering Handbook.
CRC Press. pp. 21902207. ISBN 0-8493-2909-4.
[3] Baeten, J.C.M.; Bravetti, M. (August 2005). A Generic Process Algebra. Algebraic Process Calculi: The First Twenty
Five Years and Beyond (BRICS Notes Series NS-05-3). Bertinoro, Forl`, Italy: BRICS, Department of Computer Science,
University of Aarhus. Retrieved 2007-12-29.
[4] Baeten, J. C. M.; Middelburg, C. A. Process algebra with timing: Real time and discrete time. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.42.729
.
[5] Mazurkiewicz, Antoni (1995). Introduction to Trace Theory. In Diekert, V.; Rozenberg, G. The Book of Traces
(PostScript). Singapore: World Scientic. pp. 341. ISBN 981-02-2058-8.

Matthew Hennessy: Algebraic Theory of Processes, The MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-08171-7.
C. A. R. Hoare: Communicating Sequential Processes, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-153289-8.
This book has been updated by Jim Davies at the Oxford University Computing Laboratory and the new
edition is available for download as a PDF le at the Using CSP website.
Robin Milner: A Calculus of Communicating Systems, Springer Verlag, ISBN 0-387-10235-3.

Robin Milner: Communicating and Mobile Systems: the Pi-Calculus, Springer Verlag, ISBN 0-521-65869-1.
Andrew Mironov: Theory of processes

Chapter 48
Surjective function
Onto redirects here. For other uses, see wiktionary:onto.
In mathematics, a function f from a set X to a set Y is surjective (or onto), or a surjection, if for every element y in
the codomain Y of f there is at least one element x in the domain X of f such that f(x) = y. It is not required that x
is unique; the function f may map one or more elements of X to the same element of Y.
The term surjective and the related terms injective and bijective were introduced by Nicolas Bourbaki,[1] a group
of mainly French 20th-century mathematicians who under this pseudonym wrote a series of books presenting an
exposition of modern advanced mathematics, beginning in 1935. The French prex sur means over or above and
relates to the fact that the image of the domain of a surjective function completely covers the functions codomain.
Any function induces a surjection by restricting its codomain to its range. Every surjective function has a right inverse,
and every function with a right inverse is necessarily a surjection. The composite of surjective functions is always
surjective. Any function can be decomposed into a surjection and an injection.
48.1 Denition
A surjective function is a function whose image is equal to its codomain. Equivalently, a function f with domain
X and codomain Y is surjective if for every y in Y there exists at least one x in X with f (x) = y . Surjections are
sometimes denoted by a two-headed rightwards arrow (U+21A0 RIGHTWARDS TWO HEADED ARROW),[2]
as in f : X Y.
Symbolically,
If f : X Y , then f is said to be surjective if
y Y, x X, f (x) = y
48.2 Examples
For any set X, the identity function idX on X is surjective.
The function f : Z {0,1} dened by f(n) = n mod 2 (that is, even integers are mapped to 0 and odd integers to 1)
is surjective.
The function f : R R dened by f(x) = 2x + 1 is surjective (and even bijective), because for every real number y
we have an x such that f(x) = y: an appropriate x is (y 1)/2.
The function f : R R dened by f(x) = x3 3x is surjective, because the pre-image of any real number y is the
solution set of the cubic polynomial equation x3 3x y = 0 and every cubic polynomial with real coecients has at
197
198 CHAPTER 48. SURJECTIVE FUNCTION
X Y
1 D
2 B
3 C
A surjective function from domain X to codomain Y. The function is surjective because every point in the codomain is the value of
f(x) for at least one point x in the domain.
least one real root. However, this function is not injective (and hence not bijective) since e.g. the pre-image of y = 2
is {x = 1, x = 2}. (In fact, the pre-image of this function for every y, 2 y 2 has more than one element.)
The function g : R R dened by g(x) = x2 is not surjective, because there is no real number x such that x2 = 1.
However, the function g : R R0 + dened by g(x) = x2 (with restricted codomain) is surjective because for every y
in the nonnegative real codomain Y there is at least one x in the real domain X such that x2 = y.
The natural logarithm function ln : (0,+) R is a surjective and even bijective mapping from the set of positive
real numbers to the set of all real numbers. Its inverse, the exponential function, is not surjective as its range is the set
of positive real numbers and its domain is usually dened to be the set of all real numbers. The matrix exponential
is not surjective when seen as a map from the space of all nn matrices to itself. It is, however, usually dened as a
map from the space of all nn matrices to the general linear group of degree n, i.e. the group of all nn invertible
matrices. Under this denition the matrix exponential is surjective for complex matrices, although still not surjective
for real matrices.
The projection from a cartesian product A B to one of its factors is surjective unless the other factor is empty.
In a 3D video game vectors are projected onto a 2D at screen by means of a surjective function.
x f(x)
X Y
f:XY
A non-surjective function from domain X to codomain Y. The smaller oval inside Y is the image (also called range) of f. This
function is not surjective, because the image does not ll the whole codomain. In other words, Y is colored in a two-step process:
First, for every x in X, the point f(x) is colored yellow; Second, all the rest of the points in Y, that are not yellow, are colored blue.
The function f is surjective only if there are no blue points.
48.3 Properties
A function is bijective if and only if it is both surjective and injective.

If (as is often done) a function is identied with its graph, then surjectivity is not a property of the function itself, but
rather a relationship between the function and its codomain. Unlike injectivity, surjectivity cannot be read o of the
graph of the function alone.
48.3.1 Surjections as right invertible functions
The function g : Y X is said to be a right inverse of the function f : X Y if f(g(y)) = y for every y in Y (g can be
undone by f). In other words, g is a right inverse of f if the composition f o g of g and f in that order is the identity
function on the domain Y of g. The function g need not be a complete inverse of f because the composition in the
other order, g o f, may not be the identity function on the domain X of f. In other words, f can undo or "reverse" g,
but cannot necessarily be reversed by it.
Every function with a right inverse is necessarily a surjection. The proposition that every surjective function has a
right inverse is equivalent to the axiom of choice.
If f : X Y is surjective and B is a subset of Y, then f(f 1 (B)) = B. Thus, B can be recovered from its preimage
f 1 (B).
For example, in the rst illustration, above, there is some function g such that g(C) = 4. There is also some function
f such that f(4) = C. It doesn't matter that g(C) can also equal 3; it only matters that f reverses g.
y y
y Y
im f
y Y
im f
x x
x X
x X1 x X2
f :X Y
f : X1 Y1 f : X2 Y2
y f x
y f x
Interpretation for surjective functions in the Cartesian plane, dened by the mapping f : X Y, where y = f(x), X = domain of
function, Y = range of function. Every element in the range is mapped onto from an element in the domain, by the rule f. There
may be a number of domain elements which map to the same range element. That is, every y in Y is mapped from an element x in
X, more than one x can map to the same y. Left: Only one domain is shown which makes f surjective. Right: two possible domains
X1 and X2 are shown.
y y3 Y y
y Y
y Y
y2 Y
im f
im f
y0 Y y1 Y
x x
x X
x0 X x X
x1 X x3 X
x2 X
f :X Y
y f x x X1 x X2
f : X1 Y1 f : X2 Y2
y f x
Non-surjective functions in the Cartesian plane. Although some parts of the function are surjective, where elements y in Y do have
a value x in X such that y = f(x), some parts are not. Left: There is y0 in Y, but there is no x0 in X such that y0 = f(x0 ). Right:
There are y1 , y2 and y3 in Y, but there are no x1 , x2 , and x3 in X such that y1 = f(x1 ), y2 = f(x2 ), and y3 = f(x3 ).
X Y Z
1 D P
2 B Q
3 C R
4 A
Surjective composition: the rst function need not be surjective.
X Y
1 D
2 B
3 C
4 A
Another surjective function. (This one happens to be a bijection)
X Y
1 D
2 B
3 C
A
A non-surjective function. (This one happens to be an injection)
48.3.2 Surjections as epimorphisms
A function f : X Y is surjective if and only if it is right-cancellative:[3] given any functions g,h : Y Z, whenever g
o f = h o f, then g = h. This property is formulated in terms of functions and their composition and can be generalized
to the more general notion of the morphisms of a category and their composition. Right-cancellative morphisms are
called epimorphisms. Specically, surjective functions are precisely the epimorphisms in the category of sets. The
prex epi is derived from the Greek preposition meaning over, above, on.
Any morphism with a right inverse is an epimorphism, but the converse is not true in general. A right inverse g of a
morphism f is called a section of f. A morphism with a right inverse is called a split epimorphism.
48.3.3 Surjections as binary relations
Any function with domain X and codomain Y can be seen as a left-total and right-unique binary relation between X
and Y by identifying it with its function graph. A surjective function with domain X and codomain Y is then a binary
relation between X and Y that is right-unique and both left-total and right-total.
48.3.4 Cardinality of the domain of a surjection
The cardinality of the domain of a surjective function is greater than or equal to the cardinality of its codomain: If f
: X Y is a surjective function, then X has at least as many elements as Y, in the sense of cardinal numbers. (The
proof appeals to the axiom of choice to show that a function g : Y X satisfying f(g(y)) = y for all y in Y exists. g
is easily seen to be injective, thus the formal denition of |Y| |X| is satised.)
Specically, if both X and Y are nite with the same number of elements, then f : X Y is surjective if and only if
f is injective.
Given two sets X and Y, the notation X * Y is used to say that either X is empty or that there is a surjection from Y
onto X. Using the axiom of choice one can show that X * Y and Y * X together imply that |Y| = |X|, a variant of
the SchrderBernstein theorem.
48.3.5 Composition and decomposition
The composite of surjective functions is always surjective: If f and g are both surjective, and the codomain of g
is equal to the domain of f, then f o g is surjective. Conversely, if f o g is surjective, then f is surjective (but g,
the function applied rst, need not be). These properties generalize from surjections in the category of sets to any
epimorphisms in any category.
Any function can be decomposed into a surjection and an injection: For any function h : X Z there exist a surjection
f : X Y and an injection g : Y Z such that h = g o f. To see this, dene Y to be the sets h 1 (z) where z is in
Z. These sets are disjoint and partition X. Then f carries each x to the element of Y which contains it, and g carries
each element of Y to the point in Z to which h sends its points. Then f is surjective since it is a projection map, and
g is injective by denition.
48.3.6 Induced surjection and induced bijection

Any function induces a surjection by restricting its codomain to its range. Any surjective function induces a bijection
dened on a quotient of its domain by collapsing all arguments mapping to a given xed image. More precisely, every
surjection f : A B can be factored as a projection followed by a bijection as follows. Let A/~ be the equivalence
classes of A under the following equivalence relation: x ~ y if and only if f(x) = f(y). Equivalently, A/~ is the set of
all preimages under f. Let P(~) : A A/~ be the projection map which sends each x in A to its equivalence class
[x]~, and let fP : A/~ B be the well-dened function given by fP([x]~) = f(x). Then f = fP o P(~).
48.4 See also

Cover (algebra)
Covering map
Enumeration
Fiber bundle
Index set
Section (category theory)
48.5 Notes
[1] Miller, Je, Injection, Surjection and Bijection, Earliest Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics, Tripod.
[2] Arrows Unicode (PDF). Retrieved 2013-05-11.
[3] Goldblatt, Robert (2006) [1984]. Topoi, the Categorial Analysis of Logic (Revised ed.). Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-
486-45026-1. Retrieved 2009-11-25.
48.6 References
Bourbaki, Nicolas (2004) [1968]. Theory of Sets. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-22525-6.
Chapter 49
Ternary equivalence relation
In mathematics, a ternary equivalence relation is a kind of ternary relation analogous to a binary equivalence
relation. A ternary equivalence relation is symmetric, reexive, and transitive. The classic example is the relation
of collinearity among three points in Euclidean space. In an abstract set, a ternary equivalence relation determines a
collection of equivalence classes or pencils that form a linear space in the sense of incidence geometry. In the same
way, a binary equivalence relation on a set determines a partition.
49.1 Denition
A ternary equivalence relation on a set X is a relation E X3 , written [a, b, c], that satises the following axioms:
1. Symmetry: If [a, b, c] then [b, c, a] and [c, b, a]. (Therefore also [a, c, b], [b, a, c], and [c, a, b].)
2. Reexivity: [a, b, b]. Equivalently, if a, b, and c are not all distinct, then [a, b, c].
3. Transitivity: If a b and [a, b, c] and [a, b, d] then [b, c, d]. (Therefore also [a, c, d].)
49.2 References
Arajoa, Joo; Koniecznyc, Janusz (2007), A method of nding automorphism groups of endomorphism
monoids of relational systems, Discrete Mathematics, 307: 16091620, doi:10.1016/j.disc.2006.09.029
Bachmann, Friedrich, Aufbau der Geometrie aus dem Spiegelungsbegri
Karzel, Helmut (2007), Loops related to geometric structures, Quasigroups and Related Systems, 15: 4776
Karzel, Helmut; Pianta, Silvia (2008), Binary operations derived from symmetric permutation sets and appli-
cations to absolute geometry, Discrete Mathematics, 308: 415421, doi:10.1016/j.disc.2006.11.058
Karzel, Helmut; Marchi, Mario; Pianta, Silvia (December 2010), The defect in an invariant reection struc-
ture, Journal of Geometry, 99 (1-2): 6787, doi:10.1007/s00022-010-0058-7
Lingenberg, Rolf (1979), Metric planes and metric vector spaces, Wiley
Rainich, G.Y. (1952), Ternary relations in geometry and algebra, Michigan Mathematical Journal, 1 (2):
97111, doi:10.1307/mmj/1028988890
Szmielew, Wanda (1981), On n-ary equivalence relations and their application to geometry, Warsaw: Instytut
Matematyczny Polskiej Akademi Nauk
203
Chapter 50
Ternary relation
In mathematics, a ternary relation or triadic relation is a nitary relation in which the number of places in the
relation is three. Ternary relations may also be referred to as 3-adic, 3-ary, 3-dimensional, or 3-place.
Just as a binary relation is formally dened as a set of pairs, i.e. a subset of the Cartesian product A B of some sets
A and B, so a ternary relation is a set of triples, forming a subset of the Cartesian product A B C of three sets A,
B and C.
An example of a ternary relation in elementary geometry is the collinearity of points.
50.1 Examples
50.1.1 Binary functions
Further information: Graph of a function and Binary function
A function : A B C in two variables, taking values in two sets A and B, respectively, is formally a function that
associates to every pair (a,b) in A B an element (a, b) in C. Therefore, its graph consists of pairs of the form ((a,
b), (a, b)). Such pairs in which the rst element is itself a pair are often identied with triples. This makes the graph
of a ternary relation between A, B and C, consisting of all triples (a, b, (a, b)), for all a in A and b in B.
50.1.2 Cyclic orders
Main article: Cyclic order
Given any set A whose elements are arranged on a circle, one can dene a ternary relation R on A, i.e. a subset of A3
= A A A, by stipulating that R(a, b, c) holds if and only if the elements a, b and c are pairwise dierent and when
going from a to c in a clockwise direction one passes through b. For example, if A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
12 } represents the hours on a clock face, then R(8, 12, 4) holds and R(12, 8, 4) does not hold.
50.1.3 Betweenness relations
Main article: Betweenness relation
50.1.4 Congruence relation
Main article: Congruence modulo m
204
50.2. FURTHER READING 205
The ordinary congruence of arithmetics
ab (mod m)
which holds for three integers a, b, and m if and only if m divides a b, formally may be considered as a ternary
relation. However, usually, this instead is considered as a family of binary relations between the a and the b, indexed
by the modulus m. For each xed m, indeed this binary relation has some natural properties, like being an equivalence
relation; while the combined ternary relation in general is not studied as one relation.
50.1.5 Typing relation

Main article: Simply typed lambda calculus Typing rules
A typing relation e : indicates that e is a term of type in context , and is thus a ternary relation between
contexts, terms and types.

Myers, Dale (1997), An interpretive isomorphism between binary and ternary relations, in Mycielski, Jan;
Rozenberg, Grzegorz; Salomaa, Arto, Structures in Logic and Computer Science, Lecture Notes in Computer
Science, 1261, Springer, pp. 84105, ISBN 3-540-63246-8, doi:10.1007/3-540-63246-8_6
Novk, Vtzslav (1996), Ternary structures and partial semigroups, Czechoslovak Mathematical Journal, 46
(1): 111120, hdl:10338.dmlcz/127275
Novk, Vtzslav; Novotn, Miroslav (1989), Transitive ternary relations and quasiorderings, Archivum
Mathematicum, 25 (12): 512, hdl:10338.dmlcz/107333
Novk, Vtzslav; Novotn, Miroslav (1992), Binary and ternary relations, Mathematica Bohemica, 117 (3):
283292, hdl:10338.dmlcz/126278
Novotn, Miroslav (1991), Ternary structures and groupoids, Czechoslovak Mathematical Journal, 41 (1):
9098, hdl:10338.dmlcz/102437
lapal, Josef (1993), Relations and topologies, Czechoslovak Mathematical Journal, 43 (1): 141150, hdl:10338.dmlcz/128381
Chapter 51
Total order
In mathematics, a linear order, total order, simple order, or (non-strict) ordering is a binary relation on some set
X , which is antisymmetric, transitive, and total (this relation is denoted here by inx ). A set paired with a total
order is called a totally ordered set, a linearly ordered set, a simply ordered set, or a chain.
More symbolically, a set X is totally ordered under if the following statements hold for all a, b and c in X :
If a b and b a then a = b (antisymmetry);

If a b and b c then a c (transitivity);
a b or b a (totality).
Antisymmetry eliminates uncertain cases when both a precedes b and b precedes a .[1] A relation having the property
of totality means that any pair of elements in the set of the relation are comparable under the relation. This also
means that the set can be diagrammed as a line of elements, giving it the name linear.[2] Totality also implies reexivity,
i.e., a a. Therefore, a total order is also a partial order, as, for a partial order, the totality condition is replaced by
the weaker condition of reexivity. An extension of a given partial order to a total order is called a linear extension
of that partial order.
51.1 Strict total order

For each (non-strict) total order there is an associated asymmetric (hence irreexive) relation <, called a strict total
order, which can equivalently be dened in two ways:
a < b if and only if a b and a b

a < b if and only if not b a (i.e., < is the inverse of the complement of )
Properties:
The relation is transitive: a < b and b < c implies a < c.

The relation is trichotomous: exactly one of a < b, b < a and a = b is true.
The relation is a strict weak order, where the associated equivalence is equality.
We can work the other way and start by choosing < as a transitive trichotomous binary relation; then a total order
can equivalently be dened in two ways:
a b if and only if a < b or a = b

a b if and only if not b < a
Two more associated orders are the complements and >, completing the quadruple {<, >, , }.
We can dene or explain the way a set is totally ordered by any of these four relations; the notation implies whether
we are talking about the non-strict or the strict total order.
206
51.2. EXAMPLES 207
51.2 Examples
The letters of the alphabet ordered by the standard dictionary order, e.g., A < B < C etc.
Any subset of a totally ordered set X is totally ordered for the restriction of the order on X.
The unique order on the empty set, , is a total order.
Any set of cardinal numbers or ordinal numbers (more strongly, these are well-orders).
If X is any set and f an injective function from X to a totally ordered set then f induces a total ordering on X
by setting x1 < x2 if and only if f(x1 ) < f(x2 ).
The lexicographical order on the Cartesian product of a family of totally ordered sets, indexed by a well ordered
set, is itself a total order.
The set of real numbers ordered by the usual less than (<) or greater than (>) relations is totally ordered, hence
also the subsets of natural numbers, integers, and rational numbers. Each of these can be shown to be the unique
(to within isomorphism) smallest example of a totally ordered set with a certain property, (a total order A is
the smallest with a certain property if whenever B has the property, there is an order isomorphism from A to a
subset of B):
The natural numbers comprise the smallest totally ordered set with no upper bound.
The integers comprise the smallest totally ordered set with neither an upper nor a lower bound.
The rational numbers comprise the smallest totally ordered set which is dense in the real numbers. The
denition of density used here says that for every a and b in the real numbers such that a < b, there is a q
in the rational numbers such that a < q < b.
The real numbers comprise the smallest unbounded totally ordered set that is connected in the order
topology (dened below).
Ordered elds are totally ordered by denition. They include the rational numbers and the real numbers. Every
ordered eld contains an ordered subeld that is isomorphic to the rational numbers. Any Dedekind-complete
ordered eld is isomorphic to the real numbers.
51.3 Further concepts
51.3.1 Chains
While chain is sometimes merely a synonym for totally ordered set, it can also refer to a totally ordered subset of
some partially ordered set. The latter denition has a crucial role in Zorns lemma. The height of a poset denotes the
cardinality of its largest chain in this sense.
For example, consider the set of all subsets of the integers partially ordered by inclusion. Then the set { In : n is a
natural number}, where In is the set of natural numbers below n, is a chain in this ordering, as it is totally ordered
under inclusion: If nk, then In is a subset of Ik.
51.3.2 Lattice theory
One may dene a totally ordered set as a particular kind of lattice, namely one in which we have
{a b, a b} = {a, b} for all a, b.
We then write a b if and only if a = a b . Hence a totally ordered set is a distributive lattice.
208 CHAPTER 51. TOTAL ORDER
51.3.3 Finite total orders

A simple counting argument will verify that any non-empty nite totally ordered set (and hence any non-empty subset
thereof) has a least element. Thus every nite total order is in fact a well order. Either by direct proof or by observing
that every well order is order isomorphic to an ordinal one may show that every nite total order is order isomorphic
to an initial segment of the natural numbers ordered by <. In other words, a total order on a set with k elements
induces a bijection with the rst k natural numbers. Hence it is common to index nite total orders or well orders
with order type by natural numbers in a fashion which respects the ordering (either starting with zero or with one).
51.3.4 Category theory

Totally ordered sets form a full subcategory of the category of partially ordered sets, with the morphisms being maps
which respect the orders, i.e. maps f such that if a b then f(a) f(b).
A bijective map between two totally ordered sets that respects the two orders is an isomorphism in this category.
51.3.5 Order topology

For any totally ordered set X we can dene the open intervals (a, b) = {x : a < x and x < b}, (, b) = {x : x < b},
(a, ) = {x : a < x} and (, ) = X. We can use these open intervals to dene a topology on any ordered set, the
order topology.
When more than one order is being used on a set one talks about the order topology induced by a particular order.
For instance if N is the natural numbers, < is less than and > greater than we might refer to the order topology on
N induced by < and the order topology on N induced by > (in this case they happen to be identical but will not in
general).
The order topology induced by a total order may be shown to be hereditarily normal.
51.3.6 Completeness
A totally ordered set is said to be complete if every nonempty subset that has an upper bound, has a least upper
bound. For example, the set of real numbers R is complete but the set of rational numbers Q is not.
There are a number of results relating properties of the order topology to the completeness of X:
If the order topology on X is connected, X is complete.
X is connected under the order topology if and only if it is complete and there is no gap in X (a gap is two
points a and b in X with a < b such that no c satises a < c < b.)
X is complete if and only if every bounded set that is closed in the order topology is compact.
A totally ordered set (with its order topology) which is a complete lattice is compact. Examples are the closed intervals
of real numbers, e.g. the unit interval [0,1], and the anely extended real number system (extended real number line).
There are order-preserving homeomorphisms between these examples.
51.3.7 Sums of orders

For any two disjoint total orders (A1 , 1 ) and (A2 , 2 ) , there is a natural order + on the set A1 A2 , which is
called the sum of the two orders or sometimes just A1 + A2 :
For x, y A1 A2 , x + y holds if and only if one of the following holds:
1. x, y A1 and x 1 y
2. x, y A2 and x 2 y
3. x A1 and y A2
51.4. ORDERS ON THE CARTESIAN PRODUCT OF TOTALLY ORDERED SETS 209
Intutitively, this means that the elements of the second set are added on top of the elements of the rst set.
More generally, if (I, ) is a totally ordered index set, and for each i I the structure (Ai , i ) is a linear order,
where the sets Ai are pairwise disjoint, then the natural total order on i Ai is dened by

For x, y iI Ai , x y holds if:
1. Either there is some i I with x i y

2. or there are some i < j in I with x Ai , y Aj
51.4 Orders on the Cartesian product of totally ordered sets

In order of increasing strength, i.e., decreasing sets of pairs, three of the possible orders on the Cartesian product of
two totally ordered sets are:
Lexicographical order: (a,b) (c,d) if and only if a < c or (a = c and b d). This is a total order.
(a,b) (c,d) if and only if a c and b d (the product order). This is a partial order.
(a,b) (c,d) if and only if (a < c and b < d) or (a = c and b = d) (the reexive closure of the direct product of
the corresponding strict total orders). This is also a partial order.
All three can similarly be dened for the Cartesian product of more than two sets.
Applied to the vector space Rn , each of these make it an ordered vector space.
See also examples of partially ordered sets.
A real function of n real variables dened on a subset of Rn denes a strict weak order and a corresponding total
preorder on that subset.
51.5 Related structures

A binary relation that is antisymmetric, transitive, and reexive (but not necessarily total) is a partial order.
A group with a compatible total order is a totally ordered group.
There are only a few nontrivial structures that are (interdenable as) reducts of a total order. Forgetting the orientation
results in a betweenness relation. Forgetting the location of the ends results in a cyclic order. Forgetting both data
results in a separation relation.[3]
51.6 See also

Order theory
Well-order
Suslins problem
Countryman line
Prex order a downward total partial order
51.7 Notes
[1] Nederpelt, Rob (2004). Chapter 20.2: Ordered Sets. Orderings. Logical Reasoning: A First Course. Texts in Computing.
3 (3rd, Revised ed.). Kings College Publications. p. 325. ISBN 0-9543006-7-X.
210 CHAPTER 51. TOTAL ORDER
[2] Nederpelt, Rob (2004). Chapter 20.3: Ordered Sets. Linear orderings. Logical Reasoning: A First Course. Texts in
Computing. 3 (3rd, Revisied ed.). Kings College Publications. p. 330. ISBN 0-9543006-7-X.
[3] Macpherson, H. Dugald (2011), A survey of homogeneous structures (PDF), Discrete Mathematics, doi:10.1016/j.disc.2011.01.024,
retrieved 28 April 2011
51.8 References
George Grtzer (1971). Lattice theory: rst concepts and distributive lattices. W. H. Freeman and Co. ISBN
0-7167-0442-0
John G. Hocking and Gail S. Young (1961). Topology. Corrected reprint, Dover, 1988. ISBN 0-486-65676-4
Chapter 52
Transitive relation
In mathematics, a binary relation R over a set X is transitive if whenever an element a is related to an element b, and
b is in turn related to an element c, then a is also related to c. Transitivity (or transitiveness) is a key property of both
partial order relations and equivalence relations.

In terms of set theory, the transitive relation can be dened as:
a, b, c X : (aRb bRc) aRc
52.2 Examples
For example, is greater than, is at least as great as, and is equal to (equality) are transitive relations:
whenever A > B and B > C, then also A > C

whenever A B and B C, then also A C
whenever A = B and B = C, then also A = C.
On the other hand, is the mother of is not a transitive relation, because if Alice is the mother of Brenda, and Brenda
is the mother of Claire, then Alice is not the mother of Claire. What is more, it is antitransitive: Alice can never be
the mother of Claire.
Then again, in biology we often need to consider motherhood over an arbitrary number of generations: the relation
is a matrilinear ancestor of. This is a transitive relation. More precisely, it is the transitive closure of the relation
is the mother of.
More examples of transitive relations:
is a subset of (set inclusion)
divides (divisibility)
implies (implication)
52.3 Properties
211
212 CHAPTER 52. TRANSITIVE RELATION
52.3.1 Closure properties

The converse of a transitive relation is always transitive: e.g. knowing that is a subset of is transitive and is a
superset of is its converse, we can conclude that the latter is transitive as well.
The intersection of two transitive relations is always transitive: knowing that was born before and has the same rst
name as are transitive, we can conclude that was born before and also has the same rst name as is also transitive.
The union of two transitive relations is not always transitive. For instance was born before or has the same rst name
as is not generally a transitive relation.
The complement of a transitive relation is not always transitive. For instance, while equal to is transitive, not equal
to is only transitive on sets with at most one element.
52.3.2 Other properties

A transitive relation is asymmetric if and only if it is irreexive.[1]
52.3.3 Properties that require transitivity

Preorder a reexive transitive relation
Partial order an antisymmetric preorder
Total preorder a total preorder
Equivalence relation a symmetric preorder
Strict weak ordering a strict partial order in which incomparability is an equivalence relation
Total ordering a total, antisymmetric transitive relation
52.4 Counting transitive relations

No general formula that counts the number of transitive relations on a nite set (sequence A006905 in the OEIS)
is known.[2] However, there is a formula for nding the number of relations that are simultaneously reexive, sym-
metric, and transitive in other words, equivalence relations (sequence A000110 in the OEIS), those that are
symmetric and transitive, those that are symmetric, transitive, and antisymmetric, and those that are total, transitive,
and antisymmetric. Pfeier[3] has made some progress in this direction, expressing relations with combinations of
these properties in terms of each other, but still calculating any one is dicult. See also.[4]
52.5 See also

Transitive closure
Transitive reduction
Intransitivity
Reexive relation
Symmetric relation
Quasitransitive relation
Nontransitive dice
Rational choice theory

52.6. SOURCES 213
52.6 Sources
52.6.1 References
[2] Steven R. Finch, Transitive relations, topologies and partial orders, 2003.
[3] Gtz Pfeier, "Counting Transitive Relations", Journal of Integer Sequences, Vol. 7 (2004), Article 04.3.2.
[4] Gunnar Brinkmann and Brendan D. McKay,Counting unlabelled topologies and transitive relations"
52.6.2 Bibliography
Ralph P. Grimaldi, Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics, ISBN 0-201-19912-2.
52.7 External links

Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001) [1994], Transitivity, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Science+Business
Transitivity in Action at cut-the-knot
Chapter 53
Uncountable set
Uncountable redirects here. For the linguistic concept, see Uncountable noun.
In mathematics, an uncountable set (or uncountably innite set)[1] is an innite set that contains too many elements
to be countable. The uncountability of a set is closely related to its cardinal number: a set is uncountable if its cardinal
number is larger than that of the set of all natural numbers.
53.1 Characterizations
There are many equivalent characterizations of uncountability. A set X is uncountable if and only if any of the
following conditions holds:
There is no injective function from X to the set of natural numbers.
X is nonempty and for every -sequence of elements of X, there exist at least one element of X not included
in it. That is, X is nonempty and there is no surjective function from the natural numbers to X.
The cardinality of X is neither nite nor equal to 0 (aleph-null, the cardinality of the natural numbers).
The set X has cardinality strictly greater than 0 .
The rst three of these characterizations can be proven equivalent in ZermeloFraenkel set theory without the axiom
of choice, but the equivalence of the third and fourth cannot be proved without additional choice principles.
53.2 Properties
If an uncountable set X is a subset of set Y, then Y is uncountable.
53.3 Examples
The best known example of an uncountable set is the set R of all real numbers; Cantors diagonal argument shows
that this set is uncountable. The diagonalization proof technique can also be used to show that several other sets are
uncountable, such as the set of all innite sequences of natural numbers and the set of all subsets of the set of natural
numbers. The cardinality of R is often called the cardinality of the continuum and denoted by c, or 20 , or 1
(beth-one).
The Cantor set is an uncountable subset of R. The Cantor set is a fractal and has Hausdor dimension greater than
zero but less than one (R has dimension one). This is an example of the following fact: any subset of R of Hausdor
dimension strictly greater than zero must be uncountable.
214
53.4. WITHOUT THE AXIOM OF CHOICE 215
Another example of an uncountable set is the set of all functions from R to R. This set is even more uncountable
than R in the sense that the cardinality of this set is 2 (beth-two), which is larger than 1 .
A more abstract example of an uncountable set is the set of all countable ordinal numbers, denoted by or 1 .
The cardinality of is denoted 1 (aleph-one). It can be shown, using the axiom of choice, that 1 is the smallest
uncountable cardinal number. Thus either 1 , the cardinality of the reals, is equal to 1 or it is strictly larger. Georg
Cantor was the rst to propose the question of whether 1 is equal to 1 . In 1900, David Hilbert posed this question
as the rst of his 23 problems. The statement that 1 = 1 is now called the continuum hypothesis and is known to
be independent of the ZermeloFraenkel axioms for set theory (including the axiom of choice).
53.4 Without the axiom of choice

Main article: Dedekind-innite set
Without the axiom of choice, there might exist cardinalities incomparable to 0 (namely, the cardinalities of Dedekind-
nite innite sets). Sets of these cardinalities satisfy the rst three characterizations above but not the fourth charac-
terization. Because these sets are not larger than the natural numbers in the sense of cardinality, some may not want
to call them uncountable.
If the axiom of choice holds, the following conditions on a cardinal are equivalent:
0 ;
> 0 ; and
1 , where 1 = |1 | and 1 is least initial ordinal greater than .
However, these may all be dierent if the axiom of choice fails. So it is not obvious which one is the appropriate
generalization of uncountability when the axiom fails. It may be best to avoid using the word in this case and specify
which of these one means.
53.5 See also

Aleph number
Beth number
Injective function
Natural number
53.6 References
[1] Uncountably Innite from Wolfram MathWorld
Halmos, Paul, Naive Set Theory. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1960. Reprinted by Springer-
Verlag, New York, 1974. ISBN 0-387-90092-6 (Springer-Verlag edition). Reprinted by Martino Fine Books,
2011. ISBN 978-1-61427-131-4 (Paperback edition).
Jech, Thomas (2002), Set Theory, Springer Monographs in Mathematics (3rd millennium ed.), Springer, ISBN
3-540-44085-2
53.7 External links

Proof that R is uncountable
Chapter 54
Unimodality
Unimodal redirects here. For the company that promotes personal rapid transit, see SkyTran.
In mathematics, unimodality means possessing a unique mode. More generally, unimodality means there is only a
single highest value, somehow dened, of some mathematical object.[1]
54.1 Unimodal probability distribution
= 0, = 0.2
0.9 = 0, = 1.0
= 0, = 5.0
0.8 = -2, = 0.5
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 1. probability density function of normal distributions, an example of unimodal distribution.
In statistics, a unimodal probability distribution or unimodal distribution is a probability distribution which has
216
54.1. UNIMODAL PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION 217
Figure 2. a simple bimodal distribution.
Figure 3. a distribution which, though strictly unimodal, is usually referred to as bimodal.
a single mode. As the term mode has multiple meanings, so does the term unimodal.
Strictly speaking, a mode of a discrete probability distribution is a value at which the probability mass function (pmf)
takes its maximum value. In other words, it is a most likely value. A mode of a continuous probability distribution
is a value at which the probability density function (pdf) attains its maximum value. Note that in both cases there
can be more than one mode, since the maximum value of either the pmf or the pdf can be attained at more than one
value.
If there is a single mode, the distribution function is called unimodal. If it has more modes it is bimodal (2),
trimodal (3), etc., or in general, multimodal.[2] Figure 1 illustrates normal distributions, which are unimodal.
Other examples of unimodal distributions include Cauchy distribution, Students t-distribution, chi-squared distribu-
tion and exponential distribution. Among discrete distributions, the binomial distribution and Poisson distribution
218 CHAPTER 54. UNIMODALITY
can be seen as unimodal, though for some parameters they can have two adjacent values with the same probability.
Figure 2 illustrates a bimodal distribution.
Figure 3 illustrates a distribution with a single global maximum which by strict denition is unimodal. However,
confusingly, and mostly with continuous distributions, when a pdf function has multiple local maxima it is common
to refer to all of the local maxima as modes of the distribution. Therefore, if a pdf has more than one local maximum
it is referred to as multimodal. Under this common denition, Figure 3 illustrates a bimodal distribution.
54.1.1 Other denitions
Other denitions of unimodality in distribution functions also exist.

In continuous distributions, unimodality can be dened through the behavior of the cumulative distribution function
(cdf).[3] If the cdf is convex for x < m and concave for x > m, then the distribution is unimodal, m being the mode.
Note that under this denition the uniform distribution is unimodal,[4] as well as any other distribution in which the
maximum distribution is achieved for a range of values, e.g. trapezoidal distribution. Note also that usually this
denition allows for a discontinuity at the mode; usually in a continuous distribution the probability of any single
value is zero, while this denition allows for a non-zero probability, or an atom of probability, at the mode.
Criteria for unimodality can also be dened through the characteristic function of the distribution[3] or through its
LaplaceStieltjes transform.[5]
Another way to dene a unimodal discrete distribution is by the occurrence of sign changes in the sequence of dif-
ferences of the probabilities.[6] A discrete distribution with a probability mass function, {pn ; n = . . . , 1, 0, 1, . . . }
, is called unimodal if the sequence . . . , p2 p1 , p1 p0 , p0 p1 , p1 p2 , . . . has exactly one sign change
(when zeroes don't count).
54.1.2 Uses and results
One reason for the importance of distribution unimodality is that it allows for several important results. Several
inequalities are given below which are only valid for unimodal distributions. Thus, it is important to assess whether
or not a given data set comes from a unimodal distribution. Several tests for unimodality are given in the article on
multimodal distribution.
54.1.3 Inequalities
See also: Chebychevs inequality Unimodal distributions
Gausss inequality
A rst important result is Gausss inequality.[7] Gausss inequality gives an upper bound on the probability that a value
lies more than any given distance from its mode. This inequality depends on unimodality.
VysochanskiPetunin inequality
A second is the VysochanskiPetunin inequality,[8] a renement of the Chebyshev inequality. The Chebyshev in-
equality guarantees that in any probability distribution, nearly all the values are close to the mean value. The
VysochanskiPetunin inequality renes this to even nearer values, provided that the distribution function is contin-
uous and unimodal. Further results were shown by Sellke & Sellke.[9]
Mode, median and mean
Gauss also showed in 1823 that for a unimodal distribution[10]

54.2. UNIMODAL FUNCTION 219
and

3
| | ,
4
where the median is , the mean is and is the root mean square deviation from the mode.
It can be shown for a unimodal distribution that the median and the mean lie within (3/5)1/2 0.7746 standard
deviations of each other.[11] In symbols,

| | 3

5
where |.| is the absolute value.
A similar relation holds between the median and the mode : they lie within 31/2 1.732 standard deviations of each
other:
| |
3.

It can also be shown that the mean and the mode lie within 31/2 of each other.
| |
3.

Skewness and kurtosis
Rohatgi and Szekely have shown that the skewness and kurtosis of a unimodal distribution are related by the inequality:[12]
6
2
5
where is the kurtosis and is the skewness.
Klaassen, Mokveld, and van Es derived a slightly dierent inequality (shown below) from the one derived by Rohatgi
and Szekely (shown above), which tends to be more inclusive (i.e., yield more positives) in tests of unimodality:[13]
186
2
125
54.2 Unimodal function

As the term modal applies to data sets and probability distribution, and not in general to functions, the denitions
above do not apply. The denition of unimodal was extended to functions of real numbers as well.
A common denition is as follows: a function f(x) is a unimodal function if for some value m, it is monotonically
increasing for x m and monotonically decreasing for x m. In that case, the maximum value of f(x) is f(m) and
there are no other local maxima.
Proving unimodality is often hard. One way consists in using the denition of that property, but it turns out to be
suitable for simple functions only. A general method based on derivatives exists,[14] but it does not succeed for every
function despite its simplicity.
220 CHAPTER 54. UNIMODALITY
Examples of unimodal functions include quadratic polynomial functions with a negative quadratic coecient, tent
map functions, and more.
The above is sometimes related to as strong unimodality, from the fact that the monotonicity implied is strong
monotonicity. A function f(x) is a weakly unimodal function if there exists a value m for which it is weakly mono-
tonically increasing for x m and weakly monotonically decreasing for x m. In that case, the maximum value
f(m) can be reached for a continuous range of values of x. An example of a weakly unimodal function which is not
strongly unimodal is every other row in a Pascal triangle.
Depending on context, unimodal function may also refer to a function that has only one local minimum, rather than
maximum.[15] For example, local unimodal sampling, a method for doing numerical optimization, is often demon-
strated with such a function. It can be said that a unimodal function under this extension is a function with a single
local extremum.
One important property of unimodal functions is that the extremum can be found using search algorithms such as
golden section search, ternary search or successive parabolic interpolation.
54.3 Other extensions

A function f(x) is S-unimodal (often referred to as S-unimodal map) if its Schwarzian derivative is negative for
all x = c , where c is the critical point.[16]
In computational geometry if a function is unimodal it permits the design of ecient algorithms for nding the
extrema of the function.[17]
A more general denition, applicable to a function f(X) of a vector variable X is that f is unimodal if there is a one-to-
one dierentiable mapping X = G(Z) such that f(G(Z)) is convex. Usually one would want G(Z) to be continuously
dierentiable with nonsingular Jacobian matrix.
Quasiconvex functions and quasiconcave functions extend the concept of unimodality to functions whose arguments
belong to higher-dimensional Euclidean spaces.
54.4 See also

Bimodal distribution
54.5 References
[1] Weisstein, Eric W. Unimodal. MathWorld.
[2] Weisstein, Eric W. Mode. MathWorld.
[3] A.Ya. Khinchin (1938). On unimodal distributions. Trams. Res. Inst. Math. Mech. (in Russian). University of Tomsk.
2 (2): 17.
[4] Ushakov, N.G. (2001) [1994], Unimodal distribution, in Hazewinkel, Michiel, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer
Science+Business Media B.V. / Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
[5] Vladimirovich Gnedenko and Victor Yu Korolev (1996). Random summation: limit theorems and applications. CRC-Press.
ISBN 0-8493-2875-6. p. 31
[6] Medgyessy, P. (March 1972). On the unimodality of discrete distributions. Periodica Mathematica Hungarica. 2 (14):
245257. doi:10.1007/bf02018665.
[7] Gauss, C. F. (1823). Theoria Combinationis Observationum Erroribus Minimis Obnoxiae, Pars Prior. Commentationes
Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. 5.
[8] D. F. Vysochanskij, Y. I. Petunin (1980). Justication of the 3 rule for unimodal distributions. Theory of Probability
and Mathematical Statistics. 21: 2536.
[9] Sellke, T.M.; Sellke, S.H. (1997). Chebyshev inequalities for unimodal distributions. American Statistician. American
Statistical Association. 51 (1): 3440. JSTOR 2684690. doi:10.2307/2684690.
[10] Gauss C.F. Theoria Combinationis Observationum Erroribus Minimis Obnoxiae. Pars Prior. Pars Posterior. Supplemen-
tum. Theory of the Combination of Observations Least Subject to Errors. Part One. Part Two. Supplement. 1995.
Translated by G.W. Stewart. Classics in Applied Mathematics Series, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics,
Philadelphia
[11] Basu, Sanjib, and Anirban DasGupta. The mean, median, and mode of unimodal distributions: a characterization. Theory
of Probability & Its Applications 41.2 (1997): 210-223.
[12] Rohatgi VK, Szekely GJ (1989) Sharp inequalities between skewness and kurtosis. Statistics & Probability Letters 8:297-
299
[13] Klaassen CAJ, Mokveld PJ, van Es B (2000) Squared skewness minus kurtosis bounded by 186/125 for unimodal distri-
butions. Stat & Prob Lett 50 (2) 131135
[14] On the unimodality of METRIC Approximation subject to normally distributed demands. (PDF). Method in appendix
D, Example in theorem 2 page 5. Retrieved 2013-08-28.
[15] Mathematical Programming Glossary.. Retrieved 2010-07-07.
[16] See e.g. John Guckenheimer and Stewart Johnson (July 1990). Distortion of S-Unimodal Maps. The Annals of Mathe-
matics, Second Series. 132 (1). pp. 71130. doi:10.2307/1971501.
[17] Godfried T. Toussaint (June 1984). Complexity, convexity, and unimodality. International Journal of Computer and
Information Sciences. 13 (3). pp. 197217. doi:10.1007/bf00979872.
Chapter 55
Utility
This article is about the economic concept. For other uses, see Utility (disambiguation).
In economics, utility is a measure of preferences over some set of goods (including services: something that satis-
es human wants); it represents satisfaction experienced by the consumer of a good. The concept is an important
underpinning of rational choice theory in economics and game theory: since one cannot directly measure benet, sat-
isfaction or happiness from a good or service, economists instead have devised ways of representing and measuring
utility in terms of measurable economic choices. Economists have attempted to perfect highly abstract methods of
comparing utilities by observing and calculating economic choices; in the simplest sense, economists consider utility
to be revealed in peoples willingness to pay dierent amounts for dierent goods.
55.1 Applications
Utility is usually applied by economists in such constructs as the indierence curve, which plot the combination
of commodities that an individual or a society would accept to maintain a given level of satisfaction. Utility and
indierence curves are used by economists to understand the underpinnings of demand curves, which are half of the
supply and demand analysis that is used to analyze the workings of goods markets.
Individual utility and social utility can be construed as the value of a utility function and a social welfare function
respectively. When coupled with production or commodity constraints, under some assumptions these functions can
be used to analyze Pareto eciency, such as illustrated by Edgeworth boxes in contract curves. Such eciency is a
central concept in welfare economics.
In nance, utility is applied to generate an individuals price for an asset called the indierence price. Utility functions
are also related to risk measures, with the most common example being the entropic risk measure.
55.2 Revealed preference
It was recognized that utility could not be measured or observed directly, so instead economists devised a way to
infer underlying relative utilities from observed choice. These 'revealed preferences, as they were named by Paul
Samuelson, were revealed e.g. in peoples willingness to pay:
Utility is taken to be correlative to Desire or Want. It has been already argued that desires cannot
be measured directly, but only indirectly, by the outward phenomena to which they give rise: and that in
those cases with which economics is chiey concerned the measure is found in the price which a person
is willing to pay for the fulllment or satisfaction of his desire.[1]:78
222
55.3. FUNCTIONS 223
55.3 Functions
There has been some controversy over the question whether the utility of a commodity can be measured or not. At
one time, it was assumed that the consumer was able to say exactly how much utility he got from the commodity. The
economists who made this assumption belonged to the 'cardinalist school' of economics. Today utility functions,
expressing utility as a function of the amounts of the various goods consumed, are treated as either cardinal or ordinal,
depending on whether they are or are not interpreted as providing more information than simply the rank ordering of
preferences over bundles of goods, such as information on the strength of preferences.
55.3.1 Cardinal
Main article: Cardinal utility
When cardinal utility is used, the magnitude of utility dierences is treated as an ethically or behaviorally signicant
quantity. For example, suppose a cup of orange juice has utility of 120 utils, a cup of tea has a utility of 80 utils,
and a cup of water has a utility of 40 utils. With cardinal utility, it can be concluded that the cup of orange juice is
better than the cup of tea by exactly the same amount by which the cup of tea is better than the cup of water. One
cannot conclude, however, that the cup of tea is two thirds as good as the cup of juice, because this conclusion would
depend not only on magnitudes of utility dierences, but also on the zero of utility. For example, if the zero of
utility was located at 40, then a cup of orange juice would be 160 utils more than zero, a cup of tea 120 utils more
than zero.
Neoclassical economics has largely retreated from using cardinal utility functions as the basis of economic behavior.
A notable exception is in the context of analyzing choice under conditions of risk (see below).
Sometimes cardinal utility is used to aggregate utilities across persons, to create a social welfare function.
55.3.2 Ordinal
Main article: Ordinal utility
When ordinal utilities are used, dierences in utils (values taken on by the utility function) are treated as ethically
or behaviorally meaningless: the utility index encodes a full behavioral ordering between members of a choice set,
but tells nothing about the related strength of preferences. In the above example, it would only be possible to say that
juice is preferred to tea to water, but no more.
Ordinal utility functions are unique up to increasing monotone transformations. For example, if a function u(x) is
taken as ordinal, it is equivalent to the function u(x)3 , because taking the 3rd power is an increasing monotone
transformation. This means that the ordinal preference induced by these functions is the same. In contrast, cardinal
utilities are unique only up to increasing linear transformations, so if u(x) is taken as cardinal, it is not equivalent to
u(x)3 .
55.3.3 Preferences
Although preferences are the conventional foundation of microeconomics, it is often convenient to represent prefer-
ences with a utility function and analyze human behavior indirectly with utility functions. Let X be the consumption
set, the set of all mutually-exclusive baskets the consumer could conceivably consume. The consumers utility func-
tion u : X R ranks each package in the consumption set. If the consumer strictly prefers x to y or is indierent
between them, then u(x) u(y) .
For example, suppose a consumers consumption set is X = {nothing, 1 apple,1 orange, 1 apple and 1 orange, 2 apples,
2 oranges}, and its utility function is u(nothing) = 0, u(1 apple) = 1, u(1 orange) = 2, u(1 apple and 1 orange) = 4,
u(2 apples) = 2 and u(2 oranges) = 3. Then this consumer prefers 1 orange to 1 apple, but prefers one of each to 2
oranges.
In micro-economic models, there are usually a nite set of L commodities, and a consumer may consume an arbitrary
amount of each commodity. This gives a consumption set of RL + , and each package x R+ is a vector containing
L
the amounts of each commodity. In the previous example, we might say there are two commodities: apples and
224 CHAPTER 55. UTILITY
oranges. If we say apples is the rst commodity, and oranges the second, then the consumption set X = R2+ and u(0,
0) = 0, u(1, 0) = 1, u(0, 1) = 2, u(1, 1) = 4, u(2, 0) = 2, u(0, 2) = 3 as before. Note that for u to be a utility function
on X, it must be dened for every package in X.
A utility function u : X R represents a preference relation on X i for every x, y X , u(x) u(y) implies
x y . If u represents , then this implies is complete and transitive, and hence rational.
55.3.4 Revealed preferences in nance

In nancial applications, e.g. portfolio optimization, an investor chooses nancial portfolio which maximizes his/her
own utility function, or, equivalently, minimizes his/her risk measure. For example, modern portfolio theory selects
variance as a measure of risk; other popular theories are expected utility theory[2] and prospect theory.[3] To determine
specic utility function for any given investor, one could design a questionnaire procedure with questions in the form:
How much would you pay for x% chance of getting y? Revealed preference theory suggests a more direct approach:
observe a portfolio X* which an investor currently holds, and then nd a utility function/risk measure such that X*
becomes an optimal portfolio.[4]
55.3.5 Examples
In order to simplify calculations, various alternative assumptions have been made concerning details of human pref-
erences, and these imply various alternative utility functions such as:
CES (constant elasticity of substitution, or isoelastic) utility
Isoelastic utility
Exponential utility
Quasilinear utility
Homothetic preferences
StoneGeary utility function
Gorman polar form
GreenwoodHercowitzHuman preferences
KingPlosserRebelo preferences
Hyperbolic absolute risk aversion
Most utility functions used in modeling or theory are well-behaved. They are usually monotonic and quasi-concave.
However, it is possible for preferences not to be representable by a utility function. An example is lexicographic
preferences which are not continuous and cannot be represented by a continuous utility function.[5]
55.4 Expected
Main article: Expected utility hypothesis
The expected utility theory deals with the analysis of choices among risky projects with multiple (possibly multidi-
mensional) outcomes.
The St. Petersburg paradox was rst proposed by Nicholas Bernoulli in 1713 and solved by Daniel Bernoulli in 1738.
D. Bernoulli argued that the paradox could be resolved if decision-makers displayed risk aversion and argued for a
logarithmic cardinal utility function.
The rst important use of the expected utility theory was that of John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern, who
used the assumption of expected utility maximization in their formulation of game theory.
55.4. EXPECTED 225
55.4.1 von NeumannMorgenstern

Main article: Von NeumannMorgenstern utility theorem
Von Neumann and Morgenstern addressed situations in which the outcomes of choices are not known with certainty,
but have probabilities attached to them.
A notation for a lottery is as follows: if options A and B have probability p and 1 p in the lottery, we write it as a
linear combination:
L = pA + (1 p)B
More generally, for a lottery with many possible options:

L= pi Ai ,
i

where i pi = 1 .
By making some reasonable assumptions about the way choices behave, von Neumann and Morgenstern showed that
if an agent can choose between the lotteries, then this agent has a utility function such that the desirability of an
arbitrary lottery can be calculated as a linear combination of the utilities of its parts, with the weights being their
probabilities of occurring.
This is called the expected utility theorem. The required assumptions are four axioms about the properties of the
agents preference relation over 'simple lotteries, which are lotteries with just two options. Writing B A to mean
'A is weakly preferred to B' ('A is preferred at least as much as B'), the axioms are:
1. completeness: For any two simple lotteries L and M , either L M or M L (or both, in which case they
are viewed as equally desirable).
2. transitivity: for any three lotteries L, M, N , if L M and M N , then L N .
3. convexity/continuity (Archimedean property): If L M N , then there is a p between 0 and 1 such that
the lottery pL + (1 p)N is equally desirable as M .
4. independence: for any three lotteries L, M, N and any probability p, L M if and only if pL + (1 p)N
pM + (1 p)N . Intuitively, if the lottery formed by the probabilistic combination of L and N is no more
preferable than the lottery formed by the same probabilistic combination of M and N, then and only then
LM.
Axioms 3 and 4 enable us to decide about the relative utilities of two assets or lotteries.
In more formal language: A von NeumannMorgenstern utility function is a function from choices to the real numbers:
u: X R
which assigns a real number to every outcome in a way that captures the agents preferences over simple lotteries.
Under the four assumptions mentioned above, the agent will prefer a lottery L2 to a lottery L1 if and only if, for the
utility function characterizing that agent, the expected utility of L2 is greater than the expected utility of L1 :
L1 L2 i u(L1 ) u(L2 )
Repeating in category language: u is a morphism between the category of preferences with uncertainty and the
category of reals as an additive group.
Of all the axioms, independence is the most often discarded. A variety of generalized expected utility theories have
arisen, most of which drop or relax the independence axiom.
55.4.2 As probability of success
Castagnoli and LiCalzi and Bordley and LiCalzi (2000) provided another interpretation for Von Neumann and Mor-
gensterns theory. Specically for any utility function, there exists a hypothetical reference lottery with the expected
utility of an arbitrary lottery being its probability of performing no worse than the reference lottery. Suppose suc-
cess is dened as getting an outcome no worse than the outcome of the reference lottery. Then this mathematical
equivalence means that maximizing expected utility is equivalent to maximizing the probability of success. In many
contexts, this makes the concept of utility easier to justify and to apply. For example, a rms utility might be the
probability of meeting uncertain future customer expectations. [6][7][8][9]
55.5 Indirect
Main article: Indirect utility
An indirect utility function gives the optimal attainable value of a given utility function, which depends on the prices
of the goods and the income or wealth level that the individual possesses.
55.5.1 Money
One use of the indirect utility concept is the notion of the utility of money. The (indirect) utility function for money
is a nonlinear function that is bounded and asymmetric about the origin. The utility function is concave in the positive
region, reecting the phenomenon of diminishing marginal utility. The boundedness reects the fact that beyond a
certain point money ceases being useful at all, as the size of any economy at any point in time is itself bounded. The
asymmetry about the origin reects the fact that gaining and losing money can have radically dierent implications
both for individuals and businesses. The non-linearity of the utility function for money has profound implications
in decision making processes: in situations where outcomes of choices inuence utility through gains or losses of
money, which are the norm in most business settings, the optimal choice for a given decision depends on the possible
outcomes of all other decisions in the same time-period.[10]
55.6 Discussion and criticism

Cambridge economist Joan Robinson famously criticized utility for being a circular concept: Utility is the quality in
commodities that makes individuals want to buy them, and the fact that individuals want to buy commodities shows
that they have utility[11]:48 Robinson also pointed out that because the theory assumes that preferences are xed this
means that utility is not a testable assumption. This is so because if we take changes in peoples behavior in relation
to a change in prices or a change in the underlying budget constraint we can never be sure to what extent the change
in behavior was due to the change in price or budget constraint and how much was due to a change in preferences.[12]
This criticism is similar to that of the philosopher Hans Albert who argued that the ceteris paribus conditions on
which the marginalist theory of demand rested rendered the theory itself an empty tautology and completely closed
to experimental testing.[13] In essence, demand and supply curve (theoretical line of quantity of a product which would
have been oered or requested for given price) is purely ontological and could never been demonstrated empirically.
Another criticism comes from the assertion that neither cardinal nor ordinal utility is empirically observable in the
real world. In the case of cardinal utility it is impossible to measure the level of satisfaction quantitatively when
someone consumes or purchases an apple. In case of ordinal utility, it is impossible to determine what choices were
made when someone purchases, for example, an orange. Any act would involve preference over a vast set of choices
(such as apple, orange juice, other vegetable, vitamin C tablets, exercise, not purchasing, etc.).[14][15]
Other questions of what arguments ought to enter into a utility function are dicult to answer, yet seem necessary
to understanding utility. Whether people gain utility from coherence of wants, beliefs or a sense of duty is key to
understanding their behavior in the utility organon.[16] Likewise, choosing between alternatives is itself a process of
determining what to consider as alternatives, a question of choice within uncertainty.[17]
An evolutionary psychology perspective is that utility may be better viewed as due to preferences that maximized
evolutionary tness in the ancestral environment but not necessarily in the current one.[18]
55.7. SEE ALSO 227
55.7 See also

Law of demand
Marginal utility
Utility maximization problem
55.8 References
[1] Marshall, Alfred (1920). Principles of Economics. An introductory volume (8th ed.). London: Macmillan.
[2] Von Neumann, J., Morgenstern, O. (1953). Theory of games and economic behavior, 3rd ed., Princeton University Press.
[3] Kahneman, D., Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263-291.
[4] Grechuk, B., Zabarankin, M. (2016). Inverse portfolio problem with coherent risk measures, European Journal of Opera-
tional Research 249(2), 740-750.
[5] Ingersoll, Jonathan E., Jr. (1987). Theory of Financial Decision Making. Totowa: Rowman and Littleeld. p. 21. ISBN
0-8476-7359-6.
[6] Castagnoli, E. and M. LiCalzi. Expected Utility Theory without Utility. Theory and Decision, 1996
[7] Bordley, R. and M. LiCalzi. Decision Analysis with Targets instead of Utilities, Decisions in Economics and Finance.
2000.
[8] Bordley,R. And C.Kirkwood. Multiattribute preference analysis with Performance Targets. Operations Research. 2004.
[9] Bordley, R.; Pollock, S. (2009). A Decision-Analytic Approach to Reliability-Based Design Optimization. Operations
Research. 57 (5): 12621270. doi:10.1287/opre.1080.0661.
[10] Berger, J. O. (1985). Utility and Loss. Statistical Decision Theory and Bayesian Analysis (2nd ed.). Berlin: Springer-
Verlag. ISBN 3-540-96098-8.
[11] Robinson, Joan (1962). Economic Philosophy. Harmondsworth, Middle-sex, UK: Penguin Books.
[12] Pilkington, Philip (17 February 2014). Joan Robinsons Critique of Marginal Utility Theory. Fixing the Economists.
[13] Pilkington, Philip (27 February 2014). utility Hans Albert Expands Robinsons Critique of Marginal Utility Theory to
the Law of Demand. Fixing the Economists.
[14] Template:Way-back
[15] http://elsa.berkeley.edu/~{}botond/mistakeschicago.pdf
[16] Klein, Daniel (May 2014). Professor (PDF). Econ Journal Watch. 11 (2): 97105. Retrieved November 15, 2014.
[17] Burke, Kenneth (1932). Towards a Better Life. Berkeley, Calif.:: University of California Press.
[18] Paul H. Rubin and C. Monica Capra. The evolutionary psychology of economics. In Roberts, S. C. (2011). Roberts, S.
Craig, ed. Applied Evolutionary Psychology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199586073. doi:10.1093/acprof:
oso/9780199586073.001.0001.

Anand, Paul (1993). Foundations of Rational Choice Under Risk. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN
0-19-823303-5.
Fishburn, Peter C. (1970). Utility Theory for Decision Making. Huntington, NY: Robert E. Krieger. ISBN
0-88275-736-9.
Georgescu-Roegen, Nicholas (Aug 1936). The Pure Theory of Consumers Behavior. Quarterly Journal of
Economics. 50 (4): 545593. JSTOR 1891094. doi:10.2307/1891094.
Gilboa, Itzhak (2009). Theory of Decision under Uncertainty. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN
978-0-521-74123-1.
Kreps, David M. (1988). Notes on the Theory of Choice. Boulder, CO: West-view Press. ISBN 0-8133-7553-3.
Nash, John F. (1950). The Bargaining Problem. Econometrica. 18 (2): 155162. JSTOR 1907266.
doi:10.2307/1907266.
Neumann, John von & Morgenstern, Oskar (1944). Theory of Games and Economic Behavior. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Nicholson, Walter (1978). Micro-economic Theory (Second ed.). Hinsdale: Dryden Press. pp. 5387. ISBN
0-03-020831-9.
Plous, S. (1993). The Psychology of Judgement and Decision Making. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-
050477-6.

Denition of Utility by Investopedia
Anatomy of Cobb-Douglas Type Utility Functions in 3D

Anatomy of CES Type Utility Functions in 3D
Simpler Denition with example from Investopedia

Maximization of Originality - redenition of classic utility
Utility Model of Marketing - Form, Place, Time, Possession and perhaps also Task
Chapter 56
Weak ordering
Not to be confused with weak order of permutations.

In mathematics, especially order theory, a weak ordering is a mathematical formalization of the intuitive notion of
a<c<b
a<b a<b
c<a<b c<b a<c a<b<c
c<a a,b,c a<c

c<b b<c
c<b<a b<a b<a b<a<c

c<a b<c
b<c<a
The 13 possible strict weak orderings on a set of three elements {a, b, c}. The only partially ordered sets are coloured, while totally
ordered ones are in black. Two orderings are shown as connected by an edge if they dier by a single dichotomy.
229
230 CHAPTER 56. WEAK ORDERING
a ranking of a set, some of whose members may be tied with each other. Weak orders are a generalization of totally
ordered sets (rankings without ties) and are in turn generalized by partially ordered sets and preorders.[1]
There are several common ways of formalizing weak orderings, that are dierent from each other but cryptomorphic
(interconvertable with no loss of information): they may be axiomatized as strict weak orderings (partially ordered
sets in which incomparability is a transitive relation), as total preorders (transitive binary relations in which at least
one of the two possible relations exists between every pair of elements), or as ordered partitions (partitions of the
elements into disjoint subsets, together with a total order on the subsets). In many cases another representation called
a preferential arrangement based on a utility function is also possible.
Weak orderings are counted by the ordered Bell numbers. They are used in computer science as part of partition
renement algorithms, and in the C++ Standard Library.[2]
56.1 Examples
In horse racing, the use of photo nishes has eliminated some, but not all, ties or (as they are called in this context)
dead heats, so the outcome of a horse race may be modeled by a weak ordering.[3] In an example from the Maryland
Hunt Cup steeplechase in 2007, The Bruce was the clear winner, but two horses Bug River and Lear Charm tied for
second place, with the remaining horses farther back; three horses did not nish.[4] In the weak ordering describing
this outcome, The Bruce would be rst, Bug River and Lear Charm would be ranked after The Bruce but before all
the other horses that nished, and the three horses that did not nish would be placed last in the order but tied with
each other.
The points of the Euclidean plane may be ordered by their distance from the origin, giving another example of a weak
ordering with innitely many elements, innitely many subsets of tied elements (the sets of points that belong to a
common circle centered at the origin), and innitely many points within these subsets. Although this ordering has a
smallest element (the origin itself), it does not have any second-smallest elements, nor any largest element.
Opinion polling in political elections provides an example of a type of ordering that resembles weak orderings, but is
better modeled mathematically in other ways. In the results of a poll, one candidate may be clearly ahead of another,
or the two candidates may be statistically tied, meaning not that their poll results are equal but rather that they are
within the margin of error of each other. However, if candidate x is statistically tied with y, and y is statistically tied
with z, it might still be possible for x to be clearly better than z, so being tied is not in this case a transitive relation.
Because of this possibility, rankings of this type are better modeled as semiorders than as weak orderings.[5]
56.2 Axiomatizations
56.2.1 Strict weak orderings
A strict weak ordering is a binary relation < on a set S that is a strict partial order (a transitive relation that is
irreexive, or equivalently,[6] that is asymmetric) in which the relation neither a < b nor b < a" is transitive.[1]
Therefore, a strict weak ordering has the following properties:
For all x in S, it is not the case that x < x (irreexivity).
For all x, y in S, if x < y then it is not the case that y < x (asymmetry).
For all x, y, z in S, if x < y and y < z then x < z (transitivity).
For all x, y, z in S, if x is incomparable with y (neither x < y nor y < x hold), and y is incomparable with z, then
x is incomparable with z (transitivity of incomparability).
This list of properties is somewhat redundant, in that asymmetry implies irreexivity, and in that irreexivity and
transitivity together imply asymmetry.
The incomparability relation is an equivalence relation, and its equivalence classes partition the elements of S, and
are totally ordered by <. Conversely, any total order on a partition of S gives rise to a strict weak ordering in which x
< y if and only if there exists sets A and B in the partition with x in A, y in B, and A < B in the total order.
56.2. AXIOMATIZATIONS 231
Not every partial order obeys the transitive law for incomparability. For instance, consider the partial order in the
set {a, b, c} dened by the relationship b < c. The pairs a, b and a, c are incomparable but b and c are related, so
incomparability does not form an equivalence relation and this example is not a strict weak ordering.
Transitivity of incomparability (together with transitivity) can also be stated in the following forms:
If x < y, then for all z, either x < z or z < y or both.
Or:
If x is incomparable with y, then for all z x, z y, either (x < z and y < z) or (z < x and z < y) or (z is
incomparable with x and z is incomparable with y).
56.2.2 Total preorders
Strict weak orders are very closely related to total preorders or (non-strict) weak orders, and the same mathematical
concepts that can be modeled with strict weak orderings can be modeled equally well with total preorders. A total
preorder or weak order is a preorder that is total; that is, no pair of items is incomparable. A total preorder satises
the following properties:
For all x, y, and z, if x y and y z then x z (transitivity).
For all x and y, x y or y x (totality).
Hence, for all x, x x (reexivity).
A total order is a total preorder which is antisymmetric, in other words, which is also a partial order. Total preorders
are sometimes also called preference relations.
The complement of a strict weak order is a total preorder, and vice versa, but it seems more natural to relate strict
weak orders and total preorders in a way that preserves rather than reverses the order of the elements. Thus we take
the inverse of the complement: for a strict weak ordering <, dene a total preorder by setting x y whenever it is
not the case that y < x. In the other direction, to dene a strict weak ordering < from a total preorder , set x < y
whenever it is not the case that y x.[7]
In any preorder there is a corresponding equivalence relation where two elements x and y are dened as equivalent if
x y and y x. In the case of a total preorder the corresponding partial order on the set of equivalence classes is a
total order. Two elements are equivalent in a total preorder if and only if they are incomparable in the corresponding
strict weak ordering.
56.2.3 Ordered partitions
A partition of a set S is a family of disjoint subsets of S that have S as their union. A partition, together with a
total order on the sets of the partition, gives a structure called by Richard P. Stanley an ordered partition[8] and by
Theodore Motzkin a list of sets.[9] An ordered partition of a nite set may be written as a nite sequence of the sets
in the partition: for instance, the three ordered partitions of the set {a, b} are
{a}, {b},
{b}, {a}, and
{a, b}.
In a strict weak ordering, the equivalence classes of incomparability give a set partition, in which the sets inherit a
total ordering from their elements, giving rise to an ordered partition. In the other direction, any ordered partition
gives rise to a strict weak ordering in which two elements are incomparable when they belong to the same set in the
partition, and otherwise inherit the order of the sets that contain them.
56.2.4 Representation by functions
For sets of suciently small cardinality, a third axiomatization is possible, based on real-valued functions. If X is any
set and f a real-valued function on X then f induces a strict weak order on X by setting a < b if and only if f(a) < f(b).
The associated total preorder is given by setting a b if and only if f(a) f(b), and the associated equivalence by
setting a b if and only if f(a) = f(b).
The relations do not change when f is replaced by g o f (composite function), where g is a strictly increasing real-
valued function dened on at least the range of f. Thus e.g. a utility function denes a preference relation. In this
context, weak orderings are also known as preferential arrangements.[10]
If X is nite or countable, every weak order on X can be represented by a function in this way.[11] However, there
exist strict weak orders that have no corresponding real function. For example, there is no such function for the
lexicographic order on Rn . Thus, while in most preference relation models the relation denes a utility function up to
order-preserving transformations, there is no such function for lexicographic preferences.
More generally, if X is a set, and Y is a set with a strict weak ordering "<", and f a function from X to Y, then f
induces a strict weak ordering on X by setting a < b if and only if f(a) < f(b). As before, the associated total preorder
is given by setting a b if and only if f(a) f(b), and the associated equivalence by setting a b if and only
if f(a) f(b). It is not assumed here that f is an injective function, so a class of two equivalent elements on Y
may induce a larger class of equivalent elements on X. Also, f is not assumed to be an surjective function, so a class
of equivalent elements on Y may induce a smaller or empty class on X. However, the function f induces an injective
function that maps the partition on X to that on Y. Thus, in the case of nite partitions, the number of classes in X is
less than or equal to the number of classes on Y.
56.3 Related types of ordering
Semiorders generalize strict weak orderings, but do not assume transitivity of incomparability.[12] A strict weak order
that is trichotomous is called a strict total order.[13] The total preorder which is the inverse of its complement is in
this case a total order.
For a strict weak order "<" another associated reexive relation is its reexive closure, a (non-strict) partial order "".
The two associated reexive relations dier with regard to dierent a and b for which neither a < b nor b < a: in the
total preorder corresponding to a strict weak order we get a b and b a, while in the partial order given by the
reexive closure we get neither a b nor b a. For strict total orders these two associated reexive relations are
the same: the corresponding (non-strict) total order.[13] The reexive closure of a strict weak ordering is a type of
series-parallel partial order.
56.4 All weak orders on a nite set
56.4.1 Combinatorial enumeration
Main article: ordered Bell number
The number of distinct weak orders (represented either as strict weak orders or as total preorders) on an n-element
set is given by the following sequence (sequence A000670 in the OEIS):
These numbers are also called the Fubini numbers or ordered Bell numbers.
For example, for a set of three labeled items, there is one weak order in which all three items are tied. There are three
ways of partitioning the items into one singleton set and one group of two tied items, and each of these partitions
gives two weak orders (one in which the singleton is smaller than the group of two, and one in which this ordering is
reversed), giving six weak orders of this type. And there is a single way of partitioning the set into three singletons,
which can be totally ordered in six dierent ways. Thus, altogether, there are 13 dierent weak orders on three items.
56.4. ALL WEAK ORDERS ON A FINITE SET 233
(4,1,2,3)
(3,1,2,4) (4,2,1,3)
(3,2,1,4)
(4,1,3,2)
(2,1,3,4) (4,3,1,2)
(2,3,1,4)
(3,1,4,2) (4,2,3,1)
(2,1,4,3) (4,3,2,1)
(1,2,3,4) (3,4,1,2)
(1,3,2,4) (2,4,1,3)
(3,2,4,1)
(1,2,4,3) (3,4,2,1)
(1,4,2,3)
(2,3,4,1)
(1,3,4,2) (2,4,3,1)
(1,4,3,2)
The permutohedron on four elements, a three-dimensional convex polyhedron. It has 24 vertices, 36 edges, and 14 two-dimensional
faces, which all together with the whole three-dimensional polyhedron correspond to the 75 weak orderings on four elements.
56.4.2 Adjacency structure
Unlike for partial orders, the family of weak orderings on a given nite set is not in general connected by moves that
add or remove a single order relation to a given ordering. For instance, for three elements, the ordering in which all
three elements are tied diers by at least two pairs from any other weak ordering on the same set, in either the strict
weak ordering or total preorder axiomatizations. However, a dierent kind of move is possible, in which the weak
orderings on a set are more highly connected. Dene a dichotomy to be a weak ordering with two equivalence classes,
and dene a dichotomy to be compatible with a given weak ordering if every two elements that are related in the
ordering are either related in the same way or tied in the dichotomy. Alternatively, a dichotomy may be dened as a
Dedekind cut for a weak ordering. Then a weak ordering may be characterized by its set of compatible dichotomies.
For a nite set of labeled items, every pair of weak orderings may be connected to each other by a sequence of moves
that add or remove one dichotomy at a time to or from this set of dichotomies. Moreover, the undirected graph that
has the weak orderings as its vertices, and these moves as its edges, forms a partial cube.[14]
Geometrically, the total orderings of a given nite set may be represented as the vertices of a permutohedron, and the
dichotomies on this same set as the facets of the permutohedron. In this geometric representation, the weak orderings
on the set correspond to the faces of all dierent dimensions of the permutohedron (including the permutohedron
itself, but not the empty set, as a face). The codimension of a face gives the number of equivalence classes in the
corresponding weak ordering.[15] In this geometric representation the partial cube of moves on weak orderings is the
graph describing the covering relation of the face lattice of the permutohedron.
For instance, for n = 3, the permutohedron on three elements is just a regular hexagon. The face lattice of the hexagon
(again, including the hexagon itself as a face, but not including the empty set) has thirteen elements: one hexagon,
six edges, and six vertices, corresponding to the one completely tied weak ordering, six weak orderings with one tie,
and six total orderings. The graph of moves on these 13 weak orderings is shown in the gure.
56.5 Applications
As mentioned above, weak orders have applications in utility theory.[11] In linear programming and other types of
combinatorial optimization problem, the prioritization of solutions or of bases is often given by a weak order, de-
termined by a real-valued objective function; the phenomenon of ties in these orderings is called degeneracy, and
several types of tie-breaking rule have been used to rene this weak ordering into a total ordering in order to prevent
problems caused by degeneracy.[16]
Weak orders have also been used in computer science, in partition renement based algorithms for lexicographic
breadth-rst search and lexicographic topological ordering. In these algorithms, a weak ordering on the vertices of a
graph (represented as a family of sets that partition the vertices, together with a doubly linked list providing a total
order on the sets) is gradually rened over the course of the algorithm, eventually producing a total ordering that is
the output of the algorithm.[17]
In the Standard Library for the C++ programming language, the set and multiset data types sort their input by a
comparison function that is specied at the time of template instantiation, and that is assumed to implement a strict
weak ordering.[2]
56.6 References
[1] Roberts, Fred; Tesman, Barry (2011), Applied Combinatorics (2nd ed.), CRC Press, Section 4.2.4 Weak Orders, pp. 254
256, ISBN 9781420099836.
[2] Josuttis, Nicolai M. (2012), The C++ Standard Library: A Tutorial and Reference, Addison-Wesley, p. 469, ISBN
9780132977739.
[3] de Koninck, J. M. (2009), Those Fascinating Numbers, American Mathematical Society, p. 4, ISBN 9780821886311.
[4] Baker, Kent (April 29, 2007), The Bruce hangs on for Hunt Cup victory: Bug River, Lear Charm nish in dead heat for
second, The Baltimore Sun, (Subscription required (help)).
[5] Regenwetter, Michel (2006), Behavioral Social Choice: Probabilistic Models, Statistical Inference, and Applications, Cam-
bridge University Press, pp. 113, ISBN 9780521536660.
[7] Ehrgott, Matthias (2005), Multicriteria Optimization, Springer, Proposition 1.9, p. 10, ISBN 9783540276593.
[8] Stanley, Richard P. (1997), Enumerative Combinatorics, Vol. 2, Cambridge Studies in Advanced Mathematics, 62, Cam-
bridge University Press, p. 297.
[9] Motzkin, Theodore S. (1971), Sorting numbers for cylinders and other classication numbers, Combinatorics (Proc.
Sympos. Pure Math., Vol. XIX, Univ. California, Los Angeles, Calif., 1968), Providence, R.I.: Amer. Math. Soc., pp.
167176, MR 0332508.
[10] Gross, O. A. (1962), Preferential arrangements, The American Mathematical Monthly, 69: 48, MR 0130837, doi:10.2307/2312725.
[11] Roberts, Fred S. (1979), Measurement Theory, with Applications to Decisionmaking, Utility, and the Social Sciences, Ency-
clopedia of Mathematics and its Applications, 7, Addison-Wesley, Theorem 3.1, ISBN 978-0-201-13506-0.
[12] Luce, R. Duncan (1956), Semiorders and a theory of utility discrimination, Econometrica, 24: 178191, JSTOR 1905751,
MR 0078632, doi:10.2307/1905751.
[13] Velleman, Daniel J. (2006), How to Prove It: A Structured Approach, Cambridge University Press, p. 204, ISBN 9780521675994.
[14] Eppstein, David; Falmagne, Jean-Claude; Ovchinnikov, Sergei (2008), Media Theory: Interdisciplinary Applied Mathemat-
ics, Springer, Section 9.4, Weak Orders and Cubical Complexes, pp. 188196.
[15] Ziegler, Gnter M. (1995), Lectures on Polytopes, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 152, Springer, p. 18.
[16] Chvtal, Vaek (1983), Linear Programming, Macmillan, pp. 2938, ISBN 9780716715870.
[17] Habib, Michel; Paul, Christophe; Viennot, Laurent (1999), Partition renement techniques: an interesting algorithmic tool
kit, International Journal of Foundations of Computer Science, 10 (2): 147170, MR 1759929, doi:10.1142/S0129054199000125.
Chapter 57
Well-quasi-ordering
In mathematics, specically order theory, a well-quasi-ordering or wqo is a quasi-ordering such that any innite
sequence of elements x0 , x1 , x2 , from X contains an increasing pair xi xj with i < j .
57.1 Motivation
Well-founded induction can be used on any set with a well-founded relation, thus one is interested in when a quasi-
order is well-founded. However the class of well-founded quasiorders is not closed under certain operations - that
is, when a quasi-order is used to obtain a new quasi-order on a set of structures derived from our original set, this
quasiorder is found to be not well-founded. By placing stronger restrictions on the original well-founded quasiordering
one can hope to ensure that our derived quasiorderings are still well-founded.
An example of this is the power set operation. Given a quasiordering for a set X one can dene a quasiorder +
on X 's power set P (X) by setting A + B if and only if for each element of A one can nd some element of B
which is larger than it under . One can show that this quasiordering on P (X) needn't be well-founded, but if one
takes the original quasi-ordering to be a well-quasi-ordering, then it is.

A well-quasi-ordering on a set X is a quasi-ordering (i.e., a reexive, transitive binary relation) such that any innite
sequence of elements x0 , x1 , x2 , from X contains an increasing pair xi xj with i < j . The set X is said to
be well-quasi-ordered, or shortly wqo.
A well partial order, or a wpo, is a wqo that is a proper ordering relation, i.e., it is antisymmetric.
Among other ways of dening wqos, one is to say that they are quasi-orderings which do not contain innite strictly
decreasing sequences (of the form x0 > x1 > x2 >) nor innite sequences of pairwise incomparable elements.
Hence a quasi-order ( X ,) is wqo if and only if it is well-founded and has no innite antichains.
57.3 Examples
(N, ) , the set of natural numbers with standard ordering, is a well partial order (in fact, a well-order). How-
ever, (Z, ) , the set of positive and negative integers, is not a well-quasi-order, because it is not well-founded.
(N, |) , the set of natural numbers ordered by divisibility, is not a well partial order: the prime numbers are an
innite antichain.
(Nk , ) , the set of vectors of k natural numbers (where k is nite) with component-wise ordering, is a well
partial order (Dicksons lemma). More generally, if (X, ) is well-quasi-order, then (X k , k ) is also a well-
quasi-order for all k .
235
236 CHAPTER 57. WELL-QUASI-ORDERING
Let X be an arbitrary nite set with at least two elements. The set X of words over X ordered lexicographically
(as in a dictionary) is not a well-quasi-order because it contains the innite decreasing sequence b, ab, aab, aaab, . . .
. Similarly, X ordered by the prex relation is not a well-quasi-order, because the previous sequence is an in-
nite antichain of this partial order. However, X ordered by the subsequence relation is a well partial order.[1]
(If X has only one element, these three partial orders are identical.)
More generally, (X , ) , the set of nite X -sequences ordered by embedding is a well-quasi-order if and
only if (X, ) is a well-quasi-order (Higmans lemma). Recall that one embeds a sequence u into a sequence v
by nding a subsequence of v that has the same length as u and that dominates it term by term. When (X, =)
is a nite unordered set, u v if and only if u is a subsequence of v .
(X , ) , the set of innite sequences over a well-quasi-order (X, ) , ordered by embedding, is not a well-
quasi-order in general. That is, Higmans lemma does not carry over to innite sequences. Better-quasi-
orderings have been introduced to generalize Higmans lemma to sequences of arbitrary lengths.
Embedding between nite trees with nodes labeled by elements of a wqo (X, ) is a wqo (Kruskals tree
theorem).
Embedding between innite trees with nodes labeled by elements of a wqo (X, ) is a wqo (Nash-Williams'
theorem).
Embedding between countable scattered linear order types is a well-quasi-order (Laver's theorem).
Embedding between countable boolean algebras is a well-quasi-order. This follows from Lavers theorem and
a theorem of Ketonen.
Finite graphs ordered by a notion of embedding called "graph minor" is a well-quasi-order (RobertsonSeymour
theorem).
Graphs of nite tree-depth ordered by the induced subgraph relation form a well-quasi-order,[2] as do the
cographs ordered by induced subgraphs.[3]
57.4 Wqos versus well partial orders

In practice, the wqos one manipulates are quite often not orderings (see examples above), and the theory is technically
smoother if we do not require antisymmetry, so it is built with wqos as the basic notion. On the other hand, according
to Milner 1985, no real gain in generality is obtained by considering quasi-orders rather than partial orders... it is simply
more convenient to do so.
Observe that a wpo is a wqo, and that a wqo gives rise to a wpo between equivalence classes induced by the kernel
of the wqo. For example, if we order Z by divisibility, we end up with n m if and only if n = m , so that
(Z, |) (N, |) .
57.5 Innite increasing subsequences

If ( X , ) is wqo then every innite sequence x0 , x1 , x2 , contains an innite increasing subsequence xn0
xn1 xn2 (with n0 < n1 < n2 <). Such a subsequence is sometimes called perfect. This can be proved by
a Ramsey argument: given some sequence (xi )i , consider the set I of indexes i such that xi has no larger or equal
xj to its right, i.e., with i < j . If I is innite, then the I -extracted subsequence contradicts the assumption that X
is wqo. So I is nite, and any xn with n larger than any index in I can be used as the starting point of an innite
increasing subsequence.
The existence of such innite increasing subsequences is sometimes taken as a denition for well-quasi-ordering,
leading to an equivalent notion.
57.6 Properties of wqos

Given a quasiordering (X, ) the quasiordering (P (X), + ) dened by A + B a Ab B(a
b) is well-founded if and only if (X, ) is a wqo.[4]
57.7. NOTES 237
A quasiordering is a wqo if and only if the corresponding partial order (obtained by quotienting by x y
x y y x ) has no innite descending sequences or antichains. (This can be proved using a Ramsey
argument as above.)
Given a well-quasi-ordering (X, ) , any sequence of subsets S0 S1 ... X such that i N, x, y

X, x yx Si y Si eventually stabilises (meaning there is an index n N such that Sn = Sn+1 = ...
; subsets S X with the property x, y X, x y x S y S are usually called upward-closed):
assuming the contrary i Nj N, j > i, x Sj \ Si , a contradiction is reached by extracting an innite
non-ascending subsequence.
Given a well-quasi-ordering (X, ) , any subset S X which is upward-closed with respect to has a nite
number of minimal elements w.r.t. , for otherwise the minimal elements of S would constitute an innite
antichain.
57.7 Notes
[1] Gasarch, W. (1998), A survey of recursive combinatorics, Handbook of Recursive Mathematics, Vol. 2, Stud. Logic
Found. Math., 139, Amsterdam: North-Holland, pp. 10411176, MR 1673598, doi:10.1016/S0049-237X(98)80049-9.
See in particular page 1160.
[2] Neetil, Jaroslav; Ossona de Mendez, Patrice (2012), Lemma 6.13, Sparsity: Graphs, Structures, and Algorithms, Algo-
rithms and Combinatorics, 28, Heidelberg: Springer, p. 137, ISBN 978-3-642-27874-7, MR 2920058, doi:10.1007/978-
3-642-27875-4.
[3] Damaschke, Peter (1990), Induced subgraphs and well-quasi-ordering, Journal of Graph Theory, 14 (4): 427435, MR
1067237, doi:10.1002/jgt.3190140406.
[4] Forster, Thomas (2003). Better-quasi-orderings and coinduction. Theoretical Computer Science. 309 (13): 111123.
doi:10.1016/S0304-3975(03)00131-2.
57.8 References
Dickson, L. E. (1913). Finiteness of the odd perfect and primitive abundant numbers with r distinct prime
factors. American Journal of Mathematics. 35 (4): 413422. JSTOR 2370405. doi:10.2307/2370405.
Higman, G. (1952). Ordering by divisibility in abstract algebras. Proceedings of the London Mathematical
Society. 2: 326336. doi:10.1112/plms/s3-2.1.326.
Kruskal, J. B. (1972). The theory of well-quasi-ordering: A frequently discovered concept. Journal of
Combinatorial Theory. Series A. 13 (3): 297305. doi:10.1016/0097-3165(72)90063-5.
Ketonen, Jussi (1978). The structure of countable Boolean algebras. Annals of Mathematics. 108 (1): 4189.
JSTOR 1970929. doi:10.2307/1970929.
Milner, E. C. (1985). Basic WQO- and BQO-theory. In Rival, I. Graphs and Order. The Role of Graphs in
the Theory of Ordered Sets and Its Applications. D. Reidel Publishing Co. pp. 487502. ISBN 90-277-1943-8.
Gallier, Jean H. (1991). Whats so special about Kruskals theorem and the ordinal o? A survey of some re-
sults in proof theory. Annals of Pure and Applied Logic. 53 (3): 199260. doi:10.1016/0168-0072(91)90022-
E.
57.9 See also

Better-quasi-ordering
Prewellordering
Well-order
57.10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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August, El C, Spoon!, Rpresser, Jumbuck, EvenT, Adrian.benko, Isnow, Nivaca, Fresheneesz, Chobot, Roboto de Ajvol, Kelovy, Arthur
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Gregbard, WillowW, JAnDbot, TAnthony, Catskineater, Mark lee stillwell, Semmelweiss, PaulTanenbaum, Jackfork, Henry Delforn
(old), DuaneLAnderson, P30Carl, Hakuku, Addbot, LaaknorBot, CarsracBot, Verbal, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Xqbot, Adavis444,
Erik9bot, De bezige bij, EmausBot, Theophil789, Joel B. Lewis, AvocatoBot, MadGuy7023, Alexjbest, Jochen Burghardt, Nbrader,
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wing, Bkell, Salty-horse, Tea2min, Giftlite, Jorge Stol, Alberto da Calvairate~enwiki, MarkSweep, Tsemii, Vivacissamamente, Guan-
abot, Guanabot2, Quistnix, Paul August, Ignignot, MisterSheik, Nickj, Kevin Lamoreau, Obradovic Goran, Pearle, HasharBot~enwiki,
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breDeGuerra, JackSchmidt, I Spel Good~enwiki, Peiresc~enwiki, Classicalecon, Adrianwn, Biagioli, Watchduck, Hans Adler, Huma-
nengr, Neuralwarp, Baudway, FactChecker1199, Kal-El-Bot, Subversive.sound, Tanhabot, Glane23, PV=nRT, Meisam, Legobot, Luckas-
bot, Yobot, Ash4Math, Shvahabi, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Thehelpfulbot, FrescoBot, MarcelB612, CodeBlock, MastiBot, FoxBot,
Duoduoduo, Xnn, EmausBot, Hikaslap, TuHan-Bot, Checkingfax, Cobaltcigs, Wikfr, Karthikndr, Wikiloop, Anita5192, ClueBot NG,
Akuindo, Wcherowi, Widr, Strike Eagle, PhnomPencil, Knwlgc, Dhoke sanket, Victor Yus, Dexbot, Cerabot~enwiki, JPaestpreornJe-
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Antonis Christodes, Giftlite, MathKnight, Jcw69, Rich Farmbrough, Luqui, Bender235, Blotwell, Oleg Alexandrov, Ryan Reich, Jacj,
Dpr, MarSch, Salix alba, FlaBot, Mathbot, Nihiltres, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Conscious, KSmrq, Grubber, Zwobot, Cconnett, Master-
campbell, InverseHypercube, XudongGuan~enwiki, Da nuke, Lambiam, Mike Fikes, CBM, Gregbard, Jac16888, Barticus88, Konradek,
Headbomb, NLuchs, Magioladitis, R'n'B, Quantling, Perel, Oshwah, Versus22, Eraheem, Addbot, MrOllie, Jarble, Yobot, AnomieBOT,
Materialscientist, DannyAsher, Omnipaedista, Sawomir Biay, Oxonienses, Dmwpowers, Chharvey, Wikfr, George Makepeace, Anita5192,
ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, TricksterWolf, Jochen Burghardt, CSB radio, AwesomeEvilGenius, Sphinx-muse, Jascharnhorst, Nbro, Deacon
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dark, Tarquin, Jan Hidders, Roadrunner, Mjb, Tomo, Patrick, Xavic69, Michael Hardy, Wshun, Isomorphic, Dominus, Ixfd64, Takuya-
Murata, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Dcoetzee, Jitse Niesen, Robbot, Chocolateboy, MathMartin, Tea2min, Giftlite, Fropu, Dratman,
Jorge Stol, Jlr~enwiki, Andycjp, Quarl, Guanabot, Yuval madar, Slipstream, Paul August, Elwikipedista~enwiki, Shanes, EmilJ, Ran-
dall Holmes, Ardric47, Obradovic Goran, Eje211, Alansohn, Dallashan~enwiki, Keenan Pepper, PAR, Adrian.benko, Oleg Alexan-
drov, Joriki, Linas, Apokrif, MFH, Dpv, Pigcatian, Penumbra2000, Fresheneesz, Chobot, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Koeyahoo, Trova-
tore, Bota47, Arthur Rubin, Netrapt, SmackBot, Royalguard11, SEIBasaurus, Cybercobra, Jon Awbrey, Turms, Lambiam, Dbtfz, Mr
Stephen, Mets501, Dreftymac, Happy-melon, Petr Matas, CRGreathouse, CBM, Yrodro, WillowW, Xantharius, Thijs!bot, Egrin,
Rlupsa, Marek69, Fayenatic london, JAnDbot, MER-C, TAnthony, Magioladitis, Vanish2, Avicennasis, David Eppstein, Robin S, Akurn,
Adavidb, LajujKej, Owlgorithm, Djjrjr, Policron, DavidCBryant, Quux0r, VolkovBot, Boute, Vipinhari, Anonymous Dissident, PaulTa-
nenbaum, Jackfork, Wykypydya, Dmcq, AlleborgoBot, AHMartin, Ocsenave, Sftd, Paradoctor, Henry Delforn (old), MiNombreDeGuerra,
DuaneLAnderson, Anchor Link Bot, CBM2, Classicalecon, ClueBot, Snigbrook, Rhubbarb, Hans Adler, SounderBruce, SilvonenBot,
BYS2, Plmday, Addbot, LinkFA-Bot, Tide rolls, Jarble, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ht686rg90, Lesliepogi, Pcap, Labus, Nallim-
bot, Reindra, FredrikMeyer, AnomieBOT, Floquenbeam, Royote, Hahahaha4, Materialscientist, Belkovich, Citation bot, Racconish,
Jellystones, Xqbot, Isheden, Geero, GhalyBot, Ernsts, Howard McCay, Constructive editor, Mark Renier, Mfwitten, RandomDSdevel,
NearSetAccount, SpaceFlight89, Yunshui, Miracle Pen, Brambleclawx, RjwilmsiBot, Nomen4Omen, Chharvey, SporkBot, OnePt618,
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TakuyaMurata, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Dcoetzee, Jitse Niesen, Robbot, Chocolateboy, MathMartin, Tea2min, Giftlite, Fropu,
Dratman, Jorge Stol, Jlr~enwiki, Andycjp, Quarl, Guanabot, Yuval madar, Slipstream, Paul August, Elwikipedista~enwiki, Shanes,
EmilJ, Randall Holmes, Ardric47, Obradovic Goran, Eje211, Alansohn, Dallashan~enwiki, Keenan Pepper, PAR, Adrian.benko, Oleg
Alexandrov, Joriki, Linas, Apokrif, MFH, Dpv, Pigcatian, Penumbra2000, Fresheneesz, Chobot, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Koeyahoo,
Trovatore, Bota47, Arthur Rubin, Netrapt, SmackBot, Royalguard11, SEIBasaurus, Cybercobra, Jon Awbrey, Turms, Lambiam, Dbtfz,
Mr Stephen, Mets501, Dreftymac, Happy-melon, Petr Matas, CRGreathouse, CBM, Yrodro, WillowW, Xantharius, Thijs!bot, Egrif-
n, Rlupsa, Marek69, Fayenatic london, JAnDbot, MER-C, TAnthony, Magioladitis, Vanish2, Avicennasis, David Eppstein, Robin
S, Akurn, Adavidb, LajujKej, Owlgorithm, Djjrjr, Policron, DavidCBryant, Quux0r, VolkovBot, Boute, Vipinhari, Anonymous Dis-
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Racconish, Jellystones, Xqbot, Isheden, Geero, GhalyBot, Ernsts, Howard McCay, Constructive editor, Mark Renier, Mfwitten, Ran-
domDSdevel, NearSetAccount, SpaceFlight89, Yunshui, Miracle Pen, Brambleclawx, RjwilmsiBot, Nomen4Omen, Chharvey, Spork-
Bot, OnePt618, Sameer143, Socialservice, ResearchRave, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Koertefa, BG19bot,
ChrisGualtieri, YFdyh-bot, Dexbot, Makecat-bot, ScitDei, Lerutit, Jochen Burghardt, Jodosma, Karim132, Cosmia Nebula, Monkbot,
Pratincola, , Neycalazans, Some1Redirects4You, The Quixotic Potato, Luis150902, Magic links bot and Anonymous: 113
Hypostatic abstraction Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction?oldid=692525468 Contributors: Bevo, MistToys,
El C, Diego Moya, Versageek, Jerey O. Gustafson, Magister Mathematicae, DoubleBlue, TeaDrinker, Brandmeister (old), Closedmouth,
C.Fred, Rajah9, JasonMR, Jon Awbrey, Inhahe, JzG, Slakr, CBM, Gogo Dodo, Hut 8.5, Brigit Zilwaukee, Yolanda Zilwaukee, Karrade,
Mike V, The Tetrast, Rjd0060, Wolf of the Steppes, Doubtentry, Icharus Ixion, Hans Adler, Buchanans Navy Sec, Mr. Peabodys Boy,
Overstay, Marsboat, Unco Guid, Viva La Information Revolution!, Autocratic Uzbek, Poke Salat Annie, Flower Mound Belle, Navy
Pierre, Mrs. Lovetts Meat Puppets, Chester County Dude, Southeast Penna Poppa, Delaware Valley Girl, Denispir, AnomieBOT, Paine
Ellsworth, Gamewizard71, PhnomPencil and Anonymous: 3
Idempotence Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idempotence?oldid=795207452 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, AxelBoldt, Zundark,
Taw, Patrick, Chas zzz brown, Michael Hardy, Ahoerstemeier, Stevan White, Andres, Zarius, Revolver, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, Jitse
Niesen, Glimz~enwiki, Hyacinth, Robbot, Mattblack82, Altenmann, Tea2min, Giftlite, Fropu, Pashute, Mboverload, DefLog~enwiki,
J. 'mach' wust, Joseph Myers, Alex Cohn, Tothebarricades.tk, Andreas Kaufmann, Gcanyon, Mormegil, Rgdboer, Kwamikagami, Nigelj,
Sleske, Obradovic Goran, Mdd, Abdulqabiz, Dirac1933, Bookandcoee, Simetrical, Igny, MFH, Grammarbot, Ketiltrout, MarkHudson,
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FuzzyBSc, Aeusoes1, Deskana, Trovatore, Sangwine, Sfnhltb, Crasshopper, Tomisti, Kompik, Cedar101, Evilbu, SmackBot, Elronx-
enu, Octahedron80, Nbarth, Syberghost, Cybercobra, Lambiam, Robosh, Loadmaster, JHunterJ, MedeaMelana, Rschwieb, Alex Selby,
Dreftymac, Happy-melon, CRGreathouse, CmdrObot, CBM, Gregbard, Julian Mendez, Thijs!bot, Kilva, Konradek, DB Durham NC,
RichardVeryard, RobHar, Gioto, Ouc, JAnDbot, Deective, Randal Oulton, Danculley, Vanish2, Albmont, Brewhaha@edmc.net, David
Eppstein, Emw, Cander0000, Stolsvik, Catskineater, Robin S, Gwern, Bostonvaulter, TomyDuby, Krishnachandranvn, Policron, John-
Blackburne, TXiKiBoT, Una Smith, Broadbot, Jamelan, SieBot, LungZeno, Roujo, Ctxppc, Svick, Stjarnblom, Niceguyedc, DragonBot,
Alexbot, He7d3r, Nardog, Herbert1000, Rswarbrick, Qwfp, Vog, Gniemeyer, Addbot, MrOllie, Download, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
AnomieBOT, Gtz, JackieBot, NOrbeck, Kaoru Itou, DKPHA, RandomDSdevel, Pinethicket, Serols, Ms7821, Duoduoduo, Timtem-
pleton, Peoplemerge, Wham Bam Rock II, Quondum, Dumbier, ClueBot NG, BG19bot, Deltahedron, Jochen Burghardt, 00prometheus,
JaconaFrere, Acominym, Viam Ferream, Loraof, Krebert, InternetArchiveBot, Endless Hair and Anonymous: 89
Indierence graph Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indifference_graph?oldid=708214646 Contributors: Rjwilmsi, David Epp-
stein, Midas02, Eimooz and AnWiPaFr
Interval order Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interval_order?oldid=764267214 Contributors: Berek, Giftlite, Rjwilmsi, Canley,
SmackBot, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Cool Blue, Magioladitis, A3nm, David Eppstein, PaulTanenbaum, Addbot, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Orenburg1, BG19bot, Lerutit and Anonymous: 1
Intransitivity Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intransitivity?oldid=794453539 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Chris-martin, Rp,
6birc, Radicalsubversiv, Andres, Charles Matthews, Ruakh, Giftlite, Andris, Quickwik, D6, Xezbeth, Paul August, Jnestorius, Spoon!,
Polluks, SmackBot, Melchoir, Mauls, MisterHand, Lambiam, Iamagloworm, Dinkumator, CRGreathouse, CmdrObot, CBM, Thomas-
meeks, Ael 2, Thijs!bot, VoABot II, Cnilep, Ddxc, Anchor Link Bot, PixelBot, DumZiBoT, Pa68, Addbot, Forich, WissensDrster,
Undsoweiter, HRoestBot, ChronoKinetic, RjwilmsiBot, Uanfala, Chharvey, Diakov, Darcourse, Jochen Burghardt, GeoreyZanders,
Deacon Vorbis and Anonymous: 9
Inverse relation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_relation?oldid=794453831 Contributors: Patrick, Charles Matthews, Al-
tenmann, Tea2min, Giftlite, Kaldari, Spiy sperry, El C, Versageek, Jerey O. Gustafson, MFH, YurikBot, Cedar101, Paul Erik, Knowl-
edgeOfSelf, C.Fred, Nbarth, Faaaa, Nixeagle, Jon Awbrey, Mearnhardtfan, Coredesat, Slakr, DBooth, CBM, Thomasmeeks, Gogo Dodo,
Mojo Hand, Headbomb, Hut 8.5, MetsBot, David Eppstein, Real World Apple, Ars Tottle, VolkovBot, Iamthedeus, Maelgwnbot, Clas-
sicalecon, Rjd0060, Overstay, Trainshift, Pluto Car, Unco Guid, Viva La Information Revolution!, Autocratic Uzbek, Poke Salat Annie,
Flower Mound Belle, Navy Pierre, Mrs. Lovetts Meat Puppets, Chester County Dude, Southeast Penna Poppa, Delaware Valley Girl,
MystBot, Omphaloskeptor, Addbot, Quercus solaris, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Pcap, Materialscientist, MathHisSci, , John of Read-
ing, SporkBot, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, Jochen Burghardt, Mark viking, JMP EAX, Hdjensofjfnen and Anonymous: 17
Inverse trigonometric functions Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_trigonometric_functions?oldid=795315638 Contribu-
tors: XJaM, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Stevenj, Dysprosia, Fibonacci, Robbot, Tea2min, Giftlite, Anville, SURIV, Daniel,levine, Pmander-
son, Abdull, Discospinster, Osrevad, Bender235, Zenohockey, Army1987, Jrme, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Wtmitchell, Stradi-
variusTV, Armando, Gerbrant, Emallove, R.e.b., Kri, Glenn L, Salvatore Ingala, Chobot, Visor, DVdm, Algebraist, YurikBot, Wave-
length, Sceptre, Hede2000, KSmrq, Grafen, Int 80h, NorsemanII, Bamse, RDBury, Maksim-e~enwiki, Thelukeeect, Eskimbot, Mhss,
Mirokado, JCSantos, PrimeHunter, Deathanatos, V1adis1av, BentSm, Saippuakauppias, Lambiam, Eridani, Ian Vaughan, ChaoticLlama,
CapitalR, JRSpriggs, Conrad.Irwin, HenningThielemann, Fommil, Rian.sanderson, Palmtree3000, Zalgo, Thijs!bot, Spikedmilk, Nonag-
onal Spider, Headbomb, EdJohnston, BigJohnHenry, Luna Santin, Hannes Eder, Pichote, JAnDbot, Ricardo sandoval, Jetstreamer, JNW,
Albmont, Gammy, JoergenB, Ac44ck, Gwern, Isamil, Mythealias, Pomte, Knorlin, TungstenWolfram, Hennessey, Patrick, Bobianite,
BentonMiller, Sigmundur, DavidCBryant, Alan U. Kennington, VolkovBot, Indubitably, LokiClock, Justtysen, VasilievVV, Riku92mr,
Anonymous Dissident, Corvus coronoides, Rdengler, Dmcq, Vertciel, Logan, CagedKiller360, Ck, Aly89, AlanUS, ClueBot, JoeHillen,
Excirial, Bender2k14, Cenarium, Leandropls, Kiensvay, Nikhilkrgvr, Aaron north, Dthomsen8, DaL33T, Addbot, Fgnievinski, Iceblock,
Zarcadia, Sleepaholic, Jasper Deng, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Ptbotgourou, TaBOT-zerem, AnomieBOT, Ar-
chon 2488, JackieBot, Nickweedon, Geek1337~enwiki, Diego Queiroz, Txebixev, St.nerol, Hdullin, GrouchoBot, Uniwersalista, Sas-
soBot, Prari, Nixphoeni, D'ohBot, Kusluj, Emjaye, Number Googol, Serols, Double sharp, Trappist the monk, Adammerlinsmith, TjBot,
Jowa fan, EmausBot, ModWilson, Velowiki, X-4-V-I, RA0808, Wham Bam Rock II, Dcirovic, ZroBot, Michael.YX.Wu, Isaac Euler,
Tolly4bolly, Jay-Sebastos, Colin.campbell.27, Maschen, ChuispastonBot, Rmashhadi, Anita5192, ClueBot NG, Matthiaspaul, Hdreuter,
Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, Vagobot, Gar, Crh23, YatharthROCK, , StevinSimon, Tfr000, Modalanalytiker, Pratyya
Ghosh, Ahmed Magdy Hosny, Brirush, Yardimsever, Wamiq, Jerming, Mathmensch, Blackbombchu, Pqnlrn, DTL LAPOS, Iperetta, De
Riban5, Monkbot, Cpt Wise, Arsenal CR7, Cdserio99, Lond1984, Deacon Vorbis and Anonymous: 187
Near sets Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near_sets?oldid=793681368 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Bearcat, Gandalf61, Giftlite,
Rjwilmsi, Algebraist, SmackBot, MartinPoulter, Headbomb, NSH001, Sebras, Salih, Philip Trueman, JL-Bot, SchreiberBike, Tassede-
the, Jarble, Alvin Seville, Erik9bot, FrescoBot, NSH002, NearSetAccount, Jonesey95, AManWithNoPlan, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot,
BG19bot, Pintoch, Jochen Burghardt, ChristopherJamesHenry and Anonymous: 2
Order dimension Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_dimension?oldid=659047653 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Charles Matthews,
Giftlite, Galaxiaad, Linas, Ott2, Taxipom, A3nm, David Eppstein, PaulTanenbaum, Rswarbrick, Citation bot, Citation bot 1, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Mark viking, Some1Redirects4You and Anonymous: 4
Partial function Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_function?oldid=795247326 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Anome, Jan
Hidders, Edemaine, Michael Hardy, Pizza Puzzle, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Zoicon5, Altenmann, MathMartin, Henrygb, Tea2min,
Tosha, Connelly, Giftlite, Lethe, Waltpohl, Jabowery, DRE, Paul August, Rgdboer, Pearle, Sligocki, Schapel, Artur adib, LunaticFringe,
Oleg Alexandrov, , Mpatel, MFH, Salix alba, Dougluce, FlaBot, VKokielov, Jameshsher, Vonkje, Hairy Dude, Grubber, Trovatore,
Kooky, Arthur Rubin, Crystallina, Jbalint, SmackBot, Incnis Mrsi, Reedy, Ppntori, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Tsca.bot, TheArchivist,
Ccero, Wvbailey, Etatoby, CBM, Blaisorblade, Dvandersluis, Dricherby, Albmont, Timlevin, Ravikaushik, Joshua Issac, Alan U. Ken-
nington, TrippingTroubadour, Dmcq, Paolo.dL, , Classicalecon, ClueBot, Gulmammad, AmirOnWiki, Maheshexp, El bot de la
dieta, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Pcap, AnomieBOT, Isheden, Brookswift, NoJr0xx, Nicolas Perrault III, SkpVwls, Unbit-
wise, Exfenestracide, AvicAWB, Quondum, Wcherowi, This lousy T-shirt, YannickN, Jergas, Tomtom2357, JamesHaigh, SJ Defender,
JMP EAX, Shaelja, GSS-1987, Quiddital, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 44
Partially ordered set Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partially_ordered_set?oldid=795341342 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Zun-
dark, Tomo, Patrick, Bcrowell, Chinju, TakuyaMurata, GTBacchus, AugPi, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Dcoetzee, Dysprosia, Doradus,
Maximus Rex, Fibonacci, Tea2min, Giftlite, Markus Krtzsch, Fropu, Peruvianllama, Jason Quinn, Neilc, Gubbubu, DefLog~enwiki,
MarkSweep, Urhixidur, TheJames, Paul August, Bender235, Zaslav, Spoon!, Porton, Haham hanuka, DougOrleans, Msh210, Oleg
Alexandrov, Daira Hopwood, MFH, Salix alba, FlaBot, Vonkje, Chobot, Laurentius, Dmharvey, Vecter, JosephSilverman, Sanguinity,
Cedar101, Modify, RDBury, Incnis Mrsi, Brick Thrower, Cesine, Zanetu, Jcarroll, Nbarth, Jdthood, Javalenok, Kjetil1001, Dreadstar,
Esoth~enwiki, Mike Fikes, A. Pichler, Vaughan Pratt, CRGreathouse, L'uf, CBM, Werratal, Rlupsa, CZeke, Ill logic, JAnDbot, MER-
C, BrotherE, Tbleher, A3nm, David Eppstein, SlamDiego, Bissinger, Haseldon, Daniel5Ko, GaborLajos, NewEnglandYankee, Orphic,
RobertDanielEmerson, TXiKiBoT, Digby Tantrum, PaulTanenbaum, Arcfrk, SieBot, Mochan Shrestha, TheGhostOfAdrianMineha, The-
hotelambush, CodeTalker, Megaloxantha, Peiresc~enwiki, Cheesefondue, Jludwig, ClueBot, Morinus, Justin W Smith, Methossant, Pi
zero, Jonathanrcoxhead, Watchduck, ComputerGeezer, He7d3r, Hans Adler, Jtle515, Palnot, Marc van Leeuwen, Ankan babee, Addbot,
Download, Luckyz, Legobot, Kilom691, AnomieBOT, Erel Segal, Citation bot, SteveWoolf, Undsoweiter, FrescoBot, Nicolas Perrault
III, Conuente, Ricardo Ferreira de Oliveira, Throw it in the Fire, Darren Strash, Gnathan87, Setitup, EmausBot, John of Reading,
Febuiles, Dcirovic, Thecheesykid, ZroBot, Chharvey, The man who was Friday, SporkBot, Zfeinst, Rathgemz, Wcherowi, CocuBot,
Vdamanafshan, Mesoderm, MerlIwBot, Wbm1058, BG19bot, Jakshap, Paolo Lipparini, ElphiBot, Larion Garaczi, Lerutit, Aabhis,
Jochen Burghardt, Mark viking, Eamonford, Sgbmyr, K401sTL3, Tudor987, Victor Lesyk, Esquivalience, Deniz Stiegemann, Nbro,
Some1Redirects4You and Anonymous: 87
Preorder Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preorder?oldid=794454040 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Patrick, Repton, Delirium, An-
dres, Dysprosia, Greenrd, Big Bob the Finder, StevePowell, BenRG, Tea2min, Giftlite, Markus Krtzsch, Lethe, Fropu, Vadmium,
DefLog~enwiki, Zzo38, Jh51681, Barnaby dawson, 4pq1injbok, Paul August, EmilJ, Msh210, Melaen, Joriki, Linas, Dionyziz, Man-
darax, Salix alba, Cjoev, VKokielov, Mathbot, Jrtayloriv, YurikBot, Laurentius, Hairy Dude, WikidSmaht, Trovatore, Modify, Ne-
trapt, Wasseralm, SmackBot, XudongGuan~enwiki, DCary, Jdthood, Mets501, PaulGS, Stotr~enwiki, Zero sharp, CRGreathouse, CBM,
Michael A. White, Magioladitis, David Eppstein, Jwuthe2, Largoplazo, PaulTanenbaum, SieBot, Thehotelambush, MenoBot, Functor
salad, He7d3r, Sun Creator, Cenarium, Wikidsp, 1ForTheMoney, Palnot, , Legobot, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, DannyAsher,
Xqbot, VladimirReshetnikov, BercherP, ComputScientist, BrideOfKripkenstein, Notedgrant, WikitanvirBot, Lclem, Dfabera, SporkBot,
PatrickR2, Paolo Lipparini, RichardMills65, Khazar2, Lerutit, Jochen Burghardt, Reatlas, Damonamc, Cryptopocalypse and Anonymous:
27
Prewellordering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prewellordering?oldid=794454087 Contributors: Zundark, Patrick, Charles Matthews,
EmilJ, Oleg Alexandrov, NickBush24, Trovatore, Tetracube, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Nbarth, Henry Delforn (old), Pal-
not, Citation bot, Jochen Burghardt, Deacon Vorbis and Anonymous: 3
Propositional function Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propositional_function?oldid=726320246 Contributors: Michael Hardy,
TakuyaMurata, Jason Quinn, Rgdboer, Linas, Thekohser, Arthur Rubin, Gregbard, Uncle uncle uncle, Izno, Ost316, Addbot, Mont-
blanc1988, Orenburg1, Helpful Pixie Bot, YFdyh-bot, JYBot, TE5ITA and Anonymous: 4
Quasi-commutative property Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi-commutative_property?oldid=780824208 Contributors: Michael
Hardy, Dirac66, GrahamHardy, Marius siuram, OccultZone, Hydronium Hydroxide and Anonymous: 1
Quasitransitive relation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasitransitive_relation?oldid=794454154 Contributors: Patrick, Charles
Matthews, Giftlite, Btyner, Salix alba, SmackBot, Zahid Abdassabur, CRGreathouse, CBM, Gregbard, Sam Staton, David Eppstein,
Erik9bot, I dream of horses, Deltahedron, Jochen Burghardt and Anonymous: 2
Quotient by an equivalence relation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotient_by_an_equivalence_relation?oldid=794454227

Contributors: Michael Hardy, TakuyaMurata, Bearcat, David Eppstein, D.Lazard, Jochen Burghardt, K9re11, Iaritmioawp and Fimatic
Reduct Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduct?oldid=618205741 Contributors: John Baez, Spring Rubber, SmackBot, Vaughan
Pratt, Tikiwont, Hans Adler, Backslash Forwardslash, Gf uip, EmausBot, Bgeron, Monkbot and Anonymous: 3
Reexive relation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexive_relation?oldid=794388617 Contributors: AxelBoldt, DavidSJ, Patrick,
Wshun, TakuyaMurata, Looxix~enwiki, William M. Connolley, Charles Matthews, Josh Cherry, MathMartin, Henrygb, Tea2min, Giftlite,
Jason Quinn, Gubbubu, Urhixidur, Ascnder, Paul August, BenjBot, Spayrard, Spoon!, Jet57, LavosBacons, Wtmitchell, Bookandcof-
fee, Oleg Alexandrov, Joriki, Mel Etitis, LOL, Apokrif, MFH, Isnow, Audiovideo, Margosbot~enwiki, Fresheneesz, Chobot, YurikBot,
Laurentius, Maelin, Mathlaura, KarlHeg, Arthur Rubin, Izzynn, Jdthood, Mhym, Ceosion, Mike Fikes, Fjbex, CRGreathouse, CBM,
Gregbard, Farzaneh, Wikid77, JAnDbot, Policron, Joshua Issac, VolkovBot, Jackfork, Jamelan, Ocsenave, SieBot, Davidellerman, Henry
Delforn (old), Hello71, Cuyaken, ClueBot, Ywanne, Da rulz07, SoxBot III, WikHead, Addbot, Download, Favonian, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
Renato sr, Pkukiss, Galoubet, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Z0973, I dream of horses, RedBot, MastiBot, Gamewizard71, EmausBot, Dcirovic,
Dmayank, DimitriC, ClueBot NG, Kasirbot, Joel B. Lewis, BG19bot, Solomon7968, The1337gamer, ChrisGualtieri, Darcourse, Epti-
ed, Lerutit, Jochen Burghardt, Seanhalle, Cosmia Nebula, Dualspace and Anonymous: 38
Relation algebra Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relation_algebra?oldid=789995581 Contributors: Zundark, Michael Hardy, AugPi,
Charles Matthews, Tea2min, Lethe, Fropu, Mboverload, D6, Elwikipedista~enwiki, Giraedata, AshtonBenson, Woohookitty, Paul Car-
penter, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Tillmo, Wavelength, Ott2, Cedar101, Mhss, Concerned cynic, Nbarth, Jon Awbrey, Lambiam, Physis,
Mets501, Vaughan Pratt, CBM, Gregbard, Sam Staton, King Bee, JustAGal, Balder ten Cate, David Eppstein, R'n'B, Leyo, Ramsey2006,
Plasticup, JohnBlackburne, The Tetrast, Linelor, Hans Adler, Addbot, QuadrivialMind, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Nastor, LilHelpa, Xqbot,
Samppi111, Charvest, FrescoBot, Irmy, Sjcjoosten, SchreyP, Seabuoy, BG19bot, CitationCleanerBot, Brad7777, Khazar2, Lerutit, RPI,
JaconaFrere, Narky Blert, SaltHerring, Some1Redirects4You and Anonymous: 40
Relation construction Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relation_construction?oldid=564892457 Contributors: Charles Matthews,
Carlossuarez46, Kaldari, Paul August, El C, DoubleBlue, Nihiltres, TeaDrinker, Gwernol, Wknight94, Closedmouth, SmackBot, Jon
Awbrey, JzG, Coredesat, Slakr, CBM, Gogo Dodo, Hut 8.5, Brusegadi, David Eppstein, Brigit Zilwaukee, Yolanda Zilwaukee, Ars Tottle,
The Proposition That, Spellcast, Corvus cornix, Seb26, Maelgwnbot, Blanchardb, RABBU, REBBU, DEBBU, DABBU, Wolf of the
Steppes, REBBU, Doubtentry, Education Is The Basis Of Law And Order, Bare In Mind, Preveiling Opinion Of Dominant Opinion
Group, VOC, Buchanans Navy Sec, Kaiba, Marsboat, Trainshift, Pluto Car, Unco Guid, Viva La Information Revolution!, Flower
Mound Belle, Editortothemasses, Navy Pierre, Mrs. Lovetts Meat Puppets, Unknown Justin, West Goshen Guy, Southeast Penna Poppa,
Delaware Valley Girl, Erik9bot and Lerutit
Representation (mathematics) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_(mathematics)?oldid=738119982 Contributors:
Michael Hardy, Giftlite, El C, Linas, BD2412, SixWingedSeraph, Rjwilmsi, MarSch, Reyk, Magioladitis, A3nm, David Eppstein,
NewEnglandYankee, PaulTanenbaum, Geometry guy, SieBot, Addbot, Twri, Trappist the monk, Helpful Pixie Bot, BattyBot, Mrt3366
and Anonymous: 4
Semiorder Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiorder?oldid=794454381 Contributors: Rjwilmsi, Headbomb, David Eppstein,
Undsoweiter, Joel B. Lewis, Lerutit, Jochen Burghardt and Anonymous: 2
Sequential composition Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_calculus?oldid=787540057 Contributors: Michael Hardy, AlexR,
Theresa knott, Charles Matthews, Zoicon5, Phil Boswell, Wmahan, Neilc, Solitude, Leibniz, Linas, Ruud Koot, MarSch, XP1, Jamesh-
sher, Vonkje, GangofOne, Wavelength, Koeyahoo, CarlHewitt, Gareth Jones, RabidDeity, Jpbowen, SockPuppetVandal, Voidxor,
Misza13, SmackBot, McGeddon, Chris the speller, Nbarth, Allan McInnes, Ezrakilty, Sam Staton, Blaisorblade, Thijs!bot, Dougher,
Skraedingie, Barkjon, Roxy the dog, MystBot, Addbot, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, GrouchoBot, BehnazCh, Vasywriter,
Ifai, WikitanvirBot, Clayrat, Serketan, Bethnim, Architectchao, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Ulidtko, Pintoch, Dough34, PrimeBOT
and Anonymous: 40
Surjective function Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surjective_function?oldid=774567777 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Tarquin, Amil-
lar, XJaM, Toby Bartels, Michael Hardy, Wshun, Pit~enwiki, Karada, , Glenn, Jeandr du Toit, Hashar, Hawthorn, Charles
Matthews, Dysprosia, David Shay, Ed g2s, Phil Boswell, Aleph4, Robbot, Fredrik, Tea2min, Giftlite, Lethe, Jason Quinn, Jorge Stol,
Matt Crypto, Keeyu, Rheun, MarkSweep, AmarChandra, Tsemii, TheObtuseAngleOfDoom, Vivacissamamente, Rich Farmbrough,
Quistnix, Paul August, Bender235, Nandhp, Kevin Lamoreau, Larryv, Obradovic Goran, Dallashan~enwiki, Anders Kaseorg, ABCD,
Schapel, Oleg Alexandrov, Tbsmith, Mindmatrix, LOL, Waldir, Rjwilmsi, MarSch, FlaBot, Nihiltres, Chobot, Manscher, Algebraist,
Angus Lepper, Ksnortum, Rick Norwood, Sbyrnes321, SmackBot, Rotemliss, Bluebot, Javalenok, TedE, Soapergem, Dreadstar, Saip-
puakauppias, MickPurcell, 16@r, Inquisitus, CBM, MatthewMain, Gregbard, Marqueed, Sam Staton, Pjvpjv, Prolog, Salgueiro~enwiki,
JAnDbot, JamesBWatson, JJ Harrison, Martynas Patasius, MartinBot, TechnoFaye, Malerin, Dubhe.sk, Theabsurd, UnicornTapestry, Eli-
uha gmail.com, Anonymous Dissident, SieBot, SLMarcus, Paolo.dL, Peiresc~enwiki, Classicalecon, Jmcclaskey54, UKoch, Watchduck,
Bender2k14, SchreiberBike, Neuralwarp, Petru Dimitriu, Matthieumarechal, Kal-El-Bot, Addbot, Download, PV=nRT, , Zorrobot,
Jarble, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Xqbot, TechBot, Shvahabi, Raamaiden, Omnipaedista, Ap-
plebringer, Erik9bot, LucienBOT, Tbhotch, Xnn, Jowa fan, EmausBot, PrisonerOfIce, WikitanvirBot, GoingBatty, AManWithNoPlan,
Sasuketiimer, Maschen, Mjbmrbot, Anita5192, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Cispyre, Lfahlberg, JPaestpreornJeolhlna,
TranquilHope and Anonymous: 92
Ternary equivalence relation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternary_equivalence_relation?oldid=756215679 Contributors: Rjwilmsi,
Melchoir and David Eppstein
Ternary relation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternary_relation?oldid=768559737 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Charles Matthews,
Tea2min, Ancheta Wis, Abdull, Paul August, El C, Rgdboer, Versageek, Oleg Alexandrov, Jerey O. Gustafson, RxS, DoubleBlue, Ni-
hiltres, TeaDrinker, Wknight94, Closedmouth, Luk, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Melchoir, C.Fred, BiT, Aksi great,
Nbarth, Jon Awbrey, Lambiam, JzG, Tim Q. Wells, Slakr, Politepunk, General Eisenhower, Happy-melon, Tawkerbot2, CBM, Gogo
Dodo, Alaibot, Luna Santin, Hut 8.5, Transcendence, Brusegadi, David Eppstein, JoergenB, Santiago Saint James, Brigit Zilwaukee,
Yolanda Zilwaukee, Fallopius Manque, Mike V, CardinalDan, Rei-bot, Seb26, GlobeGores, Lucien Odette, REBBU, RABBU, Wolf
of the Steppes, REBBU, Doubtentry, DEBBU, Education Is The Basis Of Law And Order, Bare In Mind, Preveiling Opinion Of
Dominant Opinion Group, Hans Adler, Buchanans Navy Sec, Mr. Peabodys Boy, Overstay, Marsboat, Unco Guid, Viva La Information
Revolution!, Autocratic Uzbek, Poke Salat Annie, Flower Mound Belle, Navy Pierre, Mrs. Lovetts Meat Puppets, Unknown Justin, IP
Phreely, West Goshen Guy, Delaware Valley Girl, Addbot, Jarble, Yobot, Vini 17bot5, AnomieBOT, In digma, Erik9bot, I dream of
horses, AManWithNoPlan, CitationCleanerBot and Anonymous: 5
Total order Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_order?oldid=794454583 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, AxelBoldt, Zundark,

XJaM, Fritzlein, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Dori, AugPi, Dysprosia, Jitse Niesen, Greenrd, Zoicon5, Hyacinth, VeryVerily, Fibonacci,
McKay, Aleph4, Gandalf61, MathMartin, Rursus, Tea2min, Giftlite, Mshonle~enwiki, Markus Krtzsch, Lethe, Waltpohl, DefLog~enwiki,
Alberto da Calvairate~enwiki, Quarl, Elroch, Paul August, Susvolans, Army1987, Func, Cmdrjameson, Tsirel, Msh210, Pion, Joriki,
MattGiuca, Yurik, OneWeirdDude, Salix alba, VKokielov, Mathbot, Margosbot~enwiki, Wastingmytime, Chobot, YurikBot, Hede2000,
Archelon, Tetracube, Rdore, Melchoir, Gelingvistoj, Mhss, Chris the speller, Bazonka, Jdthood, Javalenok, Michael Kinyon, Loadmaster,
Mets501, Iridescent, JRSpriggs, George100, CRGreathouse, CBM, Thomasmeeks, Oryanw~enwiki, VectorPosse, JAnDbot, TAnthony,
A3nm, David Eppstein, Infovarius, Osquar F, Drewmutt, PaulTanenbaum, SieBot, Ceroklis, Anchor Link Bot, Heinzi.at, WurmWoode,
Universityuser, Palnot, Marc van Leeuwen, Addbot, Tanhabot, AsphyxiateDrake, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Charlatino, White gecko, 1exec1,
Infvwl, GrouchoBot, Jsjunkie, Quondum, D.Lazard, SporkBot, Wcherowi, CocuBot, BG19bot, YumOooze, YFdyh-bot, Austinfeller,
Jochen Burghardt, Mark viking, , Graboy, Davyker, MrLJ and Anonymous: 58
Transitive relation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitive_relation?oldid=794388770 Contributors: Zundark, Patrick, Michael
Hardy, Rp, Looxix~enwiki, Andres, Charles Matthews, Dcoetzee, Jitse Niesen, Fredrik, MathMartin, Tea2min, Giftlite, BenFrantzDale,
Gubbubu, Chowbok, Paul August, MyNameIsNotBob, Spoon!, Polluks, DanShearer, Woohookitty, Linas, LOL, Apokrif, Isnow, Pal-
ica, Jrmie Lumbroso~enwiki, Salix alba, Mathbot, Fresheneesz, YurikBot, Laurentius, Sasuke Sarutobi, 48v, Bota47, Arthur Rubin,
MaratL, Wasseralm, JJL, SmackBot, InverseHypercube, Nbarth, Wen D House, Cybercobra, Jna runn, Lambiam, Coredesat, Lyon-
sam, Cbuckley, CRGreathouse, Aggarwal kshitij, CBM, Thomasmeeks, Gogo Dodo, Tawkerbot4, AntiVandalBot, Mhaitham.shammaa,
MER-C, .anacondabot, Magioladitis, Albmont, David Eppstein, Edward321, MartinBot, Extransit, Tomaz.slivnik, Policron, VolkovBot,
AThomas203, Jamelan, Cnilep, SieBot, Paradoctor, Henry Delforn (old), Anchor Link Bot, ClueBot, Tomvanderweide, Sarbogard, Ot-
tawahitech, Alexbot, Wikibojopayne, Pa68, SilvonenBot, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Materialscientist, GrouchoBot, Und-
soweiter, RedBot, Katovatzschyn, EmausBot, Slightsmile, IGeMiNix, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Wcherowi, Pars99, Sourabh.khot,
Justincheng12345-bot, Lerutit, Loraof, Santileortiz, Tyleradams410, Dualspace, Unknown Person lel lel and Anonymous: 70
Uncountable set Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncountable_set?oldid=790778295 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Tarquin, AstroNomer,
Taw, Toby Bartels, PierreAbbat, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Dominus, Kevin Baas, Revolver, Charles Matthews, Dysprosia, Hyacinth, Fi-
bonacci, Aleph4, Robbot, Tea2min, Giftlite, Mshonle~enwiki, Fropu, Noisy, Crunchy Frog, Func, Keenan Pepper, Oleg Alexandrov,
Graham87, Island, Salix alba, FlaBot, Margosbot~enwiki, YurikBot, Pi Delport, Gaius Cornelius, Trovatore, Scs, Bota47, Arthur Ru-
bin, Naught101, SmackBot, Bh3u4m, Bananabruno, SundarBot, Dreadstar, Germandemat, Loadmaster, Mets501, Limaner, Stephen
B Streater, JRSpriggs, CRGreathouse, CBM, Gregbard, Thijs!bot, Dugwiki, Salgueiro~enwiki, JAnDbot, .anacondabot, Fruits Mon-
ster, Qatter, KarenJo90, SieBot, Phe-bot, ClueBot, Canopus1, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Yobot, Omnipaedista, BenzolBot, FoxBot, Vish-
waraj.anand00, Mark viking, ILLUSION-ZONE, Deacon Vorbis, Eugen1937 and Anonymous: 36
Unimodality Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unimodality?oldid=787274704 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Komap, Cherkash,
Henrygb, Commander Keane, Rjwilmsi, Wavelength, Bhny, Tropylium, Wen D House, Henning Makholm, JzG, CRGreathouse, Ma-
gioladitis, David Eppstein, DrMicro, Asaduzaman, Melcombe, Muhandes, Juanm55, Addbot, Nate Wessel, Yobot, Flavonoid, Isheden,
FrescoBot, Or michael, Duoduoduo, Gypped, Tgoossens, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Op47, CitationCleanerBot, BattyBot, Chris-
Gualtieri, Limit-theorem, Virion123, Loraof, Iamyatin and Anonymous: 16
Utility Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility?oldid=794474945 Contributors: AxelBoldt, WojPob, Andre Engels, Enchanter, Si-
monP, DavidLevinson, Anne, Patrick, Brandon1323, Michael Hardy, Voidvector, Kku, Ahoerstemeier, Sir Paul, Kwekubo, Clausen,
Mydogategodshat, Mulad, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Dysprosia, Zoicon5, Omegatron, Robbot, Chealer, Q.klein, Fredrik, Altenmann,
Naddy, Wile E. Heresiarch, Clementi, J heisenberg, Everyking, Ezhiki, Remy B, Edcolins, Fuzzy Logic, Jonel, SimonArlott, Rdsmith4,
Histrion, Pgreennch, Clemwang, Shiftchange, Mormegil, Mrevan, Magic5ball, Vapour, FWBOarticle, ArnoldReinhold, Mani1, Paul
August, Goochelaar, Bender235, Slyguy135, DavidScotson, Shanes, Cretog8, O18, Tobacman, Rd232, DanGunn, John Quiggin, Burn,
Velella, Suruena, Thestandarddeviant, Oleg Alexandrov, Natalya, Woohookitty, Jfr26, Btyner, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Buldri, Brighteror-
ange, Wragge, Mathbot, Kodemizer, Windharp, Chobot, Volunteer Marek, YurikBot, Borgx, Canadaduane, Rieger, Hergiswi, Syl-
vain1972, Amcfreely, GrinBot~enwiki, C mon, SmackBot, Lawrencekhoo, Blue520, Zeycus, Cazort, Gilliam, Jayanta Sen, Jerome
Charles Potts, Jdthood, Hve, Bennose, Nubeli, Agent032125, Ohconfucius, Dreslough, Wissons, Breno, Kfsung, Grasyop, Martian.knight,
Dl2000, RoyalTS, J Milburn, CmdrObot, Jackzhp, Thomasmeeks, Penbat, Gregbard, John Yesberg, Wdspann, Andyjsmith, Matthew
Proctor, Jackftwist, Gioto, Dylan Lake, JAnDbot, MER-C, Catgut, Dave Muscato, SlamDiego, Kayau, B. Wolterding, MartinBot,
Gentlyintonight, Icseaturtles, MarceloB, Aquatics, Owen Ambur, A Macedonian, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Wikimorphism, Lamro, Night-
miler, Jan Ulrich~enwiki, Snakerush, Dan Polansky, SieBot, Keilana, Likebox, Correogsk, Melcombe, Bowei Huang 2, Rinconsoleao,
Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Jbening, Koczy, PLA y Grande Covin, Mild Bill Hiccup, UKoch, Lbertolotti, BobKawanaka, Tweetlebeetle367,
Nintendomagazine, Agor153, MilesAgain, 1ForTheMoney, Fules, Sniedo, BigK HeX, Ruud Binnekamp, Gnowor, Jin xianzheng, Ad-
dbot, Betterusername, Forich, ChenzwBot, Blaylockjam10, Vasi, Zorrobot, Jarble, Bebestbe, Jackelve, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot,
THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Erel Segal, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Hammersbach, Clment Pil-
lias, Themightyrambo, CompliantDrone, Masalih, Mark Renier, Calmer Waters, Noel Streateld, Jonkerz, Duoduoduo, Reaper Eternal,
RjwilmsiBot, Oliverlyc, Dewritech, GoingBatty, AvicBot, HiW-Bot, Sugarfoot1001, ZroBot, Vramasub, Dreispt, , L Kensington,
Donner60, Zfeinst, Nrlsouza, Ellisun, Makdisse, ClueBot NG, MelbourneStar, Miguel Meireles, The Master of Mayhem, Caramsay,
Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Titodutta, BG19bot, The Banner Turbo, Eb00kie, Kndimov, Pacerier, Marcocapelle, Bubby33, Furthermost,
ASCIIn2Bme, Stimulieconomy, Avi Harel, BattyBot, Acadmica Orientlis, Mediran, Uppalapadu27, Dexbot, Lugia2453, Kellysa, Vat-
sal4592, RotlinkBot, Dhan111, Ruby Murray, HybridGirl, Crow, O5o7, Mrkonium7, William3576, Monkbot, Pischinas George, D.S.
Cordoba-Bahle, Loraof, Ejw wiki editor, Luis Goslin and Anonymous: 215
Weak ordering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_ordering?oldid=794454860 Contributors: Patrick, Michael Hardy, Chinju,
Dcoetzee, MathMartin, Ruakh, Tea2min, Pretzelpaws, AlphaEtaPi, Zaslav, Aisaac, Rjwilmsi, GnniX, YurikBot, Gadget850, Modify,
Oli Filth, Jdthood, Chlewbot, Radiant chains, Jafet, CRGreathouse, Sdorrance, Gregbard, Widefox, Medinoc, Zeitlupe, David Eppstein,
Jonathanrcoxhead, Watchduck, Addbot, Kne1p, Forich, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Howard McCay, Citation bot 1, Andyx96, SporkBot,
Seabuoy, Richard1962, Joel B. Lewis, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jochen Burghardt, JustBerry, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 13
Well-quasi-ordering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-quasi-ordering?oldid=794455037 Contributors: Patrick, Chinju, Charles
Matthews, Tea2min, Peter Kwok, Rich Farmbrough, Paul August, EmilJ, R.e.b., Open2universe, PhS, That Guy, From That Show!,
Mets501, Pierre de Lyon, David Eppstein, Kope, R'n'B, Alexwright, Fcarreiro, Niceguyedc, Palnot, Addbot, DOI bot, AnomieBOT, Ci-
tation bot, FrescoBot, Citation bot 1, Gongfarmerzed, John of Reading, ZroBot, , Mastergreg82, Paolo Lipparini, CitationCleanerBot,
Je Erickson, Jochen Burghardt, Mark viking, Quenhitran, Anrnusna, , Gasarch and Anonymous: 6
57.10.2 Images
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Semiorder 2

1.4 Partial results

1.6 Generalizations and related results

[2] Aigner (1985).

[3] Brightwell, Felsner & Trotter (1995).

[5] Linial (1984), Theorem 2.

[6] Trotter, Gehrlein & Fishburn (1992).

[7] Peczarski (2006).

[8] Peczarski (2008).

[9] Zaguia (2012)

[10] Brightwell (1989).

[12] Saks (1985).

[13] Brightwell & Winkler (1991).

Allegory (category theory)

every morphism R : X Y is associated with an anti-involution, i.e. a morphism R : Y X with satisfying

all such that

2.2 Regular categories and allegories

2.2.1 Allegories of relations in regular categories

2.2.2 Maps in allegories, and tabulations

2.2.3 Unital allegories and regular categories of maps

2.2.4 More sophisticated kinds of allegory

Alternating multilinear map

f (x1 , . . . , xi , . . . , xj , . . . , xn ) = 0 whenever there exist i and j such that i < j and xi = xj .

Every alternating multilinear map is antisymmetric.[4]

map of the form f : V W , the alternating multilinear map g : V W dened by

The alternatization of an n-multilinear alternating map is n! times itself.

The alternatization of a symmetric map is zero.

3.5 See also

[2] Bourbaki 2007, p. A III.80, 4.

[3] Dummit & Foote 2004, p. 436.

[4] Rotman 1995, p. 235.

if R(a,b) and R(b,a), then a = b,

if R(a,b) with a b, then R(b,a) must not hold.

Every asymmetric relation is also an anti-symmetric relation.

4.2 See also

5.3 Simpsons alternative denition

5.4 Major theorems

g f if B A and g(X) f (X) every for X [B]

g < f if B A and g(X) < f (X) every for X [B]

5.5 See also

Maintain the consistency of several sources of information[2]

6.3 Examples of implementations

biXid is a programming language for processing XML data bidirectionally[3]

XSugar allows translation from XML to non-XML formats[4]

6.4 See also

6.6 External links

Bidirectional Transformations: The Bx Wiki

1. each element of X must be paired with at least one element of Y,

7.2.1 Batting line-up of a baseball or cricket team

7.2.2 Seats and students of a classroom

1. Every student was in a seat (there was no one standing),

2. No student was in more than one seat,

4. No seat had more than one student in it.

7.3 More mathematical examples and some non-examples

for every y in Y there is a unique x in X with y = f(x).

A bijection composed of an injection (left) and a surjection (right).

7.6 Bijections and cardinality

|f(A)| = |A| and |f 1 (B)| = |B|.

7.8 Bijections and category theory

7.9 Generalization to partial functions

7.10 Contrast with

7.11 See also