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960-86283-2-6
K A R D A M A I N A - ANCIENT HALASARNA
ON THE ISLAND OF KOS

A Guide
 G. KOKKOROU-ALEVRAS
Professor of Classical Archaeology at the University of Athens.
In charge of excavations of the Classical and Roman Phases
in the area of the Sanctuary of Apollo at ancient Halasarna

S. KALOPISSI-VERTI & M. PANAYOTIDI-KESISOGLOU

Professors of Byzantine Archaeology at the University of Athens.
In charge of excavations of the Early Christian settlement
in the area of the Sanctuary of Apollo at Halasarna

Translation
DAPHNE KAPSAMBELIS

Layout
Kiki Birtacha

Films
Ektypon

Printing
Tasos Vagenas

ISBN 960-86283-2-6
 THE SANCTUARY OF APOLLO
AND THE EARLY CHRISTIAN SETTLEMENT
A T K A R D A M A I N A (A N C I E N T H A L A S A R N A )
ON THE ISLAND OF KOS

G. KOKKOROU-ALEVRAS
S. KALOPISSI-VERTI
M. PANAYOTIDI-KESISOGLOU

Sponsored by the Prefecture of the Dodecanese

and with the support of the Municipality of Heraklidae

CULTURAL SOCIETY OF KOANS

PHILETAS

ATHENS 2006
 ully recognising the importance of the work being carried out from 1985 to
F the present day by the University of Athens in the excavations at the site of
Kardamaina, and the scientific contribution made, not only to the island of Kos
but also to the entire area of the Aegean, we would like to declare our whole-
hearted support of the efforts of the archaeologists Georgia Kokkorou-Alevras,
Sophia Kalopissi-Verti and Maria Panayotidi-Kesisoglou, professors at the Uni-
versity of Athens, as well as of their collaborators and students. We are particu-
larly happy to welcome the publication of this guide, which constitutes a valuable
cultural contribution to the knowledge of the rich past of the Dodecanese.
The book certainly brings to the attention of the public the history of the
island of Kos in general and contributes to our understanding of the civilisation
of the Dodecanese. We hope that in the future we will be able to continue to sup-
port the University of Athens in every possible way in its efforts in this direction.
We warmly congratulate the authors of the publication on their efforts to
acquaint the wider public with the history and civilisation of Kos, and assure
them that the Prefecture of the Dodecanese considers any form of collaboration
with them an honour and a privilege.
YANNIS MACHAIRIDIS
Prefect of the Dodcanese
 t is with great pleasure that I welcome the publication of the guide to the site
I of Kardamaina, produced by Professors Georgia Kokkorou-Alevras, Sophia
Kalopissi-Verti and Maria Panayotidi-Kesisoglou, of the University of Athens.
The excavations carried out by the University on the site of the sanctuary of
Apollo and the Early Christian settlement, the finds of which are the main sub-
ject of the guide, constitute the fruit of efforts exerted over a period of more than
twenty years, to which the Commune of Kardamaina, initially, and the
Municipality of Heracleidae subsequently, have enthusiastically contributed, in
the measure of their possibilities.
We hope that we may continue in the future to contribute to the promotion
of the important archaeological site, as this would be of great benefit to the cul-
tural life of Kardamaina and of the Municipality of Heracleidae. We also hope
that the site will soon be open to visitors, so that the people of the island and its
youth in particular may learn about their ancient ancestors. Moreover, our
island and our Municipality will, in this way, acquire one more point of archae-
ological interest and one more pole of attraction for the discerning tourist.

THEODOSIS VARKAS
Mayor of the Municipality of Heracleidae
 CONTENTS

Preface 10

HALASARNA MODERN KARDAMAINA ON KOS.

A HISTORICAL OUTLINE 13
Mythological features 13
From the Prehistoric to Roman Period 13
Cultural Archievements 15
Halasarna in Ancient Times 16
The Early Christian Period 17
The Byzantine Period 18
Rule of the Hospitaller Knights 19
From the Ottoman Domination to Unification with Greece 20

ANCIENT HALASARNA
Prehistoric Times - The Mycenaean Period 23
The Geometric Period 23
Orientalising - Archaic - Classical Periods 24
The Hellenistic and Roman Periods 26
The Acropolis 26
The Theatre 27

THE SANCTUARY OF APOLLO PYTHAIOS OR PYTHAEUS 28

The Buldings
Temple of the Early Hellenistic Period (Building C) 31
Late Hellenistic Building A (2nd - 1st c. BC) 38
Building B 40
The Stoa 40
Other Buildings 40
Finds 42

THE EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD 46

The Basilicas 46
The Basilica of the Aghia Theotes (Holy Divinity) 46
The Basilica of Dorotheos, Eutychios and Photeinos 47
The Settlement of Halasarna 47
Early Christian Phase I (circa AD 400-554) 50
 Houses 51
Sepulchral Complex 58
Early Christian phase II (554 - middle of the 7th c. AD) 60
The Settlement and the Sepulchral Complex 60
Workshops - Ancillary Buildings 61
Finds 62

THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD 69

The Castle of the Knights at Antimacheia 69

MODERN TIMES 72

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY ON ANCIENT HALASARNA AND KOS 74

 PREFACE

t is with great satisfaction that we offer to the students and young people
I of Kardamaina (ancient Halasarna) and the island of Kos, to all its inhab-
itants and to its visitors, this brief guide to the history and archaeology of the
region. The Department of Archaeology and History of the University of
Athens has, since 1985, carried out excavations and surface research in the
area of the ancient and renowned sanctuary of Apollo and Heracles and in
the Early Christian settlement of Halasarna, with the aim not only of uncov-
ering the very important remains of the temples and other public and private
edifices that lie beneath the earth, but principally in order to reconstitute and
retrace the historical course of this part of the island. The results of these
efforts we have deemed necessary to present synoptically to the wider public,
so as to fulfil one of the basic purposes of every kind of scientific research,
which is the popularisation of scientific knowledge.
Besides the University of Athens, a major contributor to our efforts has
been the Ministry of the Aegean, which has offered us ongoing financial sup-
port for many years, the Ministry of Culture, the Commune of Kardamaina,
initially, in particular its president Stergios Bilis and the Municipality of
Heraklidae subsequently, to whom we are indebted for their material and
moral support, and the Director of the Primary School of Kardamaina,
Stefanos Kefallianos who, in addition to all his other help, urged us to write
this guide book for the young pupils of Kardamaina. We are also indebted
to the late Anastasios Karanastasis for his wholehearted support, and to the
archaeologist Maria Toulanta-Parissidou, who has backed our efforts in so
many ways. Very special thanks are due to the 22nd Ephorate of Prehistoric
and Classical Antiquities of the Dodecanese and to the 4th Ephorate of
Byzantine Antiquities, for facilitating our work, to the Prefecture of the
Dodecanese and especially to the Prefect, Yannis Machairidis, thanks to
whose financial assistance we have been able to publish this guide, as well as

10
to the Cultural Society of Koans, Philetas, under whose auspices it appears.
Finally, we must acknowledge the valuable contribution of the hundreds of
students of archaeology of our University, of our scientific collaborators and
of our architect, George Antoniou, without whose cooperation our work
would not have been brought to fruition. We thank them all and hope in
the very near future to be in a position to offer to the local inhabitants and
to the many visitors who, already during the process of our excavations have
displayed a vivid interest in our work, an attractive archaeological site, which
they will be able to visit and enjoy.

The authors

11
 HALASARNA MODERN KARDAMAINA ON KOS.
A H ISTORICAL O UTLINE

ery little historical information is available about ancient Halasarna. The city
V was the centre of one of the six demes of Kos, the deme of the Halasarnitae.
The greater part of the history of Halasarna is closely interwoven with the over-
all history of Kos.

Mythological features
Kos, an island of the Dodecanese in the East Aegean, lies very close to Rhodes
and to Asia Minor. According to the mythological tradition, Kos had already
played a role in the Gigantomachy, that is, the battle for world domination
between the gods of Olympus and the Giants, the children of Gaia. In this hor-
rific battle Poseidon cut off a piece of Kos and hurled it against the giant Po-
lybotes, resulting in his being crushed. In this manner the neighboring island of
Nisyros was created with its volcano, which was activated by the Giants attempt
to emerge from the depths of the sea. This tantalizing myth possibly reflects the
geological changes that occurred in the distant historical past. The name of the
island is attributed to the nymph Kos, daughter of the ancient King Merops,
from whom the inhabitants of the island were named Meropes and the island
Meropis. Other names for the island were Karis and Nympaia. Another inter-
esting mythical tradition is the arrival of the hero Heracles on Kos while return-
ing from the older campaign against Troy, his clash with the locals and finally his
marriage to a princess of the island. Thus, the hero becomes patriarch of the
Koans. Whether this myth reflects the settlement of pre-Hellenic tribes from
Thessaly onto the island, who would have brought with them the worship of
Asklepios or of Dorians from the Argolid, who settled on Kos in circa 1100 BC,
has not been ascertained. At any rate, their relationship to the Dorians of the
Peloponnese is testified by the Dorian dialect as well as by many elements of wor-
ship.

From the Prehistoric to the Roman Period

According to the archaeological research the island was already inhabited in the
Neolithic period. Numerous sites of Kos are to be dated to the Bronze Age. It
flourished in the Mycenean period as proven by its participation together with

13
the neighbouring islands in the Trojan War with 30 ships. The most important
settlement of this period is located in Seragia, in the centre of the modern capi-
tal of the island, which also bears the name Kos. In this site, as well as in some
others, life went on during the Geometric, Archaic and the Classical periods. In
366 B.C. this site to the North-East of the island, where perhaps the polis (city)
named Kos Meropis was located, became the new capital of the island, after the
synoecism, that is after a political crisis which most probably led to the political
unification of the six demes of ancient Kos. It is believed that the former capital
was situated in Astypalaia modern Kephalos , a polis at the South - East of the
island in the deme of Isthmos.
The literary sources identify the fist inhabitants of Kos as Karians, Leleges,
even Phoenicians, but there is no archaeological evidence about them. In the 11th
century Dorians from Argolis in the Peloponess had arrived on Kos. In the
Archaic period Kos belonged to the Dorian Hexapolis together with Rhodes,
Kamiros, Ialyssos, Knidos and Halikarnassos, whose centre was the Sanctuary of
Apollo at the promontory of Triopion in the Knidian peninsula. From the end
of the archaic period onward, Kos was at times a tributary of the kings of neigh-
boring Halicarnassus and at times an ally of the Athenians or Spartans, without
however playing a particularly significant role in the historical matters of the peri-
od. By 332 BC it was liberated by the generals of Alexander the Great and from
then on it followed the fortunes of his state, that is, occasionally being under the
influence of the Ptolemies of Egypt and occasionally under the influence of the
Seleukids of Syria or even of the Attalids of Pergamum and always closely relat-
ed the city of Rhodes.
Kos is mostly known for its famous Asklepieion and for the medical school,
founded by Hippokrates at the end of the 5th century and followed by a brilliant
period of activity, especially during the fourth and third centuries BC. During the
third century B.C., the physicians of Kos took their medical knowledge and
research to Alexandria; even so the practice of medicine continued on the island
into Imperial times. Kos is known likewise for her trade in wine; which was
exported in the characteristic Koan amphoras with double handles, often
stamped, for her perfumes, her pottery (Pliny), and for her silk cloths (Coae
vestes), which were much in demand throughout the Mediterranean from the 4th
century BC down to the 2nd century AD.
This varied commerce, as well as her advantageous geographical position on
the trade route which led from the Black Sea along the coast of Asia Minor to
Cyprus, the coast of Palestine and thence to Egypt, brought Kos great prosperity

14
during Hellenistic and Roman times; a marked difference from the Archaic and
Classical periods when the island retained its self-sufficient rural character and
seems not to have played any significant role.
The close relations of Kos with the Ptolemies of Egypt and with Attalos I of
Pergamon from the 3rd century on, and with Rhodes and the Romans from the
2nd century BC on, contributed to the continuation of her prosperity, power and
splendour. This is reflected in the submission to Kos of neighbouring Kalymnos
and Nisyros from the end of the 3rd century B.C. on. Kos was a free city (civi-
tas libera) down to the end of the Roman Republic and belonged to the Roman
province of Asia after that. She was given immunitas, that is, she was released
from the obligation to pay taxes, in 53 AD under the emperor Claudian. This
advantageous arrangement was due to the famous Koan physician Gaius Sterti-
nius Xenophon, who was personal physician to the emperor. He practiced in
Rome, and on the death of Claudius returned to Kos where he received many
high honours. From that time on, the island shared in the fortunes of the Roman
Empire (Imperium Romanun).
The chief enemy of Kos prosperity appears to have been the catastrophic
earthquakes that struck the island from time to time. Far less disastrous were the
military adventures into which her allies drew her.

Cultural Achievements
The greatest representative of the field of medicine, Hippocrates, active during
the Classical period, was a native of Kos and established the renowned medical
school of Kos. The Hippocratic Writings, a work of the Classical period as
well, is the medical book that gathers the knowledge and practices of Koan med-
icine and was mostly written on Kos.
Other important intellectuals of antiquity lived and worked on the island as
well, such as Herondas and Theokritos with their celebrated poetry, some of
which is set in Kos. The known philologist and poet of the Hellenistic period
Philetas, Theokritos model and teacher of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, king of
Egypt. Moreover, the sons of the legendary Praxiteles adorned the Asklepeion
with their statues as did the great painter Apelles with a painting of his depicting
the goddess Aphrodite emerging from the sea. Unfortunately, the Coans primly
preferred Praxiteles statue of a dressed Aphrodite rather than his nude Aphrodite
branded as Knidian, which granted fame and wealth to the city of Knidos across
from Kos in Asia Minor from the tourists visiting to admire it.

15
Halasarna in Ancient Times

The name of the settlement of ancient Halasarna, probably eastern in origin, is

known from Strabo and Hesychius as well as from considerable numbers of
inscriptions. Many of these inscriptions record sacred laws and calendars of sac-
rifices. Others are decrees in honour of Koan men or Roman officers. Still others
are dedicatory. All yield valuable historical information about Halasarna and the
sanctuary of Apollo and Heracles.
Two main bodies of information about Halasarna can be drawn from the
inscriptions. The first has to do with the attack suffered by the city from the fleet
of the Cretan city Hierapytna. This was followed by a naval battle off the Laketer
promontory southwest of Halasarna, during the Cretan war in 205-201 BC. War
broke out because the Cretan cities had become bases for piracy that was inter-
fering with shipping in the Aegean. Clashes such as these were succeeded by
attacks in the area of Halasarna by Phihp V of Macedon in 201 BC when Kos
was allied with Attalos I and the Rhodians. Inscriptions in honour of two distin-
guished Koans, Diokles the son of Leodamas, and Theukles, the son of Aglaos,
tell us that at that time the fleet, the bulwark of Halasarna, was specially re-
inforced, and the city likewise with foot soldiers, cavalry, and siege machinery.
Even so, Halasarna seems not to have escaped the landing of Philip's forces on
her soil. In 200 BC, however, Philip was obliged to withdraw to Macedonia in
the face of the Roman threat. In view of all this, it is of interest that Philip's suc-
cessor, the last king of Macedonia, Perseus (179-168 BC: battle of Pydna), owned
land in the area of Halasarna. This is known from the discovery there of a horos
inscription.
The second group of data provided by the inscriptions of Halasarna is con-
nected chiefly with the cult of Apollo. This cult at Halasarna evidently goes back
to very early times. It is older by far than the worship of Asklepios near the cap-
ital of Kos. With the cults of Herakles (mythological ancestor of the Koans),
Hekate and other divinities, Zeus Polieus, Athena Polias, Hestia, Artemis Agrote-
ra, Aphrodite, Leto and the Dioskouroi, the cult of Apollo played an important
part in the religious life of Kos, both before and after the transfer of the capital of
Kos in 366 BC from Astypalaia at the southwest end, to the northeastern part of
the island, to the modern town of Kos. Despite this change and the resulting shift
in the political and economic life of the island, Halasarna remained an important
religious center parallel to the Asklepeion, which was Pan-Hellenic.

16
 During the Roman period the sanctuary of Apollo and Heracles at Halasarna
continued to play its role in the religious life of Kos. Many Roman emperors and
members of their families were worshiped at this sanctuary or were honoured
with altars, statues and busts.

The Early Christian Period

Kos continued to thrive during the Early Christian period due to its location on
an all-important naval and commercial route connecting Constantinople to
Alexandria.
According to the Synekdemos of Hierokles, a geographical list of the cities of
the Eastern Empire compiled at the beginning of the 6th century AD, Kos
administratively belonged to the Province of the Islands, which was part of the
Prefecture of the East. During the reign of Justinian the islands of the Aegean Sea,
the Cyclades, as well as Cyprus and Karia were grouped together with Low Moi-
sia and Skythia in a new administrative unit, which had a maritime character and
was ruled by a supreme military and political official, directly responsible to the
emperor.
Christianity was propagated very early in Kos. Saint Paul visited the island in
AD 57 (Acts 21: 1). An episcopal seat was organized as early as the beginning of
the 4th century, since Meliphron, bishop of Kos, is known to have participated
in the first Ecumenical Council of Nicaea in AD 325.
The period of high prosperity of Early Christian Kos coincides with the time
space between the two violent earthquakes, which struck the island in AD 469
and 554. The earthquake of AD 469 marked the end of the Roman buildings; a
new epoch began and numerous Christian religious monuments were erected.
Luigi Morricone, the Italian archaeologist who excavated on Kos in the 1930s
and 40s, found no traces of life which could be dated later than AD 554; yet new
excavational research at Halasarna and in other sites has presented sufficient evi-
dence to show that the desertion of the coastal settlements and the end of the
Early Christian period of Kos occurred during the period of Arab expansion. It
was the destructive raid of the Arabs in AD 654/5, which terminated the period
of Late Antiquity on the island. According to the chronicle of Michael the Syrian,
the Arab fleet under the leadership of Abu l Awar plundered Kos, slaughtered the
population and took the survivors prisoner.
In most cases the location of Early Christian settlements and churches bear

17
testimony to the continuous habitation of the ancient sites, which were the cen-
tres of ancient life and cult on Kos.
Significant religious monuments, mainly basilicas and baptisteries built in the
second half of the fifth century, are scattered all over the island, not only in the
capital, where in fact the best preserved baptistery (St. John - Epta Bemata) of
Greece is found, but also in smaller settlements, such as Mastichari, Kephalos and
Halasarna. To a great extent basilicas are found near the coast, since most of the
settlements of this period were developed along the coastal line. The basilicas, tim-
ber-roofed and mostly three-aisled, were furnished with marble columns, capitals,
ambos and relief slabs separating the main church from the sanctuary or the aisles
from the central nave. Most of the elaborate mosaic floors have been attributed to
a workshop active not only on Kos but also on the neighboring islands and on the
opposite coast of Asia Minor. Inscriptions recording the donors ecclesiastics or
lay , who offered their benefactions individually or in groups, are often written
on the mosaic floors. One of the most interesting inscriptions is found in the basil-
ica of Mastichari mentioning the benefaction of a woman ship-owner (-
) and her ship, named Maria. Further finds in the coastal Early
Christian settlements testify to their active importing and exporting activities and
their commercial relations with the entire Mediterranean world, especially with
Asia Minor, Cyprus, mainland Greece and North Africa.

The Byzantine Period

The plunder and the slaughter of the local population by the Arabs in the mid-
seventh century and the continuous Arab invasions that followed compelled the
inhabitants of the coastal settlements to seek refuge inland. Maritime and com-
mercial activities were dramatically reduced. However, agrarian production and
cattle rearing secured the self-sufficiency of the island.
After the defeat of the Byzantines at Mantzikert in 1071 and the advance of
the Seljuk Turks, part of the population moved from the hinterland to the west
coast of Asia Minor and the islands of the East Aegean. In the aftermath of these
historical events Hosios Christodoulos, who later founded the renowned
monastery of St. John the Theologian at Patmos (1088), moved from Mt. Latros
to a monastery at Strobilos in Karia and from there to Kos. Invited by the Koan
monk Arsenios Skenoures, who owned land on Kos, Christodoulos founded a
monastery in 1081 dedicated to the Virgin at Pelion, today known as Palaio Pyli,

18
situated in a mountainous area in the interior of the island. However, soon after-
ward he left Kos and settled on Patmos.
The 11th and 12th centuries were a period of relative prosperity and rise in
demographics. Commerce, the control of which had now passed from Byzantine
to Venetian and Genoese hands, flourished. Kos served, as it had in the past, as
a station on the seafaring and commercial roads leading from North to South
from Constantinople to Jerusalem and from East to West from the Syro-
Palestinian coast to Italy.
In the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade (1204) and the subsequent disinte-
gration of the Byzantine Empire, Kos was controlled temporarily by the Genoese.
John Vatatzes took hold of it for a short time after 1224. The 13th century was
a period of political instability for Kos and the other Dodecannese islands.
Byzantine rule was weak and the local governor, Leo Gabalas, declared indepen-
dence.
The most important medieval settlement of Kos is preserved at Palaio Pyli.
Surrounded by a fortified wall with an imposing gatehouse built at the end of the
eleventh or beginning of the twelfth century, it preserves paved streets, cisterns,
ruined houses and a number of churches. The most important among them is the
church of the Panagia Kastrianon which was founded by Hosios Christodoulos
about 1080 on top of the ruins of an Early Christian basilica. The oldest layer of
wall paintings preserved in the church has been dated to the end of the 11th or
beginning of the 12th century.
Samples of frescoes going back to the first decades of the 13th century in the
church of the Zoodochos Pege at Monagri, built at the foot of Mt. Dikaios, bear
further testimony to the religious life of the Koans, who mostly withdrew into the
interior of the island during the Byzantine period.

Rule of the Hospitaller Knights

In 1284 the Venetian fleet under Jacomo Tiepolo Scopolo caused horrendous
destruction on Kos. During the last decades of the 13th century, the relations
between Kos and Constantinople had slackened to a great extent.
The Rule of the Hospitaller Knights on Kos began in 1314 and lasted until
1523. This monastic order of the Hospitaller Knights of Saint John of Jerusalem,
which was established as a philanthropic order at the end of the 11th century in
Jerusalem, slowly acquired a military structure, serving western intentions in the

19
East. Their settlement on Rhodes began in 1306 and gradually continued
throughout the Dodecanese islands. Thus, a separate state was created headed by
the Grand Master of Rhodes and the Council of the Knights.
A sufficient number of barrel-vaulted single-nave churches survive from this
period, decorated with wall paintings with an overall provincial character, which
reflect the religious life of the local population both in Kos itself and in rural
areas. Two high-quality icons from the church of Panagia Gorgoepikoos, dated
to the 14th-15th century, are significant.
During the Rule of the Knights on Kos important castles were built or reno-
vated, such as the Fortress of Nerantzia, as the city of Kos was called, of Antima-
cheia, of Kephalos, of Palaio Pyli and of Peripatos. During the Turkish raids at
the end of the 15th century, the more decisive role of artillery became apparent,
as did the need for respective defensive modifications to the fortresses. The coat
of arms of one of the most significant men in the rank of Grand Master, who was
head of the Order, Pierre dAubusson, is located at the entrance of the Fortress of
Antimacheia (1494).
Kos was seat of the commander during this period. It had satisfactory agri-
cultural and cattle-breeding production and exported wine. It formed the pas-
sage for foreign travelers on their way to the Holy Land, such as that of Ruy
Gonzalez de Clavijo, of Cristoforo Buontelmonti, etc., at the beginning of the
15th century.

From the Ottoman Domination to Unification with Greece

The coordinated Turkish attack and siege of Rhodes at the end of 1522 ended
the occupation of the Dodecanese islands by the Knights of Saint John, who
capitulated to the Turks and left for Malta on January 1, 1523, handing power
over to the Ottomans.
The Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent seized Kos, which formed the seat, dur-
ing the Turkish occupation, of the Turkish sub-commander, Kaimakami, who
was under the Sadzakbasi of Rhodes. Properties were transferred to Turkish offi-
cials and the inhabitants of Kos merely cultivated them as vassals.
However, during the final years of Ottoman domination, Turkish officers
sold their shares, which a few Greek merchants of Kos managed to buy, though
without altering the socio-economic conditions of vassals on the island, who
remained simple cultivators.

20
 During this period the Koans maintained their ethnic identity and their
Orthodox faith. When the Greek revolution of 1821 broke out, they stood at
the side of freedom-fighting Greeks. In July of 1821 the Turks hung approxi-
mately 100 Koans on the sycamore tree of Hippocrates, in the center of the city,
while most of the inhabitants fled to the mountains for refuge.
In 1912 Italy occupied the island and maintained the socio-economic condi-
tions that it found. The great earthquake of 1933 led to extensive excavations
and restorations by Italian archaeologists, such as L. Laurenzi, L.Morricone, H.
Balducci. The city itself was rebuilt from its foundations based on the plans of
Italian architects and city planners, and public buildings, churches and houses
were constructed.
In 1943 the Germans occupied the island. On March 7, 1948 the unification
of the Dodecanese islands with Greece was accomplished.

Life in Halasarna, as the archaeological survey and excavations have shown, had
already begun in Neolithic times. Scant finds indicate continuous habitation
from the Geometric to the Classical period. During the Hellenistic era, the peri-
od of its greatest acme, Halasarna developed to a polis and its renowned cult cen-
tre of Apollo Pythaios or Pythaeus flourished. A theatre, temples, other monu-
mental buildings and a great number of finds have come to light revealing con-
tacts with the most significant centres of the ancient Greek world. Halasarna pre-
served its splendour in the Roman period and was one of the thriving Early
Christian settlements of the south coast of Kos. Excavations have brought to light
basilicas, houses and a cemetery, as well as an abundance of small objects and pot-
tery bearing testimony to local craftsmanship and production and to commercial
activities in the 5th to the 7th century AD. Abandoned after the mid-7th centu-
ry, it was inhabited again at the end of the 19th century and is today a flourish-
ing tourist resort known as Kardamaina.

21
22
 ANCIENT HALASARNA

Prehistoric Times - The Mycenaean Period

ncient Halasarna lies in the area occupied today by the seaside village of Kar-
A damaina, approximately in the centre of the south-eastern coast of the island
of Kos (fig. 1). Exactly when the place was first inhabited is not yet known, but
some finds dating from the Neolithic period - Early Bronze Age testify to the pres-
ence of human activity on the site as early as the 5th and 4th millenium BC.
Mycenaean potsherds were also found at the place known as Elaionas (the Olive
Grove), north of present-day Kardamaina.

The Geometric Period

cant are the finds from the Geometric period (10th- 8th century BC), which
S came to light during the excava-
tions carried out by the University
of Athens at the sanctuary of Apol-
lo, south-west of Kardamaina (fig.
2). The finds are sherds ornamented
with the geometric designs zigzag
lines, triangles, lozenges etc. that
have given the period its name. A
small number of male cremation
burials dating from the Geometric Fig. 2. Fragments of vases of the Sub-Geometric /
period, were excavated by the Epho- Orientalising period.
rate of Antiquities of the Dodeca-
nese at the place known as Palia-
rachi or Tafoi, west of the main road leading from Kardamaina to Antimacheia;
Geometric pottery has also been found at other places in the wider area of
Kardamaina. These finds are evidence of habitation in the region during this
period, although no traces of a settlement, nor of an extensive and organised
cemetery or of a sanctuary dating from this period have been discovered to date.

23
 Orientalising - Archaic - Classical Periods

he same applies to the period that followed, that is to the 7th century BC (fig.
T 3), which is known as the orientalising period, because of the strong influence
exerted on Greek art by the eastern civilisations of Mesopotamia, Assyria,
Phoenicia, Syria and Egypt. Richer and more clearly identifiable are the pottery
remains of the 6th century
BC, that is of the Archaic
period proper, which came
to light in the sanctuary of
Apollo at Kardamaina. Pot-
tery sherds, local or imported
from Asia Minor as well as
from Athens (fig. 4) testify to
the fact that the site of pre-
sent-day Kardamaina was
not only inhabited, but was
also a busy commercial cen-
tre, where trade was carried
on with places as far distant
Fig. 3. Sherds of ceramic vases of the Orientalising period. for that time as Athens
7th c. BC. and Corinth, the products of

Fig. 4. Sherds of black-figure vases.

24
 Fig. 6. Small red-figure lekythos with
Fig. 5. Fragments of red-figure vases. a palmette on the body. Classical period
5th c. BC. (2nd half of the 5th-4th c. BC)

which found their way to ancient Halasarna. We have as yet no knowledge

regarding the size and form of this settlement during the early Geometric and
Archaic periods, nor do we know its extent and character in Classical times (the
5th and 4th centuries BC) (figs. 5, 6). We cannot therefore say whether it was a
village, a township or a small city.

25
 The Hellenistic and Roman Periods
uring the Hellenistic period (3rd-1st c. BC), the deme of the Halasarnitae
D was second in religious importance among the six demes into which
ancient Kos was divided (fig. 1). Although the few extant ancient written sources
about Halasarna describe it as a chorion and a polisma, words with multi-
ple and controversial meanings, the evidence provided mainly by ancient
inscriptions and archaeological excavations shows that, during the 2nd century
BC, ancient Halasarna was an important urban centre. Its population numbered
one thousand citizens, to which must be added a fairly large number of slaves
and paroikoi, that is of non-native inhabitants of the deme, who did not enjoy
political rights.
The settlement of the Hellenistic period must have extended approximately
from the north-eastern end of Kardamaina to beyond the place known as Askra
to the north, as is proven by the Hellenistic and Roman pottery found in large
quantities in this area, in the survey carried out by the University of Athens.
Other smaller Hellenistic and Roman sites in the wider area of Kardamaina have
also been located, where there may have existed farmhouses and villas dating
from these periods, as well as the site of an ancient cemetery, probably of
Classical and Hellenistic times, on the hill called Tafoi.

The Acropolis
The hill of Tholos, situated to the south-west of Kardamaina, is believed to have
been the acropolis of ancient Halasarna (fig. 7). On the hill can be found pot-
tery sherds dating from various periods, ranging from the Geometric to Roman
times. Although earlier writers have recorded the existence of a fortification
wall, no buildings or other monuments survive today. Certain rock-cut cavities
on the side of the Tholos hill that faces the sea resemble vaulted tombs, and it
is to those, which were believed to have been covered by a vault (tholos), that
the hill owes its name. An ancient inscription allows us to state with certainty
that on the Acropolis were worshipped Zeus Polieus and Athena Polias, protec-
tors of the city (polis). From this fact, among others, we may deduce that ancient
Halasarna was an urban settlement that it was, indeed, a city.

26
Fig. 7. Topographical drawing of the sanctuary of Apollo, of the Acropolis and of part of the
Early-Christian settlement of Halasarna west of Kardamaina. (Drawing by G. Antoniou)

The Theatre
In 1828 the Italian archaeologist Luciano Laurenzi brought to light an ancient
theatre (fig. 7) on the north-eastern flank of the Tholos hill, on the acropolis of
ancient Halasarna. Of this, only six rows of seats and part of the skene were
uncovered. Unfortunately, nothing is visible on the site today, and it is feared
that the ignorance of the inhabitants contributed to the destruction of the
remains of the theatre, since, according to oral information, architectural mem-
bers belonging to it were used for the building of houses in Kardamaina. In any
case, the theatre would have followed the typical form of an ancient Greek the-
atre, although we do not know with certainty whether it was built during the
Hellenistic period or in Roman times. The most probable theory is that it was
built in Hellenistic times (3rd-1st c. BC) and restored during the Roman peri-
od (1st c. BC - 4th c. AD).

27
 THE SANCTUARY OF APOLLO PYTHAIOS OR PYTHAEUS
eneath the acropolis, near the Tholos hill, in the area known as Tsoukalaria
B (pot-making places) and Liopyra (sun-scorched) names that it owes to
the pottery workshops that stood here and to the extreme heat - spread the re-
nowned sanctuary of Apollo Pythaios or Pythaeus. It is thanks to a fortuitous
event the building of a hotel on the land belonging to the Pateras -Tsangaroulis
family that were brought to light a number of buildings of the sanctuary, as
well as the remains of the Early Christian houses that had been built on the
foundations of these constructions when the sanctuary had been abandoned fol-
lowing the destruction caused by natural catastrophes. Since 1985 the area is
being systematically excavated by the Department of Archaeology and History
of Art of the University of Athens (figs. 7, 8).
We do not have, at present, any precise and reliable information regarding the
ancient and most important sanctuary of Apollo Pythaios or Pythaeus of ancient
Halasarna during the early periods. It is only the discovery of pottery sherds
found at a deeper level than the buildings of the Hellenistic period (figs. 2 - 6)
that allows us to conjecture that the sanctuary of Apollo already existed in these
early times in the Archaic period or possibly even earlier. Also, certain walls
that were likewise found at a deeper level than the Hellenistic buildings, about
which we shall speak later on, probably belonged to sacred edifices dating from
Archaic times.
More abundant and more certain is the information we possess regarding the
sanctuary of Apollo Pythaios or Pythaeus during the Hellenistic period (3rd-1st
c. BC). The existence of the deme of Halasarna, of the sanctuary of Apollo, and
the worship of Artemis, as well as the presence here of a temple of Asclepios,
were known to archaeologists already since the middle of the 19th century,
thanks to inscriptions that had been found in the area of present-day Kar-
damaina.
According to the inscriptions, the place by the entrance of the temple of
Apollo, close to the right-hand anta, was the most important part of the sanctu-
ary. It was here that were set up stelae with inscriptions in honour of citizens
who had distinguished themselves in the service of the deme of Halasarna. It
was somewhere in this area that had stood, in antiquity, a marble stele bearing
a honorary decree acknowledging and honouring the physician Antipatros, son
of Dioscouridas, for his medical services to the deme of Halasarna, where he had
served as city physician of the public health system of the time. Yet another

28
Fig. 8. General plan of the excavations at the sanctuary of Apollo and the Early Christian settle-
ment of Halasarna (Drawing by G. Antoniou)

29

Fig 9. Inscribed marble base of a bronze statue of
Diocles son of Leodamas. A) Side view, B) Top view.
Late 3rd c. BC.
30
inscribed stele, set up next
to this, honoured Onasan-
dros, son of Onesimos, who
was a disciple and assistant
of Antipatros and who had
also offered his medical ser-
vices to the citizens of the
deme. Moreover, when he
later established a private
clinic in Kos, he had minis-
tered generously to the
needy.
Here, too, were set inscrip-
tions and decrees honour-
ing such distinguished citi-
zens as Diocles, son of Leo-
damas (fig. 9), and Theu-
kles, son of Aglaos, and many
others who had fought for
the freedom of their city in
difficult and troubled times,
during the First Cretan War
(205-201 BC) against Cretan
pirates and in the war against
Philip V of Macedon that
followed (201-200 BC).
 T HE B ULDINGS

Temple of the Early Hellenistic Period (Building C)

t the very foot of the Tholos hill and in the northern section of the former
A Pateras -Tsangaroulis property that was expropriated by the Greek state, was
excavated between 1994 and 1998 a temple, known as building C (figs. 8, 10-14),
dating from the Early Hellenistic period (3rd c. BC.).
Surviving, almost in its entirety, is the three-stepped base (crepidoma) of the
long and narrow temple, as well as part of a row of large slabs of travertine stone
that constituted the lower
part of the walls. The entire
temple, which measured 16.49
x 9.30 metres and ran along
an east-to-west axis, as did all
the ancient temples, was built
of this same material, which
came from a quarry in the
vicinity of Antimacheia. For
the two columns, however,
which stood on the eastern
entrance side, as well as
for the huge threshold, the
stone used was grey Koan
marble. Marble in this case
white marble must also have
been used for the paving of
the floor, while the underlayer
was of reddish limestone (po-
ros), taken from a coastal quar-
ry near Kephalos, from which
it must have been transported
to the sanctuary by boat (figs.
10-11).
The interior of the tem- Fig. 10. General view of building C (temple) from the
ple (building C) was found east. Early Hellenistic period.

31
Fig. 11. Building C and an ashlar block of the left anta decorated with wreaths and inscriptions,
from the north-east.

Fig. 12. North-east corner of building C showing the drums of the fallen Doric column of the
pronaos in situ. Early Hellenistic period.

32
to be full of broken architec-
tural members that had col-
lapsed into the edifice at the
time of the catastrophe (fig.
15). Most of these belong to
this building and help us
imagine how it must have
looked when it was intact,
while they will also con-
tribute to its eventual re-
storation to its original form
(figs. 13-14).
Building C was a temple
of the type described by
archaeologists as distyle in Fig. 13. Reconstruction of the east (entrance) side of
antis, meaning that it had building C (temple). (Drawing by G. Antoniou).
two columns Doric in this
case between the walls on
either side of the doorway.
The frieze above the col-
umns was decorated with
triglyphs and metopes (figs.
13-14). The walls were built
of alternate courses of larger
and smaller ashlar blocks.
The temple itself consisted
of two parts, one narrow
compartment, the pronaos,
an open porch in which
stood the two Doric columns
mentioned above, and the
cella (sekos). The priests
entered the cella through an
door with a large monolithic
marble threshold (figs. 10-
11), which survives in situ, Fig. 14. Reconstruction of the west (rear) side of building
but broken in two. The C (temple). (Drawing by G. Antoniou).

33
 floor of the cella was on a
higher level than that of the
pronaos, because the natur-
al bedrock was higher at that
point. These distinct spaces
are very clearly visible to-
day, as are the threshold
and the pieces of columns
that have fallen where they
stood (figs. 10-12). On the
site can also be seen the
large blocks of poros stone
from Kephalos, as well as
the slabs constituting the
lower part of the walls and
other architectural mem-
bers. A large ashlar block
from the left anta of the
pronaos has also been
found, decorated with four
Ill. 15. The interior of building C with the fallen archi- relief wreaths, within each
tectural members as it was brought to light during the of which has been carved a
excavations. name (figs. 11, 16). The four
persons to whom the names
refer three men and one
woman were probably members of a single family (father, mother and two sons)
who were honoured as gereaphoroi, meaning that they were entitled, as an indi-
cation of honour, to receive special parts of the meat of the animals that were sac-
rificed to the gods. The names of the honoured persons lead us to a dating of the
inscription to the 3rd c. AD, that is to the Roman period. The temple was obvi-
ously still in use at that time; perhaps after the damage it had suffered during some
catastrophe it had been repaired with the assistance of the honoured family.
There is evidence, finally, indicating that the pronaos was closed off by a railing
between the columns (fig. 13), probably because valuable votive offerings were
kept in it.
Today, many of the architectural members that had fallen inside the temple
have been removed and have been transferred to the terrace of the modern build-

34
ing in order that they may be
studied and used in its future
restoration. They will also serve
in the reconstruction and restora-
tion of the walls of other edifices
of the sanctuary.
Additionally, adjacent to the
eastern wall of the temple have
been found six bases of stone
pedestals that most probably sup-
ported statues or stelae or some
other kind of offerings to the gods
(fig. 10). Another grand pedestal
stood near the rear, south-western
side of the temple (fig. 17). It Fig. 16. Ashlar block of the south pilaster of
appears to have been erected in building C decorated with relief wreaths and
the names of honoured persons. 3rd c. AD.
Roman times, during which, as

Fig. 17. Pedestal of a votive offering to the sanctuary near the south-west corner of building C.
Roman period.

35
we have said, the ancient temple was still in use, despite the repeated earthquakes
which struck the region in 199, 27, and 6 BC. Another very destructive one
occurred in 139 AD, when Antoninus Pius was emperor in Rome. At that time,
after the naval battle at Actium (31 BC) and the proclamation of Octavian
(Augustus) as emperor, Kos had definitively become part of the Roman Empire.
We do not know to which god the temple we have described was dedicated,
because within the precinct of
the sanctuary of Apollo there
seem to have been several other
temples. Inscriptions testify to
the worship here of many di-
vinities: Artemis, Leto, Aphro-
dite, Hestia, Hekate, Zeus and
Athena, the Dioscuri, and He-
racles (fig. 18). In any case, the
time at which building C was
built most probably the first
half of the 3rd BC tallies with
that of the construction of the
temple of Apollo Pythaios/
Pythaeus, the date of which is
known to us from inscriptions.
In front of the eastern entrance
to building C excavations un-
covered a carefully carved mar-
ble seat, which had originally
that is in Hellenistic times
been part of an exedra (seating
bench). This was later removed
to the place it occupies today
(fig. 19). Further to the east
was brought to light a very
ancient type of altar, a bothros
(pit). This was a square cyst-
shaped construction sunk into
Fig. 18. Inscription mentioning the main cults of the ground, where sacrifices
ancient Halasarna. 3rd c. BC.

36
Fig. 19. Marble bench of an exedra, in second use, in front of the entrance to building C.

were performed in honour of the chthonian gods the deities of the underworld
(fig. 20). Although chthonian characteristics are present in almost all the deities
of antiquity, some of them are particularly connected with the underworld and
chthonian rituals: Pluto and Persephone, Hekate, who was particularly wor-
shipped in ancient Halasarna as Stratia (the warring one) and Melitine (sweet as
honey), as was also the goddess Hestia. We do not know for certain to whom this
bothros was dedicated. In any case it must be dated to later times, to the period
of late antiquity between the 3rd
and the 5th c. AD since it con-
tained, among other objects, pot-
tery sherds of this period. In the
bothros were also found many
bones of sheep, goats and pigs,
some of which were burned and
others not. In a number of these are
actually visible marks of the knife
that had slaughtered them. To Late
Roman times are also dated many
sherds from cups, basins, jugs etc.,
found among the burnt remains Fig. 20. Bothros of the Roman period in front of
covering the bothros and forming a the entrance to building C.

37
Fig. 21. East side of building C with the bench, bothros and base.

heap of some five metres long and one metre thick. This bothros, flanked by the
marble seat on the west side and the marble base of some votive offering on the
right (fig. 21), appears to have constituted the central part of a provisional instal-
lation intended for worship, most probably established after the temple (building
C) had been destroyed and abandoned. This makeshift construction is dated to
after the middle of the 3rd c. AD and would have been in use until the early 5th
c. AD, when the houses of the Early Christian settlement were built on the ruins
of the sanctuary and the cult of the Christian God replaced that of the ancient
deities.

Late Hellenistic Building A (2nd - 1st c. BC)

he erection of a hotel on the former Pateras -Tsangaroulis property just about
T cut in half a grand marble oblong edifice. It was a regrettable occurrence
because of the damage that was caused, but it led to the excavation of the site and
the uncovering of the sanctuary. Of this edifice called building A there sur-
vive today the south and west walls, which would have measured approximately

38
Fig. 22. South-west corner of building A. Late Hellenistic period (2nd-1st c. BC)

25 metres in length and 12.5 metres in width (figs. 8, 22-23). It is built of layers
of white and grey marble ashlar blocks from the quarries of Mt. Dikaios (ancient
Oromedon). It too had a floor paved with marble slabs over an underlayer of
large, smoothly carved blocks of reddish poros limestone from Kephalos, while its
walls were faced with co-
loured plaster. Unfortuna-
tely the destruction of the
eastern section does not allow
us to reach definite con-
clusions as to its form and
use. Initially it was thought
that this was the very well-
known temple of Apollo; its
dating, however, to the Late
Hellenistic period 2nd to
1st c. BC excludes such an
identification. Nonetheless,
its monumental construct- Fig. 23. South wall of building A made of carefully-
ion shows that this too was a dressed marble ashlar blocks. Late Hellenistic period
very important edifice. (2nd-1st c. BC)

39
 Building B
To the east of building A survive a few remains of another monumental construc-
tion, contemporary with the edifice previously mentioned and built in a similar
manner (figs. 8, 49). This construction was either a section of building A per-
haps an inclined passageway leading to it (an entrance ramp) or an independent
building, that is an altar (if, of course, building A was indeed a temple and not
some other kind of public building).

The Stoa
Running along the length of the north side of building A, at a distance of 4.5
metres, was found a very long colonnade that was probably added on, after the
latter had been damaged by some catastrophe, to embellish it (fig. 8).
On this portico (stoa) as well as on buildings A and B were based at a later date a
number of buildings mostly houses belonging to an extensive settlement of
Early Christian times (4th-7th c. AD). Thus today the picture of the ancient
buildings described above is not quite so clear to visitors, since the later walls rise
in a continuous line above the earlier ones (fig. 49). If, however, we look more care-
fully, we will be able to recognise the ancient walls, that is the carefully-dressed
marble blocks which fit with absolute precision above and beside each other, with-
out the use of mortar, such as mud or lime (figs. 23-25, 49). The walls of the Early
Christian constructions, on the other hand, are made of rough, unworked stones,
with mud and fragments of tiles and bricks filling in the joints. However, marble
blocks from the edifices of the sanctuary, and even inscribed stelae, bases of stat-
ues, small altars and other architectural members have often been used for the cor-
ners and thresholds of the Early Christian buildings (figs. 47, 48, 52).

Other Buildings
In addition to the above, on the neighbouring plot, situated to the north of the
previous one and belonging to M. Hieromnemon, have begun to be uncovered
another three large, well-built ancient buildings, probably large porticoes (buildings
D and Z), over which have been erected later Early Christian buildings. It is how-
ever too early for us to say anything concerning their exact form and function (figs.
8, 24-25). Also being excavated is a monumental structure (building E), opposite
the temple of early Hellenistic times (Building C described above), but only the
completion of the works of excavation will show whether this is an altar or some
other type of building (fig. 8).
We know that yet another circular building of Roman times stood near the

40
Fig. 24. Part of the west wall of a Hellenistic building Z (portico) on the M. Hieromnemon
property. Above it is built an Early Christian wall (outer and inner side).

Basilica of Aghia Theotes (the Holy Divinity) from the excavations carried on by
Rudolph Herzog, who was the first to excavate the area of Kardamaina. According
to him, the building housed the busts of
Roman emperors; Herzog has given us
no further details, however. None-
theless, this information constitutes yet
another piece of evidence proving the
importance of the renowned sanctuary
of Apollo of ancient Halasarna.
We may conclude, therefore, that
the area of Kardamaina still conceals a
number of very important monuments,
which, when they are brought to light, Fig. 25. Part of the west wall of the
restored and presented to the public, Hellenistic building Z (portico) on the M.
will offer a fascinating glimpse into the Hieromnemon property. Above it is built
history of this ancient place. an Early Christian wall (outer side).

41
 Finds

The finds of the sanctuary are numerous, and consist mainly of pottery, some of
it very fine, for use on formal occasions, and some of it of a lesser quality, intend-
ed for everyday use. Most of it is in fragments, dating from all the historical peri-
ods (figs. 2-6, 26-29). Among the finds yielded by the excavations are also a large
number of oil lamps dating from Archaic to Roman times (figs. 30-32), fragments
of marble figurines (figs. 33-36) and of clay statuettes (fig. 37), a large number of
inscriptions (fig. 18) and various other objects (fig. 38-39). A small marble grave
altar has been found in the area of ancient Halasarna (fig. 40).

26

27
28
29

Fig. 26. Plates of the Hellenistic period. 3rd-1st c. BC.

Fig. 27. Handle of a Samian commercial amphora sealed with the head of the Tyche of a city.
4th c. BC
Fig. 28. Double handle of a Koan amphora with a stamp. Hellenistic period.
Fig. 29. Fragments of double handles of Koan commercial amphorae. Hellenistic period.

42
30
31

32

33 34

Fig. 30. Oil lamp of the Archaic period.

Fig. 31. Oil lamp of the Classical period.
Fig. 32. Oil lamps of the Roman period. 2nd-3rd c. AD.
Fig. 33. Lower part of a marble statuette of a woman, in the Severe style, 480-450 BC.
Fig. 34. Lower part of a marble statuette of a woman wearing a peplos. 5th c. BC.

43
 35

36b

36a

38

37
39

Fig. 35. Lower part of a marble statuette of Aphrodite. Probably of the Hellenistic period.
Fig. 36. a) Fragment of a two-figure group, one of which (on the right) is that of a child.
b) Fragment of the right foot of a small marble statue.
Fig. 37. Head of a clay figurine of a woman. Hellenistic period.
Fig. 38. Clay head of a bearded man from the handle of a brazier. Hellenistic period.
Fig. 39. Marble cosmetics pestle in the shape of a finger.

44
Fig. 40. Funerary altar of Damocles, son of Nikarchos. 2nd c. BC.

45
 THE EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIOD

s the findings of archaeological research indicate, during the Early Christian

A period (AD 324 to the mid-7th century approximately) Halasarna continued
to prosper and to constitute one of the important centres on the southern coast
of Kos. In Kos, one of the islands visited by Saint Paul (Acts 21:1), Christianity
must have become established at a very early date, since we know that the bishop
of Kos, Meliphron, participated in the First Ecumenical Council at Nicaea in
325. However, the monuments that have come to light do not appear to date any
earlier than the 5th century.

T HE B ASILICAS

The Basilica of the Aghia Theotes (Holy Divinity)

he excavations carried out in the early part of the 20th century at the south-
T ern end of Kardamaina by the German archaeologist Rudolph Herzog, who
was looking for the ancient temple of Apollo, were unsuccessful. However, at a
site beyond the Basiliki dry river bed, they brought to light the ruins of the Early
Christian Basilica of the Aghia Theotes (Holy Divinity) (fig. 7). This magnificent
5th-century church,
which measured 60
metres in length, had
three aisles, a narthex
and an atrium, while
the floors were beauti-
fully decorated with
mosaics. Ancient build-
ing material, such as
marble architectural
members and inscribed
stelae, had been used
in its construction. A
section of the three-
sided apse has survived:
it was built of white
Fig. 41. Early Christian Basilica of the Aghia Theotes. Ruins
and grey marble blocks
of the apse.
(fig. 41) taken from

46
some ancient edifice and in its walls were set inscribed Hellenistic stelae. Today
only a few elderly inhabitants of Kardamaina know of the existence of this mon-
ument, as it has remained forgotten and neglected, and covered by wild bramble
bushes.

The Basilica of Dorotheos, Eutychios and Photeinos

An important three-aisled basilica with an atrium and annexed buildings was
excavated in 1992 by the archaeologist Ersi Brouskari, in the centre of the pre-
sent-day village of Kardamaina. To the east of the south aisle was discovered a
rectangular baptistery with an apse, which contained two baptismal fonts.
Notable is the mosaic floor, decorated mainly with geometric motifs, and bearing
two inscriptions mentioning the names of the donors, Dorotheos, Eutychios and
the presbyter Photeinos. According to the finds the basilica must have been erect-
ed around AD 500 and been in use until the middle of the 7th century.

T HE SETTLEMENT OF H ALASARNA
n the wider area of Kardamaina, on the western side, at the place called
I Hebraiokastro, have been found the remains of houses. A survey carried out
recently by the Department of Archaeology of the University of Athens has also
brought to light Early Christian remains near the modern Norinda Hotel, on the
north-eastern side. Ruins of other Early Christian basilicas have also been found
at a distance of a few kilometres to the north-east and the south-west of
Kardamaina, at the places called Aghia Barbara and Arangi. It is evident that this
part of the south coast, which is easy to reach from the sea and well protected
from the frequent and strong northerlies of the Aegean, was favourable to the
development of nuclei of settlements at a small distance from one another (fig. 1).
The fact that the Early Christian settlement of Halasarna was spread over a
large area is proven by the ruins of the basilicas of the Aghia Theotes and of that
of Dorotheos mentioned above, as well as by other edifices brought to light by
excavations of the Fourth Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities of the Dodecanese,
in the centre and to the west of the present-day village of Kardamaina. A nucle-
us of dense habitation was uncovered during the systematic excavations carried
out by the Department of Archaeology of the University of Athens on the Pateras-
Tsangaroulis plot, at the place known as Tsoukalaria or Kaminia. Trial trenches
made in 2001 on the neighbouring Hieromnemon property to the east, showed

47
Fig. 42. The Early Christian settlement. General view of the archaeological site.

48
Fig. 43. The Early Christian settlement. General view of the archaeological site.

that the densely inhabited settlement extended towards the basilica of the Aghia
Theotes. An important find was discovered in the area by the archaeologist
Sophia Didioumi: a kiln belonging to an Early Christian pottery workshop.
During Late Antiquity part of Hellenistic and Roman Halasarna (fig. 8),
which until then had been an area of public worship, became one of private hous-
ing. The scant building remains and the pottery finds place the probable date of
the first houses in this part to around or just before AD 400. However, the main
building activity seems to have taken place in the years following the great earth-
quake of AD 469.
The evidence provided by the excavations, the stratification and the study of
the finds indicate that there were two successive phases within the Early Christian
period (figs. 42-43).

49
 Early Christian Phase I (circa AD 400-554 )

The Early Christian phase I reached a peak during the 5th century and the first
half of the 6th century. This corresponds to the period during which the Early
Christian coastal settlement of Halasarna was at the height of its prosperity, before
it was largely destroyed by the terrible earthquake of AD 554. The tremor and
the tidal wave that followed it resulted in great loss of life and the destruction of
many edifices. This powerful quake is vividly described by Agathias, the histori-
an of the time of the emperor Justinian, who happened to be travelling by boat
from Alexandria to Constantinople and to have put in at the harbour of Kos
shortly after the disaster.
At that time the island of Cos which lies at the southern end of the Aegean was almost
completely destroyed. Indeed except for one small part of the island practically nothing
was left standing, and the disaster was unprecedented in its scale and compexity. The
sea rose up to a fantastic height and engulfed all the buildings near the shore, destroying
them together with their contents and inhabitants. The heaving mass was of such enor-
mous proportions that it flung down everything there that its surging crests could not ride
over. Almost all the inhabitants perished indiscriminately, whether they happened to
have taken refuge in places of worship or to have stayed in their homes or gathered
together in some other spot. (Agathias, The Histories 2,16, translated by J. Frendo, Berlin-
New York 1975, 49)

Fig. 44. Destruction layer from the excavation of Early Christian settlement.

50
 Archaeological research has confirmed the catastrophic effect of the earth-
quake on the buildings. Throughout almost the entire area of the excavation was
encountered a thick layer of debris: stones, tiles and plaster (fig. 44) from the roofs
and walls of the houses that had collapsed, crushing the earthenware vessels and
the other articles of domestic use inside and outside the dwellings.

Houses
The houses of this period were built adjoining one another, as they still are today
in island settlements (fig. 45). They were quite spacious, while some were two-
storied and had a small courtyard. The material used in their construction was
rough stones, fragments of pottery and mud as bonding material. The walls on

Fig. 45. Part of the Early Christian settlement of Halasarna.

the inside were sometimes

embellished with a simple paint-
ed decoration (fig. 46). For the
walls and especially for the
more prominent features such
as thresholds, steps and the
pilasters flanking the doors, Fig. 46. Fragments of plaster with a painted decoration.

51
Fig. 47. Early Christian wall in which have been set Doric capitals.

Fig. 48. Wall of an Early Christian house in which has been set an inscribed ancient stele.

52
Fig. 49. Bulding B and an Early Christian house on top of it.

Fig. 50. Bench for placing vessels in an Early Christian house.

53
Fig. 51. Stairway in an Early Christian house

Fig. 52. Room with the opening of a door in an Early Christian house.

54
 Fig. 53a. Early
Christian houses lining
a narrow street.

Fig. 53b. Square in

the Early Christian
settlement

55
ancient material (marble archi-
tectural parts, inscribed stelae
etc.) was used, taken from the
buildings of the sanctuary (figs.
47-48). The roofs were tiled,
while the floors were usually
crudely made of beaten earth,
sometimes covered with a layer
of plaster. The somewhat more
luxurious floors were paved with
ceramic tiles.
To this phase, in the eastern
section of the plot, belongs,
among other structures, a two-
room apartment of a large house,
the interior dimensions of which Fig. 54. Reconstruction of a two-storey Early
are 7.75 x 4.75 (fig. 49). It had Christian house with a vaulted ceiling over the
two doors on the western side, ground floor.

Fig. 55. Ground-floor room of an Early Christian house with the opening of a door.

56
Fig. 56. Interior of the ground-floor room of an Early Christian house with the opening of a door.

which opened up onto the street or onto a courtyard paved with large pebbles.
Under the tiled floor of the apartment was discovered a drainage channel. In an
adjoining room to the east a construction consisting of a low wall covered by flat
tiles probably belonged to a sort of bench, on which were placed household uten-
sils (fig. 50). Further to the north was uncovered a row of rooms looking out onto
courtyards separated by lightly constructed partitions. A stairway of four steps
testifies to a difference in level or, more probably, to the existence of a second
storey (fig. 51).
On the western part of the plot was excavated another row of apartments. A
rectangular room retains an opening for a door measuring 1.20 metres in width
(fig. 52). The floor, which is on a slightly lower level, presupposing the existence
of a step, may indicate that this was an interior courtyard.
In the southern section of the plot (fig. 45) were uncovered a number of
dwellings consisting of several rooms. They lined a narrow street (fig. 53a) lead-
ing northwards and winding up from the sea, ending up at a spacious square (fig.
53b). The form of the houses of this period is indicated by a small rectangular
room, 1.12 metres wide, the walls of which survive to a height of approximately
1.20 metres. This room, which constituted the ground floor of a double-storey

57
Fig. 57. The Early Christian grave complex.

building, was covered by a semi-cylindrical vault (fig. 54). The vaulted ceiling, made
of large bricks and a thick layer of plaster, had collapsed into the room, probably as a
result of the earthquake of AD 554. In the south wall is preserved the low opening of
a door one metre high and 0.53 metre wide (figs. 55-56).

Sepulchral Complex
To the same period (phase I of the settlement) belongs a family tomb excavated
in the south-western part of the plot (figs. 57-59). The structure, consisting of
two chambers (A and B), probably covered by vaulted roofs, must have consti-
tuted the private burial place of a prominent family that might have lived in one
of the large neighbouring houses of the first phase of the settlement (fig. 59). The
construction of the sepulchre may be dated to the middle of the fifth century AD.
Later, perhaps in the second half of the fifth century, successive entombments
increased the number of burials and ossuaries in the original chambers and the
complex was extended southwards with the addition of a third chamber (cham-
ber C) in order to serve the increased needs of the growing settlement.

58
Fig. 58. The Early Christian grave complex. (Drawing by G. Antoniou)

59
Fig. 59. Phases of construction of the Early-Christian grave complex. (Drawing by G. Antoniou)

Early Christian Phase II (554 - middle of the 7th c. AD)

The settlement and the sepulchral complex

Early Christian Phase II lasted for approximately one hundred years. It began
immediately after the earthquake of AD 554, when the inhabitants returned to
their ruined homes and started to rebuild them. Sometimes they re-used whatever
walls had survived of the older buildings, after they had strengthened the foun-
dations with a very thick mortar and bolstered them with constructions of stone.
Sometimes they raised new walls, which, however, were less carefully built.
During this phase the houses were smaller and the construction cruder.
The new houses came closer to the burial area in the south-western part of the
plot. Here, the bones that were found piled up without any care give the impres-
sion of a hurried mass burial. They may possibly belong to the victims of the dis-
astrous earthquake of AD 554. This view is supported by the dating of most of
the oil lamps found in these burials to the 6th century.
The duration of this phase and the use of this complex of graves end towards
the middle of the 7th century. The Arabs, who, within the space of very few
decades had occupied Syria and Palestine, part of Asia Minor, Egypt and the
whole of northern Africa, began their raids on the islands and the coastal areas of
the Aegean. The desertion of Early Christian Halasarna and of the other con-
temporary coastal settlements of Kos has been connected to the destructive raid
in 654/55 of the Arab fleet under Abu l Awar mentioned by Michael the Syrian,

60
a Syrian source of the second half of the 12th century. Halasarna remained des-
olate and its inhabitants took refuge in the hinterland. The most important
Middle Byzantine settlement built at that time lies at Pyli, approximately in the
centre of Kos (fig. 1).

Workshops - Ancillary buildings

There are indications, especially during phase II of the Early Christian settlement,
testifying to the existence of other constructions besides those serving habitation
and storage: remains of structures related to a workshop, such as a well and an
adjoining square cistern with a drainage channel (fig. 60), shallow basins coated
with plaster in various places, etc.
There are other finds, as well, that prove the existence of workshops. A huge
amount of fragments of pots that were rejected after firing (fig. 61) and moulds
for the making of oil lamps
(fig. 62) evidence the exis-
tence of a pottery work-
shop. A small stone mould
for the fabrication of small
cast metal ornaments,
which has been dated to
the second half of the 6th
or the first half of the 7th
century (fig. 63), provides
further proof of craftsman-
ship carried out here and
intended to meet the needs
of the inhabitants of the Fig. 60. Basin with a conduit from a workshop installation
settlement. of the Early Christian period.

Fig. 61. Fragment of an Early Christian Fig. 62. Early Christian mould for
amphora showing traces of an unsuccessful firing. making oil lamps.

61
 Finds

he finds that have come to light are mostly sherds of coarse ware. Among
T them stand out a great number of fragments of amphorae, the two-handled
vessels that were used for the transportation or storage of dry products and liquids
mainly of wine and oil and which may be dated to between the 4th and the
7th century AD (fig. 64).
Of particular interest in the dating of the successive phases of the settlement
and of its commercial links with various regions of the Mediterranean are frag-
ments of Late Roman ware covered with a red slip which is often embellished with

Fig. 63. Early Christian mould for jewellery

roulette or impressed ornaments. A number of these belong to the category of

North African Late Roman red slip ware (figs. 65-66). Sherds of this category of
pottery, dated to the last decades of the 6th or the first decades of the 7th century,
constitute irrefutable proof of the continuity of life in the area and of the com-
mercial activity of the inhabitants in the early 7th century.
However, the great majority of the potsherds originate from a centre of pro-
duction that has been placed at Phocaea in Asia Minor (figs. 67-69). Most of these,
in fact, belong to a type that appeared shortly after AD 400 and that was later, dur-
ing the second half of the 5th century and throughout the 6th century, widely dis-
seminated in the eastern basin of the Mediterranean. A number of sherds were also
found that can be dated to between the 5th and the 7th century, and the centre of
production of which has been located in Cyprus (fig. 70).
Oil lamps, either locally produced or imported from North Africa (figs. 71-72),
Asia Minor (fig. 73), Attica, Samos and other places, are dated to between the 5th
and the 7th century. The provenance of pots and oil lamps from various centres

62
 65

64

66 67

68

Fig. 64. Body of an Early Christian amphora from the grave complex.
Fig. 65. Fragments of Late Roman red slip ware, from North African workshops, 5th c. AD.
Fig. 66. Fragment of Late Roman red slip ware, from North African workshops, 5th c. AD.
Fig. 67. Fragment of Late Roman red slip ware, from workshops of the area of Phocaea in Asia
Minor, 5th/6th c. AD.
Fig. 68. Fragments of Late Roman red slip ware, from workshops of the area of Phocaea in Asia
Minor, 5th/6th c. AD.

63
69

70

71

72

Fig. 69. Fragments of Late Roman period red slip ware, 5th/6th c. AD.
Fig. 70. Fragments of Late Roman red slip ware, from Cyprian workshops, 5th-6th c. AD.
Fig. 71. Oil lamp from northern Africa, 5th c.
Fig. 72. Oil lamp of the African type, 6th c.

64
 Fig. 73. Oil lamps in the Asia Minor style, 6th c.

of pottery production in the region of the Mediterranean constitutes evidence of

the commercial relations of Halasarna.
Of great interest are locally produced clay pots that survive in fragments and
copy, albeit quite clumsily, the pottery of other large centres, such as those of
Cyprus, Phocaea and North Africa. Such vessels, as already mentioned, were very
widely disseminated at that time throughout the Mediterranean basin. The fabri-
cation of these copies on the spot in the settlement is confirmed by the moulds of
pots and oil lamps (fig. 62) found in the respective layers of both Early Christian
phases of the settlement. The finds of the Early Christian settlement of Halasarna
also include cooking pots (fig. 74), strainers (fig. 75), millstones (fig. 76), loom-
weights used in the production of woven articles on the handloom (fig. 77), clay

65
 75
74

76

78
77

Fig. 74. Cooking pot.

Fig. 75. Fragments of strainers.
Fig. 76. Early Chistian millstones.
Fig. 77. Loom weight.
Fig. 78. Dice.

66
 80
79 81

Fig. 79. Small bone objects.

Fig. 80. Copper ring.
Fig. 81. Bases of glass vessels.

dice (fig. 78), small artefacts of bone (fig. 83), metal tools and jewellery (fig. 80),
as well as glass vessels (fig. 79). The fact that so few specimens of jewellery were
discovered and that those found were made of cheap material (copper alloy) show
that the standard of living of the inhabitants of the area was mediocre. Among the
find were bones and teeth of animals as well as a large quantity of seashells of var-
ious kinds, indicating the type of food consumed by the people of the Early
Christian period. We must also mention a number of marble architectural mem-
bers from a church (figs. 82-83) and a fragmentary liturgical vessel made of local
marble and bearing an ornamentation of incised crosses (fig. 84).
The Early Christian settlement of Kardamaina is one of the few systematically
studied settlements of this period in Greece and gives us a good picture of life dur-
ing this period, not only in Kos but also in the wider area of the Aegean.

67
 82

84

83

Fig. 82. Double colonnette from the window of an Early Christian church.
Fig. 83. Marble dosseret of a colonnette decorated with a cross.
Fig. 84. Fragment of an Early Christian liturgical vessel made of marble with a cross inscribed
on the handle.

68
 THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD
hile life in the area of Halasarna stopped, in the middle of the 7th century,
W as a result of Arab incursions, it went on in the hinterland, where impor-
tant medieval constructions survive.

The Castle of the Knights at Antimacheia

North of Kardamaina, on a strategic spot dominating the plateau of central Kos,
stands the imposing castle of Antimacheia (fig. 85). Built by Helion de Villeneuve
(1337-46), the Grand Master of the Knights of St. John who conquered Kos in
1337, it underwent repeated alterations and acquired several additions, both in
the time of the Knights and during the period of Ottoman rule after 1522.
The precinct of the castle is in the shape of an irregular pentagon. Entrance to
it was effected through the main gate on the northern side of the enceinte, over
which is set an escutcheon bearing the coat-of-arms of the Grand Master Pierre d
Aubusson and the date 1494 (figs. 86-87). Somewhat later, perhaps in the time of

Fig. 85. Castle of Antimacheia. View from the North.

69

Fig. 86. Castle of Antimacheia. Main gate.
Fig. 87. Castle of Antimacheia. Coat-of-arms of
the Grand Master Pierre dAubusson and the
date 1494.
70
the Grand Master Caretto (1513-
21), it was decided to construct a
semi-circular bastion to protect the
main gate, which it enclosed. A sec-
ond gate was then pierced in the
bastion wall.
In the interior of the castle sur-
vive the ruins of many buildings.
These are mostly houses, since,
according to the accounts of trav-
ellers, a Christian population con-
tinued to live within the castle
walls until the early part of the
19th century. Two small churches
have also been preserved. The
church of St. Nicholas (fig. 88)
shows traces of 15th-16th-century
frescoes while, set over the entrance
is a plaque taken from an earlier
construction. The plaque bears the
date 1520 and three escutcheons,
one of which has been identified as
the coat-of-arms of the Grand
Master Caretto. The church of St.
Paraskevi, dating from the time of
Ottoman rule, consists of a single
nave covered on the inside by a
pointed arch.
The castle of Antimacheia, to-
gether with the other castles of Kos
those in the town, at Palio Pyli,
and at Kephalos and with the
castles of other islands of the Do-
decanese, formed a strong line of
defence in the south-eastern Aegean.
Fig. 88. Castle of Antimacheia. Church of St. Nicholas, seen from the north-west.

71
 M ODERN T IMES
t was only in the second half of the 19th century, after Halasarna had lain in
I obscurity for many centuries, that inhabitants once again settled along the
coast of the ancient and Early Christian settlement. They came from Palaia

Fig. 89. View of present-day Kardamaina.

Fig. 90. Fishing boats in present-day Kardamaina.

72
 Fig. 91. One of the two traditional windmills of Kardamaina.

Kardamaina, which stood a few kilometres further inland on the road to

Antimacheia, and built their houses using material from ancient and Early
Christian Halasarna. A small fishing village grew, which after 1980 developed
into a tourist resort (figs. 89-91). From the end of the 19th century, in the area
of the Temple of Apollo especially where the excavations are still going on
potters from the island of Siphnos together with local craftsmen started a local
pottery production, which flourished for about hundred years.

73
 GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY ON ANCIENT HALASARNA AND KOS

Sources
Agathias, The Histories, 2, 16
Hesychios, see entry for Halasarne
Strabo, XIV 657

Articles - Books
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(1957) 126.
BOSNAKIS D., , in: STAMBOLIDES . (ed.),
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BOURAZELIS K., Kos between Hellenism and Rome. Studies on the Political, Institutional,
and Social History of Cos from ca. the Middle Second Century B.C. until Late Antiquity,
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 90 (2000) 41-46, 143, 147-148.
HADJIVASSILIOU V. CH., , Kos 1990.
HERZOG R., Koische Forschungen und Funde, Leipzig 1899, 134-135, 166, 193-194.
HERZOG R., Das Heiligtum des Apollo in Halasarna, Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der
Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse 1 (1901) 470-494.
HERZOG R., Bericht ber eine epigraphisch-archologische Expedition auf der Insel Kos im
Jahre 1900, Archologischer Anzeiger 16 (1901) 137-138.
HERZOG R., O , Klio 2 (1902) 316-333.
HERZOG R., Vorlufiger Bericht ber die archologische Expedition auf der Insel os im
Jahre 1902, Archologischer Anzeiger 18 (1903) 4.
HERZOG R., Heilige Gesetze von Kos, Abhandlungen der preuischen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse 6 (1928) 1-59.
HERZOG R., Symbolae Calymniae et Coae, Rivista di Filologia e di Istruzione Classica 70
(1942) 13-18.
HGHAMMAR K., Sculpture and Society, Uppsala 1993, 54-58, 61-62, 68, 188-193, 200, 201.
HGHAMMAR K. (ed.), The Hellenistic Polis of Kos. State, Economy and Culture, Proceedings
of an International Seminar organized by the Department of Archaeology and Ancient
History, Uppsala University, 11-13 May 2000, Uppsala 2004.
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at Athens 57 (1962) 171-172.
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School at Athens 65 (1970) 55, note 28.
KABUS-PREISHOFEN R., Die hellenistische Plastik der Insel Kos, Mitteilungen des Deutschen
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74
LIVADIOTTI M. - ROCCO G. (eds.), La Presenza Italiana nel Dodekaneso tra il 1912 e il 1948.
La ricerca archeologica. La conservazione. Le scelte protettuali, Scuola Archeologica Italiana
di Atene, Atene 1997, 78.
LAURENZI L., Nuovi contributi alla topografia storico-archeologica di Cos, Historia 5
(1931) 625, ill. 14.
MAIURI A., Nuova silloge epigrafica di Rodi e Cos, Firenze 1925, 144, 234-236.
MAYER E. G., Griechische Mauerbauinschriften I, Texte und Kommentare, Heidelberg 1959,
173-178, pls. 26 (58, 59), 30 (66).
ODONA A. N., L isola di Cos nellAntichita classica, Memorie. Istituto Storico-archeo-
logico Rodi 1 (1933) 24-25, 44-45, 91 and ndex on p. 201.
PATON W. R. - HICKS E. L., The Inscriptions of Cos, Oxford 1891, 6-7, 233-268.
ROSS L., Reisen auf den griechischen Inseln des gischen Meeres, vol. II, Stuttgart/ Tbingen
1843 = Inselreisen, vol. II, Halle 1913, 89, vol. III, Stuttgart und Tbingen 1845, 136.
ROSS L., Reisen nach Kos, alikarnassos, Rhodos und der Insel Zypern. Auch als vierter Band der
Reisen auf den griechischen Inseln, Halle 1852, 21-22.
SEGRE M., Iscrizioni di Cos, vols. I and II, Roma 1993.
SHERWIN-WHITE S., Ancient Cos. An Historical Study from the Dorian Settlement to the
Imperial Period, Gttingen 1978, 28, 61-63, 122-123 and Index on p. 557.
ZARRAFTIS ., , s1921, 80.
ZARRAFTIS ., , Kos 1922, 112-114.

General Bibliography on the Early Christian Period in Kos

BALDUCCI H., Basiliche protocristiane e bizantine a Coo (Egeo), Pavia 1936.
BROUSCARI E., ,
: ,
, Athens 1993, 38-39.
BROUSCARI E., The Tyche of Cos on a mosaic from a Late Antique house in Cos, in S.
ISAGER - B. POULSEN (eds.), Patron and Pavements in Late Antiquity, Odense 1997, 65-77.
BROUSCARI E., Nouvelles mosaques de Cos, in La Mosaque Grco-romaine VII, vol. 1,
Tunnis 1999, 51-58.
DIDIOUMI S., 50 (1995), , vol. 2, 829-830.
HAYES J. W., Late Roman Pottery, London 1972.
KALOPISSI-VERTI S., Kos tardoantica e bizantina nelle scoperte archeologiche, dal IV secolo
al 1314, Corsi di cultura sullarte ravennate e bizantina 38 (1991) 235-251.
LAZARIDIS L., c c -
, Proceedings of the 8th International Byzantinological Conference, Thessaloniki
1953, vol. A, Athens 1954, 230-233.
MILITSI E., :
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Scientific Conference, Kos, 2-4 May 1997 (
no. 1), Athens 2001, 277-290.
MORRICONE L., Scavi e ricerche a Coo (1935-1943), Relazione preliminare, Bolletino
dArte 35 (1950), 54-75, 219-246, 316-331.

75
ORLANDOS . ., d d ,
(1966) 1-103.
VOLANAKIS ., .
. , 3 (1989) 57-60.

Specialised Bibliography on the Sanctuary of Apollo

and the Early Christian Settlement
ALEVRA G., KALOPISSI S., KOUROU N., LAIMOU A., PANAYOTIDI M., c c -
( ^) , 1985, , 1-18.
ALEVRA G., KALOPISSI S., LAIMOU A., PANAYOTIDI M., c c (-
^) , a ^ 1986
(1990) 298-330.
ALEVRA G., KALOPISSI S., LAIMOU A., PANAYOTIDI M., c c (-
^) , a ^ 1987
(1991) 325-355.
ALEVRA G., KALOPISSI S., LAIMOU A., PANAYOTIDI M., c c (-
^) a a 1988-1990, a -
^ 1990 (1993) 342-367.
GEORGOPOULOU V., ( ) ,
- - , 1st International Scientific Conference, Kos, 2-4 May
1997 ( no. 1), Athens 2001, 107-114.
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(ancient Halasarna), in: K. HGHAMMAR (ed.), The Hellenistic Polis of Kos. State, Economy
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129-132.
KALOPISSI-VERTI S.,
, vol. 20 (1998)
245-252.
KALOPISSI-VERTI S. - PANAYOTIDI .,
(. ) , - -
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no. 1), Athens 2001, 243-254.
KARALI L., ,
. . , vol. , Athens 2004, 99-110.
KANTZIA CH., .
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KOKKOROU-ALEVRAS G.,
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( , no. 1), Athens 2001, 91-105.

76
KOKKOROU-ALEVRAS G., Eine Erheninschrift der rmischen Kaiserzeit aus dem Apollo-
heiligtum in Halasarna (Alt Kardamaina) auf Kos, T . A. Ostrowski, Studia
Archaeologica, 2001, 177-188.
KOKKOROU-ALEVRAS G., . . () L. K.
Hallof, Athens 2004.
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Cos, in: K. HGHAMMAR (ed.), The Hellenistic Polis of Kos. State, Economy and Culture,
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(
) , . . , vol. , Athens 2004,
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KOKKOROU-ALEVRAS G., KALOPISSI-VERTI S, PANAYOTIDI ., -
( ) , 5 (1995) 141-184.
KOKKOROU-ALEVRAS G., KALOPISSI-VERTI S., PANAYOTIDI M., Excavations at Kardamaina
(Ancient Halasarna) in Kos, 9 (1995-1996), Athens 1998, 313-334.
ROUMELIOTIS ., (. )
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2-4 May 1997 ( , no. 1), Athens 2001,
255-276.
SKERLOU ., , STAMBOLIDES . (ed.),
, Rhodes 1999 (2001)
259-284.

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1948), 3 (1989) 196-226.
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19 (1990) 3-7.
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20 (1991) 3-11.
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