lnt~oduction to ~i

~
Wireline Log Ana sis BakerAtlas
,-

Introduction to Wireline Log Analysis

,.

Baker Atlas - The Best Choice for

Advanced Well Logging and Completion Services

Baker Atlas provides a wide range of services and

information, allowing oil and gas companies to define,
reduce and manage their risks. Downhole well logging
services for every environment are offered, including
advanced formation evaluation, production and reservoir
engineering, petrophysical and geophysical data
acquisition services. Perforating and completion
technologies, pipe recovery, and processing and analysis
of open and cased hole data complete the service range.
Baker Atlas delivers new-generation technologies,
analysis techniques, and a dynamic geoscience capability
worldwide, helping oil and gas producers evaluate and
access reservoirs more efficiently and reliably, resulting
in maximum hydrocarbon recovery and reduced risk.

Baker Atlas firmly believes in efficient, reliable wellsite

operations, data accuracy from leading edge technology,
and people-oriented services. We are committed to
delivering better value from every minute of rig time,
and reducing the overall time spent on the well through
efficient logging with experienced crews. Not for just
one well, but job after job. Baker Atlas - The Best Choice
for advanced well logging and completion services.

Acknowledgements:

Ed L. Bigelow is recognized for his contribution and

efforts in creating this text. lntroduction to Wireline Log
Analysis has become an industry standard vehicle for
learning the basic techniques of log interpretation and
formation evaluation.

CCopyright 2002 Baker Hughes lnc. Ali nghts reserved

ATL-02-2531 2M
Foreword

lntroduction to Wireline Lag Analysis is intended for
those who have little or no experience in log analysis
methods, petrophysics, and perhaps the petroleum indus-
try. The material contained in this book is not intended to
be used as a self-teaching course, but instead contains
practica! questions/problems that are intended to be used
as a review of the material being presented. It is strongly
recommended that any who choose to use this text for
classroom instruction supplement the printed material
with actual logs, core data, and other pertinent petrophys-
ical information. When it is possible, local examples
should be implemented.
that many persons who use this text material have no
background in specific areas. It is meant to be a basic
course of instruction in log analysis, but it is important
that the interrelationship with other specialties be under-
stood. Many of the more difficult problems encountered
in wireline log acquisition, processing of data, and the
interpretation of logs are not covered here, but are
intended for more advanced instruction.

The chapters are organized to provide a gradual introduc-

tion and leaming environment for the novice. The text
begins with a short introductory discussion of explora-
tion methods, reservoir engineering parameters, and
drilling fluids, followed by a general description of the
duties and responsibilities of various disciplines in the
petroleum industry. A description of most openhole log-
ging services and their purposes follows, including the
importance of basic measurements fundamental to the
interpretation of log data. The intent is to slowly piece
together the parts that directly or indirectly affect results
of measurements and their interpretation.

The effects of temperature, invasion of drilling fluids,

gas, oil, water, lithology, pore structures, nature of satura-
tion, and analysis of results are gradually fitted together.
The intent is to cover the majority of the elements that
form the whole; however, time and space limit the possi-
bility of covering everything in an introductory course.
Where it is deemed important to do so, measurement
theory is discussed, but these discussions are not meant
to be in-depth hardware pointers - that being a course in
itself.

Computerized acquisition and processing are both com-

monplace today. Therefore, it was considered important
to discuss sorne of the more complicated computer-
related interpretative methods - but only philosophically.
It is considered important that those new to well log anal-
ysis be aware of the reasons for performing complex rou-
tines on the computer.

The text is intended to introduce well log analysis to

entry-level logging engineers, geologists, reservoir engi-
neers, production engineers, or whomever has an abiding
interest in learning about formation evaluation. Undoubt-
edly, those from certain disciplines will find sorne of the
basic material (as it relates to their specialty or back-
ground) too general; e.g. , a geologist may find the gen-
eral discussion of geology very basic. Consider, however,
 Contents

Introduction .. ............ ...... ... ..... ...... .... ...... ... ...... .... .. ............ .... .. .... ........ .......... .. ... ..... .... ...... .... ..... .......... .... .. ....... ............... 1

1 Fundamentals of Petroleum Reservoirs

RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES ....................................................................................................................................... 3
Porosity ... .................................................... .......................................... ......................................................................... 3
Permeability .................................................................................................................................................................. 4
Reservoir Content of Fluids and Gas .................................................... .................................................... .................... 6
RESERVOIR THICKNESS .......................... .......................................................................................................................... 7
Wireline Depth Control ................................................. .......... ...................................................................................... 7
RESERVOIR GEOMETRY .................................................................................................................................................... 7
DRAINAGE AREA AND IN-PLACE RESERVE ESTIMATION ........................................................................................ 8
WELL DRILLING OBJECTIVES AND OPERATION ........................... ...................................... ...................................... 8
ROTARY RIG COMPONENTS .............................................................................. .......................... ..................................... 9
DRILLING FLUIDS ............................................................................................................................................................... 9
Viscosity ...................................................................................................................................................................... 17
pH .......................... ...................................................................................................................................................... 18
FluidLoss .................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Freshwater-Based Drilling Fluids .................................................... ........................................................................... 18
Oil-Based Drilling Fluids ............................................................................................................................................ 18
Salt-Based Drilling Fluids ..................................................... ...................................................................................... 18
Potassium Chloride (KCI) Drilling Fluids .................................................................................................................. 19
Air- or Gas-Drilled Holes ....... .......... ........................................................ ................................................................... 19
Mud Additives of Concem to Wireline Logging .......................... .............................................................................. 19
Directional Drilling ........................................................................................................ ............................................. 20
LOG MEASUREMEN T-WHILE-DRIL LING (MWD) ....................................................................................................... 20
MUD RETURN LOGS (MUD LOGS) .............................................................................. .................................................. 20
ROLE OF GEOPHYSICS AND PETROLEUM GEOLOGY .............................................................................. ................ 2 1
Remote Frontier Wildcats ........................................................................................................................................... 23
Conventional Exploration .......................................................................... ................................................................. 23
Appraisal or Confirmation Wells ................................................. ............................................................................... 24
Development Wells ..................................................................................................................................................... 26
Injection Wells .................................................... ........... ............................................................................................. 26
Relief Wells .................................... ...................................................................................................... ....................... 26
Waste-Disposal Wells ........................................................................................................ ......................................... 27
Wells Used for Mining Exploration ............................................................................................................................ 28
Wells U sed for Underground Storage of Gas .............................................................................................................. 28
Water Supply Wells .................................................................................................................................. .................. 28
Wells Drilled for Geothermal Energy .............................................................................. ........................................... 29
GEOLOGICAL TRAPS .............................................................................. ......................................................................... 29
Structural Geology ...................................................................................................................................................... 29
Stratigraphy and Sedimentology ................................................................................................................................. 31
Clastic Rocks.............................................................................................. .................................................... ............. 31
Carbonate Rocks ......................................................................................................................................................... 36
CORING ............................................................................................................................................................................. .. 38
Conventional Core Recovery ...................................................................................................................................... 38
Wireline Mechanical Coring ....................................................................................................................................... 38
Core Analysis ............................... ............................................................................................................................... 40
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION .......................................................................................................................................... 41
2 Wireline Log Measurements and Supportive Information
WIRELINE LOGGING MEASUREMENTS ...................................................................................................................... 43
DEPTH MEASUREMENT .................................................................................................................................................. 43
IMPORTANT DATA FOR LOG HEADERS ....................................................................................................................... 44
BASIC RESISTIVITY CONCEPT ...................................................................................................................................... 46
Effects of Temperature......... ... ............ .............................. ............. .............. ..... ......... ...... .. ..... .......... .... .... .......... ..... ... 4 7
Mud Cup Principie ...................................................................................................................................................... 47
Mud Measurements ..................................................................................................................................................... 49
CALIPER MEASUREMENTS ............................................................................................................................................. 52
RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY .............................................................................................................................. 52
Induction Devices........................................................................................................................................................ 57
Dual Induction-Focused Logs ..................................................................................................................................... 57
Laterolog or Focused Electrode Devices .................................................................................................................... 58
CORRECTIONS TO RESISTIYITY/CONDUCTIVITY LOGS FOR BOREHOLE SIZE AND BED THICKNESS ...... 60
Resistivity Bed-Thickness Correction ......................................................................................................................... 60
Corrections to Resistivity for Borehole Size ............................................................................................................... 60
EFFECTS OF INVASION ON RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENTS .................................................................................. 65
Resistivity Profiles of lnvasion ................................................................................................................................... 65
Step Profile of lnvasion ............................................................................................................................................... 67
Transition Profile of lnvasion ..................................................................................................................................... 69
Annulus Profile of Invasion ........................................................................................................................................ 69
Invasion Corrections to the Dual Induction-Focused Log .......................................................................................... 70
lnvasion Corrections to the Dual Laterolog andan R xo Device .................................................................................. 71
Reminders About Correction Charts ........................................................................................................................... 75
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL (SP) ................................................................................................................................... 75
NATURAL GAMMA RAY (GR) ......................................................................................................................................... 76
WIRELINE DENSITY MEASUREMENTS ....................................................................................................................... 78
WIRELINE ACOUSTIC MEASUREMENTS ..................................................................................................................... 78
WIRELINE NEUTRON LOGS ............................................................................................................................................ 79
WIRELINE DIELECTRIC MEASUREMENTS ................................................................................................................. 80
WIRELINE PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS AND FORMATION FLUID SAMPLING ................................................. 80
LOG MEASUREMENTS FOR BOREHOLE IMAGING AND FORMATION DIP DETERMINATION ........................ 81
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION .......................................................................................................................................... 84

3 Basic Openhole Log Analysis

PERMEABLE BED IDENTIFICATION ............................................................................................................................. 87
DEFLECTIONS OF THE SP ............................................................................................................................................... 87
DIFFERENT RESISTIVITY VALUES WITH DIFFERENT RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENTS ................................... 89
MINILOG INDICATIONS OF PERMEABILITY .............................................................................................................. 90
CALIPER INDICATION OF PERMEABILITY ................................................................................................................. 90
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION .......................................................................................................................................... 91
BED BOUNDARIES AND BED THICKNESS ................................................................................................................... 92
SPTRACE ............................................................................................................................................................................ 92
RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIYITY TRACES .............................................................................................................. 93
Short Normal ............................................................................................................................................................... 93
Focused Log ................................................................................................................................................................ 94
Spherically Focused Logs (SFL) ................................................................................................................................. 94
Laterolog Devices ....................................................................................................................................................... 95
Induction Logs ............................................................................................................................................................. 95
Dual-Phase Induction Logs (DPIL) ............................................................................................................................. 95
Microresistivity Devices ............................................................................................................................................. 96
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Thin-Bed Resistivity Too! (TBRT) ............................................................................................................................. 96
Micro Spherically Focused Log .................................................................................................................................. 98
Diplog Microresistivity Pad Traces ....................................................................................................... ...................... 98
DIELECTRIC MEASUREMENTS ...................................................................................................................................... 99
GAMMA RAY MEASUREMENTS ............ ......... ............................................................................................................... 99
Natural Gamma Ray Measurements ...................................................................................................... ..................... 99
Natural Gamma Ray Spectroscopy Tools ................................................................................................................. 100
ACOUSTIC MEASUREMENTS ....................................................................................................................................... 10 1
NEUTRON MEASUREMENTS ........ ...... .... ......... ..... ..... .... ....... ....... ...... ... .... .. ............. ......... .. ......... ..... ......... .... ............... 1O1
DENSITY MEASUREMENTS .......................................................................................................................................... 10 1
COMBINATIONS OF POROSITY/ LITHOLOGY-DEVICES ......................................................................................... 102
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION .... .. .... .... .......... .... .. .. .................... ....................... .... .................... ........ ............... ........ .. .... 107
CONNATE WATER RESISTIVITY (R..,) .......................................................................................................................... 108
R.., Catalogs ..... ......... .............. ...... .... .... .......... .... .. .... .......... ............. ... ......... ............ .... .... ..... .... ................... ..... .... ..... 109
Resistivity and Temperature of Produced Water .................................................................. .................................... 109
Rw from Chemical Analysis ...................................................................................................................................... 112
R.., from the SP Curve ............................................................................................................................................... 113
R.., Calculation in a Water-Bearing Horizon ........................... .................................................................................. 117
R.., in Adjacent Shale Beds ......................................................................................................................................... 118
Summary of R.., Determination Methods ....................................................................... ........................................... 118
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION ... ..... .... .. .. .. .. ... ... ...... .... .............. .............. ...... .... ....... ....... ............... ............ ..... .... .......... .. 121
TRUE FORMATION RESISTIVITY (R 1 or R0 ) ... .......................... ....... .... ...... .... ......... ... .................... ...... ..... .. .. ........ ....... 12 1
Resistivitylndex ................................... ....................................................................................................... .............. 123
Saturation Exponent Considerations .... ... ...... .... ..... . ........ ..... .......... .... ...... .... ....... ..... .. .... ...... ... ..... .... ....... .... ........ ... .. . 123
Formation Resistivity Factor (F)......... .... ...... ...... .... ....................... ..... ......... ......... ......... .......... .. .. .... ..... .............. ... ... 123
Sumrnary of Resistivity Index Method ..................................................................................................................... 124
RESISTIVITY RATIO METHODS TO DETERMINE SATURATION ....................... .................................................... 124
Rocky Mountain Method .......................................................................................................................................... 125
Flushed-Zone Resistivity Ratio Method ................................................................................................................... 125
Induction Electrical Resistivity Ratio Method ............................................................. ,.. ....................... ........ ...... ..... 129
Saturation Determination by Nomogram ... ......... .............. ........................................................................................ 129
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION. ...... ....... .. .... ... .. ......... ...... ... ..... ...... ..................... .. .... ........ .... ...................................... .... . 136

4 Determining Porosity, Formation Factor, and Shaliness

BASIC METHODS FOR ASSESSING SHALE CONTENT IN RESERVOIR ROCKS ................... ............................... 137
SHALE VOLUME DETERMINATION BY GAMMA RAY MEASUREMENTS ....................... ................................... 137
Units of Gamma Ray Measurements ...... ................................. ................................................................................. 140
Principie of Measurement ......................................................................................................................................... 142
Time Constants and Filtering .................................................................................................................................... 142
Logging Speed ....... ......... ..... ...... ... ...... .................. ..................................... ................................ ......... ...................... 142
Determination of Shale Percentage from Gamma Ray Data ..................................................................................... 144
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION ..... .. .. .. .. .............. .................. ................... .... ............................... ..................................... 146
DETERMINATION OF SHALE VOLUME USING SP .................................................................................................... 147
Sta tic SP . ................................. ............. ... .. .... ..... .... ..... ....................... .... ..... .... ..... .. ........................... ......... ............... 148
Pseudostatic SP .... ......... ..... ......... .... ..... .... .. ... .... .. ........ .... ........... .... ........ .......... ........ .. .... ......... .............. .................... 149
Shale Volume Calculation .. ....................................................................................................................................... 149
Consideration before Using SP for V51i ................................. ............... ... ..... .. .. ..... ........... ................. .......... .............. 149
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION ...... ... ...... .............. ...... ........ .... ......... .................... ............ .. ................................ ... ...... ..... 149
LOG-DERIVED POROSITY (qi) ..... ............................... ..................... ............. ............. ..... ..... ............. ........... ... ..... ...... .... 149
ESTIMATING POROSITY FROM NEUTRON DATA ..................................................................................................... 149
Applications of Neutron Logs. .... ...... ... ........... .... ....................... ........ ...... ..... .... ... .. .... ..... .... .. ............ ...... ........ ...... .... 149
Neutron Applications to Petrophysics ....................................................................................................................... 149
Scaling of the Neutron Log ...... .... .............. .... ........... ... ............... ........ ............... ... ...... ..... .... ..... ..... .................. ......... 150
,,
PROPERTIES MEASURED BY NEUTRON TOOLS ...................................................................................................... 150
NEUTRON CALIBRATION .............................................................................................................................................. 153
SIDEWALL NEUTRON TOOL ......................................................................................................................................... 153
COMPENSATED NEUTRON TOOL ................................................................................................................................ 153
Effects of Borehole Size and Borehole Salinity ........................................................................................................ 153
Effects of Mud Weight and Mudcake Thickness ...................................................................................................... 153
Standoff Effects .... ......... .... ..... ..... .... .............. .... .. ... .... ..... ........... ........ ..... ......... ......... ...... ... .. .................. ... ...... ........ .. 153
Temperature and Pressure Effects ......... .... ..... ........... ............ .... ...... ............ ........... ... .......... .............. ..... ................ ... 153
Lithology Effects .................................................................................................................................................... ... 153
Formation Salinity Effects ... ..................... ......... ... ...... ........ ........................ ............. ........... ................. .......... ........ ... l 60
Compensated Neutron in Air-Filled Boreholes ......................................................................................................... 160
Casing and/or Cement Effects ...... ......... ..... .... ........... .... .............. .... .......... .... ...... ... ..... .......... ... ..... ...... ... ...... ........ ..... 160
Effects of Hydrocarbons on Hydrogen Index ........................................................................................................... 160
NEUTRON SHALE EFFECT AND SHALE VOLUME DETERMINATION ....... ........................ ... .......................... .. .... 163
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION ............ ......... ..... .... .... .. ... .... ..... ............................. ............ .. ........ ..... ..... ..................... .. .... l 63
ESTIMATING POROSITY FROM ACOUSTIC TRANSIT TIME................................................................................... 164
USES OF ACOUSTIC LOG DATA .................................................................................................................................... 164
ACOUSTIC LOGGING SYSTEMS .................................................................................................................................. 164
The First Acoustic Logging Tool ....................................................... ,...................................................................... 164
Devices with Two Receivers and One Transmitter ................................................................................................... 165
Borehole Compensation Devices ..... .... .. .. ..... ..... .... ...... ... ..... ............. ... .. ...... ......... ......... ..... .... .............. ......... ........ ... 165
Specifications of Most Conventional Acoustic Log Systems ................................................................................... 167
DISTURBING FACTORS WITH CONVENTIONAL ACOUSTIC DEVICES ............................................................... 167
Noise .......................................................................................................................................................................... 167
Cycle Skips ................................................................................................................................................................ 167
/j,t Stretch .................................................................................................................................................................... 168
Velocity Inversion ...................................................................................................................................................... 168
Shallow Gas Zones - A Special Case of Velocity Inversion .. .... .......... ......... ............................................. .............. 168
Dip Angle with Respect to the Borehole ................................................................................................................... 168
EVOLUTION OF LONG-SPACED ACOUSTIC LOGS ...................... ............................................................................ 169
Advantages of Long-Spaced Devices ....................................................................................................................... 169
Disadvantages of Long-Spaced Acoustic Devices .................................................................................................... 171
WYLLIE TIME AVERAGE EQUATION TO DERIVE POROSITY FROM ACOUSTIC LOGS .................................... 171
Compaction Correction in Unconsolidated Sands .................................................................................................... 172
ACOUSTIC POROSITY IN CARBONATE AND COMPLEX RESERVOIRS ................................................................ 173
Velocity Variation in Sandstones .. .. .. .. .... ... .. .... ... .. .... ..... ..... .... ..... .... ..... ........ ....... ...................... .......... .... ... .............. 173
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION ........................................................................................................................................ 174
CORRECTING ACOUSTIC-DERIVED POROSITY FOR SHALINESS ...................................................................... 174
Correcting Acoustic-Derived Porosity for Laminated Shales .... ............................................................................... 174
Correcting Acoustic-Derived Porosity for Dispersed Shales ................................................................................... 174
DISTURBING FACTS WITH ACOUSTIC MEASUREMENTS ..................................................................................... 175
DETERMINING POROSITY BY DENSITY METHODS .............................................................................................. 175
LOG MEASUREMENTS OF DENSITY .......................................................................................................................... 175
Uses of Density Log Data.......................................................................... ............................................................... 175
THEORY OF DENSITY MEASUREMENTS ................................................................................................................... 176
Bulk Density (pb) .................................................................................... .. ................................................................ 176
Spine and Ribs Corrections ........................................................................................................................................ 177
Bulk Density Calibration ........................................................................................................................................... 178
Peak Monitoring and Full-Spectrum Recording ....................................................................................................... 178
Photoelectric Absorption (Pe).................................................................................................................................... 178
Density Log Units of Measurement .......................................................................................................................... 180
Interpretati ve Aspects of Density Logs ..................................................................................................................... 180
Too! Resolution .... ...... ... ........... ............. ..... ... ...... .... .......... .... .............. .... ........... .... ..... .... ..... .. .. .... .... ...... ............ .. .... . 181
lnfluence of Fluids .................................................................................................................................................... 181
Z-Density Values ....................................................................................................................................................... 181
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION ............ .... ...... ............ .................... ......... ... .. ......... .... ..... .... ......... .......... .... .... ..... .... ..... ..... 18 l
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DEVELOPMENT OF THE POROSITY-TO-FORMATION FACTOR RELATIONSHIPS ............................................. 184
CEMENTATION FACTOR, PORE GEOMETRY, OR PORE-SHAPE EXPONENT ........................................................ 184
WATER SATURATION DETERMINATION ....................................................................................................... ............. 184

5 Crossplot Methods for Porosity, Lithology, and Gas Determination

DUAL-MINERAL LITHOLOGY-POROSITY CROSSPLOTS ........................................................................................ 185
ARBITRARY MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS FROM CROSSPLOT DATA ............. ...... .... .... .. ... ...... .... .............. ....... 186
FUNDAMENTALS OF CROSSPLOT CONSTRUCTION ........ .... .......... ...... .... ..... .... ..... .... ........................ ...... ... ......... ... 186
Shale Volume Determination .................................................................................................................................... 187
Gas Correction on Density-Neutron Crossplots ....................................................................................................... . 187
DENSfTY-NEUTRON CROSSPLOT VERSATILITY ..................................................................................................... 189
SHALY SANOS ANO ACOUSTIC-DENSITY CROSSPLOTS ....................................................................................... 192
Laminar Sand-Shale Model ... .......... ..... ............. ...... .............. ................................ .... ................................................ 193
Dispersed Clay Model .. ..... .... .... ...... .... .............. ...................................... ......... ..... .... .. ................ .......... .......... .......... 193
ACOUSTIC-NEUTRON CROSSPLOT ............ .... ................................................... ................ .............. .... ........................ 194
Gas Affect on Acoustic-Neutron Crossplots .................................................................................................... ......... 194
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION ........................................................................................................................................ 197
M-N CROSSPLOTS ......................................................................................................... .................................................. 202
MINERAL IDENTIFICATION (MIO) PLOT ............................................................................................. ...................... 203
Z-DENSITY DATA ............................................................................................................................................................ 203
DEFINING LITHOLOGY TRIANGLES ...................... ........................ ............................................................................ 208
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION ........................................................................................................................................ 21 O
PLOTTING DATA ON A Z-AXIS ..................................................................................................................................... 2 16
NATURAL GAMMA RAY SPECTROSCOPY ....................................................... .......................................................... 217
SHALE, SILT, AND CLAY ............................................................... ................................................................................. 221
Determination of Clay Type and Amount... .............................................................................................................. 222
CLAY ANALYSIS USING SPECTRALOG DATA ........................................................................................................... 222
ANALYZING COMPLEX LITHOLOGY WITH SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY, Z-DENSITY, ANO NEUTRON DATA 223
Spectralog Mineral Estimates .............................................................................................. ...................................... 224
Z-Density and Neutron Estimates of Lithology ........................................................................................................ 226
SPECIAL CROSSPLOTS OCCASIONALLY NEEDED TO DISTINGUISH LITHOLOGY .......................................... 229
SPECIAL CROSSPLOTS .................................................................................................................. ................................. 229
Jurassic Sandstones, North Sea ................................................................................... .............................................. 229
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS CONCERNING CROSSPLOT METHODS ........................................................... 23 1
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION ........................................................................................................................................ 23 1

6 Saturation Determination
SATURATION VALUES .................................................................................................................................................... 234
TAKING A CLOSER LOOK AT SATURATION IMPONDERABLES ............................................................................ 235
Saturation Behavior to Reservoir Variables .............................................................................................. ................ 235
SATURATION IN CLEAN FORMATIONS ................................. ..................................................................................... 235
SATURATION NOMOGRAMS ........................................................................................................................................ 237
RESISTIVITY VS. POROSITY CROSSPLOTS ............................... ................................................................................ 237
Ringle Plot. .......................................................................................................................................................... ...... 237
Pickett Plot ...................................................................................................................... .......................................... 240
QUICK-LOOK METHODS TO DETERMINE SATURATIONS ........................................................................... .......... 243
R wa Technique .......................................................................................... .............................................. ......... ........... 243
Formation Factor Ratios as a Quick-Look Technique ...................................................................... ......................... 246
SATURATION BY THE WAXMAN-SMITS EQUATION ............................................................................................... 246
DUAL-WATER MODEL .............................................................................. ...................................................................... 247
INDONESIAN MODEL ..................................................................................................................................................... 248
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SATURATION DETERMINATION IN LOW-SALINITY RESERVOIRS ....................................................................... 248
tpl Saturation Technique ............................................................................................................................................ 251
Calculation of Phase Water (P w) from Rw ................................................................................................................. 252
Phase Angle (cp) and Sw Determination Method ........................................................................................................ 254
Emprica) Fluid Resistivity vs. Phase Fluid Method for Saturation Determination .................................................. 254
Salinity Determination .............................................................................................................................................. 255
Simplified Shale Corrections .................................................................................................................................... 256
Determining m and n from Dielectric Data ............................................................................................................... 256
DETERMINATION OF POROSITY AND SATURATION FROM MAGNETIC RESONANCE LOGS (MRL) ............ 257
CONSIDERING THE SATURATION EXPONENT ......................................................................................................... 257
SATURATION SUMMARY .............................................................................................................................................. 260
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION ........................................................................................................................................ 260

7 Analyzing Porosity/Saturation Results and Estimating Permeability and Productivity

METHODS USED TO CHECK THE ANSWERS ............................................................................................................ 263
Rw and Sw Determination ........................................................................................................................................... 263
Rwa versus Gamma Ray ............................................................................................................................................ 263
log Rwa versus SP ...................................................................................................................................................... 263
log cp versus log R1 .. . .... . .. ...... . .. . . ... .. ..... . ....... . ....... . ... . ..... . ..... .... ...... 263
Hingle Plots ............................................................................................................................................................... 264
Movable Hydrocarbons ............................................................................................................................................. 264
Tabular Lists of the Processed Log Data .................................................................................................................. 264
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS ................................................................................................................................... 265
Sw versus <p to Determine S;w .................................................................................................................................... 265
Permeability Estimates .............................................................................................................................................. 267
Water-Oil and Water-Gas Ratios .............................................................................................................................. 268
Water-Cut Estimates ................................................................................................................................................. 270
DETERMINATION OF HYDROCARBON TYPE ........................................................................................................... 271
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION ........................................................................................................................................ 272

AppendixA
BAKER LOGGING SERVICES DEPTH-CONTROL SYSTEM ...................................................................................... 275
WIRELINE TENSION CHARACTERISTICS ............................................. ..................................................................... 276
DEPTH-MEASURING SYSTEMS .................................................................................................................................... 276
WIRELINE LENGTH CALIBRATION ............................................................................................................................. 277
WIRELINE STRETCH CHARACTERISTICS ............................................................................................................ .. ... 277
STRETCH REGIMES AND RELATIVE STRETCH ........................................................................................................ 279
DEPTH DETERMINATION .............................................................................................................................................. 279
DEPTH ACCURACY ......................................................................................................................................................... 281
PROCEDURES WHILE LOGGING .................................................................................................................................. 281
LIMITATIONS TO THE SYSTEM .................................................................................................................................... 281
DEPTH-CONTROL EXAMPLE ........................................................................................................................................ 282

Work Session Solutions

CHAPTER 1 WORK SESSION ......................................................................................................................................... 285
CHAPTER 2 WORK SESSION ......................................................................................................................................... 286
CHAPTER 3 WORK SESSION ......................................................................................................................................... 288
CHAPTER 4 WORK SESSION ........................................................................................................................................ 290
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CHAPTER 5 WORK SESSION ........................................................................................................................................ 293
CHAPTER 6 WORK SESSION ................................................ ......................................................................................... 296
CHAPTER 7 WORK SESSION ......................................................................................................................................... 297

Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................................... 299

Index .................................................................................................................................................................................. 309

Introduction

Wireline well logging operations provide measurements
of borehole and formation properties at accurately mea-
sured depths. Virtually ali of the measurements are made
under pseudo-dynamic conditions; i.e., although the
borehole fluid is typically static during logging opera-
tions, the measuring device is ascending the borehole
while the measurements are being recorded. There are
exceptions; e.g., sorne tools are held stationary while
measurements are made, sorne tools are moving while
fluids or gases enter or exit the borehole, and sorne tools
are descending the borehole while the measurements are
made.
The most fundamental data obtained by wireline opera-
tions are measured depth and identification of the pene-
trated strata. Logs are frequently the only permanent
record of ali the formations traversed by the borehole;
i.e., top, bottom, and apparent thickness of each zone
versus measured depth. Caliper data are also very impor-
tant in log analysis for openhole and subsequent cased
hole evaluations. Other measurements, often obtained
from wireline operations, can correct measured depths,
formation tops and bottoms, and thicknesses to true verti-
cal depth. Determining true stratigraphic thickness often
requires a knowledge of formation dip angle and direc-
tion in addition to borehole drift data. Other formation
evaluation techniques make measurements and allow
observations that are often necessary for accurate and
effective interpretations of log data.
With few exceptions, oil company personnel are inter-
ested in how wireline measurements relate to information
they need; i.e., a geologist has little interest in the physics
of tool functions or how the measurements are obtained.
For example, resistivity, conductivity, bulk density, and
acoustic travel time are not data that coincide with the
needs of most oil company personnel; however, the rela-
tionship of log measurements to the amount of porosity
and oil, water, or gas present within certain reservoir
rocks is important. The purpose of this textbook is to
emphasize those relationships. Hardware descriptions,
including tool physics, are limited in scope, and dis-
cussed in general terms only to provide an understanding
of how the log measurements are made. Emphasis is
placed on using, and in most cases, converting the log
measurements into practica! terms for use in reservoir
description.
(2) Log quality control
(3) Basic log interpretation principies
(4) Geophysics and petroleum geology
(5) Fundamental principies of petroleum reservoirs
This text is intended to be an introduction to well log
analysis for engineers, geologists, and geophysicists with
little or no training in the subject. Sorne of the material
can be considered more advanced conventional log anal-
ysis. Specialized areas of log analysis and integration of
log data to other specialty areas, such as seismic, core
analysis, geology, reservoir engineering, production
engineering, are intended to be presented in a subsequent
course. Although many participants may have previous
formal or practica! training in geology, petroleum engi-
neering, or geophysics, it is important that sorne very
basic principies, concepts, and uses of those disciplines
be explained to other participants who have not had train-
ing in one or more of those areas.
A complete evaluation of petroleum-bearing reservoirs
includes data from severa] sources - coring, wireline well
logging, mud logging, pressure tests, and sampling. A
thorough geological evaluation of a reservoir also typi-
cally includes seismic interpretation. The science of for-
mation evaluation encompasses a general knowledge of
all these disciplines, while certain individuals may be
specialized in a specific discipline such as seismic inter-
pretation, log analysis, or core analysis. Many oil com-
pany, service company, governmental, and academic
research and development projects are devoted to the
investigation of the physical properties of rocks and how
they relate to measurable properties; i.e., petrophysics.

Considering ali the above, it remains essential that the

formation evaluation specialist understand:

(l) Fundamental measurement theory of the various

devices

-1 -
Fundamentals of Petroleum Reservoirs 1

Virtually ali of the world's petroleum is produced from

sedimentary rocks. Locating the reservoirs that contain Source
Rock
petroleum requires an understanding of the nature of sed-
iments, and well logs are one important method of
acquiring such information. Wireline well logs are partic- Chemical Mechanical
Weathering Weathering
ularly useful in describing and characterizing sedimen-
tary rocks and the fluids or gasses that occupy their pores.
Plan! Solution New
Extraction Minerals
Global tectonic activity has altered and continues to alter
the earth's crust. Tectonic activity is the process that dis-
tills out the lighter, low melting point materials that accu-
mulated on the surface and form the continents today.
Sedimentary rocks evolved from the mechanical and
chemical alteration caused by exposure to the surface
nra"oo
Biologic Extraction
and Precipitation
environment. A thin veneer of sediments almost entirely
covers the earth's surface. Since the evolution of life Shale
Peat
forms, petroleum has been generated in sedimentary Conglomerate
Goal Evaporites Sandstone
environments. When organ ic remains escape oxidation (Sorne Limestone)
by early burial or depth of burial, anda sufficient concen- Chert
tration of organi sms are subjected to moderate levels of Limestones
Diatomaceous Shales
geothermal heat and overburden pressure, petroleum is
Phosphates
believed to be formed. When these fluids migrate from
source rock to porous and permeable reservoir rocks, Fig. 1-1 -A hierarchy of sedimentary rocks by origin
they are eventually trapped and the hydrocarbon accumu-
lates to form an oil or gas reservoir.
are often used as an extension from core analysis and log
Mechanical and chemical weathering processes of the comparisons on other wells. Log measurements can
earth's surface result in the alteration and creation of sed- define or at least infer petrophysical properties such as
imentary rocks. Sedirnents are either transported by porosity, shale volume, lithology, and water, oil, or gas
winds and fluids or dissolved in a fluid followed by saturation. Estimates of permeability, predictions of
mechanical deposition or chemical or biological precipi- water cut, detection of overpressured zones, and calcula-
tation. Sedimentary rocks are composed mostly of miner- tions of residual oil can also be made. Log analysis is pri-
als that remain stable under normal conditions of stress, marily used to describe petrophysical properties in a
temperature, and pressure. Minerals usually associated single well. However, when a suite of logs is run in sev-
with igneous or metamorphic rocks were formed in era! wells representative of a specific geographical area,
abnormal conditions of stress, temperature, and pressure, it can be used as a geological too! to describe local struc-
and sorne of these rninerals are found in sediments. ture, stratigraphy, facies relationships, environrnents of
Nearly 3,000 rninerals are known to exist, but fewer than deposition, and reservoir geometry.
200 are sufficiently abundant to be considered comrnon
rock-forming minerals. Most sedimentary rocks are char- RESERVOI R ROCK PROPERTI ES
acterized by 25 or fewer minerals.
Reliable economic evaluation of a reservoir requires rea-
A convenient means for classification of sedimentary sonable knowledge of certain fundamental reservoir
rocks is to divide them into mechanically derived rocks properties. Although the rock recovered by coring meth-
and chemically precipitated rocks, with a number of sub- ods is the cornerstone of formation evaluation, wireline
divisions for the chemical division (Fig. 1-1 ). data are more universally available for determining the
fundamental reservoir properties.
Well log data are the result of measurements of the phys-
ical properties of rock matrix material and the fluids Porosity
occupying the pores. Otherwise, these data are accessible
only by core analysis. Quite naturally, log and core data The ratio of a volume of void spaces within a rock to the
are often compared and used in conjunction to define res- total bulk volume of that rock is commonly expressed as
ervoir properties. When cores are not available, log data a percentage; i.e., ali the collective void space is referred

-3-
to as pore volume so that percent porosity (<I>) is calcu-
lated as

<I> = Pare Volume x IOO .

Total Volume

[n practice, severa( descriptions of porosity exist, but the

two most common are total porosity and effective poros-
ity (Fig. 1-2). Total porosity represents the ratio of total
pore volume within a rock to the total bulk volume
including voids as given in the previous equation. Effec-
tive porosity represents the ratio of the interconnected
pore space to the total bulk volume. Other terminology
such as secondary porosity, water-filled porosity, vuggy
porosity, and fracture porosity are discussed later.
Fig. 1-4 - Variation in the size of spheres can affect porosity
Sand Grain type and volume.

Porosity 36% Porosity 20%

Horiz Perm 1000 md Horiz Perm 100 md
lnterconnected or
Vert Perm 600 md Vert Perm 25 md
Effective Porosity
25%

~-")F..tk~l-- - 1solated or
Noneffective
Porosity
5%

Total Porosity
30%

Sand Grains without Clay Sand Grains with Clay

Fig. 1-2 - Graphic depiction of effective, noneffective, and total Cementing Material Cementing Material
porosity

Fig. 1-5- Clay cement can affect porosity and permeability.

The amount of porosity is principally caused by the
arrangement and shape of the rock grains (Fig. 1-3), the
mixing of grains of different sizes and shapes (Fig. 1-4),
and the amount of cementing material present (Fig. 1-5).

Permeability

A measure of the ease with which a fluid (or gas) flows

through connecting pore spaces of reservoir rock is called
Containers with Large Spheres permeability. This natural plumbing system conducts
fluids toward the borehole and is very important in pre-
dicting the rate of production from a reservoir.

Permeability depends largely on:

Containers with Small Spheres

( 1) Size of pore openings
Cubic Arrangement Rhombohedral
of Spheres Arrangement
48% Porosity of Spheres (2) Degree and size of pore connectivity
26% Porosity

Fig. 1-3 - Porosity relation to arrangement and shape of rock (3) Degree and type of cementing material between
grains rock grains

- 4-
,
Based on laboratory flow tests, Henri d'Arcy (1856)
deterrnined that permeability (k) could be expressed by
the equation
Large F lat Grains
,,
Small Flat Grains

k = QIA(t:i.PIL)

where k = permeability (darcy),

...
Horiz Perm 2000 md Horiz Perm 800 md
Q = flow per unit time (cm/s), Vert Perm 800 md Vert Perm 50 md

= viscosity of flowing medium (cp), Large Rounded Grains Very Small Irregular Grains

A = cross section of rock (cm2),

L = length of rock (cm),

and ,11' = pressure differential (drop).

Horiz Perm 2000 md Horiz Perm 150 md
The unit of measurement was anglicized and is known as Vert Perm 1500 md Vert Perm 15 md
the darcy. Rock measurements of permeability are typi-
cally expressed as rnillidarcies (md). Graphics (Figs. 1-6 Fig. 1-7 - Shape and size of grains affect permeability.
and 1-7) demonstrate severa! variables that can affect
permeability horizonta)ly and vertical\y.

Horiz Perm 800 md Horiz Perm 1500 md 1000

Vert Perm 500 md Vert Perm 1000 md

100

Porosity 15% Porosity 40%

Fig. 1-6 - Arrangement of sand grains and pore structure

affects permeability.
Potentially petroleum-bearing rocks exhibit a wide range
of permeabilities (Fig. 1-8). Often, permeability
increases with porosity; however, rocks with very low
porosity have exhibited high permeability characteristics,
and sorne high porosity rocks have very low matrix per-
meability. Permeability values can be determined by sev-
era! means; e.g., well tests, wireline formation tests, drill
stem tests, transient well testing, or analysis of different
types of recovered core. Core data are accepted as the
most accurate method for deterrnining permeability
(Fig. 1-9). Permeability is a fundamental parameter in
reservoir engineering work. For example, a reservoir
rock 10 ft thick having I darcy of effective permeability
will permit about 15 barreis of oil per day (BOPD) to
0.1 L----'----'----''-----'---- '----''-----'---..J.._---'-_ J
O 2 4 6 8 1 O 12 14 16 18 20
Porosity (%)
Fig. 1-8 - Reservoi r rocks demonstrate a wide range of
permeability that may not follow porosity t rends.
flow into a wellbore if the interna! well pressure is 10 psi
less than the reservoir pressure. A formation 100 ft
(30 m) thick that averages 2 md can be said to have
200 md-ft (60 md-m) permeability, whereas a formation
10 ft (3 m) thick that averages 200 md can be said to have
2,000 md-ft (600 md-m) of permeability. The thin zone
obviously has better qualities of deliverability than the
thick zone.

-5-

Rock
-
Area
---L---
Length
Permeability Area of Core
"-... / . -Pressure Orop
k A - --
Flow O= -x- (P1 -P2)
Rate - - - - L
Fluid J' ""- Core Length
Viscosity
Fig. 1-9 - Permeability determination from core
A reservoir's productive capacity is largely determined
by its permeability. If a 100 ft (30 m) thick reservoir is
perforated with 4 shots per foot in 4.8-in. (12.2-cm) ID
casing, the well's productivity is restricted to the capacity
of the casing, tubing, and wellhead apparatus. If a 0.7-in.
(1.75-cm) choke is placed at the surface, the well's pro-
duction capability is more severely reduced. Within the
cased well itself, productivity is restricted to the size of
tubular goods, and wellhead restrictions diminish the
producing capability of the pipe string. Each individual
perforation will only produce if the well has the capacity
to accept flow into it and the ability to produce the fluids
or gas at the surface. In this set of circumstances, a large
number of perforations would not contribute any increase
to the rate of production. The perforations in the most
permeable depth intervals would contribute the vast
majority of fluids or gas, and as permeability behind indi-
vidual perforations diminishes, their ability to contribute
to flow would also diminish.
Horizontal permeability is generally accepted as the
rock's permeability in a more-or-less horizontal direction,
while vertical permeability is generally accepted as the
component perpendicular to horizontal permeability. A
core from a near-vertical borehole in steeply dipping
beds may yield misleading permeability estimates for
vertical and horizontal orientation if the core analyst is
not aware of the circumstances. Vertical permeability (kv)
is usually somewhat less than horizontal permeability
because of the layering effect of sedimentation; i.e., clay
laminae, platy minerals, etc. Horizontal permeability
(kh), measured parallel to bedding, is the major contribu-
tor of fluid flow into a typical wellbore. The ratio of khfkv
generally ranges from 1.5 to 3.0 but might exceed 10.0 in
sorne reservoirs (Figs. 1-6 and 1-7).
-6-
High vertical permeability does occasionally occur, usu-
ally in clean, coarse, unconsolidated sands or where ver-
tical fractures, fissures, or joints are well developed. Ver-
tical joints and fissures often act as horizontal barriers if
they are filled with clay or other minerals. Bypassing and
coning effects occur in such reservoirs, and high vertical
permeability can therefore be detrimental.
Fractures are nothing more than cracks or fi ssures that
occur due to the stresses and strains of rock or pore pres-
sure realigning to stability. Most fractures occur not as a
large crack in the rock, but as several small fissures. Ori-
entation is usually normal, or parallel to the forces that
caused the fracture. The type of rock matrix influences
the preferred direction. Major catastrophic events in geo-
logic time (called revolutions, disturbances, etc. depend-
ing on the extent) are one major cause of fracturing,
while redistributions of pore fluid or gas from an area of
high pressure to an area of low pressure are also attrib-
uted to fracturing.
Other terms, such as absolute, effective, and relative per-
meability, are used for detailed reservoir parameters, but
are beyond the scope of this basic course. If only a single
medium (ol, water, or gas) flows through the rock, the
term absolute permeability is used. When a reservoir
contains any two or ali of the media, the effective perme-
ability (k0 , kw, k8 ) for each is considered. When flow of
more than one of the media through a permeable reser-
voir rock is present, it becomes necessary to determine
relative permeability (kr0 , krw ,kr8). Relative permeability
is defined as the ratio of relative permeability of one
phase, during multiphase flow, to the absolute permeabil-
ity of that fluid during single phase flow or
Methods relating wireline data to permeability are dis-
cussed in other chapters.
Reservoir Content of Fluids and Gas
Fluid (or gas) saturation is defined as the volume of fluid
(or gas) divided by the volume of pores in which the fluid
(or gas) resides. Total saturation is always 100%;
therefore,
S o + S g + S w = 100%,
where S0 = oil saturation (%),
s8 = gas saturation (%),
and Sw = water saturation (% ).
-- Depending on the existing conditions in any particular
reservoir, the hydrocarbon content may be in the form of
oil, free gas, or both. Air is also a gas. In reservoirs that
produce hydrocarbons, the water is generally a film coat-
ing on the rock surfaces within pores, while the hydrocar-
bons occupy the center portions of the pore spaces. A
simplified sketch of the three phases in an oil and gas res-
ervoir is illustrated in Fig. 1-10.
Water
Oil
vertical and formations are relatively flat (horizontal), the
measured thickness of different geological units is suffi-
ciently accurate. However, when wells are deviated more
than about 5, it becomes necessary to correct the
measured reservoir thickness to true vertical thickness by
utilizing measurements of the borehole drift angle and
directions (Fig. 1- 1lA). When the reservoir rock dips
steeply as a result of folding or faulting, the formation
thickness must often be corrected to its true stratigraphic
thickness, and information pertaining to post-deposi-
tional structural dip is required (Fig. 1-11 B). When the
well is deviated and formations dip steeply, additional
data are required to correct the log measurements to true
vertical thickness (Fig. 1-11 C).
Wireline Depth Control

Depth is one of the most fundamental and important mea-

surements performed by wireline logging crews, and log
Sand Grains data are commonly used to resolve reservoir thickness.
Wireline logs offer a geological information source for
Fig. 1-10 - Simplified sketch of three phases in a petroleum- the entire length of a wellbore, and a major use of log
bearing reservoir data is to make well-to-well geological correlations.

The depth-control system relies upon calibration and ver-

For example, if a rock with total bulk volume of 50 cm3 ification. Calibration is based on known and measurable
was found to contain 3 cm3 of water, 5 cm3 of oil, and properties relating to cable stretch characteristics, and the
2 cm3 of free gas, then verification procedure ensures accurate compensation for
variations in the effective length of the cable as a func-
Pore Volume = 3 + 5 + 2 = JO cm3; tion of variations in the tension. Using present technolo-
gies, severa) important assumptions are made in defining
therefore, the system's accuracy. A detailed discussion of wireline
depth control systems is found in Appendix A.
q> = 10/50 = 20%,
RESERVOIR GEOMETR Y
and Sw = 3/10 X 100 = 30%,

So = 5/10 X 100 = 50%,
and Sg = 2/10 X 100 = 20%.
RESERVOIR THICKNES S
The reservoir engineer also requires an accurate measure
of reservoir thickness, generally, the current true vertical
thickness of the reser-. oir rock in place. Original orienta-
tion of reservoirs and the effects of subsequent folding,
faulting, uplifting, or downwarping also influence reser-
voir parameters and are discussed later. The most basic
information provided by wireline logging is measured
well depth and identifiable top and bottom depths of tra-
versed geological formations. If the borehole is nearly
The reservoir engineer must know the reservoir's areal
extent and shape in addition to its thickness. Logs or core
data from a single well cannot provide this information,
but the combined data from a number of wells allow
inference of the outlying limits of the reservoir. Surface
seismic data provide horizontal stratigraphic coverage,
which is extremely useful in determining the lateral res-
ervoir extent and identifying lateral permeability barriers.
Three dimensional (3-D) seismic information is even
more valuable, but two or more seismic lines in different
directions can help in 3-D reservoir modelling. When
only well data are available to the engineer, the produc-
tion geologist must provide reasonably accurate cross
sections, maps, and perhaps fence diagrams to model the
reservoir in 3-D. This requires data from a number of
wells that are not in a straight line and sufficient lateral
coverage to estmate the reservoir boundary limits.

-7 -
,.

"
DRAINAGE AREA ANO IN-PLACE RESERVE
& ESTIMATION

\ Deviated Wellbore

r
Data from a single well can be used to calculate reserves
~\( in place, but as previously described, the reservoir engi-
neer must have sorne idea of the area that a single well
TVD ' could drain. A commonly used equaton for calculating
''
' barreis of oil in place is
TVD Top ,. Horizontal Bed
BOIP=7758 bbl/acre-ft x h (ft) x A (acres)4) x Sh

where h = reservoir thickness (ft),

TVD Base A = drainage area (acres),

$ = effectve porosity (%),

Fig. 1-11 A - TVD principie for a vertical well and horizontal bed
and sh = pore space portion filled with hydro-
carbon (%).

Actual reservor engineerng work requires much more

Vertical Wellbore
data. Permeability and reservoir temperature and pres-
sure are mportant consideratons in determining produc-
iblty behavior, accurate volumetrics, pressure mainte-
nance procedures, etc. The API gravty of eructe ol,
bubble point pressure, type of reservor, etc. are all
mportant considerations. Sorne of this informaton is
obtained with specialty log measurements.

WELL DRILLING OBJECTIVES ANO

OPERATION

The objective of an ol company's drillng department is

Fig. 1-11 B - TVD principie for a vertical well and a dipping bed
to drll a hole of specfied sze to a specfied depth, run
casing, cement designated portons of the penetrated
horizons, and perhaps run producton casing to total
depth, ali in the most economcally efficient manner pos-
sible. Most drilling personnel consder the hole to be the
eptomy of the industry, and to a certain degree ths is
correct because no oil or gas wll be produced until that
borehole is drilled and completed successfully. Surface
and subsurface geophysics and geology may dictate
where to drill a well, but it is the drilling personnel who
place the hole in the target.

Large ol and gas companes often have a vice president

Fig. 1-11 C - TVD principie for a deviated well and a dipping bed
of drilling or manager of drilling who has a staff of spe-
calzed drilling personnel. Smaller ndependents gener-
ally rely on a drllng contractor. Drilling engineers, drill-
ing superntendents, or drilling technicians are often
employees of the operating company, whle a drilling
contractor may have a toolpusher in charge of one or
more rigs. A drller is usually in charge of the drilling
crew, whch is made up of three or more roughnecks.
Drilling crews usually work "tours" (often pronounced
"towers"). Eight-hour shifts are common, but longer

-8-
-- shifts may occur. Larger land rigs and offshore rigs have
additional personnel who serve a number of functions.
More expensive drilling to deeper well depths, in deeper
offshore waters, or in more frontier locations has become
much more sophisticated in the past 15 to 20 years.
Computer technology, including high-technology com-
munications systems, etc., is not unusual where high-cost
drilling operations are taking place.
In rnost cases, drilling consumes the majority of the costs
of a well. The drilling budget is typically the largest
expenditure for the exploration and production depart-
ments in an oil company. Few oil cornpanies own their
own rigs; they contract the drilling rig, drill ship, or drill-
ing platform through a drilling contractor, just as they
contract wireline companies to perform logging and per-
forating services. However, sorne companies do own
rigs, and sorne drilling contractors occasionaJly promote
and drill wells.
Most drilling contracts are written to include a certain fee
for a specified, completed borehole of a certain size and
perhaps, quality and specific targeted controls through
the penetrated formations of the subsurface. Casing of
various sizes, weight, and type are specified to be set and
cemented over selected intervals of the borehole. Drilling
mud is also specified, and its cost can vary considerably
depending on mud type, its reusability, and the hole
volume. It is not the norm, but rnud costs can approach
40% of the total cost of a well.
Logging, testing, and coring operations, and times when
drilling is halted to circulate cuttings to the surface from
a specified zone, are often referred to as downtime. These
are charged to the oil company at "day work rates,"
which are often expensive. Rig breakdown time is the
problem of the drilling contractor.
Logging operations often consume a number of hours,
and altho ugh the oil company budgets time for this in a
well proposal, they rarely plan for any extensive logging
contractor breakdown time. This is why ol company per-
sonnel become upset when logging operation "lost time"
becomes significant. They know the downtime can add a
great deal of cost to the driller's invoice. Well-trained log-
ging crews, extensive tool maintenance, and carefully
planned maintenance methods are the logging contrac-
tors' only recourse to avoid technical problems that can
directly affect future business.
ROTARY RIG COMPONENTS
Virtually ali wells in the o l industry are drilled by using
the rotary method. A few isolated areas still have cable
too) rigs, but only rotary drilling rigs will be described in
any detail. It is not so important that the logging
engineer, well-site geologist, or other service personnel
- 9-
know ali about drilling rigs, but it is irnportant to be
fami liar with the areas where they are to be at times and
to recognize the potential dangers. The mechanical and
electrical equipment associated with a drilling rig can be
dangerous to human life and logging operations. Severa!
types of drilling rigs are i llustrated (Figs. 1- 12 through 1-
16). The layout of the mud circulation system may differ,
but the scheme for mud circulation in and out of the bore-
hole generally follows the schematic (Fig. 1- 17). Well-
head pressure apparatus is often present beneath the rig
floor and the pipe string configuration duri ng drilling
operations includes severa! compo nents (Fig. 1-18). Drill
strings that include measurement apparatus are becorning
more common (Fig. 1-19); they are referred to as mea-
surement-while-drilling (MWD).
DRILLING FLUIDS
Drilling mud is possibly the one factor that is rnost
ignored or misunderstood relative to forrnation evalua-
tion. Nevertheless, ali borehole measurernents are
affected somewhat by the particular attributes of the drill-
ing fluid. Rotary rigs require fluid for two basic purposes
- to cool and lubricare the bit, and to c irculate the drilled
cuttings back to the surface. From the engineering stand-
point, it is usually important to rnaintain a pressure in the
borehole slightly above the pressures in the formations to
be penetrated; this is a safety factor to avoid well blow-
outs. In many situations, water is the fluid used, and the
hydrostatic head is sufficient to provide a slight overbal-
ance. Sorne situations require an increase in mud weight
because of formation pressures known to be abnorrnally
high. In the case of an exploration wildcat drilled in a
remote area, the drilling contractor and ol company may
choose to "mud up" as a precautionary measure. Differ-
ent units of mud weight are used in different operating
areas (Fig. 1-20).
Drilling with overbalanced pressure can be damaging to
reservoir properties immediately adjacent to the bore-
hole. With sufficient well pressure, the drilling fluid can
invade deeply into the reservoir or deep enough to cause
clay swelling or o ther problems that deter or forbid drain-
age access for hydrocarbons when the well is put on pro-
duction (Fig. 1-2 1). Freshwater-based rnuds often cause a
chemical reaction with clay materials disseminated in the
formation, which results in clay swelling o r clay removal
and transport to other areas of the pore throats. Either cir-
cumstance can result in effectively eliminating the per-
meable avenue. Mud solids or particles injected into the
pore throats with the invading fluids cause a similar dam-
aging effect. Forrnation damage immediately surround-
ing the borehole can severely diminish the forrnation's
ability to produce into the wellbore. Rheology of dri lling
fluids has therefore become an important specialty area
in the petroleum industry.
 SPRING POLE - The "spring pole", first used in this country for
digging salt wells, was adopted for early oil well drilling. The Spring Pole,
device consisted of a limber pole, anchored at one end and
passing over a post. Men pulled down on the rape, causing the
drilling tools to strike bottom and to be lifted alter each stroke by
the spring of the pole.
Rape

Chain

Hale
.:.-+--~

CABLE TOOL (Percussion) DRILLING RIG

The band wheel receives power from an engine and

operates in turn:

The walking beam, set on the sampson post, is used

for raising and dropping the "string" of drilling tools to
drill the well.

The bull wheel (driven by a bull rape), on which is

wound the wire drilling line, raises or lowers the
drilling tools in the well.

The calf wheel, on which is wound the wire casing Traveling

line, raises or lowers casing in the well. ..,..,...'M"1'r Block
The sand wheel, driven from band wheel - bails out
the cut-away material by means of the sand line and
bailer.

As the well is drilled deeper, its walls are

progressively "cased" with lengths of steel casing pipe.
This prevents cave-ins and the seepage of water, oil, or Casing - 1st String

1
gas into the unfinished well. Rape Socket
Casing - 2nd String
"Fishing" is the name given to methods of recovering Jars - permit bit to fall free -
bits, or parts of the drilling "strings," which accidentally also used to jar tools loase
break off and become lodged in the well. lf they cannot
be recovered, or drilled around, the well is abandoned.

Bits are of various designs to meet the different types

of underground formations being drilled. From time to
time, the entire drill string is brought to the surface and
the bit replaced.

Fig. 1-12 - Early spring pole drilling method and cable tool drilling rig
l Stem - adds weight to bit

Open Hale
Bit

- 10-
-,,

ROTARY DRILLING RIG

"Draw Works" - the collective name for !he hoisting

drum, shaft, and clutches. Power is received from
the engine.

The rotary table is driven by chain from the draw

works and rotales the hollow drill stem, which drills
the well.

The drill stem, consisting of drill pipe, drill collar, and

bit, is raised or lowered into the well by a cable that
is wound on the hoisting drum and passes through a
series of pulleys in the crown block.

Casing, or lining, for the well is raised or lowered by

the same method.

Cuttings are removed by pumping drilling mud,

obtained from a slush pit, down through the hollow
drill pipe. lt passes out through hales in the bit and,
forced upward by pump pressure, carries the
cuttings to the surface. Here, the liquid passes through
settling troughs in which heavier particles sink to the
bottom. The cleansed mud flows back into the slush
pit and is used again, not only for removing cuttings,
but as a plaster on the walls of the well to preven!
caving until the casing is set.

Stand Pipe
(Carries high-pressure
mud from pumps)

Drawworks Hook
Swivel

-+-ff-----1 Mlt-- Kelly

'-9----u -Rotary Table

Fig. 1-13- Rotary drilling rig

- 11 -
 lllt1~1~
1,d._ _ _ _ Racking Platform
(Monkey Boards)
11 . Wireline

13. Rotary

roq:!11------ 10.Traveling Block

9. Hook
8. Swivel
7. Rotary Hose and Standpipe
6. Kelly
Kelly Bushing
17. Mud Pit 20. Blowout Preventer (BOP) Stack
19. Substructure

6. Kelly

5. Kelly Saver Sub

4. Drill Pipe

Rotary Rig System Components

1ffi- 3. Drill Collars

2. Bit Sub
HoistingSystem-9, 10, 11 , 12, 14, 15, 18
Circulating System - 2, 3, 4 , 6, 8, 15, 16, 17
Rotating System - 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 13, 15 1. Bit

Fig. 1-14 - Schematic of rotary drilling system (from Fundamentals of Petroleum, 2nd ed. , Copyright 1981, Petroleum Extension Service,
The University of Texas at Austin)

- 12 -
-

- 13 -
 Key to lllustration

Air chambers (1) Mud line manifold (28)

Blowout preventer (2) Mud mixing hopper (29)
Base plate (3) Mud return ditch (30)
Casing head (4) Mud return line (31)
Compound (5) Mud tank connections (32)
Cross tee (6) Platform, engine (33)
Crown block (7) Rathole (34)
Derrick (8) Rotary hook (35)
Derrick brace (9) Rotary hose (36)
Derrick !loor (10) Rotary hose safety chain (37)
Derrick leg (11) Rotary table (38)
Drawworks (12) Runaround (39)
Engines, diesel or gas (13) Settling pit (40)
Gin pole (14) Shale shaker (41)
Girt (15) Slush pump (42)
Goose neck (16) Standpipe (43)
Guard, drive chain (17) Steps (44)
Guard, rotary drive (18) Substructure, derrick (45)
Guard, pump drive (19) Substructure, drawworks (46)
Hydraulic brake (20) Substructure, ramp (47)
Kelly (21) Suction line (48)
Line, fill-up {22) Suction tank (49)
Line, pump discharge (23) Surge chamber (50)
Line, rotary (24) Swivel (51 )
Mouse hole (25) Swivel ball (52)
Mud gun, lixed (26) Traveling block (53)
Mud gun, movable (27) Water supply line (54)

Fig. 1-16- Components of a rotary drilling rig

- 14-
"

Swivel

Standpipe
1
Mud House

Kelly

Discharge

Suction Line

~
Drill Pipe

Annulus

Mud Pit

Fig. 1-17 - Mud circulation system (from Fundamentals of Petroleum, 2nd ed., Copyright 1981 , Petroleum Extension Service, The
University of Texas at Austin)

- 15-
 There are special circumstances where the fluid is main-
Drilling Mud Pumped Back to Kelly tained at an underbalanced pressure condition, particu-
Kelly ~ larly when formation damage can be expected from inva-
Rotary Table sion of drilling fluids. Many of the Mesa Verde gas sands
e'---::::,, ..._ across Wyoming (U.S.A.) were dril led underbaJanced to
keep water off of swelling clays as muchas possible; i.e.,
clay swelling would inhibit production from the reser-
voirs that already had low permeability and low flow
rates. Most formation damage occurs near the borehole
and creates a permeable barrier between the gas or oil
and the perforated entries into the well bore. Drilling
with underbalanced pressure to avoid formation damage
Preventers Slush Pit can inadvertently affect log responses if gas bleeds from
the formation into the borehole fluid. Measurements most
affected are the SP, neutrons, and acoustic logs.

Flow properties of drilling fluids often influence the

success or fai lure of a drilling operation. The particular
properties are primarily responsible for removal of rock
Fig. 1-18 -Typical setup of wellhead pressure apparatus

Directional Display
lnclination
Azimuth

MWD Skid Unit

Pulse Detection Gamma Log (Optional)
Pulse Decoding Geological Horizons
Formation ldentification

MWD

Position Monitoring Sensors

Magnetometers
Accelerometers

Formation ldentification Sensor

Gamma Sensor

Drilling Motor

Dril/ Strin

,,,,---
..-
/
------
--
------ -~
_______ , .........
......_
'-...

Fig. 1-19 - Typical scheme for measurement-while-drilling (MWD)

- 16 -
 cuttings, but also influence drilling progress in severa!
additional ways. Poor flow performance can cause hole
Mud Welght or Preuure Gradlent
bridging, bottomhole fi ll up, reduced penetration rate,
g/cm3 lb/cu ft lb/gal psi/ft
hole enlargement, stuck pipe, loss of circulation, and pos-
1.0 62.4 8,345 0.433 sibly result in a well blowout. Flow behavior is governed
0.45 by flow regimes that are dictated by pressure and veloc-
9
1.1 ity. The two main flow regimes are laminar flow, which
70
o.so prevails at low velocities and is a direct function of the
1.2 10 viscous properties of the fluid; turbulent flow is governed
by the interna( properties of the fluid and is only indi-
80 0.55
1.3 rectly influenced by the viscosity. Pressure increases with
11
velocity much more rapidly when flow is turbulent than
1.4 0.60 when it is laminar.
90 12

1.5 0.65 Viscosity

13
1.6 100
0.70
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow; e.g.,
molasses is more resistant to flow than water. The viscos-
14
1,7 ity of drilling fluid is typically reported on wireline log
0 .75
110 headers, and the number reported is taken from the mud
1.8 15 report or driller's record (marsh funnel viscosity). Viscos-
0 .80 ity typically varies from the low to mid 40s to the mid to
1.9
16
high 50s, but much higher viscosities are occasionally
120
o.es encountered. Viscosity might be reported from either of
2.0 two methods:
17
130 0.90
2 .1 (1 ) Marsh funnel seconds, which represents the time
18 it takes for an efflux of one quart (946 cm 3) of drill-
2.2 0.95 ing fluid to flow through a specified funnel. The
140
longer (in seconds) it takes to drain the funnel, the
19
2.3 1.00 higher the viscosity. The number obtained depends
partly on the effective viscosity at the rate of shear
2.4 20 prevailing in the funnel orfice and partly on the
rate of gelation. For benchmark reference, the time
of efflux of fresh water at 70 5F (21 3C) is
26 0.5 seconds. Marsh funnel viscosity is a
Fg. 1-20 - Comparison of difieren! mud weight units

Barehale Axis Barehale Axis

\ \
Particle Surface ln-depth Salid
Pare Thraat Size Penetratian
lmmediate Surface
Filler-cake Buildup

~ Bridging Lacatian

Fig. 1-21 - Drilling overbalanced can cause formation damage near the borehole.

- 17 -
,.
simplified method that enables the drilling crew to
periodically report the consistency of the mud. This
value is normally found in the driller's report and is
the value commonly reported on log headers.
(2) Yield point viscosity indicates flow characteristics
when the fluid is moving slowly or is at rest, and
plastic viscosity represents the flow characteristics
of the fluid when it is moving rapidl y. Both viscos-
ities are measured in centipoise. Mud engineers and
laboratory chemists and technicians use more so-
phisticated viscometers to measure these properties.
pH
Another parameter measured by the mud engineer is the
pH factor of the drilling fluid. pH values are a measure of
the acid or alkaline condition of a substance. A neutral
solution, such as pure water, has a pH of 7; acid solutions
are< 7; basic or alkaline solutions are> 7. pH is scaled
logarithmically, therefore a fluid with a pH of 4 is more
than twice as acidic as a substance with a pH of 7, and a
substance with a pH of 9 is much more than twice as
alkaline as a substance with a pH of 8. pH is an important
parameter in mud quality, and occasionally to particular
rock cuttings that need to be investigated by the well-site
geologist.
Fluid Loss
Water loss, measured in cubic centimeters, plays a very
important part in obtaining accurate log data that are crit-
ica( to an analysis. High-water-loss muds tend to invade
and flush deeper into the formation, which influences log
measurements used to evaluate the types and amounts of
fluid or gas saturation. Because the drilling fluid was
probably not of the same consistency throughout the
drilling process, high-water-loss muds effecti vely flush
and invade different reservoirs with filtrate of different
salinities, since most flu shing takes place as a spurt with
the initial penetration of the bit. Massive loss of mud into
the formation seldom occurs because the mud solids are
filtered out onto the borehole wall. Muds should be
treated to keep cake permeability as low as possible,
thereby maintaining a stable borehole and minimizing fil -
trate invasion and possible formation damage of potential
reservoirs. Hig h-mud-cake permeability results in thick
filter cake that reduces borehole diameter, causes severa!
potential problems for the driller, and also inhibits many
log measurements.
Freshwater-Based Drilling Fluids
The most common drilling fluid is water-based, usuall y
somewhat less saline than the connate formation waters.
Mud was first introduced as a fluid additive in the early
1900s, but did not find widespread usage until the early
- 18 -
1920s. Drilling mud research began in earnest by the late
I 920s, and different technical society meetings witnessed
more papers on mud properties being presented in the
early 1930s than the total for the previous 40 years. The
types of mud additives are widely varied and are used for
different purposes. Gels were introduced to eliminate or
at least reduce caving and forro mud cakes to prevent for-
mation damage. Barite is the most common weighting
material.
Different wireline devices are used to make measure-
ments of formation resistivity. The type of drilling fluid
and its comparative relation to the formation water are
important criteria to the accuracy of the measurement. As
a rule of thumb for the purposes of well logging, fresh
muds are generally those having a resistivity (at compa-
rable temperature to the formation temperature) of > 3.5
times that of the formation water. Electrode-resistivi ty
devices were first developed to perform measurements in
water-filled boreholes. The induction log was later devel-
oped for oil-based drilling fluids, but it was soon found
that the induction also performed exceptionally well in
fresh muds.
Oil-Based Drilling Fluids
Numerous types of drilling fluids have been used and
called oil-based, but variations in oil percentages and
other fluid additives exist. For example, the oil-based
muds used in the North Sea number well above 60, and
approximately 80% of the wells drilled in the North Sea
in the past 7 to 8 years ( l 983-1 991) have utilized oil-
based muds to sorne extent. In 1990, ol-bases accounted
foras much as 10% of the drilling fluids used throughout
the world. Emulsions, inverted systems, etc. are included
among the nomenclature. For the purposes of this discus-
sion, oil-based fluids are virtually always nonconductive;
i.e., they are electrical insulators. These fluids are used to
achieve better borehole conditions (avoid excessive
washouts, possibly keep water away from swelling mate-
rials) and also for their reusable qualities. The presence of
illite, smectite, and mixed !ayer illite/smectite clays, in
particular, causes problems when water-based drilling
fluids are used. In the past, the base material of oil-based
fluids was usually a diesel oil that required weighting,
which is an expensive process. In recent years, diese! has
been abandoned largely because of the environmental and
occupational hazards caused by high aromatic content.
Today's oil-based fl uids are made up of very expensive,
specially refi ned oil s that are less toxic (<5% aromatics).
Salt-Based Drilling Fluids
Early well-drilling experience established bentonite as
the most practica! material for improving viscosity and
wall-building properties of freshwater muds; however, as
dissolved salt content within the fluid increased,
bentonite became less effective. Bentonite does not swell
in saturated salt water; therefore, it contributes essen-
tially nothing to filtration in salty fluid conditions. Drill-
ers in the Permian Basin of west Texas encountered thick
salt beds, and saJt domes created problems in the U.S.
gulf coast area. Gelatinized starch was found to be a reli-
able substitute and eliminated many of the problems with
thick mud cakes and excess filtration that had previously
occurred in salty fluids.
Salt muds are commonly used in salt basins, which are
geological basins having thick beds of salt and other
evaporites. Fresh water leaches the salt beds, creating
enormous washouts or cavities that create problems for
drilling, running casing, logging, testing, coring, and just
about every operation that is performed in a wellbore.
Most of these problems are alleviated if high-salinity
drilling fluids are used.
High-salinity drilling fluids also cause excessive prob-
lems for certain wireline measurements. The fluid is
exceptionally conductive and the borehole signa! from
any logging device influenced by conductivity will be
severely affected. For this reason, induction devices are
not commonly used in salt-based drilling fluids. The lat-
erolog, a focused resistivity logging system, was specifi-
cally designed for use in salt-based muds. Short-circuit-
ing problems in the logging string can occur if ali connec-
tions in the wireline network are not well-insulated from
the conductive fluid. Equipment that works satisfactorily
in a fresh-mud environment may fail in salt-mud condi-
tions because of the highly conductive borehole fluid.
More extensive maintenance and preparation programs
are necessary if successful operations are to be routinely
performed. From the well logging standpoint, salt-based
logging conditions are generally considered to be those
where the resistivity of a water-based drilling fluid is <3.5
times as great as the formation fluid. The term super-sat-
urated is often used when the drilling fluid resistivity is
much less than the resistivity of the formation water.
Potassium Chloride (KCI) Drilling Fluids
Muds containing potassium chloride (KCI) and a suitable
polymer are often used to improve borehole stability. The
potassium ion replaces the commonly used sodium or
calcium ions to inhibit clay swelling in the shales. Oil-
based muds sometime curtail formation evaluation
efforts, and KCI muds can be substituted for oil-based
muds if other circumstances perrnit.
Air- or Gas-Drilled Boles
In areas where air drilling occurs, the producing horizons
are typically low-porosity, low-permeability reservoirs
that often contain clays that swell badly when contacted
- 19-
by fluids. To avoid clay swelling or other formation
damage immediately adjacent to the borehole, operators
may choose to dril! with air. Cable-too] drilling is slow
but less expensive; it often takes as much as 3 months to
dril! to a depth of 3,000 ft (915 m). Boreholes drilled with
cable tools typically maintain wall stability, and rock cut-
tings bailed from the holeare usually of excellent quality
because they are not contaminated by drilling fluids. Fur-
thermore, the geologist does not have to allow for lag
time for sample retums. The first 60 to 70 years of the
petroleum industry were dorninated by cable-too( drill-
ing. Rotary rigs are also used in air-drilling operations,
and in "hard-rock" country. They provide a secondary
benefit as a result of a faster drilling rate.
Many of the gas fields today in Appalachia and Arkansas
(U.S.A .) are drilled with air; reefs in southwest Ontario
(Canada) and shallow production wells in Michigan
(U.S.A.) are often drilled with cable tools. Economics
and formation properties are the primary factors that
determine the drilling technique.
Air-drilled holes also limit logging capabilities. Induc-
tion tools perform in the air-filled borehole, as do density,
gamma ray, and neutron devices. Electrode resistivity,
SP, and acoustic measurements cannot be recorded. Side-
wall neutron devices are preferred. Production from the
tight reservoirs is usually gas, and temperature surveys
are often a component of logging programs. Modifica-
tions to the air-drilling process are also attempted by
using foam agents or aerated muds.
Mud Additives of Concern to Wireline Logging
KCI muds hamper the use of the Spectralog instrument,
a logging device that differentiates the portions of potas-
sium, thorium, and uranium products that constitute the
total gamma ray measurement. lf potassium is a constitu-
ent of the borehole fluid (e.g., KCI drilling fluid), even
with a well-circulated mud system, the potassium con-
centration vares with borehole size variations.
Weighting agents include galena, hematite, magnetite,
ilmenite, barite, siderite, celestite, dolomite, calcite, syn-
thetic iron oxides, etc. Each of these materials is dense
and, with the exception of perhaps dolomite and calcite,
has a severe effect on log responses that are susceptible
to heavy minerals or iron minerals.
Sorne of the iron-bearing minerals are often used as hy-
drogen sulfide (H 2S) scavengers. H 2S is a very corrosive,
dangerous, and deadly gas. Many species of bacteria exist
in water-base drilling fluids and contribute to corrosion by
forming patches of slime under which corrosion cells be-
come well established. Specific species react with ca-
thodic hydrogen and reduce sulfates in the drilling fluid to
form H 2S. Degrading additives such as lignosulfonate can
resu lt in the bacteria adversely affecting the rheological
and filtration properties of the mud. Biocides are used to
control the problem, and c hlorin ated phenols a nd
paraformaldehydes appear to be the most suitable agents.
Unfortunately, formaldehyde has an ad verse affect o n
propylene copolymer, which is used as conductor insula-
tion in many wireline logging cables. Serious problems
with short circuiting often occur during logging jobs if the
formaldehyde reacts with the insulation.
Directional Drilling
A well is often drilled at sorne angle from vertical toward
a specific subsea horizon. Reasons for directing bore-
holes are numerous:
( l) Offshore wells are often drilled from a stationary
platform to certain geographical coordinates and
then g raduall y straightened to vertical to penetrate
the potentially productive horizons. Directional
information becomes important to correct forma-
tion tops and thicknesses to true vertical depth,
and/or true stratigraphic thickness.
(2) Land wells are drilled directionally to avoid a drill-
ing location in difficult terrain; e.g., swamps,
rugged mountains, under a lake or an urban area.
or to avoid land-use constraints, such as environ-
mental damage to a sensitive environmental
reserve. Log data requirements are similar to those
for offshore needs.
(3) Relief wells are drilled directionally to intersect
wells that have blown out and typically caught fire.
Once the relief well is within an effective radius of
the problem well, the hole is straightened to dril!
into the reservoir. At that time, the proper materials
will be injected from the relief wel l into the source
reservoir to "snuff out" the problem. Wireline log-
ging services become very important in directing
the relief well toward the problem well.
(4) Sorne wells are gradually directed toward the hori-
zontal to take full advantage of the drainage pat-
terns in a reservoir; e.g., fractured reservoirs have
low matrix porosity.
(5) Occasionally, wells drift away from vertical and
cither climb updip or follow steeply dipping beds;
i.e., geological conditions can control the direction
of the bit.
Special preparations and procedures are necessary to log
highly deviated boreholes including types of centralizers,
knuckle joints between makeup portions of the tool
string, and occasionally special weights. Pipe-conveyed
logging methods are also employed in which the logging
-20-
tools are suspended below the drill pipe to log the desired
intervals. Wireline tools are also conveyed by coiled
tubing into highly deviatcd boreholes.
LOG MEASUREMENT-WHILE-DRILLING
(MWD)
MWD is an alternative to wireline logging in many cir-
cumstances, especially offshore where rig costs are
extremely high. Severa! measurements including gamma
ray, temperature, resistivity, dielectric, and neutron are
available. Other MWD measurements that relate to reser-
voir characteristics are rate of penetration (ROP) and
weight on bit (WOB). MWD navigational measurements
are critica! in directing deviated boreholes.
Not that long ago, wireline logging was typically per-
formed prior to casing any portion of the borehole.
Today, MWD Iogs are often recorded over long borehole
intervals that will be cased with an intermediate pipe
string. lf no potentially productive intervals are realized
by the MWD devices, wireline measurements might not
be recorded over that interval. When potential zones are
spotted, however, wireline logging can still be performed
prior to running pipe. Although MWD logs provide basic
data on bit direction, weight on bit, rate of penetration,
temperature, etc., (Fig. 1-22), MWD data and analysis
are becoming more sophisticated (Fig. 1-23). Density
measurements are being recorded and acoustic measure-
ments are in the planning stages.
It is not difficult to visualize the importance of dri lling
methods and fluids to MWD applications. MWD
personnel are more profoundly exposed to the aspects of
drilling than conventional wireline logging personnel and
can offer special insight and detail into the subjects dis-
cussed above.
MUO RETURN LOGS (MUO LOGS)
Another specialty area in the petroleum services industry
is mud logging. Data presentations vary considerably
depending on contractor, cl ient, and the nature of the
measurements. A description of the rock cuttings is part
of the log and very useful. Certain minerals are often
identified under the microscope that provide clues to the
environmental seuing of speci fi c reservoirs. Information
is usually provided on dril! penetration rates. A "hot-
wire" reading (gas detector) is always recorded, but can
be misleading to those not well trained in mud log analy-
sis. Chromatograph readings are also recorded, almost
always with C 1, C2, C 3 , and C4 measure ments. A C 5
measurement is often available. A typical setup for mud
log apparatus to detect "hot wire" and chromatograph
readings is shown (Fig. 1-24) with a mud log presenta-
tion (Fig. 1-25).
-,,

GR Oepth ROP GRAV1MAG

0 ____________ 150 H0+H+H-+H-+H-+H>+1-+-00H.-9_ _ _ _ ___,1.1

MWOGR2
' Bell Nipple
Shale
Shaker

,-J-

Mud Tank

Sample Cup

Cuttings - Mud Separator

{Elutriator)

Discharge Stack

Clear Acrylic
Plastic Tube

Transition
Pinch Valve

SampleCup

Side View Front View

Fig. 1-22 - MWD presentation of navigational measurements

Fig. 1-24 - Setup scenario for "hot wire" and chromatograph

measurements
0M CAtWtA U,Y
.2 ____ ---------- ltltCO - - - - - - - -
ntoJun USUTl\l'lTY
_____ 2ooc
Ignorance of the acqu1s1t1on system and interpretative
.2 2~(
SHALLOV FOCU$ t0 LOC
200(
methods causes many oil industry personnel to downplay
200C
mud log data, but when understood and interpreted prop-
:j. ~
-- -
erly, mud logs offer a variety of informative data. Many
g e=.-. _.;_;,; - workers in the oil industry were first employed by mud
log contractors.
t=L.t:::.
~ ...
'" ROLE OF GEOPHYSICS ANO PETROLEUM
= . . . ....,._
GEOLOGY

,- Site selection for drilling a well involves considerable

~ .... ... geological study and commences long before a logging

..:::-:.
1-=
i - --~
E~
f-
--.....-;-,

;~-
program is even considered. Situations vary consider-
ably, depending on geographical locale and economics.

g
Exploration wells, confirmation wells, development
~t
wells, injection wells, water supply wells, disposal wells,
IJ and exploratory holes for underground mining ali
~
-+-
-.t:. i-,-
E=_' require unique geological considerations. Decision-tree
analysis and associated risk factors play a significant role
in selecting frontier ventures, offshore concessions,
Fig. 1-23 - Comparison of MWD and wireline data leases, partnership ventures, governmental exploration

- 21 -
 D111ona,:r-a,:1an Nll

1
n
e

-...
~
Sca111 1 : 1200
...,... . es .,..:
J,..
-
.. z

-.. ..
~
~

o :z ,.. o 2 a
ll
o ... ,- Jiten . . . ~
::
,t,,,,.. = :: i,.. u,uc
;
o o
o
~
~ o

~
.
o oo .
CI
o
j
o

o "
o 0 , HC lt -
.,, rne ,cz. tr
,,. U' 111, "

so.a
...
IN vt tlll
,, 7. ~ u
CI.- ~ UI
"" 111 ,.,.

- ff, .,t. Dlt-111'1. _., latl',

al cal. U' .,,.. ,,. , . , . _

I1111 C:H 1 - ...

L&Mo,,,-u.a ft

390 1 cat 1.111 nra

ta 11.1D / . lOO~a
JOOO Da& , / 1ft
TS as 1
- tt-.. .,. eltY. au,y, auy
l at,.. al cal.tr .,,.

ID: si--. '"" ,.t.-

Ytt lV-. \Ulaene.cr . .1
fle tlar. ne cut

- l t - C H , llltY... 111.Y, aCftY

letr. al cal.
ti' .,,.
t t ,~-.

,.,

Fig. 1-25 -A mud log example (courtesy of EXLOG, lnc.)

-22-
,,
Fig. 1-26 - Satellite reconnaissance photo
requirements, etc. Land locations can also be diverse,
depending on locale. Both environmental and political
climate are factors, as is ownership of surface and sub-
surface rights. An oil company manager is responsible
for the ultimate technical and economical decision.
Remote Frontier Wildcats
In frontier regions of the world, the fi rst data used to
target potentiaJ reserves are often acquired from satellite
information (Fig. 1-26). Satellite reconnaissance is of
such gigantic scope that it generally delineares a sedi-
mentary basin and targets a geographical area for more
detailed work.
Aerial surveys are an important reconnaissance vehicle
in most areas of the world. Sensitive, total intensity data
are acquired by using a highl y sensitive vertical gradiom-
eter and by towing two optically pumped cesium vapor
magnetometers that are suspended from one another by a
considerable vertical distance. Digital recordings make it
possible to detect and define subtle magnetic changes,
and the gradiometer information assists in defining weak
anomalies that may be caused by small but dense shallow
sources or deep basement rocks. Accurate geographical
location of the survey measurements is essential, and a
variety of navigational systems are employed to control
location accuracy. Radar imagery is particularly effective
in locating subtle, extensive linear features that are often
overlooked on conventional geological maps (Fig. 1-27).
- 23-
Magnetometer data often encompass large areas and pro-
vide magnetic maps of very remote regions (Fig. 1-28).
These technologies have their own unique niche in the
exploratory business, but are generally used as a starting
point in the search for hydrocarbon entrapments. Positive
indications from the satellite imagery and aerial survey
disciplines lead to more detailed surface geophysics and
geology work.
The acquisition and interpretation of surface seismic is
the most common surface geophysical method, but grav-
ity and magnetic surveys also provide important informa-
tion about the subsurface (Fig. 1-29). Field geologists
investigate surface exposures of the basin sediments
around the rim of the basin to determine the general geol-
ogy, including stratigraphy, sedimentation, paleontology,
tectonic attributes, etc. Ali of the gathered data is then
studied, often for a considerable length of time, prior to
selection of the first drill site, but most of the carly char-
acterization of a reservoir revolves around seismic inter-
pretation (Fig. 1-30). Additional seismic data are occa-
sionally recommended fol lowing the initial study.
Conventional Exploration
An exploration or wildcat well can be described as any
well that is drilled into a newly described structure or
stratigraphic trap, including deeper targets in well-devel-
oped fields. In a sense, wildcat wells are simply high-risk
ventures; i.e., wells drilled on speculatio n that oil or ga
 Microwaves
lnterference Radar
Signal Hologram
Fig. 1-27 - Radar imagery is effective from aerial surveys.
will be found in a certain location. Conventional wildcats
are not nearly as expensive as the frontier ventures, but
nevertheless carry a high-risk factor for success. As an
example, a well drilled in the Norton basin of Alaska
would be considered a remote frontier wildcat, while an
exploration well in the Permian Basin of west Texas
would be considered more conventional. Costs to drill
either well would differ considerably. Seismic data,
sometimes additional seismic including severa] new lines
and/or 3-D work (Fig. 1-3 l ), are typically acquired and
interpreted prior to drilling a well that is of high eco-
nomic risk.
Appraisal or Confirmation Wells
Once a discovery is made, oil operators usually attempt
to define the reservoir limits by drilling wells near the
-24-
f? 11
~,vy,,v,NV'~N',N',I\
?40 ~
~-
,., ~,.,,;
Fig. 1-28 -Aerial surveys also implement magnetometer data.
projected limits of the reservoir as determined from geo-
logical and geophysical studies. Data acquired from the
discovery well and any dry exploratory holes previously
drilled are studied extensively to recalibrate previous
geological and geophysical work and improve the risks
of appraisal wells. Property or concession rights are also
a prerequisite to determining offset well locations.
lf a discovery is made by Company A, and their geology
data lead them to believe the reservoir extends under
Company B's property holdings, sorne type of deal is
usually made prior to drilling a confirmation well in that
extension of the reservoir. In geographical locales where
many independent oil operators domnate drilling
activity, Company B might drill the said well without a
deal. In any case, where equity considerations are split
between two or more oil companies, a legal settlement on
the split is eventually agreed on by ali parties, either by
agreement between the parties oran independent arbitra-
tor. Eventually, one company often becomes the unit
operator.
 Total-intensity magnetic contour map Water depth contour map

Bouguer gravity contour map Geophysical interpretation map

Fig. 1-29 - Surface gravity and magnetic surveys can provide importan! information about the subsurface.

- 25 -
 minimum spacing between wells in particular reservoirs;
West East a 660-ft (200-m) offset is a common well spacing in
o.o sorne areas of the United States.

Production geologists play a large roll in planning infill-

drilling operations. Their work is typically devoted to
structure maps, isopachs of formation thickness, isopo-
rosity maps, numerous cross sections, fence diagrams,
etc. A production geologist may devote severa! years to
the same reservoir and become a leading geological
expert on particular formations found in specific fields.

Further surface geophysical work seldom occurs at this

Fig. 1-30 - Horst-graben structure identified by surface seismic.
stage because the expense does not justify the additional
information. When the unexpected happens on a devel-
opment well, additional surface seismic data are often
requested to help resolve the lateral geological
peculiarities that led to the unexpected. However, in
many situations, dipmeter, borehole imaging, and/or
borehole seisrnic data resolve the problem effectively.

Injection Wells

During the development and life of a producing oil reser-

voir, injection wells are often drilled. In field~ that have a
gas drive mechanism forcing the oil into producing well
bores, pressure depletion can become a severe problem
early in the life of the field. Reservoir managers make
effective use of the produced gas by reinjecting for pres-
sure maintenance (Fig. 1-32).

In reservoirs with a strong water drive, a waterflood oper-

ation is often implemented as oil production declines.
The purpose is to force much of the remaining oil into the
producing wells. Different well patterns are designed to
meet the needs and conditions of the flood (Fig. 1-33).

Tertiary floods involve the injection of rnicellar, polymer,

C02, or other materials to remove as much of the remain-
ing oil as possible (Fig. 1-34). Injection wells of ali types
must be planned and located properly to take full
advantage of the drai nage patterns of a reservoir. If the
Vertical Slicing Time Slicing injection wells are not spotted properly, effective drain-
3-D Seismic Capabilities age will not occur because the driving force is not
directed properly. Many of the petrophysical attributes of
Fig. 1-31 - 3-D seismic increases subsurface mapping the reservoir must be examined carefully to take full
capabilities. advantage of injection wells in any type of enhanced
recovery operation.

Development Wells Relief Wells

Infill-development drilling is meant to provide drainage
of the entire reservoir, extracting the hydrocarbons and
bring them to the surface where they are gathered in a
collection system and transported elsewhere for refining
and marketing. Government agencies often require a
As discussed earlier, directional holes are often drilled
toward a well that has blown out and perhaps caught fire,
penetrating the reservoir within a tolerable radius of the
problem well. Then, materials designed to squelch the
fire are injected into the reservoir by way of the relief

-26-
-,,
Gas Cap Expands during
Production
Top view of gas cap drive reservoir
Gas Cap Expands during Production
Gas
011
Side view of gas cap drive reservoir
Side view of reinjection of gas to maintain pressure
Fig. 1-32 - Reinjection of gas maintains pressure.
well. The Bay of Campeche well disaster off the Mexican
coastline in 1980 burned for severa! weeks until two
relief wells were drilled into the reservoir near the prob-
lem well. Both relief wells were logged almost daily as
they approached the targeted well and reservoir. Naviga-
tional guidance systems and devices are very necessary
-27-
11 you consider each oil well as the center of a square, there
is a water well at each comer of the square. The water, torced
down and into the producing sand, carries oil with it from
each point of injection toward the oil well , thus flushing the
reservoir. Pumps lift water and oil for separation on the surface.
Fig. 1-33 - "Five spot" waterflood
for successful drilling of relief wells. Other wireline mea-
suring systems are used to determine when the relief well
is within a certain radius of the problem well.
Waste-Disposal Wells
Another type of injection well is one used for disposing
of unwanted materials. In many oil fields, it may simply
be disposal of produced salt water. The geologist sug-
gests a porous, permeable saltwater-bearing formation as
the vessel for disposing of the unwanted water. Locating
such a formation from log data requires an ability to dis-
tinguish saltwater reservoirs from brackish water reser-
voirs and freshwater reservoirs. Freshwater reservoirs are
of particular concern because they may currently, or in
the future, be a source of water supply for human con-
sumption and other needs, and must not be contaminated
with brine.
Other types of waste are also disposed of in wells. Chem-
ical companies often dispose of their waste in this
manner. Nuclear waste can be legally disposed of in this
way in sorne countries. Unwanted byproducts of many
industries are often dispersed in underground formations,
including byproducts from the steel industry and from
automobi le manufacturers and their subcontractors. Well
log data are virtually always used to identify the porous,
permeable saltwater horizons that are used for disposal
purposes. Government agencies often require that pota-
ble water supplies in such wells be identified and pro-
tected from pollution. Data from pipe and cement evalua-
tion services play an important role in the maintenance of
these types of wells.
 lnjection
co 2 Pipeline Well
Water
Pump
Miscible Zone
Oil
Banks
Stabilized
by
Gravity
Fig. 1-34 - Enhanced recovery operations are designed to force the remaining oil into producing wells.
Wells Used for Mining Exploration
Underground rnining for coal, uraniurn, luorite, trona,
and other rare rninerals often uses boreholes to confirrn
the lirnits and direction of their underground veins. Well
log data are often used to recognize the depth and
thickness of the ore, and subsequently correlate to the ore
zones identified on similar log data frorn nearby wells.
More accurate rnaps of the ore distribution result, adding
to both the technical and econornic efficiency of the
rnining operation.
Core data often play a major role for rnining work, but
econornic considerations limit the use of coring. Many
types of data are irnportant to the rnining engineer,
including ash content of coal, potential water problerns,
assay quality of uraniurn ore, and the strength of overbur-
den rock. Delineation of the deposits is very irnportant.
Log analysis can provide rnany of these indices if the
nece sary rneasurernents are rnade and calibrated to
available core data.
Wells Used for Underground Storage of Gas
Gas in both the dry and liquid forrn are stored under-
ground in rnany areas of the world. These hydrocarbons
are transponed by ship or pipeline frorn producing fields
to large industrial and metropolitan areas for industrial or
consurner use. It is rnuch safer to store the gas under-
ground, and usually more econornical in the long terrn.
- 28 -
Separation
Production and Storage
Well Facilities To
Refinery
Depleted hydrocarbon-producing reservoirs are utilized
for storage in sorne areas, while salt-water aquifers are
used in other locales. Dry gas is injected into porous, per-
meable reservoir rock and withdrawn as needed. The
injection cycle is typically frorn about April until late
October. Withdrawal cycles begin with cold weather
usage about the end of October and last until spri ng.
Liquid gas is often stored in subsurface caverns.
Leached-out salt cavities are used in rnany areas, such as
the U. S. gulf coast, Michigan basin, northern Gerrnany,
and Holland. Wireline log data are used to characterize
storage reservoirs as well as petroleum-producing reser-
voirs. The cased wel ls are periodically monitored for gas
inventory purposes. Well rnaintenance also includes the
use of corrosion logs to monitor the condition of tubular
goods throughout the life of storage wells.
Water Supply Wells
Many wells are used to supply water. In frontier areas, a
shallow water supply well is often drilled to provide
water for use in drilling a deeper wildcat well. Potable
water supplies are often needed for personnel.
In rnany areas, freshwater supplies are provided for
industrial and dornestic use. This includes irrigation for
farrn ing, water for srnelters, milis, and various other
users. Much of the potable water supply in the Houston
(U.S.A.) area comes frorn shallow water supply wells.
,..
- Wells Drilled for Geothermal Energy
In severa! areas of the world, energy is provided from
geothermal methods; extreme heat creates energy. Well
log data are also used to evaluate many aspects of the
geothermal reservoir. Unusually high temperatures are
encountered in gcothermal wells, and hostile logging
equipment is almost always required. Hostile conditions
generally require tools that can perform above 400F
(204 C), and many situations require tools rated for
SOO F (260 C) or more. Igneous or metamorphic rocks
are usually the source rocks for thermal energy and
require a completely different set of rules for log
applications.
GEOLOGICAL TRAPS
Petroleum reservoirs must have sufficient economic
potential to justify investing large sums of money,
people, and equipment to produce that hydrocarbon.
Petroleum accumulations occur where an organically
rich source rock, a porous and permeable reservoir rock,
and a sealing mechanism are found. Geologically, the
==========--
Salt Dome
. - oike
Fig. 1-35 - Mosaic of different geologic trap mechanisms
-29-
trap might be structural , stratigraphic, or a combination
(Fig. 1-35).
Structural traps include anticlines, faults, and domes.
Stratigraphic traps can be formed by lateral lithology
variations; e.g., unconformities, lateral or updip pinch-
outs, or fractured limestone stringers within impermeable
shales.
Structural Geology
Folding, faulting, unconformities, salt intrusions, and
other tectonic-controlled events generally occur follow-
ing the deposition and burial of reservoir rocks. These
structural events tend lo warp or distort the original ori-
entation and habitat of the reservoir, often separating por-
tions of rock strata that were originally connected.
Diagenesis, changes in the rock and mineral structure,
can occur more than once after burial. Bedding features
are often destroyed. Different connate water may replace
ali or part of the original waters that occupied pore space,
and pore space may be altered or destroyed.
Facies Change
<::::::::.:::~============-
Gas Cap
Sill, Laccolith
Reef
Major changes in climate can affect rocks at or near the (3) Comparisons of porosity estimates from well to
surface. When major geotectonic events occur, buried well
rocks may be exposed to the surface (atmosphere or sea
waters) where they can be eroded, reworked, altered, or
(4) Comparisons of saturations, oil-water contacts,
transported elsewhere. Studying and resolving the events
gas-oil contacts, and gas-water contacts from well
that have affected subsurface reservoirs is the responsi-
to well
bility of the geologist, and core, logs, and seismic data
are among his most important tools. Certain types of log
data are used to help the geologist compare borehole (5) Comparison of wireline-derived pressure gradients
information to surface data, and in sorne cases, to recali- from one well to other wells
brate the surface data. Geologists use log data in the fol-
lowing ways: (6) Comparison of synthetic seismograms derived
from log data to surface seismic data
( 1) Well-to-well correlations of the base correlation
Iog in the penetrated strata: e.g., induction logs
(Fig. 1-36) (7) Comparison of wireline depth-controlled velocity
check-shot data to surface seismic data
(2) Correlations of the apparent thickness, true vertical
thickness, or true formation thickness from well to (8) Utilizing wireline dip data to locate, define, and
well to determine directions of thickening or thin- orient structural features and compare them to sur-
ning (Fig. 1-36) face seismic data

WELL 1 WELL 2 WELL 3

A-----195911- -- ---A ---------- --3260 ft--- --- -----

N40E - N40E -

Datum

Fig. 1-36 - Well-to-well correlations of log data are used to describe subsurface geological scenarios.

- 30-
,.

,,
Stratigraphy and Sedimentology Clastic Rocks

Usually, specialized geologists become involved in reser-
voir evaluation after a discovery has been made. The first
full core is usually recovered from one or more of the
early confirmation wells. It is important that certain res-
ervoir properties be recognized and defined from the rock
record. This provides a chance to compare available logs
to core description, thereby "calibrating the logs" to rec-
ognize geological events in we ll s when no core is avail-
able (Fig. 1-37). Detailed descriptions of the rock, its
constituent minerals, porosity, porosity type and varia-
tions, permeability, saturation data, and many special
properties can be obtained from the actual rock in labora-
tory conditions. These special data are used to help
reconstruct the morphology of the reservoir, suggest the
scenario of events that occurred since sediment was orig-.
inally deposited, and identify any subsequent diagenesis.
Depositional environment can be inferred from recogni-
tion of many of these descriptions.
Rock fragments (detrital material) that have been eroded,
perhaps reworked, and transported to the eventual
depositional site and then buried, subjected to diagenesis,
folding, faulting, and numerous other events are called
clastics. In the petroleum industry, sands and sandstones
are generally called clastic material. Sand deposits occur
on continents, at coastlines, and beneath the water. The
nature of sedimentation for the numerous depositional
environments is diverse and often complex (Fig. l-38).
Many specialty areas of geology are directed toward
defining clastic reservoir models to eventually reach an
accurate geological description of producing reservoirs.
Clays, silts, and sand-size grains make up the majority of
rock fragments in clastic petroleum reservoirs; however,
larger rocks in the form of conglomerates, pebbles, grav-
els, and breccias are often found. Minerals of the mica,
clay, feldspar, and iron groups are found in different envi-

1
(9369")

1----"
SP'..,_
. ;;.;;MleLL
;.:::.:
IVc.:::
O:::. S'---_-J, LITH - 1
L Tc.::: RESISTIVITY, OHM-M
SCALE -, 20 .- . OLOGY_
2
(9383')
..
)
8" NORMAL ~ -
60 ---++----;h"'-+- 1 3
(9387)

4
(9395)

5
(9403')

6
(9408')

7
(941 2")

8
(9431")

CONGLOMERA TE CONGLOMERATIC SANOSTONE SILTSTONE SHALE

SANDSTONE

M ED IAN GRAIN SIZE

o 2 ,n
VERY COARSE MEDIUM VERY FINE 1 1
COARSE FINE
FUSULINIDS

Fig. 1-37- Log data are often "calibrated" to core data to recognize geological events from logs in other wells (courtesy of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers).

- 31-
 ronments, and in sorne cases, metamorphic or igneous
debris is found intermixed with clastic material. Grain
size, shape, orientation, composition, packing, cement
distribution, and nature of fluid content in the pore
system are ali used to describe the rock character.

Grain size and sorting affect texture to a large degree

(Fig. 1-39). Grain shape is a function of the environmen-
tal energy that transported, reworked, and deposited the
grain. Grains near their source area tend to be very angu-
lar, while grains that have been transported sorne distance
and possibly been reworked severa) times tend to be
more rounded. Moderate-to-high energy environments
tend to be well sorted; low-energy environments usually
have poor sorting.

Source area, transport mechanism, climate, and other

environmenta l considerations affect composition. Sand-
stones are usually composed of quartz, but many sand-
Fig. 1-38 - Generalized schematic of sedimentary clastic stones contain igneous or metamorphic rock fragments.
environments
carbonate grains, or feldspar minerals. Severa) minerals

Sortin_g Grain Shape

VeryWell

Angular: having sharp corners and edges
and therefore showing little or no effects
of abrasion or wear.

Well
O Oo
QO

Subangular: having edges and corners
slightly rounded, so that wear is evident.
o
ao

Moderately

a; 0a
Subround: having most of the corners and
edges worn down to smooth curves, thus
showing extensive abrasion.
G(]C J
e:::=)

o
Poorly
20
()

0 Cl
C)
Round: having ali edges and corners
smoothed off to gentle curves by prolonged


C)
wear.

Fig. 1-39 - Rock texture is affected by grain size and sorting.

-32-
,,
occasionally serve as cementing material such as silica
and calcite. High concentrations of other cementing mate-
rial are definite clues to the depositional environment.
Shale is rock composed mostly of clay minerals, quartz
silts, occasional feldspar, and possibly as much as 20%
organic matter. The term shale is an often abused term,
but is basically determined by grain size and chemical
makeup. Carbonate equivalents of shale-size particles
include micrites and sorne marls, but differ chemically
from shale. Clay minerals are the finest grain size classi-
fication and are mostly hydrous aluminum silicates, but
magnesium and/or iron often substitute for aluminum,
and aluminum may substitute for silica within the clay
structure. Although clays virtually always consist of iso-
lated, noneffective pores, they contain a significant
amount of bound water in the pores. Noneffective poros-
ity values as high as 40% to 50% are common. Particular
types of clay can cause severe producibility problems
when they are mixed with reservoir rocks. Sorne clays
swell when contacted with water, which results in
damage or destruction of effective porosity and perme-
ability. Sorne clays produce mobile fines that can eventu-
ally plug pore tunnels; others precipitate minerals that
cause problems. Choice of drilling fluid (pH consider-
ations and use of KCI or oil-based drilling fluids) and
completion fluid (acetic acids, iron chelating agents,
CaF2 acids, HF acids , HCI acids, surfactants, polymers,
etc.) becomes important.
Shales are said to comprise more than half of the sedi-
mentary record. Much of the shale is deposited in a near-
shore marine environment along the continental margins.
Shales, the colors of which might be yellow, brown, red,
green, gray, or black, are also deposited as deep marine
muds, in river systems, and in lake environments. Yellow
and brown shales have low iron and low organic content;
red and green shales have high iron content but low
organic content; gray to black shales owe their colora-
tion mostly to organic carbon content. Although shales
typically have virtually no effective poros ity and very
little to no permeability, brittle zones are occasionally
fractured, and when this occurs in organic-rich shales,
gas or oil is sometimes produced.
The Woodford shale of Oklahoma and west Texas is a
black organic-rich shale containing dark pyritic chert,
siliceous shale, and sorne si ltstone. It is the correlative
equivalen! of the Bakken shale in the Williston Basin, the
Chattanooga, Antrim, New Albany, and Brown shales of
the northeast United States, ali of which are highly
organic dark-colored shales. Horizontal drilling has
become advantageous for locating and producing frac-
tured reservoirs, and the Bakken shale is being drilled
with horizontal or highly deviated wells today because
the shale produces through a system of fissures and frac-
tures. Shallow depth wells in the Antrim (Michigan) and
-33-
Brown (West Virginia) shales have also produced hydro-
carbons.
Sand-size particles (0.0625 mm to 2.0 mm) form the
overwhelming majority of clastic petroleum reservoirs.
Grain size, shape, sorting, and energy leve! at the time of
deposition determine how the grains are arranged or
packed together, and this affects porosity and permeabil-
ity distribution throughout the rock (Fig. 1-40). Gener-
ally, fine-grained sands with poorly sorted grains demon-
strate lower porosity than sands with coarse, well-sorted
grains. Angular grains tend to fil together and develop a
more intimate grain-to-grain contact. Poorly sorted sands
usually exhibit small grains intermixed with the larger
grains so that packing is independent of absolute grain
size. Theoretically, well-sorted grains of the same size
will have similar porosity; however, sediments which
range from silt to very fi ne-grained sand often have low
porosity because smaller grains have lower sphericity
and form small pores that can be cemented easily. The
degree of sorting and average grain size are intimately
related to the energy leve! during the time of deposition
and the process that caused the deposit.
Compaction and cementation occur after deposition and
lead to lower porosity. Shales suffer the greatest degree
of compaction and expulse fluids from the interstitial
layers. Expulsion of such fluids by compaction and
increased temperature is the likely mechanism for pri-
mary petroleum migration from source rock to porous,
permeable reservoir-quality rock. Compaction in sand
and larger size debris is less significant. Sands wi ll com-
pact no more than about 10% to 15% with increased
overburden pressure, and this compaction is caused
mostly by rearrangement of grains (grain slippage and
rotation) (Fig. 1-41 ). When pressure is greatly increased
in combination with a temperature increase, pressure
solution tends to occur at stress points.
Porosity reduction in clastics is caused primarily by
cementation and crystallization of certain minerals in
pore space (Fig. 1-42). Clean sands and carbonates are
relativcly stable, but clays in pore tunnels react physi-
cally and chemically to fluids - natural percolating fluids,
drilling fluids, or completion fluids - and reduce perme-
ability. The type of clay mineral lining the pores can seri-
ously inhibit permeability (Fig. 1-43).
The formation of mud filter cake on the borehole wall is
very desirable because the mud cake effectively prohibits
filtrate particle invasion. Particles that manage to invade
the formation with fil trate (Fig. 1-44) en ter pore-throat
constrictions and begin to trap and bind other particles
until the pore tunnel is bridged (Fig. 1-45). If water-sen-
sitive authigenic clays occupy the pore system, invasion
of freshwater mud filtrate causes swelling and movement
of the clay, which blocks pores and seriously impairs
effective permeability (Fig. 1-46).
 C)loo 2000 md
Horiz Perm
~ ~\ ~
f ~
~\~
~~~J
2000md
Horiz Perm ~ ,t ~
1500 md Vert Perm
800 md Vert Perm
Large Rounded Grains Large Flat Grains

150 md
Horiz Perm

Horiz Perm

50 md Vert Perm
15 md Vert Perm

Very Small Angular Grains Small Flat Grains

Fig. 1-40 - Permeability and porosity distribution are affected by the size, shape, and sorting of grains, and depositional energy.

00

Rotation and Closer Packing of Platy (left) and Deformation of Breakage of Brittle Grains
88
Pressure Solution
Nonplaty (right) Grains Ductile Grains at Grain Contacts

Fig. 1-41 - Changes in texture and fabric associated with various compaction mechanisms (modified alter Janes and McBride, 1971)

-34-
,..---

--,
@ 2,000

1,000
Areas Marked Represen!
the Main Concentrations
of Points I
/,,
,,
,,.,.
.,.,
_... \

I
1
1
I

/ I
Cubic Packing Orthorhornbic Packing I I
/ I
/ I
/ I
/ I
/ I
100 / I
I I
Kaolinite
I ,'
Cernented ,' ,
Well ---,;' ,'
Cubic Packing Orthorhornbic Packing /
I
I
I

Rotated 45 / I
Rotated 30 I I
/ I
I I
I I
I I
I I
Orthorhornbic I /
I ,
22 I ,
I ,
20 I
I
,,
/

18 I /
I ,
I /
16 I /
I /
I 1
14 1 /
;g-
~ 12
e
~ 10
Orthorhornbic
\
Cubic-Vertical
1
1
\ , ____ ... ,/
1

~ 8 2 Directions
of Pressure
6
4
2
ol_L....11!!:E:::::::t=::::r::_L_L_L_L_L_ L_L_L_J 0.1 '----'-----'-- - - ' - ----'----'-- -..,___ _,
O 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
O 2 4 6 8 1O 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Porosity Loss Dueto Solution (%) Porosity, (% Bulk Volurne)

Fig. 1-42 - Loss of porosity by solution versus that lost by Fig. 1-43 - Effect of the clay-rnineral cernen! type on
precipitation of cernen! far spheres in difieren! packing and perrneability of porous Rotliegendes sandstones on the North
orientations Sea (rnodified alter Stalder, Geologic en Mijnbouw, 1973)

Q)
oI

Fig. 1-45 - A downhole view of particle invasion dernonstrates

Fig. 1-44 - Pare bridging (rnodified alter Darley, 1975) how initial flushing can clog pare throats.

- 35-
11
Fines Bridged at
Pore Restriction
Fig. 1-46 - Mobile fines can severely deter production into the
wellbore.
Clastic environmental criteria are usually considered
more simple to understand than carbonates, but shaly-
sand reservoirs are often more difficult to analyze from
log data than carbonates. Numerous methods for inter-
preting logs in shaly-sand reservoirs have been sug-
gested, and those that have been implemented and are of
interest will be discussed later.
Carbonate Rocks
Produced by precipitation of organic tissues and subse-
quent organic derivatives beneath the surface of a body
of water, sorne carbonate rocks are occasionally exposed
to the atmosphere where drastic changes in rock proper-
ties occur. Sorne carbonates occur in lakes or similar con-
tinental environs, but virtually ali econornic carbonate
reservoirs were formed in marine environments. A mys-
tique has endured with carbonate reservoirs. Today, more
than half of the world's ol production comes from car-
bonate rocks, and approximately 40% of the oil produced
in the history of the petroleum industry has come from
carbonate reservoirs; yet carbonates comprise only about
20% of the world's sediments (Fig. 1-47). Many of the
statements directed to carbonate reservoir geology and
log analysis are unfortunately misguided and usually
originate from ill-informed sources.
Evaporite sequences occur in basins that have restricted
circulation. Halite salt (NaCI) beds as thick as 3,000 ft
(> 900 m) are found in the subsurface. Polyhalite, sylvite,
and other salts occur in smaller volumes. Salt intrusions
in the form of domes occur in severa( locales such as the
- 36-
Abundance of Production by
Rock Types Rock Type
60%
--
37%
42% -
37%
-- - f-
wDD D
f-
--- -
=
3% f-
- -
Carbonates Shale Miscellaneous Carbonates
Sandstone Sandstone
Fig. 1-47 - Comparison of rock type population to rock type
production
U.S. gulf coast, northern Germany, and Iran. Evaporitic
gypsum and anhydrite are common sulfate deposits, but
gypsum is usually altered to anhydrite following burial.
Evaporites are easily distinguished marker beds, and
their log responses often require that a "porosity-sensi-
tive" log be used for correlation purposes (Fig. 1-48).
Phosphate rocks occur in sorne complex mixtures that
typically include carbonates and clastics. Their high
organic content is thought to be source rock for severa!
major oil fields.
Chert is a siliceous rock that is generally not porous or
permeable unless fractured, but exceptions do occur. The
Mississippian chert zone in south central Kansas and
northern Oklahoma is a weathered chert that occasionally
has more than 30% porosity, with fractures increasing
permeability. Chert has been formed in deep marine
.basins from the remains of si liceous, marine micro-
organisms, but more commonly occurs as a replacement
for shale and limestones. Diatomaceous earth or diatoms
provide important producing horizons in California.
Thin-walled unicellular siliceous micro-organisms with
varying amounts of shale make up the material. Porosi-
ties from 25% to 65% are not unusual, but permeability is
extremely low.
Physical compaction is not usually significant in carbon-
ate rocks. Since the rocks are cemented quickly during
and after deposition, porosity reduction is due mostly to
continued cement growth in the pore space. Secondary
porosity is developed following original deposition, com-
paction, and cementation and includes fracture porosity,
solution porosity, and pore space created by matrix
shrinkage during dolomitization (Fig. 1-49).
,..

WELLB WELLA 61
t

Salt
D&A GR

-4100
Carbonate

-4200

Evaporite

-4300 -4300

Fig. 1-48 - Acoustic t.t and gamma ray used for well-to-well correlation (after Bigelow, 1973)

Carbonate rocks are complex in a sense, but in many

ways are more simple to evaluate than clastics. The rock
itself is usually a mixture of no more than two types.
Mineraliza tion is typically not as complex as with clas-
tics. Shaliness does not usually presenta problem within
reservoir-quality rock. Complexity is usually sequential
but predictable geologically in both vertical and lateral
directions. When the environment, subenvironment, or
facies are defined and distinguish able from one another,
log analysis can be accurate and efficient.

Carbonate depositional environments include subenvir-

onments and often various facies changes that for the
Fig. 1-49- A type of solution porosity in carbonates most part are the cause of their description as complex.

-37-
Borehole conditions for wireline logging are usually
better in carbonates because the rocks are typically more
Short Upper Sub
competent; i.e., the borehole is in gauge. Log responses
are not usually affected seriously by hole conditions, but Drop Ball Valve:
very high resistivities and a wide range of resistivity and l e ~ -- Body
,.,,___..,,..-__ Ball
porosity values are not unusual. Selection of the proper
logs to define the reservoir properties is essential.

CORING

Rock can be recovered during the drill ing process or by

wireline recovery methods. In addition to the circulated
well cuttings, a core barre] and core bit can be added to Working Barrel
the drill string to obtain a full core. Severa! wireline
coring methods have been utilized, but two methods are lnner Barrel
currently marketed.
Lower Section
Conventional Core Recovery
Upper Catcher

Obtaining a full core requires circulating the hole until

clean, then tripping the drill pipe out of the hole, attach-
ing the core barrel and the special core bit, tripping back
Fig. 1-50 - Rotary core barrel (from PennWell Publishing
to bottom, and then slowly recoveri ng the next few feet
Company)
(meters) of rock within the core barrel while drilling
(Fig. J-50). Once the coring operation is completed, pipe
is pulled once again, and the core is retrieved. One of the
well-site geologist's duties is to see that the core is boxed
and labeled correctly for depth, right side up, perhaps for
orientation, and to provide a "quick and dirty" optical
description of porosity, permeability, and saturation. lf a
pressured core is obtained, proper steps must be taken to
preserve the in-si tu state of the recovered core for trans-
port to the laboratory. In the meantime, the drilling crew
is probably tripping back into the hole to continue the
drilling operation. The renta) of the core barre], use of a
special core bit, and the ensuing rig time bears the brunt
of the acquisition cost. This type of core recovery has
been che standard for obtaining a rock record that can be
analyzed in detail, and it is still considered "the corner-
stone of petrophysics."

Wireline Mechanical Coring

Wireline coring has been available in sorne form for

nearly 50 years, but traditional percussion sidewall
coring has not provided acceptable recovery in the harder
carbonate reservoirs (Fig. 1-5 1). Today, mechanical
coring tools are capable of drilling into the borehole wall
and retrieving a core similar in size to the plugs taken
from full core in the laboratory, but the tools have tem- Fig. 1-51 - Percussion Corgun for sampling the borehole wall
perature limits and are time-consuming and expensive to
operate (Fig. 1-52). Plugs obtained by wireline mechani-
cal coring tools can be analyzed with the same degree of saturation, but perrneability and saturation values are typ-
confidence as full-core plugs. Percussion-type cores are ically suspect. Rotary coring is usually targeted for hard-
generally analyzed only for porosity, permeability, sorne rock formations, whereas percussion coring is employed
rock and mineral observation, and observations of more for soft-rock acquisition.

-38 -
 Core Extrae!
Field Break Joinl
Ol Reservoir
Electronics Pressure Comp.
\
,--- -- -- --
1
-------- - ,---- ----, ,----- - --- ---------,
I 1 11 1
~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - __ J I_________ I I __ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

4 ft 9 ft
4.38 in. 0D 4.50 in. 0D
100 lb 250Ib

... 1823 EA

9 ft
... 1823 PA

13 ft
... 1823 MA

10 ft
...
3.63 in. 0D 350Ib 250Ib
150Ib

32 ft
750Ib

Fig. 1-52 - Schematic drawing of a rotary coring tool and comparisons/examples of full-core plugs and rotary core plugs

- 39-
Core Analysis
Occasionally, a "whole core analysis" is performed in the
Iaboratory. This means a specific length of the full core
diameter is used for analytical purposes (Fig. 1-53).
More often, plugs are taken from selected intervals of the
full core for analysis (Fig. 1-53).
Conventional cores are routinely analyzed for porosity,
fluid saturations, and permeability, but different measur-
ing methods can lead to different results. Lab inspections
of full-core data can involve optical observations, con-
trolled measurements, thin-sections, petrographic analy-
sis, identification of flora and fauna, geochemical analy-
sis, and detailed scanning electron microscope work. In
short, geological examinations can require the attention
of numerous specialized areas of geology. These types of
data are seldom made available to the logging contractor,
and quite often the oil company log analyst sees little of
the information. The lab work is normally performed by
specialized personnel.
more emphasis when the rock record is not available.
Log data must be closely tied to core data at sorne point if
electrofacies fingerprints are to be accepted as legitimate.
The state of and preparation of core data are important to
the ability to analyze the rock. Confidence in lab results
varies depending on the methods employed to analyze
the rock. Terms such as steady state, restored state, in-situ
pressure, etc. are commonplace, while core preparation
might vary from mercury injection to water or kerosene
injection. Also, there are a number of methods available
for measuring porosity and permeability.
Core analysis is not unlike the other disciplines in that it
also has its limitations. Porosity, fluid saturations, and
permeability are not measured without difficulty. Prob-
lems occurring in these areas are:
(l) Acquiring and retrieving the rock
(2) Preserving the core

Log data are typically studied in more detail within and (3) Preparing the core for analysis
immediately adjacent to the important reservoir rocks.
Clues from logs are used when core is available, but gain (4) Measuring petrophysical properties

Saturation Measurement Sample Part Measurement Technique Primary Application

Technique Measured

Lf sat.
Whole Core Analysis

Oil-base cores cut from

Dean-Stark, whole core Porosity: Boyle's Law (helium injection) heterogeneous or fractured
k and <:>
Permeability: Steady-state gas flow reservoirs

Dean-Stark, end piece

ITSat. k ande, Porosity: Boyle's Law (helium injection)
Permeability: Steady-state gas flow
Oil-base cores cut from
heterogeneous or fractured
reservoirs

Retort, end piece

[t~t. (retor!)
k andel>
Porosity: Boyle's Law (helium injection)
Permeability: Steady-state gas flow
Water-base cores cut from
heterogeneous or fractured
reservoirs

Conventional Plug Analysis

Dean-Stark, plug
ITtSat.....,-Sat.
k ande,
Porosity: Boyle's Law (helium injection)
Permeability: Steady-state gas flow
Oil-base cores cut from
homogeneous reservoirs

Retort, end piece

~Sat. Porosity: Boyle's Law (helium injection)
Permeability: Steady-state gas flow
Water-base cores cut from
homogeneous reservoirs
1--k andel>

Retort ~Sat.aod; Carbonate cores or when

Porosity: Summation of fluids method
(Summation of fluids extremely fast turnaround time
Permeability: Steady-state gas flow
method) o-k is essential

Fig. 1-53 - Description of core analysis

- 40 -
,,
Nevertheless, core data (the rock itselt) remain the bed- Problem 4
rock of petrophysics and will continue to provide the
burden of proof in support of log analysis. What are the fundamental responsibilities of the follow-
ing individuals insofar as wireline logging engineers are
concemed?

PRACTICA L WORK SESSION Reservoir engineer

Problem 1

Define porosity. Exploration geologist

Production geologist

Drilling superintende nt
Problem 2

Define permeability.
Toolpusher

Roughneck

Problem 3
Mud logging engineer
Describe the meaning of the following terms -

Appraisal or confirmation well

Mud engineer

Exploration well Problem 5

What is the most common use of log data by a geologist?

Frontier wildcat

Rotary drilling rig

Problem 6

What is the most common use of log data by a reservoir

Carbonate reservoir
engineer?

Clastic reservoir

- 41 -
,,
Problem 7 Problem 11

What types of information other than wireline logs are Logs cannot identify color, but observance of the rock
used by oil company personnel to analyze potential reser- (cuttings or core) can identify a rock's color. The color of
voirs? shales is informative. Describe the meaning of the fol-
lowing shale colors.

Yellow or brown

Green or red
Problem 8

Hypothetically, consider why a 6-ft thick ol sand at

10,000-ft depth in a well would be considered noncom- Black or gray
mercial, but a 6-ft thick ol sand at J ,000-ft depth in a
well would be considered commercial?

Problem 9

How would you describe the buildup of fil ter cake and its
purpose?

Problem 10

How can the pH of the drilling fluid affect formation

evaluation?

-42-
" Wireline Log Measurements and Supportive Information 2

In order to understand the applications of log rneasure-
rnents and the methods of obtaining these data, there
rnust also be a general knowledge of other data associ-
ated with logs. Well logs are considered by rnost courts of
law to be legal docurnents; i.e., they are a record of the
events leading up to and during the drilling and cornple-
tion of a borehole. Sorne of the inforrnation recorded on
log headers is not data from measurements taken by the
wireline contractor, but instead is data taken frorn other
records and recorded on the logs (Fig. 2-1 ). Such infor-
rnation is often useful in deterrnining why sorne log
responses are questionable, why the logging instrurnent
could not reach total driller depth, or why a logging
instrurnent becarne stuck ata certain depth. The inforrna-
tion should be acquired and reported accurately. Sorne of
the data entered on the header is rneasured at the surface
by the logging crew and can have great irnportance in
forrnation evaluation.
c=,,rED
DENSILOG
GAMMA RAY
FIL.E ICl. CONPANY JYZ, Oll ClJfltlY
including cherts, are called sandstones; calciurn carbon-
ate rocks are called lirnestones; calcium magnesium car-
bonates are called dolornites. Rocks that are made up
rnostly of clay and silt are called shales. For lack of a
better description, a silt index is often used as the calcu-
lated difference between shale volurne and clay volurne.
Anhydrite, gypsurn, halite, and coal have rather unique
log responses that are usually identified easily.
Wireline service contractors offer a number of measure-
rnents to clients. Sorne instrurnents measure rock proper-
ties, and others rneasure fluid properties. Sorne rneasure
both. Certain rneasurernents are very sensitive to gas, and
sorne are sensitive to borehole ftuids or lack of borehole
fluid. No logging device measures porosity, saturation,
permeability, or fluid type directly. Logs do not identify
color of rock or define the texture of rock. However, sorne
logging devices respond to properties that can be related
to these features of rocks and their interstitial fluids
(Table 2-1). The ability to interpret the relationship
between rock and fluid properties and log data has been
christened petrophysics.

1-,,FP'""tra'c=ICl~.- --;'-EL!.. Hl. lJ. I

DEPTH MEASUREMENT
F' 1 ElJJ WIUI!IT
1------1cauNTY 9UTH STATE.m.__
The most fundamental rneasurernent provided by wire-
FHft. PRtHT
01~
line logging contractors is depth. A description of subsur-
SEC TWP ROE face reservoirs is not of rnuch value if an accurate refer-
""9E)IT CJ!I\JIIQllHJ LLl'll. !J.EV, '.J,l
UC:ll& IEBJAED F1UI f:!,__ ~ F T. Pl!DiE P.D.
ence to depth location is not available. Depth control is
!J!IU.II& IEBRD F1UI S.S. therefore extrernely irnportant to the success of any log-
ging or cornpletion operation. A more detailed descrip-
tbli7b7
!'!2T tion of the depth control rnethods ernployed by Baker
l'llll
IS'll
Atlas Logging Services is presented as Appendix A.
8518" 11
!S11
1 118'
<nJCElJ.D
q_4 bS Contractors specify standards as a function of well depth,
9. 11 9.2
ltO'IT wireline cable size, and rnud weight. However, in gen-
2.57 1 '12
1.'!l 1 ,z eral, ali recorded logs are expected to be within 1 ft
(0.3 rn) of one another (or equivalent metric parameter),
and the base log is expected to be within a controlled tol-
erance of I ft/10,000 ft (0.3 rn/3000 m) of rneasured
depth. Methods for rnarking the wireline (usually with
magnetic rnarks), knowing the exact distance of the cable
makeup to a tool's rneasure point (including logging
Flg. 2-1 - Example of log heading information
head, bridle, etc.), and the distance to the first rnark frorn
the downhole end of the cable are ali part of the rneasur-
WIRELINE LOGGING MEASUREMENTS ing systern. In addition, stretch charts for different cable
sizes, rnud weights, etc. are given for borehole depth, and
Logging instrurnentation responds rnostly to pore rnateri- logging engineers are expected to dedicate thernselves to
als and the chernical rnakeup of the rock rnatrix. As a performing depth rneasurernents as accurately as possi-
result, a chernical rock classification is rnost suitable for ble. Wireline log depths are considered the standard for
use in log analysis. Rocks cornposed rnostly of silica, well depth accuracy.

-43 -
 TABLE 2-1 - Electrofacies Comparative Links to Facies Recognition
(after Bigelow, 1985)

Log Measurements Log Measurements

Strongly Affected Somewhat lnfluenced

Spontaneous Potential
Gamma Ray
Neutron Hydrogen lndex
Spectral Gamma Ray
Acoustic Transit Time
Bulk Density
Rock Composition Dielectric Propagation
Photoelectric Capture
Dielectric Attenuation
lnelastic Gamma Ray
Pulsed Neutron Capture
Caliper
Microresistivity

Spontanteous Potential
Acoustic Transit Time Neutron Hydrogen lndex
Resistivity Acoustic Attenuation
Bulk Density
Texture Caliper
Pulsed Neutron Capture
lnelastic Gamma Ray
Dielectric Propagation
Microresistivity

Resistivity
Interna! Spontaneous Potential
Microresistivity
Structure Dielectric Propagation
Acoustic Attenuation

Resistivity Acoustic Transit Time

Neutron Hydrogen lndex
Bulk Density
Spontaneous Potential
Pulsed Neutron Capture
Fluid
lnelastic Gamma Ray
Acoustic Attenuation
Dielectric Propagation
Dielectric Attenuation
Temperature

Today, the presentation of logs vares as a function of the
type and number of services recorded. The common pre-
sentations are demonstrated as Table 2-2. Tracks repre-
sent portions of the log reserved for certain linear or log-
arithmic scales and grid. Logarithmic scales are generally
used for resistivity data and may occupy one or two
tracks. Other log data are generally recorded linearl y and
may occupy one or two tracks. Track I is generally used
for control curves (SP, GR, caliper. etc.), but it is also
used for quick-look interpretation information. Porosity-
sensitive data such as density, neutron, and acoustic are
often recorded linearly across two tracks. Resistivity can
occupy one or two tracks but is generally recorded on a
logarithmic scale and grid.
An important parameter related to depth is the time
marker (Fig. 2-2). To the left ofTrack I, a small flag, pip,
or gap in the grid is used to indicate time. If calibrated
properly, the time marker occurs every 60 sec and can be
used to indicate logging speed. This marker is important
to log quality control and should be checked periodically
for accuracy. Furthermore, a controlled and constant log-
ging speed is important to severa! log measurements.
IMPORTANT DATA FOR LOG HEADERS
Hole sizes to certain depths are recorded on the driller's
log. Driller depths for casing strings already in the well
are also recorded. T hese data should be printed clearly on
wireline log headers (Fig. 2-3). It is also common prac-
tice for the logging engineer to record the logged depth of
casing strings. Log depths should never be intentionally
falsified for any reason. If the log is not recorded to a
depth sufficiently shallow to determine the logged casing
depth, the designated block on the header should be left
blank.

-44 -
,
TABLE 2-2 - Sorne Common Log Presentation Formats

Linear Grid
SP 0EPTH RESISTIVITY CONDUCTIVITY o
Ohmsm2/m M1lllmhos/m --.1
SP 16" Normal o
o 2 lnduction Conductiv1ty o
M11hvolts
o 1 4,vv, 40" Spacmg o
20 e
Rm=0.7 o 1s o 1
Rm 0.64 O 78 4""'
lnduchon ResisbV1ty
BHT 100- O 10.500
Mean Surtacr Temp. 80 F Q. -_ _ .!O:.S~
- _ _____ - 1 !~
1;1o-u lnduction
1 1 1
11 1 1\
v-Amp 16" Normal
"
1-'

r. .... 1-- SP
I
,_
1
(
11111 ~-Conductivity ~
r--,-

l.b 1
1--1-- ,-16' Normal
-<- 1 1 1 1
'-:::p F

Logarithmic Grid
SP DEPTH RESISTIVITY
M111ivolts Ohms m 2t m

SHALL0W FOCUSED LOG o

I
~.2 1O 10 100 1000 --.1
~

o
o
MEOIUM INDUCTION LOG
0.2
____11O_______ J10_______ 100 1000
j ________ L_ 60 seooods
-l20I-
DEEP INDUCTION LOG
0.2 10 10 100 1000
- - J - - L - - .J - - L.

Fig. 2-2 - Minute time markers indicate the logging speed

MD/UM
' versus depth (ft/min or m/min).
V
i(
11
l, lo- SP
I<: s~~l l o FOCUSED
DEPTH - DRILLER
11 o
,
. 1,
DEPTH LOGGER
7927

llt--
kl 8 DEEP ~-. I
BOTTOM LOGGED INTERVAL
7922
7920
Split 3-Cycle Grid TOPLOGGEDINTERVA L 1530
SP RESISTIVITY
CASING DRILLER 8 5/8" @ 1525
GR DEPTH CONDUCTIVITY
Ohmsm2tm M1lhmhos/m
CASING - LOGGER 1530
lnduction Conductiv1ty
-!101+- 40"fSpacmg BIT SIZE 7 7/8"
16" Normal
4000 (
0.2 10 10 2C TYPE FLUID IN HOLE GEL /CELLEX
GAMMARAY
lnducbon ResistMty
8000 BID 4nn.- DENSITY / VISCOSITY 9.4 1 65
40" Spac,ng
~ - - - - - - - - 130 0.2 _ 1.0 ____ 1020 PH / FLUID LOSS 9.0 1 9.2
SOURCE OF SAMPLE MUDPIT
~ v f1 11 J1
( - \ ~ 1IN UC~ll' r...- ~ coN'oJd1v1'n
RM AT MEAS. TEMP. 2.57 @ 92
' RMF AT MEAS. TEMP. 1.93 @ 92
-.;:::- SP
' 1 11 I<~
RMC AT MEAS. TEMP. 3.21 @ 92
\s NOAM~L
- , '\
~ \ 1 11111, 1 111 \ SOURCE OF RMF / RMC Meas 1 Cale
I'
GAMMARAY _.; #111 1111
lllll 1 111
RM AT BHT 1.26 @ 187
.1
TIME SINCE CIRCULATION 5 HAS.
MAX. REC. TEMP. DEG.F 187

The driller's total well depth should also be recorded. Fig. 2-3 - Importan! borehole information that should always be
recorded on log headings
Date and times for each logging run after circulation
should also be recorded on the header. Bottomhole tem-
perature should be recorded with maximum reading ther- surements, should be recorded on the log header. It is
mometers on each logging run , and these data should be important that these data be accurate because the logs can
recorded on the log header (Fig. 2-3). be subpoenaed as legal documents. These data are also
commonly placed on a log tail. The completeness and
Other data, such as the surveyed elevations of ground accuracy of header information is a fundamental respon-
leve!, derrick floor, sea floor, height above mean sea level, sibility ofthe field logging engineer. That engineer's name
kelly bushing, or similar reference points to depth mea- is also permanently recorded on the header (Fig. 2-1).

-45-
,,
The REMARKS section of the log header is used to
record any unusual circumstances observed during the
logging operation. This includes reasons for a poor qual-
.
~ ---,r/
ity log not being rerun, why an SP curve was not
recorded, etc. It is the logging engineer's space for
explaining any unusual circumstance (Fig. 2-4). Perhaps
the properties of the drilling fluid adversely affect the log
measurements. If so, it should be mentioned in the
REMARKS section.

It is also important to record too! series numbers, any

additional components, and too! numbers on the header.
This information is often a helpful clue to interpretative
questions and troubleshooting too! problems (Fig. 2-4).
Scales for ali log traces must be recorded accurately on
the header, and the traces should be identified on the log
as well as by heading codes. 1----"r---+--
_,__,..,
P"~4'~f"..i~
,,.,,.,,,-..,1,,1.
,,,
_

---

1
11

,n
,U
,,,me U1~1ae f7 ux:s
8'\.0lm wtu. CIVE amao M 111>1:
r, MIR tDT JIIIZJIJfl, ILIT SIN%
C11t

INffMlmfflCNS fllll[ CPIION l'l!ED

CII URJIIJCD FllJI D.!Ctlta\. at OMJI:
11::.~.
~l~~
lfJll!UIDTS, \E CFNGT. 1M> wE D:I d
QIIRllll'TEE l')( fUllllCT Clt tDll[tTlC!
r:, llff INl'DPl'!fflTICN. li( 9fU. NOT !E
LUIU 0llt IU'OISULE Rlt ltff u&,
CDST, CftlliD, at EXl"Om ~
1111.IIEl Qlt SlSffl11G>8'nt:CJffllEI
OLUJC FU fWt TfflJl'llrnn'ICN 1111:
8f"" "u OPI.Ol'ID.
z
a: : ~ 5
g~-
...
~ z
r
~-
i
i
~
. =
i
W!
Fig. 2-5 - The first electrical log (Pechelbronn Field, Alsace,
- 1i
~
France, September 1927 (courtesy SPWLA)
~

z 5
..'' ~
~
i
1 "' o !. electromotive force, called voltage. Ohm's law is
~ t
11!
~
z expressed mathematically as follows,
1 i1

V = Ir ,
Fig. 2-4 - Remarks section and equipment data on log headings
are often critica! to judging log quality, isolating tool malfunctions, where V = voltage (volts),
etc.

BASIC RESISTIVITY CONCEPT
In combination with recorded depth, resistivity was the
first formation parameter measured by wireline logging
techniques. The first electric log was recorded nearly
70 years ago (Fig. 2-5). Stationary measurements were
made in a borehole, and the data recorded manually at the
surface. That rather crude device (by today's standards)
evolved into modern wireline logging, a multibillion-
dollar industry annually.
Electrical resistance, measured in ohms, is defined as the
ability of a material or substance to obstruct the flow of
electrical current. Electtical current is generated by an
I = cun-ent (amperes),
and r = resistance (ohms).
The term conductance is used to define the ability of a
material to conduct electricity and is given in units called
mho (ohm spelled backwards).
Resistance is related not only to the type of material but
also to the length and area or geometrical shape of the
material. In order to describe a material's ability (regard-
less of size, shape, or geometry) to conduct electricity,
another term is needed. This term, which is very
important to well logging, is called resistivity (R). Well
log resistivity measurement devices use different

- 46 -
,
electrode spacings, different configurations, different
electrode sizes, and perform measurements in an envir-
onment surrounded by a water-based drilling fluid .
Metric units are used for the resistivity measurement, and
the log trace is scaled as ohm-meters2/meter. Throughout
this text, resistivity values are referred to as ohm-m.
Resistivity is mathematically related to resistance since it
is equal to the resistance (in ohms) between two parallel
sides of a volume I meter in area and 1 meter in length
along the current path.
Ohm's law can be written severa] ways,
V= Ir r = V/I I = Y/r
and r =R(l/a) and K = (ali);
therefore, R= rK,
where R = resisti vity (ohm-m),
r = resistance (ohms),
= length (meter),
a = area (meters2),
and K = geometrical factor.
As an example, a cube I meter on a side has a resistance,
r, equal to the resistivity between any two opposite faces
of the six faces of the cube. The cube would also have a
resistance equal to the resistivity of the material between
the indicated faces, but in any other direction, resistance
differs from resistivity.
Resistivity vares with temperature. When comparing
resistivities, it is therefore very important that the tem-
perature be equal, or that re istivities be converted to a
common temperature (Fig. 2-6).
Effects of Temperature
Subsurface temperatures normally increase with depth,
and the rate of increase with depth is called the geother-
mal gradient, defined as
where GG = geothermal gradient (F/ 100 ft),
T = formation temperature ('F),
T 111 = mean surface temperature for a given
area ('F),
and D = depth of formation of interest (ft).
This equation can also be written as
Tf = Tm+GG(D/ 100),
and it allows an estmate of formation temperature if the
geothermal gradient and mean surface temperature are
known.
Mean surface temperature data are usually provided by
governmental agencies (Fig. 2-7). In many countries.
maps for different seasons are available (Fig. 2-8). Obvi-
ously, extreme cold at the surface will affect temperature
at very shallow depths ( < 1,000 ft), but extreme heat at
the surface wi ll also affect the temperature gradient in
very shallow wells.
The geothermal gradient is a function of the thermal con-
ductivity of the rocks in the subsurface (Table 2-3). A
chart with severa] gradients is provided for estimating
temperature (Fig. 2-9), but recall that gradients are
seldom constant. Temperature surveys have been used
effectively to identify different lithology layers from
temperatu re gradient changes (Fig. 2-10). Certain geo-
logical structures, such as salt domes or reefs, overpres-
sured zones, and different geological ages are factors that
cause changes in the geothermal gradient. In o ne area of
the Rocky M ountains (U.S.A.), the gradient increases
from 1.1 to 1.4 when going into Paleozoic rocks from the
younger rocks above.
Formation temperature and heat conductivity are impor-
tant to formation evaluation because ali resistivity data
are temperature dependent. Heat conductivity decreases
hyperbolicall y with temperature. Thermal conductivity
of water does not change appreciably with increasing salt
concentration, and the effects of pore fluids on gross con-
ductivity is relatively small for rocks of low to moderate
porosity. Thermal conductivity of clays tends to vary
inversely with the water content. In overpressured zones,
the higher pore pressure causes higher porosity that
accounts for more fluid volume. As a result, geothermal
gradients are typically larger in massive shale formations
that overlay reservoir rocks, and gradients are usually
reduced considerably in aquifers. Ovcrpressurcd, high-
porosity shales represent a geothermal anomaly, and
because of this circumstance, flowline temperature mea-
surements are used as a supplementary pressure indicator
by rig personnel.
Mud Cup Principie
The mud cup and the mud cell provide a simple way to
describe resistivity measurements. Samples of drilling
mud, preferably circulated samples, are measured at the

- 47 -
 Temperature R
(F) (C) (Qm)
500 260 20
240
Equivalen! NaCI
220 Concentration
400 10
~kppm) (@gr/gal
200
24C ) a
180 or 75F
0.2 6
160 5
300 0.3
4
140 20
0.4
30 3
250 120 0.6
40
o.a 50 2
100
200 100
90 2

80 3
200 o.a
70 4
300 0.6
150
6 400 0.5
60
a 500 0.4
10
50 0.3

1000
20
0.2
40
100 30 2000
40
90 3000
30 60 4000 0.1
80 80 5000 0.08
100
10,000 0.06
70
20 200 13,000 0.05
300 17,500
0.04
60
0.03

50 10 0.02

0.01
English: Salinity (ppm at 75F) = 10 x
T 1 + 6.77) ; F
Rw2 = Rw1 ( 3.562 - log (Rw - 0.0123)
T2 + 6.77 X~
75
0.955
Metric:
TI + 21.5) 3647.5
( T + 21.5 ; C
2
Rw
75
~ 0.0123 +
[NaCl(ppm)J-955
Example
Given: Temperature = 250F and NaCI concentration = 100,000 ppm. Determine: Resistivity
R=0.024Qm

Fig. 2-6 - Resistivities of different fluids must be converted to a common temperature for log analysis.

-48-
,,
Fig. 2-7 - Average annual temperature (F) in the continental United States (from U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1941 )
well site prior to logging. A cylindrically shaped mud cup
(Fig. 2-11) is filled with the fluid sample and a current is
sent through the insulated cylinder of diameter (d) by
means of electrodes A and B. Because of the current
flowing from A to B, the electrical potential between M
and N can be measured by a voltmeter. Resistance (r ) is
the actual measurement, but it is converted to resistivity
(R) with known geometric factor (K) values. From O hm's
law,
V= Ir, but r = R(lla);
therefore,
r =
Solving for resistivity,
r =
Since K is defined as geometrical factor, and R = rK,
follows that K for the mud cup is
K= - -
vi
4MN
where d2 = area
and 4MN = length .
It is interesting to note that K is nota dimensionless con-
stant but is in meters2/meter. The diameter (d) and spac-
ing (MN) must both be g iven in meters. Mud cups can be
provided with different constants by changing the MN
spacing or cup diameter. Ali other things being equal, a
larger electrode spacing (MN) wi ll yield a higher voltage
and lower value for geometric factor (K).
Mud Measurements
Logging contractors are expected to measure the resistiv-
ity of a representative sample of the drilling fluid (R111)
and record the temperature of the fluid at the time of its
measurement. The method of collecting this mud sample
is very important. It should be a circulated sample that is
it collected just prior to tripping the drill pipe o ut of the
hole in preparation for wireline logging operations. The
- 49 -
 operation. A 1-gal sample is adequate. Mud collected
January Mean Daily Temperature from the return pit is often not representative of that in
the borehole because mud solids settle out in the pit.
Samples collected two or three days prior to logging are
not representative either.

Mud filtrate is collected from beneath the mud cup vessel

by applying 100 psi pressure to the fluid in the mud cup
and forcing it through a filter. Because the filtered fluid
simulates what occurs downhole, it is also measured for
resistivity and temperature at the surface. The tempera-
ture must be measured at the time the resistivity measure-
ments are recorded. The resistivity data can be converted
to formation conditions by making the proper tempera-
ture correction. Mud filtrate resistivity (R,n) is an impor-
tant parameter in log analysis, and the accuracy of both
resistivity and temperature measurements is critica!. The
amount of filtrate collected over a fixed time period
(30 min) can also be measured in a properly scaled
July Mean Da1ly Temperatura beaker to determine water loss.

The mudcake that builds up on the filter paper can also be

Fig. 2-8 - Seasonal geothermal (F) maps of Ganada
sample should be collected at the flowline near the
"shale-shaker" to ensure that it is mud with properties
used in drilling and that remain there during the logging
measured; however, the quantity of material collected to
measure mudcake resistivity (RmcJ in field operations
severely limits measurement accuracy. More time, larger
volumes of mudcake, and more elaborate measuring
apparatus are needed to perform the measurement accu-
rately. Temperature of the mudcake is also a problem
because different solids that formed the cake can affect
temperature differently. Rmc is used with density data in
sorne computed log analysis programs, but the resistivity
and temperature effects are not as significant as mud den-
sity. The mud measurements are made at surface temper-
atures, while logging devices measure resistivity of mate-
rials in place at downhole temperatures. Maximum-read-
ing thermometers usually record their maximum temper-
ature at maximum borehole depth. Therefore, a gradient
can be estimated between surface and bottomhole tem-
perature conditions, and temperature can be estimated
with reasonable accuracy at any depth between the two
extremes (Fig. 2-12). Mud measurements of resistivity
are typically corrected to formation temperature for log
evaluation purposes.

TABLE 2-3 -Thermal Conductivities

Thermal Conductivity (1 o3 calories/cm/C)

Shale 2 .8 - 5.6 Gypsum 3.1 Water 1.2 - 1.4

Sandstone 3.5 - 7.7 Anhydrite 13 Air 0.06
Porous Limestone 4-7 Salt 12.75 Gas 0.065
Dense Limestone 6-8 Sulphur 0.6 Oil 0.35
Oolomite 9- 13 Steel 110
Quartzite 13 Cement 0.7

-50-
,.

Mean Surface
Temperature, T ms Formation Temperature, T1 (C)

\ :~ :; 27
1 11
1 1
25
1

,,
1

11
50
50
1 1 J 11 11
50
1

75
1
1 1 1

75
1 11 11 11
75
1

1
1

/
100
1
1 1

100
1 11 11 11
100
1

125
1 1 i

1
125
1
1
1

11
125
1

'' 150
1
1 1 1 1

150
1
1 11
150
1 1

'
' 175
175
1
1 1
1
175

1
1 1 1 1

200
1
1 1
1
200
1
1 1
1
200

1
1 1 1 1

225
1
1 1
1
225
1
1 11
225
1 1

1'
1 1'
250

o o

~ ~
"'"' ...... ,.
5
' ..." ,~ ''-: ... ""~-
'\'l..',..,:~
['\,
~

~~
~ '\.
~"- ,~,,,
~
,-;.. 1,~.. -:: 2
-.....
",, "'~- '\,I'\.,.,, ..... ~
:::,.. .._
10
i\
'\
~ I' \. ,'-,
~
~
".....:- -: 3
\ ~, '\,.
1, ',, ' "'-.~ .... .. oo
,\ ',,
' -~ .. "r-,,.._' ...
,, 4 ~

$
X
15
\,
,,
,1\
\
'\.

I'\. ''
\.,, --~i'" ' .. ,
I'\.
i' '
1,

...,,
X

.s
C)
' '\ ', I'\.
i'.' .., ' i'-.' -:: 5 C)

...,, -- 3.
,s::;
a. .O\ " .e
Ql
"
b.
I'\. ', ' 'I ,,
.5
.. ,
'\,. 2
.... .. -.
C10 Drn 25 ~
a.
C) \

' 1\. I'\ ' ' , .. ',[',. 6

Ql
C)

'
,I
20 - -"' ,I \~ ,", 1'- ...,,
.... r~a en , ~G ' ' ', ,.
i-,
uo
\ '', '\,
' ,
U.! ,
.. ,-....
.u
--~- 11.< 1.1 ' t-1 IUI l

' "'r,-. 7
\ i-, ~

25
"
\ '
\. '
1\.'
'\,
I'\
' '
'
,, '-'... ..
,"!'..
,.
\ 1\. ,, I'\ ..... " ...,,

' ''
\
, I'\ ' .._'...... 8

\ I'\.
' ,, '
\
'I '

30
\

\
i\
'
\.'' ,
\. '
'\
'\,. r-..
' - ~- ',_" 9
80 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 ' 450 500

L
1 ,l,11l111I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
60 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
~ 40 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Mean Surface Formation Temperature, T ( F)
1
Temperature, Tms
Example
Tr = Tms + ~ x D/ 100
Given: Total Well Depth = 10,000 ft
Tr - Tms Bonom Hole Temperarure 200F
---.c: x 100
D Mean Surface Temperarure = 80F

From Chart: Geothermal Gradient 1.2 F/100 ft

Temperature Gradient Conversions
Formation Temperarure
at 7.000 ft 164F
lF l .823C
100 ft 100 m Note: To convert the formation temperature scale. Tr
(F). to a mean surface temperarure. T ms not shown.
add or subtract the appropriate value to the entire
lC 0.549F
scale. For example. if T 111s = 40F. the 60 tick
100 m 100 ft mark corresponds to 40 F. the 150 tick corresponds
to 130 F. the 300 F tick corresponds to 280 F. etc.

Fig. 2-9 - Chart used for estimating geothermal gradient

- 51 -

Temperature lncreases
...
Fig. 2-10 - Comparison of temperature gradient steepness and
lithology
1-
----0 f-----I
A M: :
Fig. 2-11 - A mud cup for measuring liquid resistivity
CALIPER MEASUREMENTS
Several different types of calipers are available for use
with well logging downhole hardware. Acoustic devices
typically employ a three-arm, spring-actuated caliper that
also serves as a tool centralizer (Fig. 2-13). Density
instruments measure the distance between the skid face
containing the radiation source and detectors and the
backup shoe that forces the skid face against the borehole
wall with relatively high pad pressure (Fig. 2-14).
Microresistivity devices make a distance measurement
between two pads that are opened electrically to make
-52-
contact with the borehole wall (Fig. 2-15). Dipmeter
tools provide diameter measurements from opposite pads
with a four-pad device (Fig. 2-16) or distance measure-
ments of radii for each individual pad with six-arm
devices or four-pad devices with independent arm actua-
tion (Fig. 2-17). Acoustic pulse-echo imaging tools pro-
vide complete 360 circumferential coverage of the bore-
hole size and shape.
When four pads are available, an x and y caliper distance
measurement is performed that allows for sorne degree of
borehole geometrical estimation (Fig. 2-18). Calipers
contacting three points around the borehole are often
thought to be more accurate than those contacting two
points, but quite often, the spring actuation of acoustic
caliper devices is fouled by drilling mud or cuttings clog-
ging the sliding mechanism in the caliper mandrel. Two-
point density calipers generally show little or no mud-
cake buildup on the borehole wall because the skid
design and pad force tend to wipe the filter cake away
from the wall. Two-point microresistivity calipers gener-
ally provide the best indications of mudcake thickness
across permeable strata because pad force is only about
15 psi.
Six-pad radii offer a more accurate description of the
hole size and shape, and resistivity imaging devices offer
more than the six-arm dip devices. However, the superior
instrument for measuring borehole geometrical shape
and size is the acoustic imaging device, which provides
complete 360 coverage (Fig. 2-1 9).
Hole volume can be integrated from caliper data and is
very useful to the completion engineer. If casing is to be
run, the engineer knows the vol u me of borehole that the
casing will use, and by subtracting that value from the
integrated hole volume, the engineer can determine the
amount of annular space available for cementing. lnte-
grated hole volume is presented as pips on the left side of
the depth track in either English or metric units.
RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY
Resistivity and depth were the first logging measure-
ments ever recorded, and resistivity or its reci procal, con-
ductivity, is virtually always recorded as part of openhole
logging operations. Log-measured resistivity values are
generally a function of the amount of porosity and the
water occupying the pore space. In simpler terms, the
measurement generally responds to the type and amount
of water in the formation. Generally, a resi stivity log is
the base correlation Iog of most boreholes; i.e., it is the
log used to pick formation tops, bottoms, thicknesses,
etc., and then to correlate these data to other wells,
develop cross sections, fence diagrams, structure maps,
isopach maps, etc.
 240
115

235
u:-
~

~ .e
D
t-
.e
D
t- i
:::,
i
:::,
;
; ai
o.
ai
o.
E
E 225 ~
~
Q)

Q)
o
.e
o.e E
o
E
f?
~
220 Cil
o
Cil

215

100
210
0.1 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
ti.t/(t + ti.t)

This chart is used to predict the static bottomhole formation temperature by recording the bottomhole temperature
on each successive trip in the well. Each bottomhole temperature is plotted vs. the borehole fluid circulation time
relationship on a semilog graph. Passing a straight line through the plotted points to the right ordinate will provide
an estimation of the static bottomhole formation temperature.

Example

Dimensionless Bottomholc
Time Te mperature

6t 7
Run 1 0.538 220F (104 C)
+ 6t 6 + 7

Run 2
6t 7 + 4.5
0.657 225F (107C)
t + 6t 6 + 7 + 4.5

Run 3
6t 7 + 4.5 + 8
0.765 228F (109C)
+ 6t 6 + 7 + 4.5 + 8
t = circulation time (hr)
6t = time after circulation stopped (hr)

Static Temperature = 234F (112C)

Fig. 2-12-The Horner plot technique can be used to estimate static formation temperature.

- 53 -
 M.P.

7 ft 8.25 in.
(2.34m)

4 ft 5 in.
(1.35 m)
4.25 in.
(108 mm)

Fig. 2-15 - Caliper type that is run with microresistivity devices

Fig. 2-13 - Caliper run with acoustic devices

Mud Cake

I \fg----==--~-~=====-=-
----- -------
--
Formatio n

Fig. 2-16 - Standard Diplog pad assembly with gauge ring

calibrator

r . . - - - - Short Space
Detector

ha==---- Long Space

Detector

Fig. 2-14 - Caliper run with density devices Fig. 2-17 - Swing-arm pad section

-54-
 BIT 1
........................... , j
6 VOL (CUFT) 26

O CAL (INCH) 100

6 26
TEN (LBS) C24 (INCH)
5ooo GR (API) O C13 (INCH) 6 26
4 in. ___,,. !------------~
O 150 26 6
(101.6 mm)

CJ

D
~

a>
1\)
o
o

10 ft
1
(3.05m)

1
e
- ~

a>
)
o
.!. o

-.-
1 ft
(304.8 mm)
' -
-
V
T.D.
~

a>
.i:.

'
r i== o
\__,
o

Fig. 2-18 - Dual calipers recorded with a four-arm device

-55-
 o
Transmitted Pressure Level

-...
-12.5

... 9 _
lbrn1ga1
-25
o
~
Shale _______ _. _______________ ______________ ~To_~lb/~:9at
. .
V)
V)
o . ,, ,b
...J
e -37.5 ~.?~~~~~e_____ ____ ___ __ ____ _____ --------.--- ----- ___ _____ ..._rn/ga
. .
.Q
caOl . . . . .
Noise Level
"'ea. ...
Q.
-50

-62.5

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Borehole Diameter (in.)

Fig. 2-19A - Theoretical CBIL5M transducer response vs. borehole diameter fer barite oil-base mud (acceptable signal recovered in area
above the corresponding lithology lines). Note: The positions of the sandstone and limestone lithology lines lie between shale and
dolomite.

Depth Menu Scale Proc . Quit

Fig. 2-198 - Typical CRT display of CBIL reflectance amplitude and travel time with 360 borehole caliper measurements (from calibrated
travel time) al four selected depths

- 56-
,,
Conventional e lectrode res1st1v1ty devices such as the
Electrolog are not commonly used today but are still SP RESISTIVITY
o,-.,.,.., CONDUCTIVITY

run in many areas of the world (Fig. 2-20). The short ..!:.,.
,.
normal, a conventional device, was usually run with con-
ventional induction devices. (Fig. 2-2 1). Since the earli-
"-,, -01111
...... o... ,
.,u- ''".''
........s;;.~T-1!~,.
INOUCTION.:$19TrVtTV

, ___________
____ .o
,.,
.'2
SP.IGINO _
' - -
est days of well logging, tens of thousands of resistivity 1 1
1
logs have been recorded throughout the world, and today, 1 )
many geologists spend much of their time correlating and ,~ t--l.
attempting to interpret old resistivity logs. For that t> R ti:> ""
reason, this course devotes sorne attention to old log ! F,
analysis. ...
,_
! .
r-
.,
F
Old electric logs were recorded by passing cun-ents ,.
through the formation from specific electrodes on the ,- .,-

tool mandrel, and voltages were measured between other .1

electrodes on the tool string. The measured voltages pro-

vided a means to determine resistivity. An electrically l
conductive drilling fluid is necessary for this measure-
ment. More than half the resistivity/conductivity logs run ~1
to date are electrode recordings.
Fig. 2-21 - lnduction Electrolog 5t.A linear presentation example

'
-H
-
SM>NTANEOUS POTENTIAl DEPTH

o
o
RESISTIVITY
""-
16~~{'i1NAL.
1
AO
---
RESISTIVITY

LATERAL
= 18 FT-8 IN.
Induction Devices

Conductivity devices were first constructed for use in oil-

" o
' based drilling fluids. Electrode devices will not function
64 IN. NORMAL
o AM =
64 IN. in oil-based muds because the drilling fluid acts as an
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - }O
e lectrical insulator. The propensity of old electrode mea-
surements led to the linear presentation of resistivity on
- ~

-! lJ 1~ : <
r--- 'd +- induction logs. Although induction measurements are
Jfhl
1--i- -1--

1--i-i -

- -~. ,,. 8
-t
fl{
"a~
6s:

1
....

_,_,...
-- 1
t--

lt'l ' ---- p .

I.J
1-

, - 1-
made in conductivity units, they are reciprocated to resis-
tivity values. Induction logs utilize severa! coi Is arranged

Ll
;> ,-.
,_t-:
1-f--i-
l'-
__1<
~1
1.
1 1
-- ._,_
~,-.
L !( ::,
>
:

:
physically to focus an induced current into the formation
(Fig. 2-22) .
_,_

1- ,_
1~ 1 8
L
1 1
-_e;

- ~ .,...-
,::,.

::-: h
~
_,_ .:::
I<: - 1 - l'ip,
l l>
;;:=
1
1
-
T he following is a simple explanation of a two-coil mea-
r
r--, 1 1~
- i
) ~~ surement system (Fig. 2-23). The high-frequency alter-
- - --
-1-

~
,_ { J_ r--._ :_L_ ....) 1 - nating current sent through the transmitter coi! sets up a
_:< :e::;: .::; -~1>
>
,-1:::
'[\.
<>- I> -
magnetic field that induces secondary currents into the
surrounding formation. Induced currents flow in circular
t-+-- --
~ = ;,
ground loop paths coaxial with the transmitter coi!, and
c.
1-- i?, 5~ >
- r~,
, __ ,::: )
r-<"""'"
::: :1
/
)
t._
in turn, create magnetic fields that induce signals in the
receiver coi!. Received signals are essentially propor-
(I>
- - - tional to the formation's conductivity, and the induction
~ ~ ,.t:::1:> )

-- -l 1 inslruments can be called conductivity-seeking devices.

- ' '
.,)>

- -
'-
i' \
I'- . 1
'
Effects of direct coupling between transmitter and
receiver coi! are balanced by the measuring circuitry.
< 1
!<::::~
H1
-1-

~::i:-- ( 1
1--
-Is--1 - >
~ Dual Induction-Focused Logs
8 .,..J..1
-- L 1 1
>
--
1-1-

,_.__...._. i
=R 1
,-..._
1--'
1 1 -
}
Introduced in the early 1960s, dual induction logs were
the first resistivity logs presented on a logarithmic scale.
Logarithmic scaling essentially eliminated backup (off
Fig. 2-20 - Electrolog example scale) traces, enhanced the resolution of resistivity

-57 -
 (-)
~ RlT-
--Y J~r:_
1 Gm G Gt Gs
-=-+-+-+-
Ra Rm R Rt Rs

(+) Amplifier and

Oscillator
Housing - - + .

Receiver

Receiver-1---~
Amplifier
..-----------..
Coils

Eddy
Curren!--..,....
--
---.--,--
--

_ __ _fv1e9 ~u_r~ __ _
Point

Transmitter
Coils

Transmitter
Oscillator

Fig. 2-22 - lnduction coil schematic

Fig. 2-23 - Explanation of simple two-coil induction measuring

change, permitted a universal scale from very Jow to very
high values of resistivity, and provided an innovative
mechanism for quick-look log evaluations. The original
logarithmic scales were three cycles (0.3 to 3000 ohm-
m), but they were soon replaced by the split four-cycle
grid (0.2 to 1, 1 to 1O, 1O to 100, 100 to 1000, and 1000 to
2000 ohm-m). As technology developed, combination
tools became more common, with the logarithmic resis-
tivity scales being confined to Track II (typically scaled
0.2 to 1, 1 to 10, 10 to 20 ohm-m).
The dual induction device utilizes deep and medium
induction measuring systems. Both measurements can
be recorded in oil-based muds and empty holes, as well
as in water-based mud systems. SP and a shallow,
focused electrode device measurement are recorded with
the two induction measurements in water-based muds
(Fig. 2-24).
Laterolog or Focused Electrode Devices
Laterolog instruments are focused electrode devices
designed to minimize influences from the borehole fluid
and adjacent formations (Fig. 2-25). Laterolog and spher-
ically focused devices belong to this family of tools.
system
Laterolog tools provide better vertical resolution than
induction devices in thin beds and are focused in such a
way as to greatly minimize the conductive nature of
saline drilling fluids (Fig. 2-26).
The instrumentation employs a small current electrode
between two long guard electrodes. A constant current is
applied to the small electrode in the center while auxil-
iary current of similar polarity is applied to the long
guards. Current to the guard electrodes is automatically
and continually adjusted to maintain a zero potential dif-
ference between the center electrode and guard elec-
trodes, and forces the current from the center electrode to
flow into the surrounding formation. A drop in potential
is caused by the flow of current through the formation to
remole current-return electrodes. The potential difference
is then related to formation resistivity.
The laterolog current path is basically a series circuit
consisting of the drilling fluid, mudcake, flushed zone,
invaded zone, and virgin zone (Fig. 2-27). The largest

-58-
 RILO (ohmm)

1~-----------------------~
SP 2 RILM (ohmm) 2000
20mV
- - 1 1-+ ~~;;,;;~:~;-2 ~
0 2 ~

0.2 2000
Dual Laterolog

Simultaneous
Shallow and t / Sal! Mud
Deep Measurements , 1 /~
-, \ .... .,...,,,.
Shallow - A; ~ '-, ........ :::_:::_=::::::_-_::_-:__.,. Deep _ A,

1
@ 128 Hz ', -- - - -
" - - ' - - - -:, :::::::::::::::::.::: @ 32 Hz

T ~--~~~~-
~~~~~~~~
==========-==-
/--------------
24-in. ~-- - - - - ,~ , ----------~
Bea:._:th ::::::::.~ ::::::::::::=
1
~:::::j '::~:::::~~7
:-;:=~:~=,E ~i~~~~~~~==::
-------,f-'--------:-(--, '..
1 1 '
'.. '

'

Fig. 2-24 - Dual lnduction-Focused Log logarithmic presentation Fig. 2-26 - The Dual Laterolog is focused to minimize the
effects of conductive drilling fluids.

Mud

Cake

Mud Flushed lnvaded Undisturbed

Zone Zone Formation
Ao _ .,_ _ _ _ - -..
Rm Ame Axo A, R1 B

Fig. 2-27 - Laterolog curren! path is basically a series circuit.

Fig. 2-25 - Laterolog focusing minimizes borehole and adjacent

bed effects.
voltage drop occurs where higher resistance occurs;
therefore, laterologs can be described as resistivity-seek-
ing devices. In contrast, induction measurements "see"
the different zones as parallel electrical c ircuits.
Invasion and the type of water-based mud can severely
affect laterolog measurements. Fresh muds cause the log
measurements to be overly inftuenced by the resistivity
of the invaded zone. Salt-based muds are generally of
similar salinity to formation waters, and the conductive
inftuence does not severely retard the instrument's ability
to measure beyond the invaded zone. Laterolog tools are

-59-
,,
generally recommended for use in salt muds, lower
porosities, and high-resistivity formations. Their superi-
ority to induction devices in high-resistivity formations
holds true in fresh muds because the contribution of the
lower salinity mud system diminishes in the laterolog
series circuit. However, enlarged boreholes hamper the
too! because the contribution of high mud resistivity
becomes more significant. Today, laterolog data are pre-
sented on a logarithmic grid scale (Fig. 2-28).
induction device is more influenced by the mud column
as hole size increases, but it is more severely affected by
thin beds than the focused device. Microresistivity
devices essentially eliminate borehole effects because the
pads contact the formation directly, but they are also
severely influenced by borehole fluids if pad contact to
the formation wall is lost.
Resistivity Bed-Thickness Correction

Corrections to measured resistivity values for bed thick-

GAMMA RAY
Radlation lntensity lncreases DEPTH
RESIST1VJTY ness are given for the deep induction (RD) and laterolog
deep devices (Rw), but ali resistivity devices are
(API Units) affected somewhat if the right conditions exist.
o 120 0.2 1.0 10 100 1000

The deep induction instrument has a 40-in. (102-cm) span

between the main transmitter and receiver coils, and its
vertical resolution is therefore limited to no less distance
l..~
,
~
,..

than the spacing. Complicating the picture is the fact that

':i~ ....... adjacent formations (shale beds and sand reservoirs) can
~

> -1--
have a large variance in resistivity. Therefore, to correct
)' R 1w for bed thickness, the resistivity of adjacent shale
_j ~ beds must be known. Severa! empirical charts are pro-
_..fo- I' vided to make proper adjustment to the measured values
., (Figs. 2-29 and 2-30). In general, logs of 5 to 6-ft (1.8 to

-~
,r 2-m) thick beds require no serious correction to RILD but
.,,1 the adjacent bed resistivity generally becomes more
important as the adjacent bed resistivity increases.
/

~-- ,i..-
@
-
...
Bed-thickness corrections to the laterolog deep (RLLD)
and laterolog shallow (RLS) measurements are not nor-
__,fo-) "' mally prohibitive down to beds as thin as 3 ft (1 m); how-
-e::;?"
t--
_.._ ever, the dual laterolog device is specified for high-resis-
..... ~
tivity formations, salt-mud environments, etc. Resistivity
... I< of the adjacent beds and the drilling fluid influence the
"
corrections, but the corrections become more significant
Fig. 2-28 - Laterolog logarithmic presentation in beds less than 5 ft (1.5 m) thick (Fig. 2-3 1).

Corrections to Resistivity for Borehole Size

CORRECTIONS TO RESISTIVITY/
CONDUCTIVITY LOGS FOR BOREHOLE
SIZE AND BED THICKNESS
Most resistivity and microresistivity devices are influ-
enced by borehole fluids to different degrees; therefore,
borehole size and tool position are important. Bed thick-
ness is more prohibitive to sorne devices than others.
Depth of invasion can seriously affect the response of
any resistivity device.
A shallow, focused log is affected by borehole size more
than by bed thickness, whereas the deep induction is
more severely affected by bed thickness. The reason for
this difference is that the focused system is surrounded
by a larger volume of the drilling fluid, and most of the
measured signa! comes from the borehole itself. A deep
Borehole size influences ali resistivity measurements.
The number of charts required to correct each and every
device from ali the logging contractors would result in an
almost unmanageable volume of data. For that reason,
only the basic Baker Atlas charts for the Dual Induction-
Focused Log and Dual Laterolog are presented and
discussed here. Those who need to make such correc-
tions for other too! types should refer to the appropriate
chart book. Corrections for tools from other contractors
must be made from charts provided by those contractors.
A chart for deep induction (R1w) borehole correction
demonstrates that more correction is needed as the bore-
hole size increases and/or as the mud resistivity (R,n)
decreases (Fig. 2-32). The effects of borehole signa! on
the medium induction measurement (RLM) are more

-60-
 20 20
..

10 10

5
Rs =1
5
e 4 e 4
9- 3 9- 3
1
a:
1
a:
2 2

I
I
..

0.5 a:;.&.!i...&.......u..---'---''--' ---''--.....................-.,............_......., 0.5 ................_ _ ___,__ __,_...._........................._ ____,

0.5 1.0 2 3 4 5 10 20 0.5 1.0 2 3 4 5 10 20
Reo, (Q m) R(X)( (Q m)

20 l--..;.....-+--,---:-+-i-;-,r+---..;.... --
.. ._~l---
..+ ---'----,j"'-,,__ _~
..._ ... , ..

15 i.--+--+--_ _--+----+ -- -- - - - - ' - ----i

~
E e 15 ,1 t
1

9, 9-
a:110 ~ _;________,~-~,c__....,..._,,...-.q=----- - - t - - - - i 1
a: 10 ,_.._ _ _ __

10 15
R(X)( (Q m)

Fig. 2-29 - Bed thickness corrections for deep lnduction Log

-6 1 -
,.

100 100 ,-

80 As= 5 80

E 60 E 60

~ O> a
o
-g,
<O <O
a: a:
40 40

20 20

o o
o 20 40 60 80 100 o 20 40 60 80 100
F\:or (Q m) Acor (Qm)

100 100

80 80

As= 20

E 60 E 60
~ ~ O>
O>
o .,-o
<O
a: a:
40 40

20 20

o o
o 20 40 60 80 100 o 20 40 60 80 100

F\:or (Q m) Acor (Q m)

Fig. 2-30 - Bed thickness corrections for deep lnduction Log

-62-
,,

Bed Thickness Correction for Dual Laterolog (Deep)

2.4

500 Conductive Beds R1/Rm = 20

2.0 Resistive Beds R5 h/Rm = 20
100

o
1.6
1
5
1 \
....__
\ ( ,,,,,,,-- --..._--- - --= -
_--
1.2
RLuJRsh
\
1
\_ _,,,,..,-
A ~
r---_
---- - ~

r-- r---
t--
--
o.a
,.
0.5 ~ VV
o 1 1/
/
o.os/V-
---
- -t:--r--.

-
r--:: ......
r----
- .......
-
----- ::::::-::::
~
-
;....---
-=
-,::;:::: :::;::;...-

0.4 1
2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100
Bed Thickness (ft)

0.5 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 30
Bed Thickness (m)

Bed Thickness Correction for Dual Laterolog (Shallow)

2.4
1
500
1 1 1

100
Conductive Beds RifRm = 20
2.0 Resistive Beds R5 h/Rm = 20
o
1
5
1
1.6

\ 1

1.2
1 \
~ =---
--.
:;;.--- F=:::::
R~ R ~ f:::::: ~

/
,.,, ---
V"" ~
-----
o.a
0.5 / ~,,.,
- __ ~
~
..,,.,.. _....,
0.1
v .vo /
/
0.005
0.4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Bed Thickness (ft)

Fig. 2-31 - Bed thickness corrections for Dual Laterolog

-63 -
,.

,.

15

14

13

12 .........:................................... j...................................l..............

11
~
=... 1Sta~doff On.) 1
!!l
CD

!a
10
! i . i i
o
31 9
o
.e
CD
o
ID
8 : ' : ' :
7 .- .... . .........................!...................................!. - : :
................... .................................. ...................................

6 : :
......................... - ............ ............ -. ............... ................................... ...................................
_

i
5 +~..j!+ .....................

4
-2 -1 2 3 4 5 6
Radial Geometric Factor (x 1000)

40 55 30 25 20 15 10 5 o
Signa! from Hole (mmho/m)

Example

Given: Borehole diameter = 14 in.; Rm = 0.1 0-m; standoff = 1.5 in.; RILD = 10 Q.m

Detennine: Signal from Hole = 16 mmho/m

CIL =1,000/10 Q.m =100 mmho/m
Borehole
CILcor = 100 mmho/m -16 mmho/m = 84 mmho/m Radial Geometrical Factor (x 1,000)\
correction
(
RILcor = 1,000/80 mmho/m = 11.9 Q.m (mmholm) Mud Resistivity (Rm) )

Fig. 2-32 - Borehole size correction for deep induction log (for series 1503/1506 Dual lnduction-Focused Log)

-64-
severe (Fig. 2-33). Standoffs are very important to R1LM
signals, and very large bore ho les rende r the measurement
almost useless. A c hart to correct the focused log data
(Rmc) is also provided (Fig. 2-34).
Bore ho le size correction charts for the dual laterolog
demonstrate that more serious corrections are required as
borehole sizes increase, and that cente ring is very impor-
tan!. The laterolog shallow device (Ru,5) is mo re
seve re ly affected , but the deep late rolog (RLLD) is increa-
ingly affected as hole enlargeme nt occurs (Fig. 2-35). O f
course, these statements refer to conditions whe re beds
are suffic iently thic k for laterolog responses.
EFFECTS OF INVASION ON RESISTIVITY
MEASUREME NTS
As the drill bit pe netrates geological hori zons in the sub-
surface, drilling !luid is introduced to that formation for
the first time. Mud pressure, pene tration rate, and the
porous, permeable nature o f the rock be ing penetrated are
variables largely responsible fo r the eventua l profile of
invasion. In general , wells are drilled with pressure
slightly overbalanced to conta in reservoir po re pressure
and avoid pote ntia l blowouts. Impermeable rocks do not
experience invasion; however, low-porosity rocks with
sorne pe rmeability are ofte n invaded deeply because
available pore spaces to accept the penetrating flui ds are
widely spread around the borehole. Rock w ith high
porosity and high permeability normally de mo nstrates
shallow invasion because the re is more pore volume near
the borehole to accept invading fl uids. Pressure di ffe re n-
tial causes flushing to occur, and solid particles of the
mud syste m are deposited o n the boreho le wall where
they form a filter cake (h 111c) Fi lter cake is normally
impermeable a nd curta ils fu rther flushing (Fig. 2-36).
The time required to build up sufficie nt mudcake is a
func tion of specific formation properties and drilling fluid
properties, especially solid particles w ithin the mud
system. These explanations are no more than rationa liza-
tions, and in specific circ umstances, the rule is violated.
Formation of filte r cake is desirable to prevent furthe r fil -
trate invasion, fo rmation damage, and mainta in sorne
wall stability. Most flushing is believed to occur during
the drilling process. As the bit initia lly penetrates the
rock, the sudden mud pressure causes a spurt of invasion
that virtually flushes a li the na tive fo rmation fluids fa rthe r
into thc formation a nd replaces the m w ith mud filtrate.
The flushed zone immediately adjacent to the borehole is
at most, a few inches (centimeters) beyond the borehole
wall and essentially conta ins only mud fi ltrate (R111) as
occupying fluid (Figs. 2-36, 2-37). The flushed zone has
unique resistivity (Rx0 ) and saturation (Sx0 ) values. Most
native fluids a nd gases are flushe d farther into the fo rma-
tion, and those that re main are called res idua l or immov-
able. Oil reservoirs typically demonstrate residua l oil
- 65-
saturations of 15% to 40% , but trapped residual wate rs
are not unco mmon, especially in carbonate reservoirs.
As time p asses, sorne o f the mud fil trate continues to
migrate laterall y into the formation; i.e., it begins to com -
mingle with nati ve reservoir fluids and form a transitio n
zone between the flushed zone and undisturbed reservoir
rock (Figs. 2-36, 2-37). Water satu ration in this transition
zone (S) can vary conside rably if the reservoir contains
hydrocarbo ns. A water-bearing ho ri zon w ill continue to
exhibi t 100 % wate r saturation, but the commi ngled
waters have di ffering salinities or resistivities (Rz)- The
resistivity of the invaded zone (R) will therefore di ffer
fro m that o f the flushed zone and virgin zone beyond.
The length of time the fo rmation is exposed to the bore-
ho le fluid pressures influe nces the depth of invasion, but
permeability and poros ity also influe nce the lateral dis-
tance of invasion. A hypothetical view of the diameter of
invasion in formations that are somewhat hete rogeneous
illustrates the effects of porosity and permeability
(Fig. 2-38). Dia meter o f invasion (d) represents the lat-
e ral interval encompassing the bore ho le that is affected
by invading drilling fl uid, whereas the diameter of fl ush-
ing (d.w) is much sma ller.
The virgin reservoir rock has a resisti vity (R0 ) if it is 100 %
water bearing, but if the formation contains any hydrocar-
bon, it has a higher value of resistivity (R1). The native
connate water has its unique resistivity (Rw) or salinity
that affects resul tant calculations ofwater saturation (Sw);
i.e., S,v decreases as the volume of o il or gas increases.
Resistivity increases as nonconduc tive hydrocarbon
replaces conductive formation waters in the pore space.
Resistivity Profiles of lnvasion
Whe n freshwate r-based drilling fluids are used, the mud
resistivity (R111 ) is norma lly higher than the fo rmatio n
water resisti vity (Rw)- In permeable water-bearing rocks,
the formation resisti vi ty in the flushed zone (Rxo) is
higher than fo rmation resistivity of the virgin zone (R )
0
because R,,if > Rw, and formation resistivity gradually
decreases outward from the flushed zone (Fig. 2-39).
If the formatio n contains hydrocarbo n a nd is dri lled w ith
freshwater-based mud, the resistivity beyond the flushed
zone may be highe r or lower, depe nding on the water sat-
uration (Sw) a nd the connate water res isti vity (Rw)- Re la-
tive position s of deep- , med ium- , and sha llow-reading
resistivity devices are used to indicate the expected inva-
sio n profiles (Fig. 2-39). T he assumptions forming the
basis for the fig ures are that the shallow-investig ating
device respo nds mostly to the flushed zone, the medium-
investigating device responds mostly to the transition
zone, and the deep-investigatio n device responds mostl y
to the undisturbed zone.
,,

15

14
. --~--- .
,_._ _1.................... : ...........-............................ .
13 ; _ i_ __ , . _ _ _, _ __

12
-1staaooff

o,.


1l- [ --l-
:

. . . . . . ... . ... ... . . . . ~ . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . :
.
1
n~
. "

11
?
=...
~
G) 10
E
ca
o
.l!1 9
o
.i::;
G)

o
IXI
8 ;->---------i.---

7 .... --: : : l l
6 :-...... ................................... ................... . i ..t ; .. . .
: :
5 + i t i .:1j1r-j--!

4
-1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Radial Geometric Factor (x 1000)

50 40 30 20 10 o -10
Signal from Hole (mmho/m)

Example

This chart provides a method for determining how much of the recorded signal is
the borehole.

Given: Borehole diameter = 10 in.; Rm = 0.1 0-m; standoff = 1.5 in.

Determine: Signal from Hole = 27 mmho/m Boreholc

( Radial Geometrical Factor (x 1,000)\
correction
(mmho/m) \ Mud Resistivity (Rm) )

Fig. 2-33 - Borehole size correction for medium induction log (for series 1503/ 1506 Dual lnduction-Focused Log)

- 66 -
 K = tool calibration factor ("K-factor") in ohmm/ohm

Normalized to:
8-in. borehole
1.4 RFOCapp/Rm = 20
Homogeneous medium

0.9

o.e 1
. . '! 1 ' l
: :i"
0.7 L....-~JL...L.Ll.lU.lLL .1..u.J._ ___L...J....J....J...L.L.1 ..L_--1..__--1.....L.J... J....L.l..L_...J....--1...... .1.....w...1...U.J....__.J. ..._...J.....J..:l:,._J.J.J.J
0.1 10 100 1000 10000

Fig. 2-34 - Borehole size correction for focused log (for series 1503/ 1506 Dual lnduction-Focused Log)

If the drilling fluid is saltwater based, the flushed zone are impermeable (essentially no flushing or invasion) and
norrnally has lower resistivity (Rx0 ) than its fresh rnud contain a large amount of bound water.
counterpart. Resistivity of the invaded zone (R) and the
virgin zone (R0 ) rnay be very simi lar in a water-bearing lnduction measurement s can also be made in air- or gas-
horizon. If hydrocarbons are present, the virgin zone will drilled boreholes. Although the borehole acts asan insu-
demonstrate higher resistivity (R1). The positions of the lator, the waters of the uninvaded formation will exhibit a
deep-, medium-, and shallow-resistivity curves are conductive influence, and valid formation conductivity/-
reversed because of the reversa! of the resistivity profile resistivity measurement s can be obtained.
(Fig. 2-39).
Step Profile of lnvasion
Oil-based mud systems elimjnate electrode measure- A simple geometric pattern to profile invasion, the step
ments; however, the deep- and medium-induction data profile, considers only the flushed and virgin zones. A
can be recorded in combination with a gamma ray curve. cylindrical interface moving laterally into porous and
The shallow dielectric measurement is useful in estirnat- permeable homogeneou s rock is projected. The diameter
ing Rxo in oil-based systems. lnduction devices are inftu- (d) of the cylinder encompasses the flushed zone (Rx ),
0
enced by the most conductive substance surrounding the and the undisturbed formation (R0 or R1) lies outside the
measuring system, and permeable water-bearing hori- cylinder. A schematic of the step profile is a two-dimen-
zons (virtually ali rock is partially water bearing) can be sional (2-D) projection of resistivity vs. distance from the
distinguished from zones containing mostly hydrocar- wellbore (Fig. 2-40). In reality, this condition virtually
bon. Shales will demonstrate low resistivity because they never exists.

-67-
 K = tool calibration factor ("K-factor") in ohmm/ohm

Tool Centered Thick Beds

u
l 1 [i . i , i
Nonnalized to:
''I
i .
1 1 8-in. borehole r

-----""-.......... ;--
1 11
1.3
l r

1
.............L...
1.2

r
__ __
1.1
~
!e:
111
l
a:

0.9

o.e

0.7
0.1 10 100 1000 10000

Tool Centered Thick Beds

u ,-----------,-,---------------,---------,----,
Normalizad 10:
e-m. borehole 1 i 1
RLLSapp l Rm 100
1.3 Homogeneous medium ~~- .. - - +-

~
1.2

1.1
~i -: --
r

.. ..,. ' ,.(.. ; ___

1
!e: .,' i 11 1
~ 1
~
a:

0.9

o.e
111

~7 '--''---'-"u.L..<-'-'-'L..1....1...L..U..'----'----'-'--..1....1...L..U..'----'----'-'--..l....1...'--'-'-''----'---'--'--..1....1...L..LU'----'----'-'--..1....1...U..U
0 .1 10 100 1000 10000

These charts provide a method to correct the log value for the influence of the borehole. The chart is entered from the
horizontal axis (RLLs/Rm) by projecting a line upward to the appropriate borehole size curve. From that point, a
line is projected to the left to derive a correction factor along the vertical axis, which is then multiplied by the actual
log value (RLLS) to determine the corrected log value (RLLS co~

Fig. 2-35 - Borehole size correction for Dual Laterolog

-68-
"

Q)
o.e
(\ 1.. ~ ~ - - d-- - 1 J
\ ,' 11 ___I _
1
1 1 '. 1
J! :~o
>
I 1- r.-- - - J. 1 'l
o
CI)
C o~
lL
( \ , : '

Fig. 2-38 - Flushing and invasion distance into the formation

usually vares due to pressure differential, fluid loss, porosity,
permeability, time of exposure, etc.

Fig. 2-36 - ldeally, an impermeable filler cake builds up on the

wall of permeable strata.

Rs
Transition Profile of Invasion
~ Mud Cake !

Rm
- 1-hmc
1
Transition profiles are more representative of real condi-
Flushed Zone Undisturbed tions. These profiles ass ume that a mjx of native and
RoorRt R 0

Sxo\ Form ation invading fluids exists between the flushed zone and
lnvaded Zone sw virgin zone. Conductivity is assumed to vary linearly
S between the two boundaries of the transition zone
--------d ~-
Rs dh
i
Rmf

Rs
Rz 1
Rw
(Fig. 2-41 ). Width of the transition zone depends on the
rock characteristics, rate of invasion, and length of time
Lateral View Across Borehole the formation is exposed to invading fluids.

R1 or R0 Annulus Profile of Invasion

R In oil-bearing zones, it is possible for the filtrate to flush

connate water to the lead of the invading front by
miscible drive processes, thereby creating a conductive
ring around the more resistive flushed zone (Fig. 2-42).
Beyond the conductive annular ring is the higher
Sw resistivity oil-bearing virgin zone. Detection of the salt-
water annulus depends on the responses of the particular
logging devices. Existence of such a low-resistivity zone
or annulus is strong indication of movable oil. However,
annulus occurrence is very rare, and when it is found, the
View Down Borehole
reservoir is usually at virgin conditions.
R - Resistivity xo - Flushed zone
S - Saturation me - Mud cake Electric current patterns of resistivity/condu ctivity
s - Shoulder bed h - Thickness devices show that induction measurements are more
i - lnvaded zone w - Formation water affected by the low-resistivity annular ring, and the
t - Non-invaded zone d - Diameter medium-inductio n experiences the more severe effect.
o - 100% Water saturated z - Mixed water
non-invaded zone Experience and computations have shown that the
medium-induction device (RILM) can record lower resis-
Fig. 2-37 - Generalized sketches to illustrate formation tivity than the deep-induction device (Rno) when the
parameters
ratio of Rx0 IR1 is less than five. As the RxJR1 ratio

- 69 -
 -
I
1
1 Ql a: R*
1 e Fresh Mud
Ql 1 o ~
e N Salt D M S
o
Ql
N
o 1
I
e Undisturbed :~
u Ro Water 1
.g
j1
.e -o
1 Zone ;
Zone 1
1
!l! ;

1
Ql 1 Ql
o .e 1 e a: 1
CD (/)
~
::,
: I
1
1
1- 1
1 Fresh Mud
- lnvaded Zone- System
----------~S ~D
100% - - -

~1
Distance from Borehole

Water Zone
-- R
Rxo
--

t R f.R.v or ~o Zone l f I
1

'"""'"g
l .. 1
~. :

~ 1
1:
DMS

0%

100%
Distance from Borehole

-S M D

---r--'~"''"
. t
Salt Mud 1
System R.v or S0 1 1
o R ', 1
C/)
1 1
_
O%_..__ _ __.__ _ _ _ _

Distance from Borehole

Fig. 2-39 - Resistivity profiles of invasion follow the above schemes.

increases above five, or dee per invasion exists, the effect

decreases, and the medium induction will indicate resis-
tivity approximately equal to or greater than that shown
on the deep curve. Calculations also indicate the deep
rf Rxo induction to be only slightl y affected by an annulus, and
V lnvaded the recorded resistivity is only about 10% low for RxofR1
el Formation ratios of three to five and 5% low for Rx0 IR1 ratios greater
than fi ve.

:~ lnvasion Corrections to the Dual lnduction-

R,
; Focused Log
Ql
a: Undisturbed
rf Formation Two charts are provided to correct the dual induction-
/\ focused logs for invasion effects. The first chart (Fig. 2-
rf
o
.Badiu_s
lnvas1on
.QL. 43) is used where R1 < Rx0 , and the second chart (Fig. 2-
44) is used where R 1 > Rxo A microresistivity device,
--Distance such as the microlaterolog, is recommended for the
second chart, as Rxo is part of the required input to the
chart; i.e., the focused measurement is not adequate for
Fig. 2-40 - Step profile of invasion the specified conditions.

-70-
,,

cS
/\
o
c5' Undisturbed R,o
Forrnation
lnvaded
Forrnation
01 - lnner Boundary of
?;- Transition Zone
:~ D.! - Outer Boundary ?;- Undisturbed
o :~ Forrnation
-5 C,o
;
e Q) Low Resistivity Zone
8 al g a:
.s::;"' Zone
cS 2"'E~
V u..~
o,
J D, D2
D2:::: 1.4 D1
Dis t a n c e - - - - - - - - -
- - Distance - - - - - - --

Fig. 2-42 - Low resistivity annulus profile of invasion

rf D1 - lnner Boundary of
V Transition Zone
D2 - Outer Boundary

"C
Q) -
g
~ co The second chart (Fig. 2-44) is entered with a ratio
::, E
:~ RwlRx0 o n the y-axis and R 1w!RILM on the x-axis with
exarnple values of 4 and 2, respectively. It can be
assumed that Rxo is microlaterolog resistivity, and it
Transition Undisturbed should be corrected for mudcake thickness if necessary.
rf Zone Forrnation
/\
The example illustrates the following output results -
o,

---Distance----
therefore,

Flg. 2-41 - Transition profiles of invasion R1 = 1.5 x 20 = 30 ohm-m.

lnvasion Corrections to the Dual Laterolog and

The first chart (Fig. 2-43) is entered with a ratio
RFodR1LD on the ordinate and a ratio RM!RILD on the
abscissa. The example on the chart shows entries of 10
and 1.4, which cross one another at a point where d =
39 in. , RxJR , = 18.5, and RfR 1w = 0.95;
therefore,
an R xo Device
The dual laterolog tornado chart (Fig. 2-45) is used
by entering the ratios of RdRxo on the y-axis and
RdRLLS) on the x-axis. The microresistivity devices
can be used to determine resistivity of the flushed zone
(Rx0 ). Ratio values of21 and 6.3 are used in the example.
Output results are

d = 50 in, and R / R LLD = 1.5 ;

R 1 = (0.95) x ( 1.0) = 0.95 ohm-m.
therefore,
This calculation demonstrates that RILD is not seriously
affected by an apparent 39-in. (1.0-m) invasion diameter. R1 = 1.5 x 63 = 94.5 ohm-m .

-71-
,.

10
9
8

RFL/RILD
4

This chart provides a method of obtaining Rt from the Dual Induction-Focused Log readings where Rt is less
than Rxo The depth of filtrate invasion may also be determined.

RFL = JFL x RXO + (l - 1FL) x Rl

1/RILM = GILM/Rxo + (l - GILM/ Rt
l/R1w = (G1w/Rx0 ) + (l - G 1w)/Rt

where Rxo = resistivity of formation invaded by drilling fluids; Rt = resistivity of undisturbed formation; J =
geometric factor for Focused Log at the invasion diameter; G = geometric factor for Induction Log at the
invasion diameter; FL = Focused Log; ILM = Induction Log Medium; ILD = Induction Log Deep
Example

Given: RFdR1w = 10 Q m/1 Q m = 10; R1LM/R1w = 1.4 Q mi l Q m = 1.4

Determine: d = 39 in., Rx0 1Rt = 18.5; R/Rrw = 0.95; Rt = (R/Rrw) Rrw = 0.95 Q m

Fig. 2-43 - R1 from Dual lnduction-Focused Log (R < Rxo)

-72-
-,

1 " ~; '" / .... 1

20
...
1

I
11

l ,nr
In
J,r ..n
1

, ""' -
=- j' :~11
11
t" ,... r

-
1' / i::nn
1/ J / A l.
I / I ~ 1 1"'11 ....
I 1/
' l///1 pv, l .
J b ~e
' ,V/ I 1q.>
/ u(.J'l ,/ 1.o ,..,.
J '
J
I
i'/'\
tY ./ / I
,. ~'
I J

j
1

1) ~ / / /40
10
- I
I
'

I 1r 11 .' i
/ I "/
_,

.... -.,. ~

8
.
..
, ..
~

I "
6
. '111 -
...
I ' 1

.
"
. '
5
''
~

.. -- 11 A

-,
,/
I Ji
nn
-
I'
I
~ I! ~
4 ' I j
'
IJ
" \

: . ,

~ n . ,
3
, ,,~
'\ I -- < ,,,.,
,

, ,,-
'~~ -
,-
I
I ,,, 11
""
>-

Rt > Rxo
- _,,' ,_ ... Thick Beds
,-

-~
1-
,- ,- il r1r~ 1-
,-
11..
, J 8-in. (203-mm) ,-
J 'I,

2 L I I ,, - 1- 1- Borehole ,-
,-
1 ,,. 'l / 1/,..,_ Step Profile ,-

--
I I 1 :, r1 No Skin Effect
'.A
/ 11
' I
r, -.
j / 'J
l IIW 11
~, fll
rj r
f//
r
3 4

This chart provides a method of obtaining R1 from the Dual lnduction-Focused Log readings where R
1
is greater than Rxo Rxo should be determined by an auxiliary survey such as the Micro Laterolog.
Example

Given: R1LDIRxo = 20 Q m/5 Q m = 4; R1LD/R1LM = 20 Q m/10 Q m = 2

Determine: d = 50 in. , Rx0 /R1 = 0.17; R1/RLD = 1.5; R1 = (RIRLD) RLD; 1.5 x 20 = 30 Qm

Fig. 2-44 - Rt from Dual lnduction-Focused Log (Rt > Axol

-73-
 . '
. '
100

10 ......,.
o
X
a:
---0
_J
_J
a:

. . . : . . . . . . . . . . . :. . . . . . . . , ..... ....., .. . -~ .. ! . . . . . . . . . . ...... .... . .... .

................. ( Thick Beds
...,. 8-in. BorehoJe
: Step Profile
.. .. .. -~ ..... .. . ... ; . . . . . ! . .. ~ ..:- ... ... :- .. : .. . ...... . .... .

.. .2 ...............;............, ........: .. :

.1
.5 1 2 5 10 20

This chart provides a method of obtaining R1 from the Dual Laterolog readings where R 1 is greater than Rxo
Rxo should be determined from an auxiliary survey such as the Micro Laterolog. Rxo RLLD and RLLS
should be corrected far borehole effects befare entering this chart.

Example

Given: RLLD/Rxo = 63 Q rn/3 Q m = 21; RLrn/Ru,s = 63 Q rn/10 Q m = 6.3

Determine: d = 50 in.; R/RLLD = 1.5; Ri = 1.5 X RLLD = 94.5 Q. m

Fig. 2-45 - Rt from Dual Laterolog (Rt > Rxo )

-74 -
,,
Reminders About Correction Charts
Most reservoir rocks are of sufficient thickness that onl y
small corrections (often insignificant to final results) are
necessary. Borehole size typically becomes more impor-
tant as the size increases, and this is especially true whe n
inductio n devices are used in a high-salinity borehole
fluid. Induction devices, despite the foc using, respond to
the most conductive routes between the array of transmit-
ters and rece ivers, whereas laterolog devices are strongly
influenced by the more resisti ve surro undings.
The tornado charts are generated with certain assump-
tions; e.g., specific hole size lusually 8 in. (20.3 cm)],
step profil es of invasion (that almost never occur), and
sufficiently thick beds. The inductio n charts are built
assuming no skin effect.
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL (SP)
A self-induced, natural potential that occurs sponta-
neous ly between reservoir rocks and a fluid-filled bore-
hole is often called Self Potential. On a well log, it is
more commo nly referred to as the SP curve. The SP is
usually recorded in combination with conventional resis-
tivity or conductivity data and helps the analyst segregate
permeable strata from impermeable hori zons (Fig. 2-46).
RILO (ohm-m)
SP 1----- --- ---- ------------~
20mV 1
2 2000
RILM (ohm-m)
1
- - 1 1- + 0.2 RFOC (ohm-m)
0.2
Fig. 2-46 - SP identifies the permeable sand.
In conjunction with resisti vity recordings, SP measure-
ments are used by the geologist to locate the measured
depths of geological horizons, to determine thickness of
individual horizons, and to make well-to-well compari-
sons of such geologicaJ entities. The SP curve is also uti-
lized for other methods of log analysis that are discussed
later in this text.
The natural vo ltage found in a mud-filled borehole origi-
nates from e lectrochemical and electrokinetic actions and
causes an electrical current to flow in conductive bore-
hole fluids. The electrochemical component (Fig. 2-47) is
caused by two potentiaJs, the membrane potential and the
liquid junction potential. The formation is said to be at
earth potential; therefore, the borehole fluid itself causes
the chemical reactions that affect borehole fluid and
result in SP measurements.
t
Permeable
2000
2000
Fig. 2-47 - Electrochemical component of the SP
Shales tend to have a layered clay structure and the
charges on those layers allow shales to be permeable onl y
to the Na+ cations. When shale separates two solutions of
different salinities (e.g., R,,, and R 111 ), the Na+ io ns pass
through the shale from the more concentrated solution to
the less concentrated solution. The movement of charged
ions is, in effect, an electric current and the force moving
the ions causes a natural potential across the shale. ShaJes
pass only positive charged cations so, in e ffect, they rep-
resent an ion-selective membrane (Fig. 2-48).
- 75-
 When the permeable zone is not shaly, the total electro-
chemical potential (Ec) can be calculated as follows,
Fresh
Mud
(Water)

Shale where w = chemical activity of the connate water,

a111 = chemical activity of the mud filtrate,

Salty Water
in
Bore- Sandstone and K = a coefficient or constant proportional to
hole (Permeable) absolute temperature. This is normally
taken as 71 (equal to 25C or 77F).

+
Chemical activity of a solution is in approximate propor-
+ Na+ tion to its salt content, which is similar to its conductivity.
+ '-
'- Therefore, if the solutions contain mostly NaCI, the
'- equation can be written in the following terms for log
Fresh
'- ,
analysis purposes,
Mud '-
Salty
c1 Water

Shale (-) Charge When the solutions contain substantial salts other than
Attracts (+) Na lons
NaCl, the value of K may be quite different. If the perme-
Repels (-) CI lons from the Sand
able horizon contains sorne shale or dispersed clay, the
SP is reduced somewhat and the effect and percentage of
Fig. 2-48 - Membrane potential - Fresh mud and salty for- shaliness must be considered.
mation water effects

Electrokinetic potential (Ek) is produced when an electro-

Within a permeable bed, sorne filtrate invasion will occur
and where mud filtrate and native formation water come
in direct contact, a liquid junction potential occurs; i.e.,
both cations and anions can transfer from one solution to
the other (Fig. 2-49). Anions (Ci-) have greater mobility
so that net flow is negative from the concentrated (saline)
solution to the diluted (less saline) solution. The current
across the junction is produced only between solutions of
different salinities - when equality exists, no ionic
exchange occurs. In practice, the cause and effect of the
liquid junction potential is usually much smaller than the
membrane potential (generally > 80%).
Shale
Membrane Potential
(Fresh Mud Rmt > Rw)
Rw
/..,.F-+_ Liquid Junction Potential
Membrane Shale
Potential
(Extreme Salt Mud)
(Rmf Rw)
lyte flows through a nonmetallic, porous media. The
magnitude of such a potential is mostly determined by
the pressure causing the flow and the conductivity of the
electrolyte. This is often referred to as streaming poten-
tial. These effects are infrequent and usually difficult to
detect; they occur most often in low-permeability
(< 5 md) formations where much of the pressure differ-
ential is across the formation.
NATURAL GAMMA RAY (GR)
Ali sedi mentary rocks contain sorne natural radioactivity;
sorne contain much more than others. The total gamma
ray (GR) measurement is a combination of the potas-
sium, thorium, and/or uranium elements present in rock
and fluid properties of any particular geological horizon
(Fig. 2-50). The higher GR readings typically, but do not
always, occur in front of shale beds; lower readings usu-
ally occur in front of other sediments (Fig. 2-51). The
gamma ray, an excellent correlation log, is often recorded
in conjunction with resisti vity logs. The GR curve is
almost always recorded with resistivity measurements
made in oil-based muds, salt-based muds, or air-filled
boreholes. It can also be recorded with most other log
measurements in open or cased hole (Fig. 2-52).

Fig. 2-49 - Liquid junction potential occurs between Rmf > Rw The total GR measurement can be separated into its
(or R 2 ) interface respective portions of potassium, thorium, and uranium

- 76 -
,-

O 4 8 14 20 40 60 80 100
Caprock and anhydrite
Coal

1

Salt
Dolomite
Limestone
....
1

Sandstone
Sandy limestone and
limy sandstone
"""'
...
Greenish-gray sandstone
Shaly sandstone
Shaly limestone
Sandy shale
Calcareous shale
Shale
Organic marine shale
Lean potash beds
Rich potash beds

Fig. 2-50 - Gamma ray response of sedimentary rocks (from Russell, 1941)

GR (A PI)

o 100 POK.100 LOG FORMAT 1

e-
:;>
-
- ""''l
~

p
lt
s~
-
r--::
"'-~
Apparent
Shale
i
-

,!
,..,,..-l> ~~ cf
rr
..... 1

~
.....<
,....- 1 t
K: t-- ~~ ,
-
11' PI 1
1 I< 1,, l!J 1 1
i.:=
- ,...!=- PDK-100 LOG FORMAT 2

'---- -'l
--------- -~
------~ '+---~ - ---
-;:, ~ 1
Cleaner
Sediments ~
~
,,..e >
>
l
1/
'7
---::::
~.,
>
~,..,,
"-... ~1
>
(>
r
<("

Fig. 2-52 - Cased hole gamma ray recording shown with pulsed
Fig. 2-51 - Gamma ray example neutron data

- 77 -
by a spectral analysis technique. This can be accom- GR DENSITY
plished with a device known as a Spectralog instrument 1
~.. PHOTOELECTRIC CORRECTION .. ~
~ .<:
.. CAL
(Fig. 2-53). Spectralog data will be discussed in more 6 16 O 10 -0.5 + 0.5

detail later. <Lf:.

-~
1~,...b
b
GR (API) K
o 100 !.:
KTh u ;:
L..-
100 Th ., : <,-.
1
;....;..+ft> :~ ,. )
.i~ 1
1 1

i:f 1-..;: ! ~ ,: 1 1 d'..

., - b
~ ' ~, 1 rc,.,, .. ;::l--t-:" 1
1 ,=.
. 1 1

t>
1
:1:, i ,... 1

...
1 l-t ,i:>

1
~ i ..~
'. ~
1
i , _:
,:.
(
' 1
'1
! ~~ ' 1 (.' 1~I
t' 1 1~
~

1-:
,,.,;
,_
'
; ! f:_ ~
1
: 1
1

~ 1
4'"~
::a- Fig. 2-54 - Compensated Z-Densilog
5
M example
1
~ '
1
t....,.. ' ~
'
'-t-+- ;:,;
k
:
1 t: -.. ~
,. ,,: r , IC,-
1. 1.
environment. Good contact is usually accomplished if the
r~ 1 1 1~ 1 r--
I~,...
1

-
.

1)-: borehole is not washed out badly or if the borehole wall

1 1 l.: .:.. 1 l<B'
~ - ~ is not too rugose. If pad contact to the borehole is lost, the
vfi ~j- ! -~~ 1
: ;p g. 1' p,
influence of borehole fluid becomes dominant to the
1
measurement. A second caliper is run in combination
with this device in sorne areas to provide a borehole pro-
file and positive orientation of the too! pad on the small
axis of the borehole. Measurement theory for density and
Fig. 2-53 - Spectralog example
photoelectric recordings are discussed in more detail in
Chapter 4.

WIRELINE DENSITY MEASUREMENTS

WIRELINE ACOUSTIC MEASUREMENTS

Logging devices that measure density characteristics of

the rocks traversed with the instrument are very impor- There are many types of acoustic measurements and
tant to openhole log analysis. Of ali the log measure- many different ways of obtaining them. This section con-
ments that are sensitive to porosity in rock, the density centrates on conventional acoustic log data obtained by
measurement is the most important because it provides a the use of one or two transmitters and two or more
bulk density (Pb) value that is most sensitive to effective receivers positioned at known distances from one another
formation porosity. The density tools actually measure on the tool string (Fig. 2-55). Sound from the transrnitters
electron density, which is very near bulk density and is coupled through fluids to the borehole wall, where it is
easily corrected in the instrumentation. A photoelectric refracted along the wall, refl ected back across the fluid
capture cross section (Pe) curve is presented on many of column to receivers, and recorded from an early com-
today's density logs (Fig. 2-54). The Pe curve, sensitive pressional arrival (Fig. 2-56). This measurement is
primarily to matrix lithology, is extremely helpful in den- known as acoustic interval transit time (~t), the interval
sity- porosity calculations. representative of the distance between the two receivers.
A knowledge of lithology and fluid type allows porosity
A knowledge of lithology and fluid density is fundamen- to be calculated by empirical means. The sound is also
tal to the porosity calculation made from a bulk density transmitted directly through the fluid column to the
value. A caliper is an integral part of the density tool's receivers. Since fluid velocity is much slower than the
recordings. A backup shoe forces the skid containing other sound path along the formation wall, direct fluid
source and detectors against the borehole wall during waves do not interfere with the desired measurement,
logging operations (Fig. 2-14). It is essential that the skid that of formation properties. A knowledge of fluid travel
make good contact to avoid the influences of the borehole time and lithology is needed to calculate porosity.

- 78-
- -
~ __ C2_A_!; J.!.nJ _ ,!_6~ ~AVEL TIME (ms)
100
O GR (API) 120 1- _ _ _ ..f.O..B._0.!_~ _ _ _ --l

VOL (cu ft) + 1o AC (MICS/ft) 10

H
om
.--..-------,----, 1~ ~

Electronics

11111 Transmitter

X
1\)

8
GR

a.: Receiver
11111 POROSITY
~

INTEGRATE
"'
-=.:-

TIME
MARK- BOREHOLE
Receiver
11111 ERS VOLUME

""' TD
X
"'
8
CURVE

11111 Transmitter

Fig. 2-56 - BHC Acoustilog presentation example

arrivals or Stoneley arrivals for more advanced interpre-

tations (Fig. 2-57); e.g., to determine the mechanical
properties of the rock strata or to derive an estmate of
permeability. Comparisons of compressional and shear
Breakpoint arrivals are also empirically related to lithology.

Fig. 2-55 - Scheme far BHC Acoustilog transducers Compressional

Transmitter Shear
, Fires ,l.

Acoustic interval transir time (one-way time) is often

cumulatively integrated in milliseconds over the logged
interval and used for comparison to seismic two-way Time
time. The data can also be used (often in combination
with density data) to create a synthetic seismogram. lnte- Fig. 2-57 - Generalized acoustic waveform
gration pips are printed near the right edge of the depth
track on the log (Fig. 2-56). Note the time markers on the
left edge of the log and the integrated hole volume pips to WIRELINE NEUTRON LOGS
the left of the depth track (Fig. 2-56). Hole volume is
integrated in cubic measurements of depth (feet or The principal use of neutron logs is to identify porous
meters) from caliper information and is very useful to rock and determine an apparent porosity (Fig. 2-58). If
completion personnel planning cement jobs. Acoustic the formation is shale free, the pores filled with liquid,
compressional arrivals are often compared to later shear and the matrix lithology known, the neutron log can be

-79-
 GA(API) CN(%)
o 150 30% -10%
CAL
~ .. . ......
6 16
Fig. 2-58 - Compensated neutron example
used to determine the porosity. When gas and/or shale are
present, or if the lithology is not precisely known, neu-
tron logs will probably not provide for accurate porosity
calculations. Comparing the neutron log data to other log
data often resolves the presence of gas, volume of shale,
and matrix type. Therefore, neutron logs are often used in
combination with other logging devices to determine any
or all of these parameters.
The types of neutron logs range from epithermal (0.1 to
100 eV) to thermal (a:0.025 eV) to GR interaction. Most
openhole neutron logs run today are compensated and
utilize a chemica1 source (AmBe or PuBe). The compen-
sated too! system employs two detectors at known
distances from the source to provide sorne compensation
for borehole effects. Neutron logs are also recorded in
cased hole; sorne utilize a chemical source, while others
use a pulse-activated accelerator source that generates
about three times the energy of the chemical source. Dis-
cussion of accelerated neutron devices is reserved for
cased hole formation evaluation methods. In the future,
most neutron logs will likely utilize accelerator sources
because of imposed environmental safeguards.
Fundamentally, neutron log responses are a function of
the hydrogen present. Hydrogen is present not only in
fluids but also in many types of minerals that make up the
rock matrix. As a result, neutron devices are very
sensitive to rock composition as well as to pore space.
When gas occupies part of the pore structure, neutron
log data by itself will lead to a pessimistic calculation of
porosity, but the fact that neutron devices are sensitive to
the presence of gas makes them valuable tools when gas
is present. Neutron devices are commonly run in combi-
nation with density devices in open holes, and interpreta-
tive techniques have proved this combination to be the
-80-
most satisfactory method for determining porosity, lithol-
ogy mix, and recognition of gas (Fig. 2-59). Neutron logs
are also used effectively with acoustic log data to identify
gas in shaly sands. The ability to record neutron logs in
cased holes has been a distinct advantage since the intro-
duction of the device (Fig. 2-60). A more detailed discus-
sion on neutron logging theory appears in Chapter 4.
WIRELINE DIELECTRIC MEASUREMENTS
Until the late 1970s, it was very difficult to differentiate
formations that contained heavy crude oils from forma-
tions containing fresh connate waters. Dielectric mea-
surements were introduced to resolve the problem
because fresh waters have a significantly higher dielec-
tric constant than most of the other measured fluid, gas,
or matrix properties. Dielectric propagation and attenua-
tion measurements permit differentiation between heavy
oil and fresh water, and although dielectric devices do not
necessarily read deep enough to be beyond filtrate inva-
sion, they segregate horizons so that the oil-bearing strata
can be evaluated within reason.
Both deep- and shallow-dielectric measurements are cur-
rently being made, but their interpretation goes beyond
the scope of this chapter's discussion (Fig. 2-61). The
tools have found additional use in thin-bed analysis and
as flushed zone saturation devices in holes drilled with
oil-based muds. Dielectric logging theory and interpreta-
tion methods are covered in more detail later.
WIRELINE PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
AND FORMATION FLUID SAMPLING
Wireline-conveyed formation test tools can be seated by
hydraulic packoff against the formation wall at any depth
in a borehole (Fig. 2-62). At different stationary depths,
drawdown pressure, hydrostatic pressure, and buildup
pressure are recorded (Fig. 2-63). Segregated sample
chambers can be opened at selected depths to retrieve
formation fluids or gases. Tool design allows any number
of pressure readings to be acquired along the borehole
trajectory in addition to two samples that can be segre-
gated or commingled in the two sample chambers.
Wireline pressure and sample data can be used to
estimate permeability, suggest hydrocarbon producibili-
ty generate pressure profiles across reservoir horizons,
and evaluate severa] other reservoir indicators. Detailed
interpretative techniques with the wireline tester are dis-
cussed in Formation Multi-Tester (FMT) Principies,
Theory, and Interpretation. Baker Atlas Logging
Services Publication No. 9575).
,...

,,

BHC COMPENSATED COMPENSATED

ACOUSTILOG NEUTRON DENSILOG
LITHOLOGY LOG
f INCREASES f l NCREASES f lNCREASES

.e:,/::: 130-1 1
P = 2 .3-2.7 g/cm3
Shale
-- ---
1- - - - - - 175 s/ft +reads high variable
variable (compaclion)
~---~~~-~-~-~-~-+-----+ -L, - - - - + - - - --
1
1
---, - i-
-
(densily shale)
1
,
.C,.I:::: 52.5- 1 p =
Sandstone 55.5 s/fl +:::: -4% 2.65 g/cm3
variable (compaclion)
i
,----- 1

Limestone
L:,.I
7 47.5 ,s/ft
- ,___
+:::: 0% p = 2.71 g/cm3
(Reference)

1
- --. --
1
,---
1
1
-
Dolomite I
I
I
I
I
61 :::: 42.5 s/ft '
+= (6-8)% P = 2.83
/ / / 2.87 g/cm3

+
I

+
I

+ +
/
~----~
1i
1

1
1
1
1
Anhydrite +
+
+
+
+ +
+ +
.c,.1 :::: 50 s/ft += - (1-2)% P = 2.98 g/cm3
+ + + . 1 1
- 1

-
1
1 1
Gypsum 61=
f = 48% P = 2.33 g/cm3
52 ,s/ft

- 1
1
1
-
1
1

1
,--

61:::: 67 s/fl += 0% p = 2.08 g/cm3

1
1- ---,,-
1

61 reads high +reads low P reads low

1 1

Fig. 2-59 - Generalized comparison of acouslic, neulron, and densily responses to several lithologies and gas

LOG MEASUREME NTS FOR BOREHOLE IMAG-
ING AND FORMATION DIP DETERMINATION
Microresistivity pad traces can be recorded from three or
more arms of a logging device in combination with cali-
per data and information on the too! orientation with
respect to magnetic north, a vertical axis, and a third
dimension. These data can be used to calculate dip from
correlative elements (pad traces) across the borehole
(Fig. 2-64). Dip data are often considered a too] to
describe average structural tilt, but if adequately pro-
cessed and compared to other types of data, these data
can provide candid structural observations for the vicin-
ity of a wellbore or help describe the structural complex-
ity of an entire reservoir. lnformation from other wells
and surface seismic data are an important dimension to
the interpretation of dip data.
Detailed dip processing can also resolve original depo-
sitional features and their orientation patterns, and this
information can help determine drainage pattern s
needed for reservoir engi neering plans. With reasonable
knowledge of the depositional environment, the detailed
data can help resolve numerous sedimentological pecu-
liarities within specific reservoirs and be of great help in
describing reservoir geometry. The acquired borehole
measurements can also be used for severa! other solu-
tions, such as fracture detection, healed or open fractures,
thin-bed analysis, borehole directional surveys, detailed
well-to-wel l correlation , detailed vertical correlation
(e.g., "sand count"), and for calculations of true strati-
graphic thickness of a reservoir. Dipmeter uses are dis-
cussed in more detail in Fundamentals of Diplog Analy-
sis (Baker Atlas Publication No. 9565).

- 81 -
 GR Deplh POROSITY

GAMMARAV NEUTRON OPEN HOLE

(API un.is)
o 100 NEUTRON CASED HOLE
----------------
45 o 30 15

~: -~
<J ~y
ID ~
.. r-,... ~ -7
-=:;;.
? ~ " - Neutron
~~ ~ Cased Hale

.>7{ <:_

....,,,
:t
-....=-~

~
-
- -=--
"'
r.. 8 -) ~ Neutron

} ..... / OpenHole -
~
::,.._

~
?
~
~->
~
) ~
__;- <...
"'i1> _;P-

Fig. 2-60 - Comparison of compensated neutron run before and

alter setting casing

A1 RESL
O A2 2 200 DEC
O RAT 2 so PHASE O
180 o

1: 1 1 '111 t. 1
1
r:. ~
1

\ 1, 1
i
-
1 1
',' : ' : ' ~ 1 1 1" ..'- i
<' 1 1--- .;_ ! , ,._,,_
1 1
..- e-
1
1,
>,,.
1
1 1
il ,......
e-
p
:.
_.,.,.- 1

., 1 l.--S .;.
1
~ '! ', 1
"'
o
o . e 1
1/ 1 <
i } 1
1
' "'-- l")t
111 )
.J : ,.
1
1 1
- 1 l
1
, J
Fig. 2-62 - Formation Multi-Tester (FMT) tool shown in open
and closed positions, and with an oblique view of the probe
Fig. 2-61 - Dielectric log example

Acoustic images can be acquired in any type of borehole a water-based drilling fluid and sufficient pad contact to
drilling fluid but cannot be acquired in air-fi lled holes. obtain good data, and they do not cover the entire bore-
Borehole images can also be obtained by pad-contact hole periphery. Jmages often identify bedding features
microresistivity methods. Acoustic pulse-echo measure- from which severa! synthetic pad traces are projected to
ments are very sensitive to enlarged, out-of-ro und bore- compute dip and describe planarity or nonplanarity.
holes, but often manage to provide meaningful data in Other features such as fractures, both natural and drilling
such extremes. Microresistivity imaging devices require induced, can be inferred, combined with borehole break-

-82-
,.....

- ,,

ORIENTATION FOCUSED CORRELATION CURVES

ANO CALIPERS

,.... 1 .. .
HV,C( Or l"AO NO 1

... ''
1 THINo. _ __
1
ANALOG
PSI ! R[CORDED DIGITAL SAMPLING PRESSURE
PSI
"Z1~ UTH
~
l'l[LAT l~ti IE:AAIHG
Jll:.t,C( OF PAO NO

r 'f .,,,. ..
- ,.., --- --
r, - , , 1 ,

1
i

Fig. 2-64 - High Resolution 4-Arm Diplog raw data example

;
1

W N N W N

AMPU TUOE TRAVEL TIME

'"'
15
GAMMA A.AY

CALIPER 2 OO CALIPER.: IS
300

i!, CALIPER 1:! O C...;,.;~~R 3 15

Q - - SPEE~-- 20
GAMMA RAY ISO

s:; ',

1
'
i ''
'
,,'
._<
''
.,,

''
,!
'1
Fig. 2-63 - FMT pretest pressure recordings
'
'''
'
''
1

out, inclusions in the borehole wall, etc. (Fig. 2-65). ''

Attempts are being made to determine the effectiveness
of these images for rock texture and other sedimentologi-
cal details. lnterpretative methods used for the specialty
tools are beyond the scope of this text, but for introduc-
tory purposes, it is important to understand a few of their Fig. 2-65 - Circumferential Borehole lmaging Log (CBIL)
example
applications and limitations.

- 83-
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION Problem 5

Problem 1 Are high GR values always representative of shale

zones? lf so, why?
Why is a circulated mud sample prefened over a mud
sample acquired from the return pit?

Problem 6

What is the basic difference between induction and later-

Problem 2 olog measuring systems?

Why is a representative mud sample important to log

analysis?

Problem 7

What is the difference between salt mud and fresh mud?

Problem 3

Why is the temperature important to mud measurements?

Problem 8

What are three of the most basic uses of wireline logs?

Problem 4

What causes the natural potential called SP?

-84-
Problem 9
Why is it so important that the log header be filled out as
completely and accurately as possible?
Problem 10
A well, drilled with salt-based mud (R111 = 0.03 ohm-m @
formation temperature) through a reservoir rock (Rw =
0.03 ohm-m @ formation temperature), is logged with
dual laterolog and microlaterolog devices. If the forma-
tion is 100% water saturated, how would the three resis-
tivity curves compare; i.e., which would read high, low,
or in between.
Problem 11
A well, drilled with salt-based mud (Rm = 0.03 ohm-m @
formation temperature) through an oil-bearing reservoir
(Rw = 0.03 ohm-m @ formation temperature and Sw =
35%), is logged with dual laterolog and microlaterolog
tools. How would the three resistivity curves compare in
relation to one another?
-85-
Problem 12
A well, drilled with fresh mud (R111 = 1 ohm-m @ for-
mation temperature), is logged with dual induction and
focused devices. A water-wet formation has Rw =
O.OS ohm-m @ formation temperature. How would the
three resistivity curves compare in relation to one
another?
Problem 13
A well, drilled with fresh mud (R111 = 1 ohm-m @ forma-
tion temperature), is logged with dual induction and
focused devices. The reservoir Rw = O.OS ohm-m @ for-
mation temperature, but is oil bearing (Sw = 25%). How
would the three resistivity curves compare in relation to
one another?
Problem 14
A well, drilled with salt mud (R111 = 0.03 ohm-m @ for-
mation temperature), is logged with dual laterolog and
micro laterolog tools. The oil-bearing reservoir (Sw =
30%) has Rw = 0.30 ohm-m . How would the three resis-
tivity curves compare in relation to one another?
,,

40
-' - -
30 "
.....
- ~

25
20 ,_ ,_
"
'
,...... - "-
,_
......
-
15 '-
" "- ,_
... .......
" ''
.....
...
10 ' -' '
-
..~---
~ 9 , .... .....
~
-
o
~
8 ' '- ' ....
.... J
?: 7 ' ' .....
....
; 6 "
e
o 5
(l.

4 ~ ,~ .. ..... .....
- ,~
~

'
-
~ .....

......
3 ' "" '-
1,
'-
...
~ '- ....
,_ '- '- ....
1v. ~ , ~

'
' i\. ' 11 ~
Ir
1, .......
2 1 1'- ~

- d \. '/ ' ,~ 1
l
r-. ,
-~ '
1,1' f"\
' - l!,m ',
1
2.5 5 10 20 50 100 200
'
500 1000 2000 5000 10,000
Formation Resistivity Factor, F

Porosity can be related to resistivity by any one of severa!

formation resistivity factor (F) relationships. The prob-
lem is knowing the proper conversion factor , a and m.
Formation factor is not a measured value; it is a linking
mechanism between resistivity and formation fluid and
rock properties. Formation factor has been described as
the ratio of the resistivity of a rock with pore spaces con-
taining only water to the resistivity of the water itself;
i.e., F = RJRw The chart above provides conversions for
severa( values of m and the common empirical conver-
sions. The appropriate relation from the chart should be
considered a prelimjnary approach if no additional infor-
mation is available. A clear understanding of formation
factor is very important for any individual who has an
abidi ng interest in learning to perform well-log analysis.
The F term will appear in numerous interpretative proce-
dures th rougho ut the remainder of this text. It should be
obvious from observing the above chart that F values can
vary considerably, depending on the conversion values;
i.e., a and m.

-86-
,,
Basic Openhole Log Analysis
The log analysis methods presented in this chapter pro-
vide relatively quick answers derived by using interpreta-
tive aids typically available at the well site. These meth-
ods do not rely on computer processing. Log analysts
must understand how and why data are manipulated, not
only for computer processing but also for interpretative
techniques developed for particular circumstances. Infor-
mation from the following sources is used as input in
these analysis methods:
(1) General identification of formation boundaries
(2) Simple calculations
(3) Interpretation charts
(4) Overlays of different log measurements
(5) Quick-look logs provided by automatic computa-
tion facilities associated with conventional logging
apparatus
Sophisticated, computerized log analysis techniques give
accurate numerical calculations, but the individual who
analyzes the log data must understand the quality of log
measurements before readily accepting any interpretative
answer as accurate. Accuracy can be maximized by
( 1) Recognizing the inherent limitations of each inter-
pretative method and making allowances for those
limitations
(2) Tai loring the system to be "fail-safe"; i.e., to err
toward optimism. This provision acknowledges the
far greater cost of overlooking pay zones vs. the
cost of testing a marginal horizon
(3) Where possible, constructing the technique to pro-
vide limiting values for inherent errors in the
system
(4) Recognizing that quick-look methods are not
intended as a replacement or substitute for more
comprehensive petrophysical evaluations
At the conclusion of logging operations, the client or cli-
ent's representative on site during logging is primarily
interested in answers to these critica! questions,
(1) Will the well produce?
(2) lf so, will it be oil, gas, or both?
(3) Will production include sorne water?
-87-
3
(4) Qualitatively, how much production?
(5) What is the depth of the permeable beds?
(6) What are the thicknesses of those beds?
(7) What is the estimated porosity and saturation of
those beds?
Other queries will be initiated, but seldom at the well site.
Log responses, log analysis, and other information
sources are often discussed prior to testing subsurface
horizons, but usually at a site remote from the well, and
usually by persons who must make the decisions that
impact their company economically. Engineers, geolo-
gists, log analysts, geophysicists, etc. with extensive
experience are typically the advisors to management
during meetings of this type. However, in the case of
small independent operators, critica! decisions are often
made at the well site.
PERMEABLE BED IDENTIFICATION
Sorne mini mal amount of permeability must be available
in a formation or it will not produce. Permeability can be
increased artificially by hydraulic fracturing and/or acid
methods, but a minimal amount of permeability must be
there initially. Extremely expensive nitrogen fracture
j obs and even nuclear detonations attempted in oil- or
gas-bearing horizons with essentially no permeability
have resulted in little or no increase in permeability.
Permeable beds ~an be identified quickJy by one of the
following indicators,
(1) Spontaneous potential (SP)
(2) Invasion evidence from severa! resistivity mea-
surements
(3) Mudcake evidence indicated by caliper or
Minilog data
These permeability indicators tend to confirm one
another. Porosity at permeable intervals, indicated by any
or ali acoustic, density, or neutron devices, adds
confirmation.
DEFLECTION S OF THE SP
The magnitude of spontaneous potential (SP) deflection
and hydraulic permeability of a formation have no direct
relationship. However, when the mud is less saline than
connate formation water, permeable beds are often delin-
eated by negative SP excursions.
SP amplitude is a function of electrochemical and elec-
trokinetic effects that take place between the drilling
fluid, permeable formation, and adjacent impermeable
shale beds. SP deflection normally occurs only if perme-
ability exists to allow ion migration between the drilling
fluid and formation (Fig. 3-1). The following features of
SP measurements should be considered:
(1) Electrochemical potential is generally the largest
contributor to the deflection.
(2) Electrokinetic effect across the mudcake is usually
more or less in balance with similar effects across
adjacent shale beds and is therefore not usually sig-
nificant toan interpretation.
(3) Shaliness within the permeable formation causes
SP amplitude reduction.
(4) Bed boundaries become sharp transitions when
low-resistivity formations are encountered, but bed
boundaries are more ambiguous when high-resis-
tivity formations are encountered.
(5) Shale baseline shifts are often observed when con-
nate water resistivity changes from one horizon to
the next.

SP Curve
Uninvaded Mud Sand
Zone (Dilute
(Concentrated Solution)
Solution)

Fig. 3-1 - SP deflection is caused by ion migration that requires existence of sorne minimal permeability.

- 88-
(6) SP measurements cannot be made in oil-based
drilling fluids.
SPONTANEOUS
POTENTIAL DEPTH
RESISTIVITY
(7) Fluid movement in the borehole (streaming poten- Millivolts ohms-m2/m

tial) during logging may cause severe disturbances SHALLOW FOCUSED LOG
of the SP measurement; abnormally high SP 1.0 10 100 1000
deflections can occur in front of low-permeability
formations (no mudcake buildup) as a result of -+i fo-+ MEDIUM INDUCTION LOG
20
electrokinetic potentials across the formation itself 1.0 10 100 1000

(rare).
--------------------------
DEEP INDUCTION LOG
1.0 10 1()(. 1000
(8) In the case of no invasion, SP deflections may be --------------------------
reduced when an electromotive force across the
mudcake occurs (rare).

(9) SP profiles may have a "sawtooth appearance" --

opposite impermeable beds that are sandwiched
between zones of high vertical permeability (rare).

t=:
DIFFERENT RESISTIVITY VALUES WITH
DIFFERENT RESISTIVITY MEASUREME NTS
----
:----~ _:;_~ -
A formation can be invaded by drilling fluid only if it has
sorne permeability. lnvaded beds are defined by a
separation of deep-, medium-, or shallow-reading resis- - ~=-
.:.:: . :;_:-f-
tivity measurements recorded on similar scales. This sep- =
aration is caused by mud fil trate being either less or more
: ~--:-::..,
saline than the native connate water (Fig. 3-2), the shal-
low-reading curve being affected by mud filtrate, or the
:-:: = ..

deep-reading curve being affected by connate water.

lt can therefore be said that if R,,if> R11, , then Rxo will be

greater than R 1 in a water-bearing zone. However, if the Fig. 3-2 - Resistivity curves often differ in response where
formation contains hydrocarbons, the difference between filtrate invasion occurs.
Rxo and R1 will decrease and possibly reverse. A porosity-
sensitive log helps distinguish low-porosity, high-resis-
tivity zones from high-porosity, hydrocarbon-bea ring
zones (Fig. 3-3). When working with resistivity devices, remember these
basic premises -
lf R11if "" Rw, deep-, medium-, and shallow-reading resis-
tivity measurements should be almost equal in a perme- ( 1) The shallow-reading device is more affected by the
able, water-bearing horizon or an impermeable zone.
borehole.
More obvious separations of resistivity values occur
when permeable hydrocarbon-bea ring formations are
encountered because the hydrocarbons are flushed away (2) The deep-reading device is more affected by adja-
from the borehole by the mud filtrate. Therefore, R, > R cent beds.
> Rxo in most permeable hydrocarbon-bea ring forma-
tions drilled with muds having salinitics similar to that of (3) A caliper is useful for judging borehole effects on
the formation water. log data.

Hypersaline conditions occasionally exist; i.e., Rm << (4)
R"' This is a much more difficult problem, but separation
between Rxo and R deep is greater in hydrocarbon-bea ring
intervals than in water-bearing intervals. This condition
can also occur in injection or disposal wells. Imperme- (5)
able zones exhibit essentially lhe same resistivity values.
The ratio of Rmto Rw is very important to these per-
meability observations, and it is very importan! that
values of R,,ifand Rw are accurate.
SP development indicates permeability but does not
quantify permeability.

- 89-
 Resistiv,ty
SP & CALIPEA RESISTIVITY ANO POROSITY
_, Micronormal

-H DENStr"l'l'OAOSfTV
leo _ __ -------':--- ___ _ _ _____D
Microinverse

- """""
~-----------"
AESISTIVITY
~,,,,.._,

Shale

____ __ _ ----_ID
~-------- - ,. Tight

Shale
/

')
.- Permeable

_.I,
T ight --- --
.... Shale
( Permeable
< (Possible Hydrocarbon)

Permeable
(Water)

Ctliplt-' . Permeable
(Water-No lnvasion)

Shale

Fig. 3-4 - Typical Minilog responses

Fig. 3-3 - Porosity-sensitive logs help distinguish low-porosity,

high-resistivity zones from high-porosity, hydrocarbon-bearing
zones_
MINILOG INDICATIONS OF PERMEABILITY
Depth intervals with appreciable permeability will have
deposits of mudcake on the borehole wall. Minilog tools
record micronormal and microinverse resistivity traces
and microcaliper data. The two microresistivity measure-
ments are affected differently by the mudcake buildup;
i.e. , the 2-in. micronormal device investigates deeper and
is more affected by the flushed zone resistivity (Rx0 ),
while the 1-in. X 1-in. (2.5-cm X 2.5-cm) microinverse
device is more affected by mudcake resistivity (R111c)
This normally causes the micronormal to record a higher
resistivity value than the microinverse, a condition com-
monly referred to as "positive separation" (Fig. 3-4).
When mudcake buildup occurs, the Minilog traces usu-
ally read moderate values of resistivity ranging from 2 to
10 times the mud resistivity (R111).
In negligible mudcake conditions, or occasionally with
certain drilling fluids, the separation of the two microre-
sistivity traces may be "negative," but usually no separa-
tion occurs. If invasion does not occur, and there is no
mudcake, the two curves read essentially the same resis-
tivity value. However, when the borehole is enlarged or
very rugose, separation can occur but does not represent
permeability. The microcaliper device obviously be-
comes important to the interpretation of Minilog data;
however, Minilog data do not quantify permeability. Pos-
iti ve separation and the presence of mudcake indicate
only that sorne permeability is present.
Minilog data are also ,ery useful for thin-bed analysis
because of the fine vertical resolution of the measure-
ments. The log is often used as a sand count device to
determine the cumulative footage of permeable rock
within a shaly sand interval.
CALIPER INDICATION OF PERMEABILITY
Caliper tools can be run in boreholes that are reasonably
in gauge, and evidence of mudcake read from any type
caliper device is a good indicator of formation permeabil-
ity. Mechanical caliper devices are usually run with the
Densilog, Acoustilog, Diplog, Micro Laterolog, Thin-
Bed Resistivity (TBRT5M), and Circumferential Acous-
tilog tools.

- 90 -
,,
The tools that exert the least pad pressure tend to most Problem 2
accurately identify mudcake buildup. The skid-type
devices, such as the Densilog too!, are designed to elimi- Dual laterolog, microlaterolog, gamma ray, and caliper
nate much of the mudcake on the borehole wall facing data are available on the log below. Select the depth nter-
the skid. The relative axial position of the too! within a vals that are apparently permeable.
borehole may also affect mudcake indications.
Depth lnterval Depth Interval Depth Interval
The Circumferential Borehole Imaging Log (CBIL)
instrument makes a complete circurnferential caliper
measurement, but it is a pulse-echo measurement and
mudcake indications are not obvious. Mudcake thickness
does not reflect the amount of permeability, but instead
only that sorne permeability is present.

PRACTICAL WORK SESSION

Problem 1
GAMMA RAY OEPTH DUAL LATEROLOG
CALIPER MICRO LATEROLOG
Select the apparently permeable depth intervals from the
GAMMA RAY
log data provided below and list those depth intervals. (4,.,Vft,11-1

' .........'-:---- ': ----'~- '"?'--

'
Depth Interval Depth Interval Depth Interval OEEP LATEROLOG
()Mu.,...,.,,

~------r-----..!! '----!/ ------7 ------~ ------ i ~ -

MICRO LATEROLOG
,or,,,,,,.,, ....

[? '

SP
(Milt\oolt1)
OEPTH RESISTIVITY
- ~ :'
(Ohma-mJ/m)

I> : :::;-,
'
Slt .
02 10 10 ,oo 1000
.. 1 . . .. , .1. .L

ou, ,-ouenON lOO

-...
02 10 10
------L---------L---------'----------L-
100 1000
MLL'

l=:t:
::-... r-
.:::~
"'lJ 11111111
~Ldw ,b!JJl'.:0
-g:
~
lo.lit
l'ar-- I> I<
/(
f.,

, L.

1
,. _~
Is

- 91 -
"'

Problem 3 (2) Dielectric (particularly those recorded with the

200-MHz tool)
Minilog and caliper data are given below. Select the
depth intervals that appear permeable. (3) Short-spaced resistivity (short normals, spherically
focused, and focused)
Depth Interval Depth Interval Depth lnterval
(4) Gamma ray

(5) SP

(6) Borehole imaging devices

The correlative element being defined determines the

tool selected for identifying the top, bottom, and interme-
diate bed boundaries. These definitions do not normally
require tremendous vertical detail but do require the abil-
CALIPER DEPTH
RESISTIVITY ity to segregate the top and bottom boundaries from adja-
ohms m2/m
MICRO INVERSE
cent formations. On the other hand, when a series of
1" X 1" thinly laminated sequence of shale and sand is encoun-
HOLE SIZE - INCHES
O 40 tered, a too! with fine vertical resolution is required to
MICRO NORMAL
7 9 11 13 15 2 adequately segregate the thin permeable layers from thin
--- ---------~------------
40 80 impermeable layers.
8 f=+t IL: f 1: .
1
. ! :-
1 -
.:...:___ : ! Formation tops are important to geologists because they
=- ~ construct structure maps from such data. The depth
_; t...J ;_
selected as the formation's top boundary is subtracted
'
. ' from the log's surface zero measure point, which is typi-
: : j: ...
cally the kelly bushing (KB). As an example, a vertical
= __;_ ! : : well that has a KB elevation of 420 ft above sea leve! and
==-1 . --: -
= - - -. - _: ..::. ~
= a formation top recorded at a measured depth of 6,000 ft
.... - has a subsea structural top of -5,580 ft. In sorne geo-
-!- - graphical areas (Rocky Mountains, U.S.A.), surface ele-
vations are very high and subsea tops may be near sea
leve! or above sea leve!. In such circumstances, a KB ele-
= ~ CAUPER -== vation of 12,500 ft and a well depth to a specific forma-
tion top could be 12, 100 ft, resulting in a +400 ft struc-
= -a BITSIZE ===
tural elevation for the formation top. In deviated bore-
. r .-= : holes, the subsea top must be corrected to true vertical
1
,- depth. When both top and bottom depths of a formation
- e i _J
(apparent formation thickness) are being considered, rec-
ognize that measured thickness, true vertical thickness,
BED BOUNDARIES AND BED THICKNESS and true stratigraphic thickness can ali be the same or
completely different from one another, depending on
Bed boundaries are usually characterized by a change in hole drift, formation dip angle, etc.
lithology, such as sand to shale or carbonate to sand or
shale. A distinct change in porosity, resistivity, or perme- SPTRACE
ability indications often identifies the boundary on log
data. SP logs, recorded in fresh drilling fluid where formations
are mostly sands and shales of low resistivity, provide
A given tool responds to specific changes in circum- distinct bed boundary identification. These ideal condi-
stances. Different logging measurements have different tions provide inflection points that fall very close to the
vertical resolutions and are affected differently by bore- exact intersection of the boundary plane with respect to
hole effects, bed thickness, steeply dipping beds, etc. The the borehole. As formation resistivities become higher,
best logs from which to select bed boundaries are: the SP measurement begins to lose its pinpoint vertical
resolution (Fig. 3-5). In salt-based muds, the SP curve
( l) Microresistivity (Minilog, Micro Laterolog, Prox- tends to be a straight line. There is no valid SP measure-
imity, Thin-Bed Resistivity, and Diplog) ment in oil-based fluids.

- 92 -
,,

Static SP Values d

... ...
[ 16d

e --=::::::::: e e 2d

E E 8d

r r
1 1 11d
L L

Fig. 3-5 - SP is affected by bed thickness and resistivity variables.

Anomalous SP behavior is possible. For example, the

true SP response can be masked by fluids moving in the
borehole (Fig. 3-6). Lack of invasion results in no SP
amplitude development. Gas-cut mud also affects SP
readings by reducing amplitude and causing spurious
100 SP o o RESISTIVITY 100

readings and/or baseline shifts.

RESISTIVITY ANO CONDUCTIVI TY TRACES

1\)
.::,.
The specific peculiarities of resistivity and conductivity o
o
responses and the requirements for bed definition deter-
mine the effectiveness of these measurements in defining
bed boundaries.

Short Normal

Until recently, induction logs were recorded with the 1\)

o,
o
16-in. short normal as a shallow-reading device. If the o
contrast between drilling fluid resistivity (R111 ) and forma-
tion resistivity (R 1) is not great, the 16-in. (41-cm) short
normal measurement is useful for defining bed boundaries
and bed thickness. Resistive beds appear to be thinner
when measured by the 16-in. (41-cm) AM electrode spac-
I
ing, and conductive beds appear thicker by the same
amount (Fig. 3-7). Beds less than the AM spacing in thick- o~ t1!'----- ---j
o
ness show a reversa!; e.g. , resistivity reverses from actual
high to very low values (Fig. 3-8). High-resistivity forma-
tions (high R/R111 ratio) cause normal curves to become
distorted and behave with asymmetrical responses. Fig. 3-6 - SP with streaming potential

- 93 -
,,

o Qm 10 o Qm 10 O Qm 2 O Qm 2
1
1
1
16 in.
64 in. Normal~)
1O ft
J_ 16 in. Normal
I
/ 1 O ft
J_
64 in.
Normal 18 ft-8 in.
Lateral

T 1
''\ -
Borehole Parameters 1
1
dn = 8in. 1
1
As= 1 Qm 1
1
Am=0.2Qm 1
1
No lnvasion 1
1
1
1

Aesistive Beds - A1 = 1O Qm Conductive Bed - A= 0.2 Qm

Fig. 3-7 - Electrode spacings affect normal curve response.

o Qm 10 o Qm 10 SPONTANEOUS RESISTIVI f Y
POTENTIAL OCPTU
M 1ll1volts ohms m2/m
SHALLOW FOCUSED LOG
1 16 in. 1O 10 100 1000
1 18'-8" Borehole Parameters --1201- +
Normal 2 ft
I
' j_ ,/Lateral dn = 8 in.
As = 1 Qm
' \
T A m=0.2 Qm
/-64in. No lnvasion
Normal

Aesistive Beds - A= 10 Qm

Fig. 3-8 - Aesistivity reversa! occurs when beds are thinner

than a normal curve's electrode spacing.

Focused Log

Atlas' focused log instrument is a laterolog eight device

that is excellent for bed boundary definition. The loga-
rithmic scaling and wide measurement range make it an
excellent correlation device, especially in high-resistivity
formations (Fig. 3-9). No depth shifts or reversals occur,
and the resolution is determined by beam width. The Fig. 3-9 - Focused log example
focused log is usually recorded with dual induction data.
device as the standard shallow-reading resistivity too! for
Spherically Focused Logs (SFL) logging in fresh mud. Whereas focused devices focus a
planar current beam into the formation, SFL devices pre-
This resistivity device is similar to the focused log in serve a spherical potential distribution into the formation
terms of its vertical resolution and almost unlimited over a wide measurement range, including conductive
resistivity range. It is gradually replacing the focused borehole fluids. Two separate current systems are used. A

-94 -
"
bucking current system essentially eliminates most bore-
hole effects and establishes equipotential spheres sur-
rounding the tool. The survey current that flows through
the portion of the formation being investigated provides
current intensity proportional to formation conductivity.

Laterolog Devices

These devices provide excellent bed boundary definition

if there are large variations in the resistivities of different
horizons (Fig. 3-10). The measuring range covers the
extremities, but the deep device is especially accurate
and sensitive to changes at high resistivities. Again, no
depth shifts or reversals occur with this type device, and
vertical resolution is determined by beam width. Later-
olog devices are designed to respond to higher resistivi-
ties and are reasonably accurate up to and beyond
2000 ohm-m. Laterolog tool accuracy begins to diminish
slightly below l ohm-m, but these tools maintain their
sensitivity to changes in resistivity at lower vaJues. Verti-
cal resolution, or beam width, is not as fine as with the
microresistivity devices, but it is superior to the induction
systems. The types of rocks and high-salinity borehole
conditions for which laterolog tools are best-suited typi-
cally have low porosity and low permeability (higher
resistivities).
lfL~I OMnl'II

CloltlCl'IJ
................................. ......
Fig. 3-11 - Diagrammatic representation of the magnetic lace
1. 00 1100
field induced by the tool transmitters

1 I:>
<
t--
r~ fluids and empty holes, but they also perform well in
-, ls freshwater-based mud systems. SP and/or gamma ray
R curves and a shallow-reading resistivity measurement are

--_._._ <
usually recorded with induction measurements, and any
one of these traces is commonly used to identify bed
boundaries.
_,....>
-t---> The deep induction device usually measures sufficiently
deep into the formation to obtain a representative value
of true resistivity (Fig. 3-12). Dual-phase tools and array
> induction devices are designed for thin-bed resolution
-- '"' and estimates of R1 under adverse conditions caused by
layering of thin resistive and thin conductive beds
(Fig. 3-13).
Fig. 3-10- Laterolog example
Dual-Phase lnduction Logs (DPILSM)
Induction Logs
Dual-phase induction devices essentially measure forma-
lnduction tools have poor vertical resolution but are tion conductivity. Both in-phase and phase-quadrature
designed to measure most of their recorded signa! from signals from the formation are utilized to allow for more
deep in the formation (Fig. 3- 11). Dual-phase induction accurate skin-depth corrections. Under ideal conditions,
measurements improve vertical resolution somewhat, but the signals measured are proportional to formation con-
much of the improvement is dueto computer deconvolu- ductivity. The instrumentation allows measurements at
tion techniques of the additional phase signal. lnduction three different operating frequencies (10, 20, and
devices were originally designed for oil-based drilling 40 kHz). This capability allows accurate conductivity

- 95 -
,,
Microresistivity Devices
RILO {ohm-m)
SP ~-----------------------~
20mV
- -l 1- .
t ................... ~!~--(~
0.2 RFOC (olvn-m)
--~~ .................~~
2000
Minilog tools are capable of detecting laminae less than
02 2000 1 in. thick if mudcake is thin and Rm>> Rw. A separation
~ between the micronormal and microinverse traces (result-
~ ~
~ ing from mudcake) clearly defines permeable intervals
and their boundaries (Fig. 3-14). Proper mud conditions
~t::

~
"' ~ are necessary in order to use the data effectively. The pri-
i!
8 ~ mary use of the microlog data is to segregate porous, per-
~ 3:
I=
meable strata from other strata, but it can be used quanti-
tatively to calculate R xo in fresh mud conditions.
I=
~
~ Microlaterolog devices have slightly better vertical reso-
I=
lution than the Minilog devices and are best suited for salt-
based muds and mid to high values of formation resistiv-
ity. Thick mudcakes, which are more cornrnon in fresh-
mud systems, have a severe influence on the measuring
capabilities. The microlaterolog instrument is a focused
device designed for measuring flushed zone resistivity
(Fig. 3- 15), and if salt-mud invasion is shallow, the too!
will read a higher value than Rxo in oil or gas reservoirs.
Although these conditions adversely affect quantitative
interpretation, the drawbacks can actually enhance the
Fig. 3-12 - Dual lnduction-Focused Log example tool's ability to identify bed boundaries. Microlaterolog
tools respond to resistivity changes at both high (500 to
2000 ohm-m) and low values (0.2 to 50 ohm-m). Depth of
investigation is about 2 to 4 in. (5 to 1O cm), and vertical
resolution is approximately 2 in. (5 cm).
- - 1 1-+ 1----- ------------------~
-
1-01CH-r1,

- Proxirnity devices have a vertical resolution of about 3 in.

(7.6 cm) and measure deeper into the formation [ "'4 to
6 in. (10 to 15 cm)] than the microlaterolog device (less
affected by mudcake) (Fig. 3-16). lts purpose is to pro-
vide a reliable measurement of Rxo in fresh-mud environ-
ments. Because of the proximity tool's depth of investiga-
tion, resistivity values are often representative of the tran-
:: sition zone (R).

Thin-Bed Resistivity Tool (TBRT)

The TBRT device is similar in mechanical design to the

, .
...
Fig. 3-13 - Dual-Phase lnduction Log (DPIL)example
measurements to be made over wider dynamic ranges
than is possible with single-frequency instrumentation.
The too] is most accurate at the 10-kHz transmitter fre-
quency when low-resistivity formations are encountered
(0.2 to 100 ohm-m), at the 20-kHz frequency when for-
mations of 0.5 to 500 ohm-m are encountered, and at the
40-kHz frequency when formation resistivities range
from 2 to 2000 ohm-m.
other microresistivity tools, but it is focused to read
deeper into the forrnation. Vertical resolution is about
V 2 in. (5 cm), but the depth of investigation is from 15 to
-~ 19 in. (38 to 48 cm) (usually in the transition zone) .
Although the TBRT instrument does not normally read
R1, it comes much closer to reading the resistivity of the
virgin zone in very thin beds than a deep-reading later-
olog or induction devic~. This is the result of its superior
vertical resolution and focusing attributes. The major
problem in thinly laminated, shaly sand reservoirs is the
influence of conductive clay laminae vs. the sand lami-
nae. A hybrid version of laterolog mandrel devices, the
TBRT instrument incorporates closer-spaced electrodes
mounted on a pad, and the measuring system is more
attracted by higher resistivity sand laminae. Toe TBRT
device is an excellent correlation too! (Fig. 3-17).

-96-
,,

SP OEPTH RESISTIVIT Y

-
(Ohmsm21"'1
SP
MICRO INVERSE
20
1 111 ,M
H o 5
"
,.
MICRONOAMAl

o--------------7----
5
----------"
I',
r" 1
i 1
1 ! 1 1

r ""' 1
i
,__. f
~';;-- :,
1 1

!1
~._
~-
1
'/
'I ! 1
'> 1

--
1
1 1
1 \(' 1

k: 1 1
1 i' 1
1 1
1
1'-:;, !
1
i 1
1
1 - 1 1
1
1
1

1:1 1

Fig. 3-14 - Minilog data pinpoints porous and permeable depth intervals. The pad electrode arrangement is shown in the photo.

. " '"""
--------------~ l ( o,j '~ . \ , --
1 /.s' 1 :>
1
1
e'-
rl-: 1
-r 1
1

- ft'
~ 1:
~ ~
1 I
1 1

~ I
1
,~W--~ 1

+ e-'5 1
I

~ '
1 "'- 1
1
.....,"--P
~-~ 1
1
1
> 1

-~
~r--- 1
1
,..
.....
/
1
1
e::;::, ~
1
-., 1
'
-- - 1
- --
-
1
..
- -- 1

Fig. 3-15- Micro Laterolog electrode arrangement, shape of curren! beam, and field example

-97 -
 MINILOG OEPTH PROXIM ITY LOG

AESISTIVI TY
,o,,m ...- ...,

MICRO INVEASE
' .'
" '
RESISTIVIT'I
,.
..
M ICRO NORM AL Qr,ms m'lm

t---" --~-, ----' ,o ,

" "' ""

.. :;
.'.:,...
:: ,...
..
:;';:>
>
1
7-
~ ,,
1 MI
.,, ",.. _PROX
1 ,.,
MN .'/
fl
-!;;:
.. 1

;;
g
.-

i
'
,\
:: I<
,
..;
,:71 1 '
i

- ....w
,-.: ..
1 li

Fig. 3-16- Proximity Lag electrode arrangement, shape of curren! beam, and field example recorded in combination with a Minilog

Micro Spherically Focused Log

The uSFL is a pad-mounted version of the SFL device.

Vertical and horizontal resolution of the SFL device gen-
QAMMA RAV {AF'I)
,,. ., ATBA(OHMMJ
"
. CAL IINCH)

.,....,
.,,.
.....
RNML (OtiMM)

Rl.Ml(OHMM)
..
erally lies between that of the microlaterolog and proxim-
ity logs (Fig. 3-18) but can approach the response of either
'o ' tool if mud salinity and invasion conditions permit.

1- - 1-- . _ . . _ , , ~ _ . _ .
Diplog Microresistivity Pad Traces

Very fine vertical resolution is found in the correlation

' ' traces of dipmeter instrumentation ("" 0.5 in. or 1.25 cm).
... Any of the pads may lose contact with the borehole wall,
but at least one or more pads will maintain contact. Dip
1- - t - ~-
pad traces have been found to be effective for well-to-
well correlation when other logging services previously
1-- - - 1-l--1+1--i">l-+-HI described could not fulfill the requirement (Fig. 3-19).
Depth of investigation is about 1 in. (2.5 cm) with con-
-, 1-...
1-- ventional pad electrodes because most of the signa!
comes from this distance into the formation. Thin-bed
analysis programs often utilize dip pad traces and block-
Fig. 3-17 - TBRT example ing techniques to refine sand resistivity values.

-98-
,.
Low-frequency dielectric instruments typically have a
larger vertical resolution than the 200-MHz device and
are designed to read deeper into the formation. Baker
Atlas ' 47-Mhz too! serves this purpose and is often run
in combination with the high-frequency too! as a Dual
Dielectric Log when conditions warrant (Fig. 3-20)
For 8-in. Borehole
and Thick Beds ~- - - - - -~F_(~
~ __ R4Sl (OHMM) _ _ ...
- - - - - 1
O
--Rxo >Rt 200 2 200
A2F (MV) A2Sl (OHMM)
--- Rxo== 0.1 Rt 2 200
GR (API)
~ - - - - 2001 ~--P2~ - -I
120 O
P4HS
120 9

~--- - -~~C_(~~- - - - -1
50 O

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 o

Pseudogeometrical Factor

Fig. 3-18 - Comparison of pseudogeometrical factor response

of microlaterolog and proximity, devices

>

Pad 1 Pad2
I
Pad 3 Pad 4
,, '
-,:
V
,

Fig. 3-20 - Dual dielectric log presentation

t
2 ft

GAMMA RAY MEASUR EMENTS

Natural gamma ray tools usually provide excellent

correlation logs. Virtually ali the gamma rays that are
counted result from the total potassium, thorium, and/or
uranium in the formation and the borehole. ln most cases,
shale formations are the most radioactive , and most res-
ervoir rocks exhibit very low count rates (Fig. 3-21).

Natural Gamma Ray Measurements

Fig. 3-19- Dip pad traces have very fine vertical resolution.
DIELECT RIC MEASUR EMENTS
Dielectric instruments were originally designed to help
distinguish reservoirs containing heavy oil from fresh-
water aquifers, a difficult task with conventional resistiv-
ity devices. The high-frequency tools are generally
designed with fine vertical resolution, and they are use-
ful as R xo devices in oil-based mud conditions. The
Baker Atlas 200-MHz too! is applicable for both these
purposes and also gives excellent thin-bed resolution.
Natural gamma ray measurements have a vertical
resolution of about 1 ft (30 cm), but true vertical resolu-
tion depends on logging speed and filtering methods (or
time constant with older tools) of the averaging used to
smooth statistically varying measurements. Measure-
ments made in formations that exhibit high natural
gamma ray intensity have better vertical resolution
because detector efficiency is improved at the high count
rates. At practica] logging speeds, gamma ray devices
can detect beds as thin as 1 ft (30 cm). In extremely thin
beds, too! resolution can be enhanced only by logging at
very slow speeds. Gamma ray instrumentation is very
adaptable and can be run in combination with a Iarge
variety of other logging tools.

-99-
,,

Radioactivity lncreases
Surface formations (30'70')
attected by cosmic ray pene- Gamma ray Neutron
tration. Log valueless. Fluid bearing Sand or lime
Non fluid bearing
Sandorlime
Shale
Shale Fluid and dense sand or lime
Sand or lime Shale
Shale
Shaly sand or lime
Shaly sand or shaly lime Shale
____ .,,_ Shale Fluid and dense sand or lime
Sand or lime. Broken with intermittent grading to shale
sandy shales. Grades to shale on bottom Shale
Shale Marine shale appears on normal shale
- Marine shale. Volcanic ash. Bentonite. Shale
Shale Dense sand or lime
Sand or lime. Fairly uniform. Fluid bearing on bottom
Shale
Shale, vares in radioactive material.
Caprock fluid bearing or dense
::::i: Caprock. Calcite or lime. Gypsum. Anhydrite
Anhydrite Salt
Salt Anhydrite
- - - - - - Anhydrite Potash, etc.
Potash beds, sylvite or polyhalite
Shale Shale
Anhydrite Anhydrite
Shale Shale partly washed out
Sand or lime Dense on top. Fluid on bottom
Sand or lime Shale
Shale not uniform in radioactive material Shaly sand or lime grading
Shaly sand (or lime) grading
to clean sand or lime dense
to clean sand (or lime)
Shale with intermittent sandy Shale with sand stringers
shales and twin sand stringers
Radioactive shale or radioactive sand Differentiated shale
sand and hme dense
or lime, dependmg upon area.
Shale
Shale Anhydrite
; : : Anhydrite Shale
Anhydrite
Shale Shale
Lime Lime dense
Dolomite Dolomite dense
Lime Lime dense
Dolomite Dolomite fluid
Lime dense
Lime
Bentonite shale
Bentonite Lime dense
Lime fluid
Lime
Lime dense
:.:..:_-_-_-_ -....:--;. Shale Shale
Lime
Lime Lime fluid spotted
Lime dense
Shale Shale
Lime
Lime
Dolom1te Dolomite dense

Lime normal Lime dense

or radioactive Radioactive

Granite
Granite

Fig. 3-21 - Gamma ray and neutron responses to different type of formations174

A major advantage of the gamma ray device is that it can
be run in cased holes. Although the presence of steel
casing will reduce gamma ray count rates by about 30%,
and statistical fluctuations will show a corresponding
increase, log characteristics are otherwise unchanged
(Fig. 3-22).
Natural Gamma Ray Spectroscopy Tools
Spectral analysis can identify the percentages of potas-
sium and parts per mi Ilion ofthorium and uranium. Any of
the three traces can serve as distinct correlative elements
in certain c ircumstances. For exampl e, high uraniu m

- IOO -

GAMMA RAY
(API UNITS)
O.H.
o 150
___ C.H. __ _
O 100
~
1-----+-"---l
u,
~
o face seismic and to calibrate velocity checkshot surveys.
o
u,
t----:~---1 ~ Waveform amplitude, coherent slowness, and arrival
o
Fig. 3-22 - Comparison of openhole and cased hole gamma ray
curves in the same borehole
values identify organic-rich shales that represent source
beds (Fig. 3-23). High potassium content is found in glau-
conitic sands, micaceous sands (Fig. 3-24), concentra-
tions of illite clays, algal limestones, etc. Thorium-rich
marker beds such as bentonite can easily be identified
with spectral gamma ray data (Fig. 3-25). Spectralog
interpretations are discussed in more detail later in this
text.
ACOUSTIC MEASUREM ENTS
Conventional measurements of acoustic transit time (Lit)
in salt, anhydrite, and gypsum demonstrate relatively
constant log responses. Boreholes are normally in gauge
through carbonate and anhydrite formations, but may
enlarge somewhat through salt beds. Salt transit times are
typically 68-72 sec/ft, depending on borehole effects.
Anhydrite beds read 50 sec/ft and provide an acceptable
downhole log quality checkpoint. Low-porosity lime-
stones usually read from 47 to 50 sec/ft. When recorded
simultaneously with gamma ray and caliper data, the
acoustic Lit measurement is a good correlation device in
areas where carbonate reservoirs and evaporites are the
-101-
dominant lithology (Fig. 3-26). Interbedded stringers of
evaporite and carbonate no thicker than 3 ft (91 cm) can
also be identified. Porosity values can be calculated from
Lit, combination of llt and Pb, or Lit and <l>N-
Acoustic transit time (Lit) data are often integrated to pro-
vide a borehole time (in milliseconds) to correlate to sur-
face seismjc time. Transit time data are frequently used to
create synthetic seismograms for direct correlation to sur-
Observations of compressional Lit vs. depth are useful in
identifying pressure gradients and overpressured hori-
zons, and with sufficient well control, a description of
tectonic events can be ascertruned. These uses of acoustic
data are discussed in subsequent material.
The Digital Array Acoustilog5M (DAC5M) instrument uses
two low-frequency transmters anda 12-receiver array to
record compressional, shear, and Stoneley waveforms
simultaneously (Fig. 3-27) in either open or cased hole.
time (llt) processing of raw data are available for use in
advanced log evaluation routines that estmate lithology,
evaluate severa] rock properties including fractures, and
supply an estmate of sand production. Synthetic seismo-
grams can also be constructed from the DAC data.
NEUTRON MEASUREM ENTS
Sensitive primarily to hydrogen and to lithology changes,
the neutron log is often an excellent correlation too!,
especially in cased hole (Fig. 3-28). This tool's primary
limitation is the effect of gas, but gas effect on neutron
measurements can also be used to advantage if other
porosity-sensitive measurements are available (Fig. 3-
29). Neutron logs often provide the best depth control for
perforating in carbonate reservoirs where thjn porosity
stringers are the completion target (Fig. 3-30).
DENSITY MEASUREM ENTS
Bulk density recordings are used with a gamma ray curve
as a base correlation log in areas where air drilling is
common, such as in parts of Arkansas and in the Appala-
chian Basin (U.S.A.). Bulk density is the log measure-
ment used most often to identify effective porosity. Verti-
cal resolution is on the order of I ft (30 cm), but the mea-
surement is sensitive to logging speed and statistical vari-
ations. Gas occasionally affects the density measurement
(in high-porosity, high-permeability zones when invasion
is very shallow), but when the density and neutron tools
are run in combination, the two measurements comple-
ment one another. They respond to gas effect in opposite
directions with respect to their scaling, and the separation
of the two traces readily identifies gas zones (Fig. 3-31).
.
Depth Gamma Aay Oepth Aesistivity

-
Total counts Counts per minute spontaneous
(ft) (ft) n - m
potential
Potassium
o 0.5%/CD GR 10 100 1,000
Uranium ~------.-------
O API 150
o 02.0 ppmiCO
API units SP
o 150 o mV 100

T -~ l)
1 :
__.._ ::, 1
1 .- ~- ::
1

.. \ . . . ...
--
.. ..1.. .. .. ~- .... <: _,,
~

,,: J: -- --
-- - .. -- .. ,.,. -- --- -
~

-----
>
1
;
I :- ~ ,'

)
1 -- . ,
-- (f)
:
.. .. -- ... - - -.
., --
.. o,
oo ~ ~-
~
:r o-
o
"'
;;- ~ X "
1 1 / X
X [g ~-.
\J
8 ~,...._

~
+
( \
'/
(J\ '
) ;;: ~ !
;;:
-- ...,o I"-'<
()
,..._._-_ - [i ! (: 1

).-- --.. ---- --- ( !

-- .. --- ,.,,. .... ..... .......... D 1
j_ ~
..._ '
,.-
el
'
~
> 3 :!.
(l) o:,
t:,
11 ~ '
1

1
1
' 1 X
X t., '

i
! 1 "' o
o
j. :' 1 1l
1,

Fig. 3-23 - A Woodford well in Oklahoma was recompleted based on through-casing natural gamma ray spectral log data. Selectively
perforated as shown, the well produced 600 BOPD and 1.5 MMcf/D.

The photoelectric trace (Pe) adds important data that accurate log analysis approach for determining porosity
indicates lithology type (Fig. 3-32), thereby improving (Fig. 3-33). The combination of neutron, density, and Pe
the analyst's ability to estmate porosity from the bulk curves leads to more accurate determination of lithology
density measurement. and gas effect and, subsequently, more confidence in
porosity determination (Fig. 3-34). The combination of
COMBINATIONS OF POROSITY/ three information types provides more detail for well-to-
LITHOLOGY-DEVICES well correlation of porosity and lithology.

Combining density and neutron data al lows for a descrip- Acoustic log data can enhance the lithology description
tion of two-mineral mix, adequate porosity determina- and often aid in describing the type and amount of poros-
tion, and indications of gas being present. Crossplotti ng ity. The combination of ali three logs (acoustic, density,
neutron and density data is considered to be the most and neutron) is discussed in Chapter 5.

- 102-
- ,

TOTAL COUNTS COUNTS PER MINUTE

Potassiumn 0.24%/CD GR (API ) AC (,sec/ft)

o O 200 140 40
Uranium 1.24 ppm/CD ~ ............CAL (in.) ...........4 ACO
16 80
o .
TEN.(lbl ............ ..
CPM Thorium 7.1 ppm/CD 4500 -500
15000
-::,
>

>
.... .... e
"\.,

__.,,
__
I',

J <ei-- _ _ _

e
_:s
s
___
- - - - TOTAL
.....,. COUNTS :::::...,
-,
....
I< ~
/ r
Fig. 3-24 - Potassium-rich rocks w
' o
8

Fig. 3-26 - BHC Acoustilog example

o 40
...
o
u,
o

Fig. 3-25 - Hot gamma ray caused by thorium-rich bentonite

marker bed.14

- 103 -
,....

,,

Compr Shear Stoneley

Rec 1 :

Rec2

Rec3

Rec4

Rec5

Rec6
14 ft - o in. 1
I
I
l 1

~ ~
(4.27m)

Rec 8 ! \ \

3.38 in. 6.0 in. Typ.

(85.7 mm) (0.15 m)

X-+-----

8 ft - O in.
(1.83 m)

12 ft O in.
3.38 in.
(3.66m)
(85.7mm)

X-+-----

3.75 in.
(95.3 mm)
3 ft. - O in.
(0.91 m)

------+---"-T2
8 ft - 3.0 in. 2 ft Oin.
(2.51 m) (0.61 m
______._

1
T1

Fig. 3-27 - Digital Array Acoustilog (DAC) downhole instrument and receiver signals

- 104 -
,.

,,

,_____.
CCL
100 . O
GR (API) NEU (API)
GR Dept h
o 100 500 1500
POROSITY

GAMMA RAY NEUTRON OPEN HOLE

!:, ,-
- 8
,_
-1=
(AptUnllS)
~ - EE
o

~:
100
~---~-- -~---~-
45 o30--
NEUTRON CASED HOLE

~
15 -
-
- l=:>-:-

- - -- t::t= -_

lJ ~ L :'!:.
( ~
~ ~ ~~
........ ~? ~

--
? -e::::;

.> ~ ---" I<-.

Neutro n
Cased Ho le
~

.i!::_
~
..,,, -=--,, -- p
o
CD
8
~ o
.......,
lt' '"
~

8
t:.
}
> /
~ Neutron
Open Hole -
"""'::...
~~ ~
1P -~
~->
~

....J ~
~ <....
Fig. 3-28 - Gamma ray and compensated neutron recordings Fig. 3-30 - In carbonate reservoirs, neutron logs offer excellent
before and alter setting casing. correlation for perforating depth control.

o.;,~u.:v 1 OEPTH Hit ACOUSTIC 28

39
NEUTRON
(~)
NEUTRON
21 3t __ __ _ _ _ ____ (1141) _ - - __ ---- _ _ 21
- - DENSITY- - - - - - - - - - - - OENSITV --- - -------
{9f'Ncef ACOUSTIC
(gffVCCI

1
SANOY SHAL.E

----,f---, -P~- --I_L

GAS IJ.EARING
SHALY SANOSTONE

GASIWATER
(OEFINEO 9 Y
COMPUTERIZEO
SAHOSTONE
1 ANAl.YSlS)
OENSITY

Fig. 3-29 - Gas zones are identified by comparison of neutron to acoustic or density data.

- 105 -
 GAMMARAY DENSILOG-NEUTRON

1 :.,_ CALIPER

/ 1/1 1.9
BIT lt Pt = 1.0 g cm - 3
SIZE i/
1 2.0
Salt

2.1

2 .2

2.3
'
1

~ 2.4
,Q
NEUT RON e,,
POROSITY ~ 2.5
;;
e
a,

~ 2.6
a b 'S
(D

2.7

Fig. 3-31 - Gas effect on neutron and density logs

2.8

2.9
Anhydrite
...___ ..____..____..___ _ ..____..___~
-10 o 10 20 30 40 50
Gas- Oil- Water- Compensated N eutron Apparent Limestone Porosity (%)
Filled Filled Filled
Porosity Porosity Porosity

Calcita o 1())

Dolomita

Quartz
o
o e
iil
Fig. 3-33 - Crossplot of density and compensated neutron

1.8 o
o
o o o
2.0 e
o o
35 o
iil
2.2 35
M
1
E
u
.9 2.4
~
;
e
a,
o
2.6

2.8

3.0 .__ _........_ __,.__ ____._ _ _..___ ___.___ __,

o 2 3 4 5 6
Photoelectric lndex, P8 (b/e)

Fig. 3-32 - Photoelectric index data are influenced by lithology

and improve porosity estimates from bulk density data.

- 106-


FORMATION
CORAELATION WATER BUlKYOlUME
CURVE SATURATION ANALYSIS

GR (API) CNC (p.u.) LIMESlONE

o 150
' ---------------------------------~
45 -1 5
GAMMARAV
DENSILOO
AVERAGE :TER SATVRATION
(API) (OGAj s.
_DENSITY CALIPER (in .) ZDEN (g cm - 3)
150 25 (ocm, 3.0 100 o;,

6 16 3 BULI< YOLUME
Y-CALIPER (in.) ZCOR (g cm - 3) AVERAGE
..... .
~
{OOAC)
6 16 -1.5 0.5 25 __ (gcm') ~- 3.0
P (ble)
,............................................................................
8
.
O 10

,: '\--
~,; .::
.. _..,

:. ;:.
' ~,i,:
.
X
X
o
o i;'..
1
!
-:.

I>
....:: -:::1- -

- .."'
X
X

' "' .. > ' t,

::;
,-..,:.:
~t::,

t: b :
- '- .. ...;; ~

-;~I>
- t--

,;:,;/, ~~!,,

'::>

('
::,
1 '
..
X
X
g;

---
=~

Fig. 3-34 - Z-Densilog and complex reservoir analysis examples

PRACTICAL WORK SESSION Problem 2

Problem 1 The client requests ground level be used as the zero re fer-
ence point for ali wireline logs. You are given informa-
From the log on page 108, select the depth representing tion on a land rig that has a surveyed KB elevation of
the top of the sand reservoir. If the log was zeroed at the 82 ft above sea level and a surveyed ground level of
KB elevation before entering the well, and the borehole 39.5 ft above sea level. The too! measure point cannot be
is relatively vertical (< 2 hole drift), what is the subsea observed at ground level inside the wellbore. How would
top of the formation? _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ you resolve depth measurements to satisfy the needs of

-107-

the client? Answer in the spaces below or sketch it out in
the blank space provided.
-
SPONTANEOIJS POTENTIAL _,_
CONOIJCTIVITY

INOUCTION CONOUCTIVITY
o-SPACtNG
ioo
--1-1--

IN0UCTIONFIESIS11VITY
""
40"SPACING
~ - - - - - - _J;:J
------- -~
' '
1

' <
'.
\1
''
'
1
/ ))
1 \
1
l
1 ;\
-
)
/V -~ ~
{ J
, ,/ <
\ 1
V /
' \
/
',/
'1
1
"->
"
'
\ '
1
1
1
1

1 \\
1 I
1

,,.,,\
~
f ,/

CONNATE WATER RESISTIVITY (Rw)

The resistivity of formation water is one of the most

Problem 3
From the log data, select the top, bottom, and apparent
net thickness of the permeable reservoir rock.
important parameters in openhole Iog analysis because
an Rw value is required to calculate fluid or gas saturation
in the reservoir rock's pore space. Formation waters
evolve from diverse sources: newly formed waters, sea-
water, rain, and waters produced from diagenesis. Many
formation waters have undergone almost continua! modi-
fication since the begi nning of geologic time. The chemi-
cal composition is often modified by filtration through
clay particles, by ion exchange, by precipitation of min-
erals, and/or by reaction between rock matrix and other
fluids.

Marine sediments initially had seawater filling pore

space, but chemical composition of seawater does not
remain constant over large subsea depth intervals, large
geographical areas, or throughout long periods of time.
Nevertheless, most seawater has probably not undergone
significant change over geologic time.

- 108-
,
Coastal deposits often demonstrate considerable salinily
variation, and continental deposits, including lakes, may
have water variations from very low to very high salinity.
In most cases, subsurface connate waters increase in
salinity with increasing depth. Unusual situations do
occur, such as in the Malay Basin where waters become
less saline with increasing depth. This basin is believed
to have been an enclosed freshwater lake that gradually
became accessible to the open sea. Because of these
events, sand bodies at shallow depths have highly saline
connate waters, whereas sands below 5,000 to 6,000 ft
often contain fresh water (Rw values > 1 ohm-m).
Considerable variation in water salinity can occur within
a basin. Occasionally, salinity is quite different in the
same reservoir rock on two sides of a sealed fault. Salin-
ity variations can occur over short horizontal or vertical
distances. Filtration through clays is apparently one of
the primary mechanisms for causing sorne unusual salin-
ity changes.
Water density is dependen! on salt content, temperature,
and pressure. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of
a substance to that of water at a specified temperature.
Water density decreases with increasing temperature but
increases at higher total salid concentrations and higher
pressures.
Yirtually ali porous rocks contain sorne water. Ionized
salts in solution cause formation water to be electri-
cally conductive. Water resistivities can range from
O.O! ohm-m to severa! ohm-meters at reservoir temper-
ature. Sodium chloride (NaCI) is usually the dominant
sal! in solution, and the resistivity of the NaCI electro-
lyte normally decreascs with increasing salt concentra-
tion because the larger amou nt of ions carry an electri-
cal charge and higher temperature that affects ion
mobility. Formation water resistivity (R11.) is often easy
to determine, but occasionally it becomes very difficult
to find an accurate value for this very important petro-
physical parameter. Severa! sources or methods are
used lo determine Rw,
( 1) Cataloged water resistivity information
(2) Measured resistivity and temperature of a produced
water sample from the reservoir horizon
(3) Chemical analysis of a water sample produced
from the reservoir
(4) Calculation of Rw from the SP trace
(5) Calculation of Rw from reliable R0 and q> values in
a known water-bearing horizon
- 109-
(6) Pressure gradients from Formation Multi-Tester
(FMT) data can be translated to density and density
can be converted to equivalent parts per million
NaCI, which can be converted to Rw
(7) Calculation of Rw in an adjacent shale bed using
acoustic transit time of the shale to determine F
and using a deep resistivity device for R0 , and then
resolving from the F/R0 relationship. CAUTION:
This method can lead to error and should only be
used as a last resort.
Rw Catalogs
Water data are documented and cataloged for severa)
areas of the world. Professional societies, oil companies,
governmental agencies, and service organizations often
undertake a project of documenting formation waters.
Cataloged water data are available for the North Sea, and
published data for the Rocky Mountain region of the
U.S.A. are available through the Denver Well Logging
Society. Cataloged data are usually given for specific for-
mations with geographical references, depth of the hori-
zon, and at a specified temperature (Fig. 3-35). Large
amounts of the data are often cataloged on particular
fields.
When using cataloged water data, res1st1v1ty must
be corrected to the downhole formation temperature of
the well being analyzed. Temperature correction of
resistivity can be performed by chart or by mathematics
(Fig. 3-36). Either formation waters or drilling fluids can
be corrected to formation temperature.
As an example of using the chart, simply draw a straight
line between known values; e.g., 2 L0F and 0.05 ohm-m.
The line should intersect the center string of the nomo-
graph at ""' 50,000 ppm. If formation temperature is
160F, extend a line from l 60F through the 50,000 ppm
point on the center string of the nomogram, and read the
corrected resistivily as 0.065 ohm-m at L60F.
When using the Rw catalog source in formation, the
source data should come from a well relatively close geo-
graphically to the well being analyzed. This type of salin-
ity information is used to augment or verify an Rw value
determined by other meaos.
Resistivity and Temperature of Produced Water
The most direct method of determining Rw is to measure
the resistivity and temperature of produced water. The
water sample should not be contaminated with mud sol-
ids, mud filtrate, oil, or gas. These materials may alter the
resistivity measurement. Produccd water is often gath-
ered and stored in containers for this purpose.
 ~

"'

"T1
<p"
c.> LOCATJUN
w
u,
1 COUNTY FORMATIUN
-------------
SEC TWP RANGE OPERATOR LEAS E OEPTH RW T EMP s ,k
m
X
ll)
3
"O
UKFUSKH TRENTON l(! 12 N 7 E 4198 0.043 100 u
ro OKFUSKEE UNION VLY. 10 12 N 7 E 3784 0.039 100 u
g_ OKFUSKEf UNION Vl Y. 9 13 N p f 3534 0.040 lOU u
a.
El. OKFUSKE:E W1 LCOX 6 10 N 9 l. 4185 0.040 100 u
ll)
OK FUSll:EE WlLCOX 2b 11 N 8 E 4273 C.037 100 u
o OKFUSKH WILCUX 3 11 N 11 E FERGUSON OIL JOHNSON l 3712 0.082 100 T
3
ll) OKFUSKEE WILCOX 11 12 N 7 E MAHONEY DRLG BADGER 1-A 3300 0.077 100 T
:E
ll) OKF-USKH WILCOX 30 12 N 9 E 0.045 100 u
: OKFUSKH: WILCUX 14 13 N <, ( 3A09 0.045 100 u
(")
OKLAHOMA ARBUCK LE 18 11 N 2 W 6474 0.039 100 u
s:
o OKLAHUMA ARBUCKLE. 19 11 N 2 W C 1T IES SERVICE FARLEY A-5 8300 o.054 100 p
(Q
OKLAHOMA AKBUCKLE 19 11 N 2 W 6075 0.039 100 u
lJKLAHUMA AR[fCKLE 3() 11 N 2 W 0.039 l 00 u
UKLAHOMA Af< l\UCI< LE 3() 11 N 2 W 6499 0.038 100 u
OKLAHm1A AkBlJCKLE 31 11 N 2 W SKELLY OIL CO M l HOOPS 3 6331 0.036 100 u
OKLAHOMA ARBUCKLE 13 11 N 3 W 0.038 100 u
OKLAHOMA ARP.UCKLE 24 11 N 3 W 6475 0.039 100 u
(IKLAHOMA Af-'.BUCKLf 21 29 N 1 E VARN PETN #1 MCCORMICK 3425 o.05fj HO p
OKLAHOM.A B 1 VILLI:: 2 14 N 2 W 5673 0.038 111 O u
o OKLAHOMA Ei'Vll LF 31 14 N 2 W 5996 l'.034 100 u
1
OKLAHOHA BOlS D 1 ARC 3 12 N 2 W 6317 0.064 100 u
Ol<LAHOMA BOIS 0 1 ARC 5 12 N 2 W GULF #1 WRIGHl HEIRS 6318 0.0~5 100 u
OKLAHLIMA BC'IS D1 ARC 5 12 N 2 W 6317 0.035 l 00 u
OKLAHClMA BOIS LPARC 1 12 N 3 W STANOLIND TRACT 46 #45 0.129 100 u
UKLAHOMA BfJIS l.i 1 ARC ~ 12 N 4 W 7288 0.039 1 o, u
OKLAHCMA Bl' I S lJ I ARC 34 13 N 2 W C.fl38 100 u
OKLAHOMA B(IJS [11 ARC 36 13 N 3 W 6443 0.035 l 01) u
CKLAHOMA BOIS D 1 ARC 36 13 N 3 W 6443 0.035 l 00 u
OKLAHOMA BOIS D 1 ARC 6 13 N 4 k 7142 0.042 100 u
OKLAHOMA BOIS 0 1 ARC 33 13 N 4 W 7176 o. 0"'\8 100 u
UKLAHOMA BCIS D1 ARC 32 14 N 4 H 7073 0.040 100 u
CKLAHOMA CHtCK !:- R f.-. k 11 13 N 4 W e; L REASOR SITTL INGTON l 5700 0.029 100 p
OKLAHOMA CHl::.CKfRE:RD 36 14 N 4 W ROY MC ANINCH STATE l 5686 0.040 100 u
OKLAHOMA Ct-lECK ERl',IU> 25 14 N 24 W LIKINS FOSTER SWISHE'R 3 5682 0.043 100 p
01< LAHOMA CHESH I{ LM 29 20 N 17 W HA LLI RUR TON RUTTON 1-29 0.215 100 p
OKLAHOMA CLEVE LANO 22 11 N 3 W 5780 ~.035 HlO u
OKLAHOMA C.LlVELANO 30 13 N 2 W 6250 0.035 10'} u
*P = Produced Sample
S T = Test Sample
U = Unknown Source
,,

Temperatura R
(F) (C) (Qm)
500 260 20
240
Equivalen! NaCI
220 Concentration
400 200 10
~kppm) (@gr/gal
24C ) a
180 or 75F
0.2 6
160
5
300 0.3
20 4
140 0.4
30 3
250 120 0.6
40
o.a 50 2
100
200 100
90 2

80 3
200 o.a
70 4
300 0.6
150
6 0.5
400
60
a 500 0.4
10
50 0.3

1000
20
0.2
40
100 30 2000
40
90 3000
30 60 0.1
4000
80 80 5000 0.08
100
10,000 0.06
70
20 200 13,000 0.05
300 17,500
0.04
60
0.03

50 10 0.02

0.01
English: Salinity (ppm at 75F) = 10 x
T 1 + 6.77 )
; F
( T + 6.77 3.562 - log (Rw - 0.0123)
2 75
0.955
Metric:
T + 21.5)
1 3647.5
( T + 21.5 ; C
2
Rw ~ 0.0123 +
75
[NaCl(ppm))955
Example
Given: Temperature = 250F and NaCI concentration = 100,000 ppm. Determine: Resistivity
R=0.024Qm

Fig. 3-36 - Res istivity of equivalen! NaCI solutions

- 111 -
,,
Measurements can be made in the mud cup, but the pre-
ferred method is to use the mud press, which filters the
samples to segregate solids from the water. The fi ltered
water sample can then be measured in the same manner
as mud filtrate (R111) is determined. Measuring severa(
samples ensures statistical integrity, and the temperature
of each fluid sample should be recorded at the time it is
measured. The resistivity is then corrected from mea-
sured temperature to reservoir temperature.
Rw from Chemical Analysis
Chemical analysis is a more time-consuming and expen-
sive process than the direct measurement method. Sam-
pled water must be virtually uncontaminated. A water
sample from a producing well is preferred. Samples from
wireline tests or drillstem tests are usually contaminated
with mud solids, filtrate, and/or perhaps hydrocarbon.
The method used to derive electrical resistivity of a solu-
tion from chemical analysis of that solution implements
the use of weighting coefficients that are proportional to
concentrations of certain minerals commonly found in
water (Fig. 3-37).
.>:.
-~
- + 1.0 ..+-,.....+~-4-1.....,.........,.,,.,.~11+.,..-;::,,...,.........+H-Hl-+~++.,,....,,.....;++~1-+H,..;
::::,
~
1000
Total Solids Concentration (ppm or mg/kg)
Fig. 3-37 - Equivalen! NaCI concentrations from ionic concentrations
- 112-
Brines having total solids concentrations other than the
Na+ and e- ions are sometimes encountered. In such
cases, Rw, R111, or R111 can be determined accurately only
after expressing the total ionic concentration asan equiv-
alent NaCI concentration.
A practica( example is given by taking a brine analyzed
chemically to have 50,000 ppm total solids that include
10,000 ppm Na, 16,000 ppm CI, 7,000 ppm Mg,
5,000 ppm Ca, and 12,000 ppm SO4 .
The equivalent NaCI concentration chart (Fig. 3-37) is
used for total solids concentrations > 1,000 ppm. At
lower concentrations, additional data can be derived by
implementing the Variable Dunlap method, but for
practica( purposes, the Desai-Moore chart is acceptable.
The Desai-Moore chart is entered on the abscissa with
the total solids concentration ( ppm) of the sample to find
the weighting multiplier for each ion identified. The
concentration of each ion is then multiplied by the
weighting multiplier and the products for ali the ions are
added together to determine the equivalent NaCI concen-
tration .
10,000 100,000
,
In the example, total solids concentration is 50,000 ppm. As discussed in Chapter 2, K = -71 (at 77F or 25C),
The multipliers for Na and Cl are 1, and the multipliers where K is a coefficient proportional to absolute temper-
for Mg ("" 0.90), Ca("" 0.78), and SO4 (:o: 0.36) are deter- ature. ChernicaJ activity is in approximate proportion to
mined by a chart (Fig. 3-37). Individual concentrations its salt content (similar to conductivity); therefore, if the
are then converted to equivalent NaCI concentrations by solutions are virtually pure NaCI, resistivity is inversely
the multiplier and added as follows, proportional to activity (Fig. 3-38), and the equation can
be written in the following terms for log analysis,
10,000 X 1 = 10,000
16,000 X 1 = 16,000 SSP = -K log R111eqlRweq,
7,000 X 0.9 = 6,300
5,000 X 0.78 = 3,900 where R111eq = resistivity equivalent to mf
12,000 X 0.36 = 4,320
and Rweq = resistivity equivalent to w
Equivalent NaCI concentration = 40,520.
The total NaCl value can then be converted to resistivity Resistivity of NaCI Solution vs
at a specified temperature (Fig. 3-36). For example, if Na+ Activity (Temp. 77 F)
formation temperature is l 80F, resistivity should be
0.07 ohm-m. More accurate and detailed numbers can be
determined by use of the algorithms given below the
nomogram.

Rw from the SP Curve

Acceptable formation water resistivity values can sorne-

times be found using the SP trace. Caution is necessary
any time the SP is used to determine Rw because several
factors influence this natural voltage response. Thin beds,
.02
adjacent beds, shaliness within the reservoir body, hydro-
carbons, adequate permeability, important electrokinetic O. 01,.____,_L....J.....J.._J.....L.1...-----1----1.....1....L..1.Ju...u_---LL-'--'-....,_..u..i
potentials, pressure-depleted reservoir conditions, very .01 .02 .05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.153 5 10
heavy drilling fluids, borehole size, etc. can affect the Na+ Activity (Gr - ion/L)
total SP amplitude.
Fig. 3-38 - In NaCI solutions, resistivity is inversely proportional
In the following favorable conditions, the SP can be used to chemical activity.
to determine Rw,
The solution to the equation just discussed is represented
Clean or shale-free water-bearing horizon graphically in Fig. 3-39. Conversion from Rweq or Rmfeq
to Rw or Rm requires an empirical chart or algorithm
Muds of moderare resistivity (Fig. 3-40). The inverse proportionality rule is not exact
for ali types formation water or for waters having excep-
tionally high salinity.
Saline formation water

Selection of SSP requires selection of the maximum SP

Appreciable formation permeability
amplitude deflection value (mV) in a given permeable
horizon and its difference in millivolts from a shale base
Adequate bed thickness
line. SSP is best selected under ideal conditions. How-
ever, if bed thickness is a problem, a correction factor can
Hole size less than 1O in. (25 cm) be determined from the chart shown in Fig. 3-4 1. The
value selected from the log would then be a pseudostatic
Static SP (SSP) in these conditions relate almost totally SP (PSP).
to e lectrochemical potential so that chemical activities of
the formation water (aw) and mud filtrate (ami) are then In many areas, it is difficult to fi nd thick, clean, perme-
related to SSP as able, invaded formations, or adjacent shales to form a
membrane potential. As a result, SPs are not useful for
Rw determination.

- 113 -


>
.sc.. -100

(/)
(/)

-
~ -75
Q)
o
c..
(/)
::,
oQ)
e
"'o
e
a.
(/)
(.)

~
5

0.5 1.0 3.0 5.0 10.0 30.0

R,,,1/Rweq
Using Tr in F;
R
SSP = - (60 + 0.133 T r) log ____E!!_ Example
RWeq
Given: SSP = - 71 mV; Tf = 1400F; ~ = 0.SSQ m
SSP ]
Determine: R.veq; ~/R.veq = 8.0
[ (00 + O. 133 T,J }
~eq = ~ [ 10 'Weq = 0.55/8.0 = 0.069 Q m
"R

F = 1.8 (C) + 32

Fig. 3-39 - Graphic solution of the SP equation

- 114-
 I/
Engliih ;1/
, 75F

V
--
-'V
100F
150F
0.5 200F
300 F
~-
0.2 --- 400F
500F
~,,;
::::...-
e
e.
o.,
-- ~
~
English:
Rweq + 0.131
rrl
5
0.05
"7 X (Oll/log(fr/19.9)]-2

... fT _ 0.5 Rw +
eq
lQ[0.0426/log(fr/ 50.8)1
a:
0.02
r,
~f
/) r111 1, oon Example
001
Given: Rweq = 0.069 Qm, Tr = 140F
'11 I
0005
Determine: Rw; Rw = 0.073 Qm at 140F.

For mostly NaCJ formation waters, use the solid lines. Use the
0.002
1, ---
"' dashed lines for fresh formation waters that are being influenced
0.00 , 500
... .. by salts other than NaCl, and for gypsum-based muds.
0.005 o.o, 0.02 0.03 0.05 o., 0.2 0.3 0.5

A,... or Rm, (Q m)

/
MEtri
rJ ,
1, /
--
V
25C
50C
75C
05 100C
,, 150C

-
,~- 200C
250C

-
~ ,..
0.2
~~ 1,

~
,i..-
o., ~
e
e'.
)
E
a:
5
0.05 "
l
a:
0.02
/J'/
lll 'I/ / , 1,>' r hon
o.o,

'//
Metric:
I
0.005
"
Rw + 0.131 X (0[1/ j log(f + 17.78) - 1.04) J- 2
, Rw =
eq
1, I!_ . o - 0.5 Rw + lQ[0.0426/ {log(fr + 17.78) - t.45 ) J
0.002
. slv>o eq
250~ ,..
0.001
0.005 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5

Fig. 3-40 - Chart to convert equivalents (Rweq or Rmfeq) to Rw or Rmt

- 115 -
,,

30 .
\\ \
9
SP from Log SSP
120 20 8

\\\\
7
110 30
.
20 100 40 - 6

\ \ 90 "50
.
\ .
15 \ \ \\ \
\ \
\ 80 60
5

' \
70
SP Correction Factor
70
4

1 \ 1\ ,.,
'O
g
\ \ '\ \
g \ ,.< 3.5
.e 60 1.J 80 .e
1.,
ui
(/)
Q) 10
\ \ \ \ \ 50
'-s
90 3
ui
(/)
Q)

\
e
~
o
:e 9 \ \ \ \ <o
e
~
o
:e
\ \ \ \ 40,.
t-
"O 8 \ \ 1\. <.s 100 2.5 t-
"O
Q)
\
Q)
IIl
7 \
\ \ \ \.r-... 30
-J.o
J.s
<t.o
110
IIl

\,
6 \ \ \
1\
'\
~
"' " i'-..
20 S.o
.o 120
2

4 >-->-
\
\
\
\
\
1\
'\
1\ "' ',"'"\
"-..

'~
'-....
'~
1.5

, ...... "-
~= 2( ' 5( 100 200
Rm 1\ .....

---
'
' ' ............
----
'""
'!'--- '---..r--....
1\ r---
3
1.0 1.2
11
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 ' 4.0 5 .0 6.0 7 .0 8.0 9 .0 10.0
SP Correction Factor
1

SP correction factor =
14 (:~ +2) l 3.65 -1.5
+0.95
1

h -l (:~ + 11) / 0.65~

l 6.05
- 0. 1

R
for -2. >5 and 3<h<50, for h in ft
Rm
SSP = SP x SP correction factor

Example
Given: SP(log) = - 50 mV; h =8 ft; R = 35 Qm; ~ = 0.7Qm
= 8 ft; R/Rm
Solution: Bed thickness 1.43 = 50; SP correction factor =
Nomograph Solution: SP10g = - 50 mV; SP correction factor = 1.43; SSP = -71.5 mV

Fig. 3-41 - Chart to corree! SP for bed thickness

- l 16-
Salts, other than NaCI, also occur in formation water or
the mud filtrate. ca++, Mg++, HCO3, and other ions can Empirical
affect SP amplitude differently from NaCI ions. This is curve
particularly true for fresh formation waters, and an CaCl2v
MgCl2------.. ~ ,
empirical dashed curve for "average fresh water" is then 10 ' I 1
1 I 6

,,,:
used (Fig. 3-42). The overwhelming majority of reservoir 1 I/

rocks contain enough NaCI that standard charts and ,,.

equations can be used to determine Rw or Rm- However,
in very fresh waters, different salts may be dominant and
75F
J:~
may severely affect the K value. For example, if both 1.0 l:: \
, Line of
mud filtrate and connate water contain large concentra-
tions of sodium bicarbonate, K could be as low as 55 at
77F. Potassium chloride solutions (KCI) might exhibit a
t
Rw
equal values

K =- 60 at 77F and potassium bicarbonate solutions could

have a K of 45 at the same 77F temperature. When there 0.1
is to be extensive log analysis in geographical locales
where unusual salts are found in formation waters, log
analysts develop emprica! K values and empirical charts
and equations for Rw and Rwe SSP can be calculated to
.01 '----'---'-..J...J...J..L u.J..._..,_...J...J....1 ..U..,.'-'--J--L.....1............U.U
within a few millivolts by .01 0.1 1.0 10
(a Na+ ca + Mg) Aweq--
SSP = IV
(aNa + e a + M g ) mf
From Water Compositions
Rw : True Formation Water Resistivity.
When concentration s of the Na, Ca, and Mg ions are
(Rweq): Equivalen! Resistivity Corresponding to a
determined chemically, the activity of the solutions at Derived Activity
75F can be determined by chart (Fig. 3-43). - Data from Venezuela, Sumatra, Oklahoma,
California, Ganada, Pennsylvania, and Wyoming.

The variability of SP values is demonstrated for the influ-

ences of bed thickness and resistivity (Fig. 3-44A), and Fig. 3-43 - Mg, Ca, or Na ions can be used to corree! Aweq to
Rw-

10 ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - = - - - ~
.,' the influence of impermeable adjacent beds that are not
I shale (Fig. 3-44B).
75F I
.,
I
r.
I
Rw Calculation in a Water-Bearing Horizon

i 1.0
Line of
Log data, including deep-resistivity and porosity-sensi-
tive measurements, can be used to calculate Rw in a
Rw equal values known water-bearing zone. The deep-resistivity tool is
assumed to read R0 and a calculated <I> can be converted
to formation factor (F) using any of the conventional
0.1
relationships,

F = 114>2 (commonly used in carbonate analysis),

.01 ~~~~~~-~.._._ ...........,_...,__ ~ ~ ~..........., F = 0.62/<j>2 15 (commonly used in sandstone

.01 0. 1 1.0 10 reservoirs),
Rweq-

F = 0.81/<)>2 (also used in sandstone reservoirs), or

- Data from SP Logs (Venezuela, Nebraska, Colorado,
and California).
other relationships of choice. Rw can be calculated as
follows,
Fig. 3-42 - Data used to derive an average freshwater empirical
correction from Aweq to Rw

- 117 -
,,

SP RESPONSE CURVES
~ "t:SISTMTV COMII:"'"'""
--- SU IAT.t,

Sl.OPE CHANGE, WITH CONVEXITY

OF LOG TOWARDS NEGAT1\/E SP INO!CATES
PEAtJEABLE BEO

PlATEAU ON NEGATIVE SIDE

INOK:ATES THICK PERMEABLE
SEO OR HIGHLY AESISTrVE
FORMATl()N BETWEEN PERMEABLE
BEOS

C:ONSTANT SLOPE INDICATES

HIGHLY RESISTIVE FORMATION

PlATEAU 0N POSJTIVE SIOE

NOICATES THICK IMPEFMOUS
N-,0 CONOUCTIVE seo. OR HtGHLY
RESJSTIVE FORMATION BETWEEN
MPERVOUS BEOS

St..OPE CHANGE WfTH CONVEXITY

OF LOG TOWARDS POSmv e SP
NOICATES IMPERVK>US ANO
CX>NOUCTIVE SEOS

- - - - Sl..,flC Sli OU,,QA.u,o - - .. ,oo

A.) The lnftuenc:e of Bed Thickness and Reslst1v1ty B.) The lnftuence of Impermeable Zones

Fig. 3-44 - Variations between idealized SSP and the actual SP

where derived from L\t because it is less affected by enlarged or

Rw = connate water resistivity at formation
temperatu re,
R0 = true formation resistivity m a 100%
water-bearing horizon,
and
F = formation factor.
This technique is used in severa! quick-look analyses,
one of which is called the Rwa method (Fig. 3-45). An
equation, chart, or nomogram for determining water satu-
ration, (Sw), with porosity and resistivity inputs can be
used in the same manner; i.e., assume 100% Sw and work
backward through resistivity and porosity to find a solu-
tion for Rw (Fig. 3-46).
Rw in Adjacent Shale Beds
In sorne geographical areas, 1t 1s common but unwise
practice to determine Rw in a shale adjacent to the horizon
of interest. It is mentioned here only to make potential
analysts aware of the practice. The method requires
acoustic transit time (L\t) in the shale bed anda deep-resis-
tivity measurement. The solution is similar to the method
described previously. Porosity and formation factor are
rugose borehole conditions than density or neutron data.
It is also unwise to calculate Rw by this method if bore-
hole conditions (1) severely affect deep resistivity or L\t,
(2) if the shale contains large amounts of organic material,
or (3) if the shale bed is not environmentally related to the
reservoir (often the case). Remember, enlarged boreholes
also affect deep-resistivity measurements; organic shales
often contain the material from which hydrocarbon is
formed; and formation water salinity can vary apprecia-
bly from one geological environment to another.
Summary of Rw Determination Methods
In certain circumstances, any of the methods for deter-
mining Rw discussed in this chapter are acceptable to the
industry. Sorne will argue that one method is preferable
to another, but in most cases, cataloged water data are
extremely helpful unless the reservoir is sorne distance
from the area supplying the data. Chemical analysis and
direct measurement of produced water are accepted
methods in any area. SP and Rwa methods are very useful
in sorne geological locales and entirely unacceptable in
other areas. Nevertheless, Rw is an extremely important
parameter, and is used in any log analysis determination
of reservoir fluid saturation.

- 118-
 Rwa Determination
+ Rwa
(%) (Qm)
Sands Carbonates
3 3
Rwa
(Qm)
4 4 50

5 5 30

6 20
6 sw
(%)
7 7 2000 10 100
8 8 90
1000
9 80
9 Rw
10 2 500 5 70
10 4 (Qm)
11 60
11 12 5 200 3 1.0
12 E 50
14 o
.e 10 100 2 0.5 45
14 E E 40
16
16
.s 20 50 ~
0.2
35
18 o rf 0.1 30
18 20 i- 50 20 ;i- 0.05
20 22 :~ 100
:~7i 25
24 t 10 ; 0.5
22 26 :::,
Q) 0.4 0.02
24
"O
e 200 5 a: 20
28 o 0.01
Q) 0.3
26 30 :::,

28 Q)
500 2 t= 0.2 15
30 2
35 1--
1000
34 40
38 2000 0.5 0.1 10
40
5000 0.2 0.05
0.62+-21s=F=+- 2
10,000 0.1 0.04
0.03
0.02

Conductivity-Derived Porosity (CDP) 0.01

Determination
CDP

112 112
Sw = ( !w ) 1/n = (FRw) = ( Rw ) Example
l~Rt Rt Rwa 1
A sandstone has a porosity of 24 % and
,----.. . 1
. l..______ R = 3.0 Qm; Rw = 0.02 Qm
+ +
Water Zones: Oil/Gas Zones: Find: Rwa = 0.225 Qm

Sw=30%

Note: Conductivity-de rived porosity is valid

CDP = (aRw/ R,) 1/ m only when Rwa = Rw.

Fig. 3-45 - Chart for determination of Rwa, Sw, and el>

- 119 -
 Rw Ro Ro sw
(Qrn) (Qrn) (%)
Rt
0.01 100 0.001 100

0.02
Rt 0.002
F
50 (Qm)
0.05 1000 50
10,000
500
0.1 0.005
5000
200 n

//
0 .2 100 2000 0.01
20 20
2.5
50 1000 2
0.5
20
0.02 o
500 8
10 10 5 10
5 200
2 0.05
100 1.0
2
5 50 5
5 0.1

10 20
0.2
10
20
2 2
5
0.5
50 2

0.5
2
0.5
Sw = (Ro / Rt) 11n
0.1
5
R0 = FRw
0.2 10

0.1

Example

Given: Rw = 0.05 Qm; F = 20; l\ = 10 Qm; n = 2.0

Determine: Sw; R0 = 1.0 Q m; ~ ll\ = 0.1 ; Sw = 32 %

Fig. 3-46 - Nomogram to determine Sw by Archie's equation

-120-
PRACTIC AL WORK SESSION TRUE FORMAT ION RESISTIV ITY (R1 or R0 )

Problem 1 To determine acceptable petrophysical values from a

virgin reservoir, a reliable resistivity value for the undis-
A chemical analysis of produced formation water is turbed part of the formation is required. In a clean, shale-
given. Formation temperatu re of the reservoir is 2 10F free zone that is 100% saturated with formation water,
(99C). Mean surface temperature is 60F (15C). Use the the deep formation resistivity value is defined as R . lf ol
0
chart (Fig. 3-37) to find the element multipliers and deter- and/or gas occupy sorne of the pore space, that resistivity
mine the NaCl equivalent in parts per million (mg/L). value is called R1 Virtually ali formation evaluation spe-
What is the connate water resistivity at the given forma- cialists refer to the undisturbed formation resistivity as R
1
tion temperature? and seldom use the R0 term in routine conversation; R0 is
nevertheless one of the most important terms in log
analysis.
Cations mg/L Anions mg/L
The borehole environment makes it virtually impossible
Sodium 89500 Sulfate 230 to measure a precise value of virgin formation resistivity
Potassium 7030 Chloride 179000 (R 1). However, corrections can be made for the barrier
Lithium Carbonate influences as discussed in Chapter 2. Borehole size and
Calcium 17372 Bicarbonate 464 drilling fluids affect ali deep-reading resistivity tools to
Magnesium 1461 Hydroxide sorne extent, and the depth of invasion and type of fluid
Boron traces H2S traces invading the formation also affect deep-reading resistiv-
ity devices. Thin beds severely diminish the depth of
Total dissolved solids, mg/L 295057 investigation of conventional deep-resistivity tools. The
NaCI equivalent, mg/L 291665 ratio of rock resistivity to drilling fluid can cause serious
Observed pH 6.8 effects on certain types of resistivity/conductivity
Specific resistance @ 68F: measurements.
Observed 0.064 ohm-m
Calculated 0.053 ohm-m Nevertheless, in most circumstances, if the proper too! is
selected (induction or laterolog), the deep-resistivity
Problem 2 measurement is very close to true resistivity and correc-
tions are of minor significance. Therefore, many of the
The log (page 122) provides SP and resistivity data exercises in this text accept log resistivity values (R1w or
across a sand reservoir that is sandwiched between two Ro) as being R, or R0 . Any reservoir evaluation
shale beds. The lower I O ft of the sand is below the water requires and deserves at least a quick check (chartbook
table and is assumed to be 100% water-saturated. Assum- corrections for the device) to determine if the deep-resis-
ing that the deep-induc tion too! essentially reads R in tivity too! is significantly affected by any of these prob-
the interval, that a formation factor relation of 1/$~ is lem sources. Sophisticated computer-processing systems
used in this particular reservoir, and that $ is 14%, calcu- perform the corrections easily and quickly, and such cor-
late Rw by any means. rections should be implemented. Many of the pad-type
microresistivity measurements will be accepted as Rxo in
Rw= - -- - - - the context of this text, but they should also be corrected
for disturbing effects as necessary.
Problem 3

Using the log data and information given in Problem 2, Accepting the above, the virgin zone of the reservoir har-
use a formation factor relation of 0.62/$2 15 and deter- bors a resistivity that is affected virtually always by two
mine R w fundamental circumstan ces:

Rw = - - - - - - ( 1) The amount of water occupying the pore space.

Problem 4 (2) The type of water occupying the pore space.

Using the data from Problem 2, determine Rw using a The amount of water is a function of porosity ($), and the
formation factor of 1/$2 but a porosity value of I7% type of water is a function of the connate water resistivity
(Fig. 3-46). (Rw) Occasionally, there are exceptions; i.e., sorne con-
ductive minerals occur in large enough volume to appre-
Rw=-- -- -- ciably affect the response of a conductivity-seeking

- 121-
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL CONOUCTIVITY
OEPTH
Mill1votts Mi11imhos / m

INOUCTION CONOUCTIVITY
40" SPACING
1000 500 o
-++- 2000
RESISTIVITY
1500 1000

Ohms. m2/m

16" NORMAL
o 50
o 500

INOUCTION AESISTIVITY
40" SPACING
o
---------- 50

~---------
o 500

'l 11
'~
<~
\( ~
\
l
,
1 J 1

.
\
1

/ 1
// ,;
1 i

,\ .)
\
I
'
~
./ ~~
/ , ~

T f {
\ ,
/
/
/ /
'-/ ")
"""""" \ \
~
\
.
I 1
1

I
1
1
1
1
1

/i
'.
1

\
j 1
l
'
1

\~ \
,,,..,
{ r/

- 122-
induction device. For example, pyrite (FeS 2) is a conduc-
tive mineral , but volumes of 5% to 6% are necessary to 1,000
affect conductivity measurements appreciably. When
large percentages of conductive minerals are present, the
laterolog too! should probably become the deep-resistiv- X
Q)
ity device of choice. Usually, formation water is the only -o
E 100
electrically conductive substance in the reservoir. Oil and i!-
gas are insulators as are virtually ali the materials that :~

;
make up the rock matrix. Q)
a:
o 2.0
Resistivity lndex a: 10
--
a:
The Resistivity lndex was the first recorded method for
calculating ol/water percentages. Ol and gas migrate
into porous reservoir rock from source materials and dis-
place sorne of the water. In water-wet reservoirs, sorne
1
1
l 10 100 1,000
water is always present. Capillary forces (surface ten- Water Saturation (%)
sion, density differences, and wettability) will allow at
least a small film of water to remain. This thin film is
called irreducible water; it is essentially immovable.

Replacement of sorne of the conductive water with non-

conductive hydrocarbons causes the rock resistivity to
increase because the amount of water decreases. This
assumes no change in porosity or formation water salin- Fig. 3-47 - Comparisons of resistivity index data to Sw data for
ity occurs. Plotting the ratio of resistivity at parta! satu- determination of the n exponent
ration to the resistivity at 100% saturation vs. the water
saturation on log-log grid yields a line whose equation is
approximately Saturation Exponent Considerations

R, One of the more intriguing areas of well log research

=
Sn Ro concems the n exponent. Realistically, the n value cannot
w
be determined from log data alone, and reliable values
or
are also difficult to obtain from laboratory work with foil
core. Current work is directed toward determining this
important parameter from other measurable features of
formation rocks and fluids. The path to a valid explana-
where R 1 IR0 = Resistivity Index, tion depends on rock type, fluid types, confining pres-
sure, and wettability.
and n = saturation exponent.
The n exponent is not usually critica! if log analysis is
The following data are plotted (Fig. 3-47) to demonstrate used only to determine and predict oil/gas or water pro-
a comparison of S 111 to Resistivity Index: duction, but it becomes significant when log data are
used to calculate reserves, efficiently manage reservoir
Resistivity Index (R1 IR0 ) productivity, and develop marginally economic fields.
Empirically, laboratory results indicate that most sand
100 1.00 reservoirs have an n value that ranges between 1.5 and
75 1.67 2. 1 but averages about 1.85, and that many carbonates
60 2.42 have values greater than 2. The preceding plotted data
50 3.33 (Fig. 3-47) demonstrate the variation.
40 4.83
30 7.92 Formation Resistivity Factor (F)
20 16.67
15 3 1.67 Determination of hydrocarbon saturation depends on
10 125.00 sorne knowledge of what the formation resistivity would
8 833.33 be if the rock were 100% water saturated (R0 ). There are

-123 -
two obvious problems. Sorne reservoirs may not have a
water table (they are not 100% water saturated), and res- 100~-------~-------~
ervoir rock properties are seldom identical throughout
the vertical extent of the reservoir.

In the laboratory, G.E. Archie of Shell Oil measured the

resistivity of numerous specimens having a wide range of
porosity values and differing connate water resistivities.
The data Archie worked with were crude by today's stan-
dards. More recently, extensive laboratory work with core
was treated in the same manner and resulting data were
$= 18.7%
plotted (Fig. 3-48). Cores with 31.2%, 24.8%, and 18.7%
porosity were saturated with waters of different salinities
$=24.8%
and the resistivities (R 0 ) were measured.
$ = 31.2%

$=31.2% $=24.8% $=18.7%

Rw Ro Ro Ro

0.032 0.272 0.416 .704

0.057 0.48 0.74 1.25
0.090 0.765 1.17 1.98
0. 16 1.36 2.08 3.52
0.22 1.87 2.86 4.84
0.1 ' - - - - - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - - - - '
Rw versus R0 plotted data indicate 0.01 0.10 1.0
Connate Water Resistivity, Rw (ohm-m)

Any Rw increase causes a corresponding increase in

Fig. 3-48 - Extensive core study performed with different water
R 0 for a given porosity salinities

At a given R....,, porosity decreases as R0 increases
At any given porosity, the ratio of R0 to Rw is con-
stant, regardless of the Rw value
The ratio of rock resistivity (R0 ) to connate water resis-
tivity (Rw) is formation factor (F), and F is also a func-
tion of porosity. Therefore,
This very important Archie principie is considered to be
the foundation on which log analysis is built.
Summary of Resistivity Index Method
resistivity device itself must be considered. Does it read
sufficiently deep into the formation? Where invasion is
moderate (d ""15 to 30 in.) or deeper (~ 30 in. d), the too!
can be increasingly influenced by mud filtrate. Many of
the earlier laterolog recordings (prior to 1970) were
severely affected by invasion. The first true deep-induc-
tion devices were developed in the late l 950s, but were
not commonly available until the early 1960s. Older
induction devices (5FF40 systems) had investigative
properties similar to the medium-induction systems
employed today, and they were severely hampered by
invasion, borehole size and salinity, and adjacent beds.
RESISTIVITY RATIO METHODS TO
DETERMINE SATURATION

For many years, saturation values were calculated from
resistivity Iogs using the Resistivity Index method, and
from the quick-look standpoint, it remains valuable
today. Nevertheless, when only deep-resistivity data (R0
and R 1) are used to calculate saturation, the major source
of error is the assumption that ali other rock and fluid
properties from the top to the bottom of the reservoir are
constant. Any change of q>, diameter of invasion (d), R 1v,
shale volume, and/or other petrophysical characteristics
between the supposed R0 depth level and the R1 depth
levels will lead to erroneous saturation values. The
Numerous methods comparing shallow- and deep-read-
ing resistivity devices, often incorporating the SP trace,
have been used to determine saturation. These methods
are still applied to "old logs" and are often useful in
modern log analysis. Remember, the following methods
were devised prior to the development of more sophisti-
cated porosity-sensitive tools.
In the evolution of computerized log analysis, most of the
following saturation methods have been discarded. It is
important for the novice to acquire a basic understanding

- 124-
of the evolution of log anaJysis, and how sorne of the
older techniques are somet mes helpful in resolving com-
plex questions that occur today.
Rocky Mountain Method
The earliest use of shallow- and deep-resistivity mea-
surements for saturation determination was Maurice Tix-
ier's Rocky Mountain method in 1948, and this empirical
method was considered heresy by many at the time. This
interpretative technique was developed prior to the
microlog device; i.e., normals, laterals, and SPs were the
tools available at that time. Adaptations are still found in
many log analysis chart books today. The Rocky Moun-
tain method was developed in formations that typically
had moderate filtrate invasion. Archie's saturation equa-
tion can be modified for the invaded zone of a reservoir
as
2 Fx Rz
s.=--
1 R.
1 built into any empirical chart; this one assumes residual
where S1 = saturation of the invaded zone (zone
with a mixture of filtrate and connate
water),
F = formation resistivity factor,
Rz = resistivity of the mixed fluids in the
invaded zone (a mixture of filtrate and
connate water),
and R = resistivity of the invaded zone.
Tixier's empirical studies showed S was related to Sw by
2 and
SW ==S.1
and by dividing this relationship into the S equation, an
expression for Sw was obtained,
_ R/R,
Sw - R/ Rw
Rz can only be found empirically. In the Rocky Mountain
method, Rz was calculated by the relation
1/R z = (z/R w ) + (1-z)/R mf'
where z is representative of the fraction of the invaded
zone's pore fluid that is formation water and 1-z is the
fraction of mud filtrate. A chart was presented to resolve
the equation, depending on the choice of the z value
(Fig. 3-49). The chart is entered with the choice of z and
the ratio of Rm/Rw, and the ratio R/Rw is determined. If
necessary, Rm/Rw can be derived from the SP trace using
the simplified relationship,
- 125-
A nomogram for saturation determination is entered with
the R/Rw ratio and the ratio of R/ R1 and Sw is determined
(Fig. 3-50).
Flushed-Zone Resistivity Ratio Method
The microlog too! was introduced in the late l 940s, and
the first literature on this device was published by H.G .
Doll in 1950. The microlaterolog instrument was intro-
duced in 1954. Severa! improved versions of both tools
have evolved since that time. The shallow depth of inves-
tigation of these devices permitted a satisfactory resistiv-
ity measurement of the flushed zone (Rx0 ). Hardware
developments since that time have led to a number of
chart book methods for determining saturation. The first
presentation 160 incorporated the resistivity recordings of
electric logs and the SP, but it can be adapted to the Rxo
measurements of a microdevice. Severa! assumptions are
oi l saturations are 20%. Archie's saturation equation can
be rewritten for the flushed zone as
S 2 = Fx Rmf
xo Rxo
where Sxo = saturation of the flushed zone,
F = formation factor,
Rm = resistivity of the mud filtrate at
formation temperature,
Rxo = resistivity of the flushed zone.
Dividing the conventional Archie saturation equation by
the flushed zone saturation equation yields
Sw _ ( Rx/ R 1 )1 1 2
Sxo - Rmf/Rw
Studies of log data at the time indicated Sxo and Sw could
be related empirically as
S ==S 115_
XO W
Substituting this relationship into the combined equa-
tions yields the following,
518
1
Sw = ( : xo;: )
mf IV
A nomogram that solves the equation is entered with the
Rm/Rw ratio or the SP (Fig. 3-5 1). To reach the Rm/Rw
value from SP input, the SP value is extended through the
formation temperature with a straight line. From the RmI
 100
oo =T
J r:-,
--" ,
80 ct:"TT:, - - . ..:-; +.. ::~:- :~---- ~:: :~~ =:-::

70
.-:1. ~ : ~
' .,. ~ .. il:::!!--i .. 1T'.
]1 . -- -
60 ; .:-~,..- rr;~7:~f;;
.. :e:-: .:.r;,
50 ~ nJ:;# ,:::;:'!
' ,- ::: -~H~-~ -~~i 3;: ~-~
40 ~- ._,..
>-' -
ti +- I ---~:::~jr:-:~: ~~ t0 f~
-- rt:1t!.:: ::r:::;::1
-..........__._, -~~J::.:::r::
:_:-'"" ::;:::~;:=: ..:.:::77 .:::
..
-- rttT , ............ 1--+-... ,... -
-~r
1
-.--
t ~ rl=+li
t' rt1
....... ... . 1-'+= __:...._f-,i,......:..
. ,_....,..,..,_. .... '::'"'t:i=: ~ 1 . ~=:
=...
~;= ~~~@~~;-:~ ~
...,_
30
.... _--~~ ~'. f-l~Tif:
-~~;~
l!:
-je;

20
1i =~--- ,:r,-.
s~ H~': ,~~:~ :F-_
- ,,+.=:~ ......; .::

.,~~:~~ . .~~:~~.;~; -t:"~- : 1 - - - .....

- r- -- - _-r . ---tt,r-- . ~-s...:::~-::::

.. ;~ .:-..r::::::::: .:; ;=._r- .1 :....: r - ~ - - - -. ---=r-- ... -
6 s=;::;::'"l' :::.i-.;n-:~::;::::m:rit: - --1-U~~>~-=::i::;.i-;:..'. ~=:.:: _ .. ;.::::.:.:..::~:Jft; .- ;::r~~~
: :._____ __ -:-::.ir!',. ;:_____ r: ~ .
--: .........
5

R,I~

This chart is used to adjust the fluid resistivity values in the invaded zone for the effect of mixing the mud
filtrate with the formation waters.

Example

Given: RmrfRw = 10.0; z = 0.075

Determine: R/Rw; R/ Rw = 5. 9 (Refer to next chart for Sw determination)

Fig. 3-49 - Resistivity of mixed waters, R2 , for Rocky Mountain method

- 126-
,.

~
Rw
12 ~ sw
11 R, (%)
10 10 100
9 8 90
8 6 80 ~ +
7 5
Rw (%)
70
4 10 40
6 60 15 36
3 20
5 50 30 32
2 50 28
4 40 70 26
100 24
22
1
3 30 200 20
o.a 18
400
0.6 500 16
0.5
2 0.4 20 1000 14
0.3 2000 12
4000 10
0.2 5000
0.15 9
10,000
8
1 0.1 10 7
0.9 0.08 9
o.a 0.06 8 6
0.7 0.05 7 5
0.04
0.6 6
0.03
0.5 5
0.02
Sw = (R/R)/(R/Rw) F = 0.62t - 2.15

(Humble Relation
for Sandstone)

This nomograph determines water saturation without knowledge of porosity or resistivity of the formation
water. Water saturation may be obtained using the basic equation. Porosity is obtained by a solution of the
Archie equation. This nomograph can also be used for a porosity balance check.

Example

Given: R = 20 Qm; R = 10 Qm; ~ /Rw = 6; Rw = 0.05 Qm

Determine: Water saturation and porosity; Sw = 33.3%; += 19%

Fig. 3-50 - Determination of water saturation by Rocky Mountain method

- 127 -
 This nomograph provides a solution for the water saturation, Sw, of the formation, using the ratio Rx0 / ~ .

Sw/Sxo = [(Rxo/ Rt)/(RmrfRw)l a

pseudostatic SP
where = stat1c SP

Sxo = S~, where x varies from 0.33 to 0.5.

Example

(Far clean sand) (Far shaly sand)

Given: Rmf = 3 Q m; Rw 0.15 Q m ; Rx0 1Rt 8 Given: a = 0.8

Determine: Sw; Sw = 42% Determine: Sw; Sw = 35%

Fig. 3-51 - Determination of water saturation using RxofRt

-128-
,.
Rw spine, a straight line is extended through the ratio of
Rx0 IR1 to determine Sw. The a scale near the right edge of
the nomogram allows Sw to be corrected for estimates of
shale volume, and by projecting a line through the esti-
mated shale value, a corrected Sw value for shaly sand is
determined. At the time the flushed zone method was
introduced, Rxo was obtained from short normal,
microlog, or mkrolaterolo g data. R 1 was derived from the
long normal or lateral curve resistivity values whose
empirical corrections to R 1 are somewhat complicated.

Using today's logs, the nomogram discussed in the previ-

ous paragraph allows saturation determination from
resistivity ratios, independent of porosity, and it is a rela-
tively universal method. The nomogram (or equation)
should be used after the specific log data have been cor-
rected for other influences (bed thickness, hole size,
salinity, invasion). Chartbooks provide corrections for
invasion, and for determining RxolR1 ratios, d, R 1, etc. as
req uired (Figs. 3-52 through 3-56).

lnduction Electrical Resistivity Ratio Method

Severa! versions of induction logs and laterologs have

evolved since 1956. Most early induction devices
recorded short normal resistivity and SP curves simulta-
neously if borehole conditions permitted. Charts using
various versions of induction measurements and short
normal with SP or induction with focused log and SP
have been published. Again, certain assumptions are
incorporated into the response lines; however, the ratio
method does provide an estmate of saturation, indepen-
dent of porosity data.

Saturation Determination by Nomogram

Numerous versions of a saturation nomogram have also

been published. A variety of versions for different tool
types (laterolog or induction) can be found in the
literature. A simple and more-or-less universal nomo-
gram was given earlier and is presented again for easy
reference in the following practica( work session (Fig. 3-
57). The biggest danger with nomograms is the individ-
ual's accuracy in using a straight edge and pivoting
through severa( points from one edge of the chart to the
other. Slight changes in pivot points along the nomogram
can cause a severe error in the final results.

-129-
 .;.. .\J.
. ::l1nvasion>Diameter
! .(in .).;...
......:.....; .. ) ...: ... '. .. j....................,.......... .
: . ::
::~
100

RrRIHt
<
. :<>
. . .
:r.7.~ S ~F.~~2[
.. .. .. .'
:. .<:
.. 30
.. .. .. ..

o 10
><

-a:

a:
Cl
_J
_J
....-......... ,..:.....
-_-_-_-_-_-R_/_R_LL_D.. . . ,I

: R >,R
... ... ....~ .: . t: .:.. ~.~ . ...... . .. .....
. . . . . . . . - ........ ' . . .. . ; ..... ~ .. .. :.... ; ... ~ .. i . . . . . . . . ............ . .. . .

.. ....... ... . .; ..... .... .~ .. .-~ ... ;... ~ .. j. -......... --. ....... L ... . .. . .. .
: :::::::::::::::::::;::::::::\::::::!::::::' Thick Beds .. ,...........
: i 8-in. Borehole
-: : :-----:--
Step Profile
.. -:- . . . . . . ; . . . . . . : . l ..................... ~ ... . .

.1
.5 2 5 10 20

This chart provides a method of obtaining R1 from the Dual Laterolog readings where R1 is greater than Rxo
Rxo should be determined from an auxiliary survey such as the Micro Laterolog. Rxo RLLD and RLLS
should be corrected for borehole effects before entering this chart.

Example

Given: RLLo/Rx0 = 63 Q rn/3 Q m = 21 ; RLLol Ru,s = 63 Q rn/10 Q m = 6.3

Detennine: d. = 50 in. ; R/RLLD = 1.5; Ri = 1.5 x RLLD = 94.5 Q m

Fig. 3-52 - Rt from Dual Laterolog (for Rt > Rx0 )

- 130-
 20

10
9

8
7

AFL/AILO
4

Thick Beds
2 8-in. (203-mm)
Borehole
Step Profile
No Skin Effect

-r---- .

1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4

This chart provides a method of obtaining R1 from the Dual lnduction-Focused Log readings where R is less
than Rxo The depth of filtrate invasion may also be determined.

RFL = 1FL X Rxo + (l - JFL) x Rt

1/RILM = GILM/Rxo + (1 - GILM/Rt
l/R1LD = (G 1w/RxJ + (1 - G 1w)/Rt

where Rxo = resistivity of formation invaded by drilling fluids; Rt = resistivity of undisturbed formation; J =
geometric factor for Focused Log at the invasion diameter; G = geometric factor for Induction Log at the
invasion diameter; FL = Focused Log; ILM = Induction Log Medium; ILD = lnduction Log Deep
Example

Given: RpL/R1LD = 10 Q m/1 Q m = 10; R1LM/R1LD = 1.4 Q m/1 Q m = 1.4

Determine: d = 39 in., Rx0 /R1 = 18.5; R1/R1w = 0.95; R1 = (R/R1w) R1w = 0.95 Qm

Fig. 3-53 - At from Dual lnduction-Focu sed Log (At < Axo)

- 131-
 1 ... r-'i ... 1
t r
! 1
1 11"1
""' -
~

w I ,rv ,J '""' / 1 ,J,V::J. .u

20 ~,'" ;r 11,. :1u
- I
I
/
J
1/ """'
1 IJ\
' ;..r.
l.
r""'""

I I J ll/." pv,
,vi , ,
l.
b /C
..
, ,
I PU(.J/ I 1. D I""
, ; 'l
e~'\
' / ,X ,,, / / .J
1 ' / ,f 40
'
1/
I
I
. r 11
~
/ I
i l/,
10

_., -~

-
8
. .
., .
.. -. -~
I

.vv
.,

6
, I
I ..IJ
1.. ...
_,,..,,
'
,, 'J :t,,~

~
I 1\

. ,,
5 I
,,. ,. [I A

I ' I
I I --
~~

I
I
,,' ~
~ .r,
f/1.lf
\
4
j

.. . . . ' ,

..
:,
_.,
3
H f.l
I

I
,,,

----
,_
e 1/
I
,

'
,' .,
,.
.,~
,~ 1A
I ,
~

..
~
:a~
'I
--
..._
,-
R, > Rxo
Thick Beds
8-in. (203-mm)
r-
~

,-
,-
,-

,, ,.
r-
J 'I, 1
Borehole 1-

2 '
I
)' ,, I '
IU 1 Step Profile
,-
r-
I I ' I r, No Skin Effect ~

'.A ~

I JIj '
'(/
I rJ
1
IIW ,..__
f/J
--
J'I
,,111
r1
3 4

This chart provides a method of obtaining Ri from the Dual Induction-Focused Log readings where Rt
is greater than Rxo Rxo should be deterrnined by an auxiliary survey such as the Micro Laterolog.
Example

Given: R1LDIRxo = 20 Q m/5 Q m = 4; R1LD/RrLM = 20 Q m/10 Q m = 2

Determine: d = 50 in., Rx0 1Rt = 0.17; R/R1LD = 1.5; R1 = (R1/RrLD) R1LD; 1.5 X 20 30 Q m

Fig. 3-54 - Rt from Dual lnduction-Focused Log (Rt > Rxo)

- 132-


100
1 M-'""' e --
rti ~~.:::::..
:::
E
-e:
:::
e
~ .... ....
5"!- SQ .5 o se o t
o :--sg ~E~ !!2. ~~ ;o
e .
.Q Q r( 1 1 o'
~ l,-11 1
e

n: ,

1
l
I

I
30

'0!/

~
I 1
5 JI
'
~ I I
I I 10 /.f 1
10
1 ,r I ~

",K 1 ' I I , ,-,

I' I 7 /_
A'" I I' 1 ~"" /
I I 1
5 1/ /

I 1/ / / I / /

I I
/
-
/
' I /3; / ,....
lfl I
I
1/ /
,'
-
I '! // ~ ,C
r--~

}lJ
'

f/
~
.... ,.... ,,,
xo t ,,~ (f

n '-fl ~ // /,
~ '1~
0.3: #
/
l-'l J --10 in. 125O mml
7 / 1/ 15 in. (40 ) mm)
7
~

---~~ /~

- --- 20 in. (50 ) mm)

..... ,...30 in. (75 ) mm)

0.1
0.1 10

Thick Beds

8 in. (203 mm) borehole

RILO is skin effect corrected.

RFOC is borehole corrected .

Fig. 3-55 - Rt from Deep lnduction, Focused Log, and Rxo

- 133-
,,

100 -

-,

=t:::
50

40 -
30
~-

20
~
>-->--. 1-1-r ,t.-.
,,
t--i-+__,.,,.._.~ - - + - H 1 -.+ ~
l-+1 ,--..-- 4 1iH ~ 1 -r-l 1 -....._....._,l+'-_l-'-_-tt-----1-+-<-+-+1,- +-,
_ H-t--H--++H-++i+-+-++-i-+-++Hl-'--+..........+----++f'-lt--t
11 1 1
111 1
11 1
1 111 1 1 1
1 il 11

- - 11
-, ..
-
5
1-
-
,..::-r-
4
~ . ...-;:;;::; lfi::.!. - ...

-= _,__ _., -
3
- - - :7- =-- -
:__!-_ ~ - : . ,:.:_~ .
1---c__;-:~ . . -y -. - ..--1--- ---
.J :. i- -i-+-- . :;e: - .. .-~ ~

,--:.:.~t-:-:-~: ~:::-~. . .
. - ...,_,.. .. h.:::: -~

2 -
.... ~"' _.r, .' - f= ~1--_-_-------,--,.-+-+-+-+-.
- - - __ ... ... -++<--+t-,.,>-t-,,....+--+-~------t+---< -7- -
! ,\,f )'~ t - . ~ t :.:. ::t :f-. ::~f.-+ ---,----....... 1
~-+--+++....+-HH-t+++---,-.......
1
1 11 111
1 1 111
1
1 .J 1
1-Mf--+--+---+
1
1
11
1
.L.,;..
1" 1
1I I - --+--- 1 1----t--t--+"'-ff-,,-+ ---,-,---t-H-+--t-+i----+-+++--++-t++-+w+tt---+-

:~tfi
1~ .., i ,. - -
1 1 1 1 1 1
~~ :_i=i I~: _ j _ i 1 1 1
l -+l-l--+-,--l-1-+--...-H--+++++++-r.++-++-,-.-+++,--4-<
~=---+,--,+-
", 1

1
P'-rr + .... -;--.-- ______,_ , 1 ,
1 1 11 111, 11
1 I 111 1
1 11 1
1
11 ...., 1lil 1
~

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 100

This chart is for Rxo > ~ and Rxo < 40.

Thick Beds
8-in. (203-mm) borehole
RILo is skin effect corrected.

Fig. 3-56 - Rt from Deep lnduction, Short Normal, and Rxo

- 134-
 Rw Ro Ro sw
(Qm) (Qm) (%)
Rt
0.01 100 0.001 100
0.02
F Rt 0.002
50 (Qm)
0.05 1000 50
500 10,000
0.1 5000 0.005
200 n
0.2 100

//
20 2000 0.01
50 2.5 20
0.5 1000 2
20 500
0.02 o
10 10 8
5 10
5 200
2 0.05
2 100 1.0
5 50
5 0.1 5
10 20
0.2
20 10
2
5 2
50 0.5
2

0.5
2
0.5
0.1
Sw = (Ro IRt )11"
5
R0 = FRw
0.2 10

0.1

Example

Given: Rw = 0.05 Qm; F = 20; ~ = 10 Q m; n = 2.0

Detennine: Sw; ~ = 1.0 Q m; ~/~ = 0.1; Sw = 32 %

Fig. 3-57 - Determination of water saturation by Archie's formula

- 135 -
"
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION Rm and Rw are essentially the same at 0.015 ohm-m
at formation temperature. Use the tornado chart (Fig. 3-
Problem 1 52) to correct the resistivity values for invasion. Assum-
ing the logs are correct for bed thickness and hole size,
Given the following values, give values for the following.

Rw = 0.1 O @ formation temperature R/RLw = -- -

R0 = 5 ohm-m RrlRxo =
R1 = 8 ohm d =
R = 10 ohm-m Rr =
Rxo = 12 ohm-m
F = l/<j>2 Using the nomogram (Fig. 3-51) and your answers from
n =2 above, determine Sw in depth intervals A and B.
Rm = 0.15 ohm-m
z = 0.075 ohm-m (A) Sw = _____
(B) Sw = _ _ __
determine Sw by these resistivity ratio methods -
Problem 3
Resistivity index, Sw = _ _ __
In a shaly sand ( "" 10% V5 h), dual induction and focused
Flushed zone ratio method Sw = _ _ __ resistivity values are given as -

By today's standards, do you think saturations deter- = 10 ohm-m

mined by resistivity ratio methods can ever be useful? = 12 ohm-m
= 15 ohm-m
If yes, when?
Using the tornado chart (Fig. 3-53), determine the fol-
lowing -

If no, why not? el =

R/RILD = _ __
R, =
Rxc/Rr =
Problem2
Rm = 1.1 ohm-m at 70F (21 C) and Rw = 0.08 at
Dual Laterolog and Micro Laterolog data recorded formation temperature of 180F (82C). Temperature
through a clean carbonate reservoir are given as correction chart is on page 48. Use the Sw equation or
nomogram (Fig. 3-51) to determine Sw.
(A) RLw = 70 ohrn-m
Ru.s = 60 ohm-m Sw = - - - -- - - - -
RMLL = lo ohm-m
Now, ifporosity derived from logs is 16%, what is Sw?
from the "pay interval" of the reservoir. The data below
are from the "water leg" -

(B) RLLD = 5 ohm-m

RLLS = 5 ohm-m
RMLL = 5 ohm-m

-136-
" Determining Porosity, Formation Factor, and Shaliness
When using log data to evaluate formations, the type and
volume of porosity, mix of shale within the rock matrix,
and resistivity's relation to petrophysical parameters must
be known. This chapter describes methods for relating
log measurements to porosity. Equations and petrophysi-
cal parameters commonly used in log analysis are also
developed. The most basic methods used to determine
shale content from logs are covered in detail. Crossplot
methods for determining porosity, lithology, and gas
effects are not discussed here but are found in Chapter 5.
Studies of the reservoir rock itself remain to be the foun-
dation of petrophysics. Log responses, however, have
been compared to known rock physics (specifically spe-
cial core data) to develop reliable analysis methods that
use only log data as input.
Practica) work sessions follow virtually a li discussions,
but actual well logs, especially local examples, are
needed as a practica) approach to learning. Natural
gamma ray and spontaneous potential (SP) measure-
ments as basic shale indicators are discussed first. The
"porosity tools" (neutron, acoustic, density) are covered
in the order they were commercially introduced to the
industry. A brief discussion on relating resistivity to
petrophysics in terms of formation factor follows the sec-
tion on porosity logs, and a fundamental Archie satura-
tion determination concludes the chapter.
BASIC METHODS FOR ASSESSING SHALE
CONTENT IN RESERVOIR ROCKS
Shale is normally considered impermeable. It may or
may not contain hydrocarbon, but is seldom productive.
Shale is a confusing, ambiguous term to many people.
Most log analysts consider silts and clays as shale,
making grain size the determining factor. Wentworth's
grain size classification is accepted as the standard for
clastic rock (Table 4-1). Unfortunately, the classification
does not stand up well in carbonate reservoirs. Most car-
bonate is clean rock of no more than two or three matrix
mixtures, but in certain environmental settings, carbonate
and clastic or evaporitic rocks are mixed. The basic dif-
ference between c lastic and carbonate reservoirs is that
clastics were formed mechanically and carbonates were
formed chemically. Therefore, chemistry is often as
important as grain size in identifying shale. Diagenesis
affects both clastic and carbonate reservoir rock. The
materials referred to as matrix material are basically
uncomplicated crystaJs of SiO2 (quartz), CaCO3 (cal-
cite), CaMg(CO3)i (dolomite), etc. In well logging, shale
generally includes silts, clay, and other particles that
often have very complex crystal lattices.
- 137-
4
Both SP and gamma ray data are used as shale indicators.
Natural gamma ray spectroscopy measurements are
probably the most effective shale indicator, and the neu-
tron log is often a valuable shale indicator in carbonate
reservoirs. Crossplot data from density and neutron logs
are very useful in shaly sand reservoirs. Similarly, cross-
plot data from density and acoustic logs or neutron and
acoustic logs can be useful in specific circumstances.
Resistivity is a useful measurement when reservoir resis-
tivity values are greatly different from shale resistivities.
Furthermore, resistivity and crossplot techniques for
shale volume calculations are covered in Chapter 5.
SHALE VOLUME DETERMINAT ION BY
GAMMA RAY MEASUREME NTS
The first gamma ray logging device was developed in
1935 by Well Surveys, Inc., a predecessor to severaJ
companies that evolved into today's Baker Atlas
Logging Services. Gamma ray devices were the first
instruments capable of identifying different lithologies
behind the casing. In 1940, Lane Wells introduced the
service commercially for openhole or cased hole wells.
The log can be run in tluid-filled or air-filled boreholes,
and in wells having oil-based much, freshwater-, or salt-
based mud. Thus, the gamma ray log is one of the most
universal logging services available to the industry.
Gamma ray devices are ideal for distinguishing potential
reservoir rocks from shale beds. The natural gamma ray
response curve is useful for severa) practica! applications
of log data (Fig. 4-1 ),
( 1) Determine possible reservoir rock by quickly elim-
inating the depth intervals occupied by shale in
either open or cased hole.
(2) Determine the amount of shale in potential reser-
voir rock in either open or cased hole.
(3) Correlate depth on gamma ray logs in other wells to
determine reservoir structural position in either
open or cased hole.
(4) Identify radioactive deposits such as potash and
uranium ore, bentonite marker beds, coa! seams,
and potential organic source beds.
(5) Monitor movement of injected radioactive
material.
Natural radiation emitted by unstable elements con-
sists primarily of alpha, beta, and gamma rays, but it
is practica! in wellbore conditions to measure only
,,.
TABLE 4-1 -Wentworth's Grain Size Scales for Sediments

U.S. Standard Millimeters Microns

Sieve Mesh# (mm) (m) Phi (4>) Wentworth Size Class

4096 -12
1024 -10 Boulder (-8 to -124>)
Use 256 - 8
Cobble (-6 to -84>) Q)
Wire >
64 - 6
- 4 Pebble (-2 to -64>)
...
ftS
c.,
Squares 16
5 4 - 2
6 3.36 -1.75
7 2.83 -1.5 Granule
8 2.38 -1.25
10 2.00 -1.0
12 1.68 -0.75
14 1.41 -0.5 Very Coarse Sand
16 1.19 -0.25
18 1.00 o.o
20 0.84 0.25
25 0.71 0.5 Coarse Sand
30 0.59 0.75
1/2 - 1.0
35_ 0.50 -- 500
40 0.42 420 1.25
'ti
45 0.35 350 1.5 Medium Sand e
ftS
50 0.30 300 1.75 en
60 _ 1/4 0.25 250
- -- 2.0
70 0.210 210 2.25
80 0.177 177 2.5 Fine Sand
100 0.149 149 2.75
120 - 125 3.0
- 1/8 0.125 --
140 0.105 105 3.25
170 0.088 88 3.5 Very Fine Sand
200 0.074 74 3.75
230 1/16 - 0.0625 - - 62.5 4.0
-
270 0.053 53 4.25
325 0.044 44 4.5 Coarse Silt
0.037 37 4.75
Analyzed_ 1/32 - 0.031 31 5.0
--
1/64 0.0156 15.6 6.0 Medium Silt
by
1/128 0.0078 7.8 7.0 Fine Silt rg
--- Pipette_ 1/256 - 0.0039 - - 3.9 8.0 ::

Verv Fine Silt
0.0020 2.0 9.0
or
0.00098 0.98 10.0 Clay
Hydrometer 0.00049 0.49 11.0
0.00024 0.24 12.0
0.00012 0.12 13.0
,r
+ 0.00006 0.06

<j> Units = Negative logarithm to the base 2 of the diameter in millimeters.

14.0

natural occurring gamma rays. Sorne rocks are natu-
rally radioactive by virtue of disseminated, unstable
elements they contain. However, most of the 65 unsta-
ble nuclides exist so rarely in nature that they are
omitted from consideration in this text. The elements
significant to log analysis are the uranium series, tho-
rium series, and potassium-40 isotope. They contrib-
ute virtually all the natural radiation in sedimentary
rocks. Each of these elements naturally emits gamma
rays that are distinctive in both number and energy.
Radiation energy is measured in units of electron
volts (eV), kiloelectron volts (keV), or rnillion elec-
tron volts (MeV).
One gram of potassiurn-40 emits an average of 3.4 pho-
tons per second at a fixed 1.46 MeV energy. An equal

-138-
- ,,
GR (API)

o 100 211
200
Th 2.62
e;;- 173
7
t:> ai
.o 139
E
"t z
:::,
115
~ i.-- Apparent ai 100 113
<..~ Shale e
e 94
s-"' <O

-
.e
:>

- ~-
""""'
<
o .___..__._____._ ___._ _....__........._ __.____._~
K
--
2:...~
p
,...! p
o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Gamma Ray Energy - MeV

Fig. 4-2 - Energy window calibration for natural radioactivity

..--:>
Cleaner
> forma large part of the Earth's potassium and decompose
~ e
Sediments ~ > rapidly to clay minerals. Clays are weakly bonded, very
e small in grain size, and have an open lattice that encour-
--::: ages inclusions of the radioactive elements during and
after deposition. When naturally radioactive materials are
Fig. 4-1 - Gamma ray log
present within otherwise clean reservoir rocks, the
gamma ray curve usually indicares shale content.

weight of thorium or uranium produces, respectively,

12,000 or 26,000 gamma rays per second with a spectrum
of energies that averages 0.5 Me V.
GR (API) AC (,sec/ft)
200 140 40
CAL (In.)
Most natural radioactivity in the Earth comes from 6 . 16 &)
ACQ

TEN (lb)
. o
the potassium-40 isotope and the elements and 4500 -500
decay products of the uranium and thorium series ) ,-.~
(Fig. 4-2).
> ,,
I
_ >
Energy of natural gamma rays is less than 3 MeV, ' ...
but the majority have energies less than 1.5 MeV. ==--
..'.:1:: =- )

is- -.t>
Atoms that emit gamma rays are from inherently
unstable elements.
1'-- ...
e
~

-..... -r->
Naturally occurring gamma rays behave as particles but
~
_....
1~

are actually photons, which have the properties of an r

electromagnetic wave. Gamma rays are created when an --
__ lJ --;,_
atom is disturbed or excited by sorne externa( force and -r- -
gives off energy when returning to its stable state. e'
,....:s
s
-..,
,...._
Geologists and petrophysicists are primarily interested in :-:> ~>

how the gamma ray can be best used for their work. The
<::: ..... ::~
highest radioactivity usually (but not always) occurs in ; :::~ :,---

shales and clays because of their concentration of potas- ( i===- ,e;~ -

,,
sium, thorium, and/or uranium (Fig. 4-3). Quartz crystals I f

generally exhibit strongly bonded planes in ali directions, ....

-"
crystallizing in pure form and prohibiting impurities
from invading the crystal lattice. Micas and feldspars Fig. 4-3 - Shales usually exhibit the higher gamma ray values.

- 139-
Naturally occurring radioactive materials include - Of particular concern are radioactive feldspar, mica,
and/or glauconite. Glauconite is a marine mineral result-
Salts in solution that settle within sand or carbonate ing from diagenetic changes that upset the pH and Eh
pore spaces. equilibrium in sorne clays and micas. It is classified as a
clay in sorne texts and a member of the mica group in
Salts in solution that settle onto organic marine others. Its green color is significant to recognition in rock
shale. samples or core. Rock description often describes a
"green sand," which likely includes glauconite. Logs do
Certain minerals such as marine feldspar, micas, not define rock or mineral color, but core, well cuttings,
glauconite, etc. that result from radioactive salts or mud logs often describe colors of rocks. Recognition
dissolved in water cause reservoir rocks in those of glauconite, feldspars, or micas can be important to log
environmental settings to be radioactive. analysis. The North Sea area has a particular problem
with heavy micas (rarely found in other geographical
A small amount of clay dispersed within a sand areas). If the bulk volume of these minerals is concen-
reservoir can significantly increase radioactivity trated and in sufficient amount, any of the minerals can
and give a false indication of the clay content. An cause serious log interpretation mistakes if they are not
empirical chart defines sorne differences between a accounted for in the analysis.
linear GR shale index and that found in different
ages of rocks (Fig. 4-4). About 20% of the radiation in shale comes from the
potassium-40 isotope, and various minerals have differ-
10
ing amounts of potassium-40 (Table 4-2).
0.9

Units of Gamma Ray Measurements

08

07 The basic unit of measurement for gamma rays is occur-

0.6
rences per second, but logging instrumentation converts
this value to counts per second. In the first 20 years of
05 gamma ray logging, contractors offered logs with a
> diverse range of scaling methods. In 1959, an American
04
Petroleum lnstitute (API) committee issued a revision to
03 its Recommended Practices No. 33, establishing standard
units for nuclear logs, a standard calibration procedure,
02
anda permanent calibration facility located at the Univer-
O1 sity of Houston main campus and maintained by the
university's Electrical Engineering department. The dif-
,.es
0.1 02 03 04 06 07 08 0.9 10 ferent types of nuclear equipment were thereby normal-
Equations; ized to a common base, ensuring that ali radioactive log
Larionov; Stieber:
measurements would be reported in APT units as defined
liu, AA - AA.:,..,......, v.,. 1.....,,(30 - 20 1,uJ
RA.,. - AA.:-- (South Lou1s1ana M1ocene
and Phocene)
by the calibration facility. (Conventional neutron logs
Curve 1 (1ndex) , v .,. ., IRA
Curve 2 (older rocks), V.,. .. O 33(22 1'"- - 1 O)
Variations: with a chemical source and natural gamma ray logs were
Curve 3 (Terhary rocks). v.,,. 0 .083(231 ....., . , O)
V,,,. IP.A(20 - l,v.)
V"' 1....._(40 - 30lr:v.J
the only nuclear tools commercially available at that
Clavier et al.: time.)
v.,. - 17 - [338 - (111,.,0 7)"J 1 2

Shaliness estimates may be taken lrom gamma ray spectral data using lhe accompanying The gamma ray calibration pit consists of a string of
equat1ons (radioactiv1ty index = IRA)-
5 1/2-in. casing set in three blocks of cement (Fig. 4-5).
The center cement section has approximately twice the
radioactivity of normal shales. The amount and type of
Fig. 4-4 - Empirical corrections to a linear shale index each of the admixed radioactive materials were calcu-
lated to give about the same spectrum of gamma ray
In geology, it seems nothing can be taken for granted. energy as found in shale. The top and bottom sections
Log analysts are not always correct in assuming higher have only natural radioactivity, which is slightly lower
gamma ray counts indicate shale or clay content. Radio- than the background radiation leve! in air at the facility.
active evaporites such as sylvite, carnalite, langbeinite, The difference in radioactivity between the center "hot"
polyhalite, and kainite exist, but they are rarely cement and the "cool" sections is, by definition, equal to
encountered. 200 API units.

- 140 -
"
TABLE 4-2 - Potassium (K), Uranium (U), and Thorium (Th) Distribution in Severa! Rock and Minerals
K (%) U (ppm) Th (ppm)
Accessory Minerals
Allanite 30-700 500-5000
Apatite 5-150 20-150
Epidote 20-50 50-500
Monazite 500-3000 2.5x104 - 20x104
Sphene 100- 700 100 -600
Xenotime 500 - 3.4x1 o4 Low
Zircon 300- 3000 100-2500
Andesite (average) 1.7 0.8 1.9
A., Oregon 2.9 2.0 2.0
Carbonates
Range (average) o.o - 2.0 (0.3) 0.1 - 9.0 (2.2) 0.1-7.0(1.7)
Calcite, chalk, limestone, dolomite (all pure) < 0.1 < 1.0 < 0.5
Dolomite, westTexas (clean) 0.1 -0.3 1.5 - 10 < 2.0
Limestone (clean)
Florida < 0.4 2.0 1.5
Cretaceous Trend, (Texas) < 0.3 1.5-15 < 2.0
Hunton Lime (Oklahoma) < 0.2 < 1.0 < 1.5
westTexas < 0.3 < 1.5 < 1.5
Clay Minerals
Bauxite 3-30 10-130
Glauconite 5.08 - 5.30
Bentonite < 0.5 1 -20 6-50
Montmorillonite 0.16 2-5 14-24
Kaolinite 0.42 1.5-3 6-19
lllite 4.5 1.5
Mica
Biotite 6.7-8.3 < 0.01
Muscovite 7.9- 9.8 <0.01
Feldspars
Plagioclase 0.54 < 0.01
Orthoclase 11.8 - 14.0 < 0.01
Microcline 10.9 < 0.01
Sandstones, range (average) 0.7-3.8(1.1) 0.2 - 0.6 (0.5) 0.7 -2.0 (1.7)
Silica, quartz, quartzite, (pure) < 0.15 < 0.4 < 0.2
Beach sands (U.S. gulf coast) < 1.2 0.84 2.8
Atlantic Coas! (Florida, North Carolina) 0.37 3.97 11.27
Atlantic Coast (New Jersey, Massachusetts 0.3 0.8 2.07
Shales
'Common" Shales [range (average)] 1.6 - 4.2 (2.7) 1.5 - 5.5 (3.7) 8 -18 (12.0)
Shales (200 samples) 2.0 6.0 12.0

- 141-
 The PM anodes, each ata progressively more posi-
: . .. : : . ._. .: . : ; tive potential, attract electrons and give off about 3
5 ! -in., 17#, J-ss----+,...._~.~._.. . .,. _ electrons for each electron striking the anode.
. . . : -:-. .
... . : ..... : : . :- .
. . .. .. . . .. . . . The pulse generated is amplified, shaped, and sent
Low-Activity
Cernen!-- - -- - ::" :-:. to the instrumentation that scales and statistically
. . .... ,.. . . ..._: :- averages the data.
. . : . . . _:: -_:_:: ..
:. . .: .
. ::- .. Time Constants and Filtering
. ~--: .: -...... .". -: .. .
. : :.: .: . ;.
-:::_:_:.- ._-::: Statistical fluctuation is a problem common to ali radio-
:.-:::: .:_:-:--...
.: . . . . .
: active measuring devices. Gamma ray emission is not
:-:-. - .. .
constant, and as a result, the emissions are filtered in
;..:!':i))::i;t~
. : :
... ~ .......;
today's digital acquisition systems. T he purpose of the
filtering is to obtain an average that is related to logging
: : : .. : . speed. In the past, this statistical averaging was
-:-:--.._,:... . :-
controlled somewhat by use of a time constant. Time
-: :::- ::.
. .. : . constants are not used today, but provide a means to
Low-Activity : : : .' . .
Cement - - - - - - -. - . :: :::.:::_.-. explain the filtering, logging speed, and response rate
. . . .. ..
. :.. .-..
..
relationship.
. .. ::: .... . .. ..
. :. . . . . . .: . . ..
. . .
At short time constants, response rates to changes
' . ,. in radioactive levels are much faster (Fig. 4-6).

Short time constants often result in variations that

Fig. 4-5 - Gamma ray API calibration pit are only statistical and not representative of a true
change in radioactive leve!.

The goal is to limit statistical fluctuations to a mni-

In truth, calibration of gamma ray logging tools is simply
mum while maintaining acceptable logging speeds.
the calibration of contractors' field calibration devices.
The tools involved in the test "log the test pit twice" to Formulae are used to calculate time constants after
verify repeatability, and the contractors' field calibration
the maximum and mnimum count rates are deter-
apparatus is applied to the "log results from the test pit."
mined (count rate, not API units).
The comparison of tool response to the field calibrator
with tool response to the API pit allows the contractor to Time constants for logging purposes are generally
determine the radioactive strength of its calibrator in API standardized in given geographical areas and rarely
units. An API calibration record is made and placed o n recalculated at the well site.
file at the faci lity. The procedure is applied to different
too] sizes and different detec to r types (Geiger-Mueller, Long time constants are generally used fo r calibra-
scintillation, etc.). Conversion val ues from the older scal- tion purposes.
ing methods can be found through the API file system at
the university. Logging Speed

Logging speed is generally a compromise between rig

Principie of Measurement
time and log quality (Fig. 4-7).

Today, most gamma ray tools use a scintillation detector Logging speed is selected to ensure the tool ascends
and photomultiplier tube (PM) as the detection system. the borehole only 1 ft in one time constant of time.
This method permits reasonable detail on an
The sensor is a sodium-iodide crystal that emits a expanded depth scale (1 :200 or 1:240). Fi ltering
burst of lig ht when struck by a gamma ray. methods used today are tied to th is concept.

Within the PM tube is a photosensitive surface that When reduced depth scales are used ( I :500 to
gives off electrons when exposed to light. l: 1200), logging speed can be increased to 2 ft in
one time constant of time. This is a condition that
The crystal is optically coupled to the PM tube and does not require detailed log data for interpretative
as the crystal absorbs a gamma ray, electrons exit purposes, but instead utilizes the log data for corre-
the photosensitive surface. lation purposes only.

- 142 -
,

::::::...
> <

--
~~ '>
<
1 ~/
--~
t">
< .................
J <
r--)
r-
-:;, 1
"
~ f=~ } )

--
~D
l
~
,..J
~

e:::::..
- f::::::: - --
-- --
_..-
I<
r--
_/

) e
~> <
(

j
~ "
-- --
.......__ >
... f:::::' (r-. v V
-
I <

l
1
12
-<

1'-
I<"
\. ...........
-- {
/
' i----..
i--
-(
f ,2_ \
<'. ) (
Speed (ft/min) - . 3.75 7.5 15 30 45

TC = 4 seconds

--
f-== =-- ._:,.
- ,.,
F _.
E_.
-~
~
~
';~
iJ
K
.).
ce._
r-- -----,>
,..:;;;;; =--
--~~ t==/ ~
c...(
>
D _.
e-.
-=:;-
..;;
: E
r:::,-
~
:;;:~

\
-~
.e ::::_

<
p
-e::_
---- ./
\

- -------
<

----- --- .......,

i::> ...
-e!:""" :,. ~. [:s- _..-
B _.

A_.
-<
>
I"""': ~
'p,
<t15- ~ 'r--
-::; ~ ..... V
g: ~i,..

7
<-.._
~
(l-J
'\

Speed (ft/min) -
~
-= ~
15 30
'>
~~ K
60
<
120

TC = 1 second

Fig. 4-6 - Comparing the effects of different time constants on gamma ray recordings made at several logging speeds

- 143-
 H <::
> > /
V
- -
L.--- V
G
F 1:::..
,-
-i---
i---
r--
~
--
.:::-
)
\ ..........
.,, l./> 't>
- --~> --
,~ /
,-
E

D
,_
,_
--- --::,-
<:.. i--- ..._
('.
r--....
e
'\.

e
,_
,_

r--
-
<::;:

<- -- ----
1"-- ...___
~
v' ),/
.....
,,)

i"- ..........
...._D
K>
[> '
< ( /

---
B V V
'b> - [)
A -- ~
~
---- V
V
(_
-- -
>
.. -- i---~
\
"--... ...___ ['-.._
..........
r--....
'
.< (
t ~ t ~ t t
2 4 6
Speed = 60 ft/min

Fig. 4-7 - Effects of different time constants at the same logging speed

GR-GRcn
The speed for above average resolution is usually !GR=
30 ft/min (9 m/min) or less depending on formation GRsh- GR en'
characteristics. Speed for correlation logging is generally where GR = log response in zone of interest (API
60 ft/min (18 m/min). units),

The outdated time constant circuitry did not react instan-

taneously to changes in radioactivity (Fig. 4-8). GRcn = log response in a zone considered clean,
shale free (API units), and
Delay time caused bed boundaries to appear up the
hole in terms of depth from the actual depth leve! - GRsh = log response in a shale bed (API units).
a distance referred to as lag.
/GR has been empirically correlated to fractio nal volumes
Lag had to be considered in depth measurements;
of shale in otherwise clean reservoir rock to provide a
i.e., the actual measure point of the instrument in
correction to the linear / GR response in rocks of certain
terms of depth reference was corrected for lag.
ages (Fig. 4-9). Curve l on the chart represents the linear
Lag depth = time constant * logging speed (ft/min) ! GR response from zero to 100% shale and yields an
/60. upper limit of shale content in any formation. Curve 2 is
described by Larionov as representative of the true shali-
Digital filtering methods used in modern radioactive log- ness correlation in pre-Tertiary-age rocks (Mesozoic and
ging devices handle the time constant function much Paleozoic). Curve 2 also leads to overestimates of shale
more effectively. when the formations are Tertiary or Quaternary and espe-
cially those that are unconsolidated. Larionov suggests
Determination of Shale Percentage from curve 3 for Tertiary and younger formations. If two for-
Gamma Ray Data mations of differing geological age have the same
amount of radioactive shale per unit volume, the log
Quantitative evaluation of shale content using gamma response should be lower in the older, more consolidated
ray data assumes that radioactive minerals other than and probably more dense formations. Gamma ray
shales and clay are absent. The gamma ray shale index absorption increases with the density of the matrix
(lGR) is defined as through which it passes.

- 144 -
 100
._TC = 1 sec
90

80

70
"O
Ql
"O
o
(.) 60
Ql
a:
Ql
O) 50
e

o"'
.e
40
o
eQl
~ 30
Ql
c..
20

10

30 35 40 45 50
Time alter Change in Seconds

Fig. 4-8 - Gamma ray responses are shown for different time constant values. More effective digital filtering methods have replaced out-
dated time constant circuitry.

1.0
Vsh= 0.083 (2 3.7 x IGR-1)
Tertiary clastics - ----.V"

0.8

/ 4 --+- Vsh = 0.33 (22 x IGR-1)

Mesozoic and older rocks

0.6
GR - GRcn
+- 1G R = - - - -
GRsh - GRcn

0.4 lf two formations of different geological age

have the same amount of radioactive shale per
unit volume, the Gamma Ray Log response
would be lower in the case of more
consolidated and dense formations. This is
0.2 because the gamma ray absorption increases
with the density of the medium through which it
passes.

o ________.______.______._______.______,
o 20 40 60 80 100
% Shaliness

Fig. 4-9 - Chart that is generally used to determine shale content from gamma ray data.

- 145 -
Older rocks generally exhibit more diverse differences
between GRcn and GRsh values. Log scales in Paleozoic
rock are generally from zero to 200 API units per track, o CA<

GR " 30_ _ _ _ _ _ CN-LOG POFIOSITY ( l - t'o11t) _ _ _ _ _

BVLJ( OENSITY
_ tO

whereas scales in the younger Tertiary and Quaternary " "

sediments are typically about 80 API units per track, and 1 ~
the clean end point is often greater (20 to 40 API units are ---<--
not unusual for GRcn)- Many geologists postulate this 1 ;::
relation to not only deposition of radioactive salts but to : '.::::.
time, which relates to half-life. Highly organic shales, > . ::-_ -.-... I""\
1
such as the Woodford, Baaken, and Chattanooga (U.S.A.) ~
formations, often exhibit API values of 300 or higher. ( - ~
(~
-=::.::::
r-,
,s: ..._
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION \ r:, 1

', <
Problem 1 -= -
<
<~
A zone in a Tertiary shaly sand sequence has a GR
response of "' 40 API units. Clean sands exhibit a GR e
>
response of about 15 API units and the shales demonstrate
""
an average GR response of90 API units in intervals of rel-
atively good hole condition. Calculate shale volume <Vsh)
4~

:=i:,
==1::
o -- -;J:ll _ - -

from the gamma ray response. Circle the correct answer. 1

> '

(a) 33% 1
>
(b) 19% ,- 1

(e) 75% 'l 1 !

(d) 11 % r'""~ h 1

7
Problem2 )
-- . - --(- -- . .. ;... 1
1

Tertiary sands and shales represent the interval shown on I

1
the Problem 2 example. Determine h for Zones A
through I indicated on the log. GRcn was estimated at 20 '
API units. GRsh was estimated as 96 API units. List your 1

<
values for GR and h. 1 1

Zone GR (API) Vsh

A Problem 3

A sequence of pre-Tertiary carbonates and shales is

B given. Determine Vsh in Zones A through F and list your
values for GR and Vsh . GRcn was selected as 25 API units
e and GRsh was selected at 100 API units.

D Zone GR (API) Vsh

A
E
B
F
e
G D
E
H
F
I

- 146-

( 1) Thin beds affect SP response and contrast between
Rm and Rw is very important. Enlarged boreholes
affect SP response because of the larger volume of
GR ,,_ ACOUSTILOG drilling fluid (R 111 ) . Salinity of che drilling fluid is
also very important as borehole size increases.
,.._,
GAWMAM.V
,.._,
SPf:CIF JC ACOUSIIC TIME

o
(2) Bed thickness is critical to selecting a maximum
1 " " "
1 static SP deflection. In beds :S; 5 ft (1.5 m) thick, the
1 1 SP is not recommend ed for -11 estimates.
e; 1 1 1 1
1 e
,.... ....
1
(3) Contrast between R"if and Rw is very importan t. As
--- 1
~~ I 1
the ratio of Rm to Rw approaches unity, SP resolu-
-~
1
,Jst tion diminishes quickly. This generally requires a
i
.
1 :
....-- 1 1-.l 1
1 ' 1
' ! contrast of"' 4 or more, and R 111is the greater value
i +, Ti 1 i TT 1 1 1 i..,--'
1 in almost ali cases.
J.++f l l'-r 1 1 ,
... Se:.:; .. ~ .. .. -- T"
: , ; ;__:__..:.'.;~ .
~
(4) If electrokinetic effects are present, the SP is not
1
1 recommend ed for shale volume estimates.
~ 1
1 3. 1
1
1
~ 1 1 ~> 11 (5) Another disturbing factor is baseline shift. Mechan-
1 .>
> ical baseline shifts are sometimes performed by the
TI (
1
, r Ir r ' 1 i 1 1' __.. 1" 1 1 logging engineer anda message should be inscribed
(
1T i . 1 4-----i:, i on the log at those depths where che shift occurred.
-r-- 1 1
_.- -!" When formation waters of differing salinity are sep-
1 ,- -.... .,.
1
I< ::__. 1
1 arated by a shale bed that is not a perfect cationic
-P
..
- 1 1
membrane, large SP shifts can occur. Severe
- i: r-~ ...
'-,-.... 1
y
changes in drilling mud characteristics occasionally
1 1 1 1 1 1 _:, 1
n
v 11 i 1 1
cause the SP, opposite the formations exposed to
-..,_C: > ,
1
..I: 'f.L...., .r ! 1 different muds, to reach equi librium. There are
-
1 11 1 ~
- ' - 1 1 1
1 1 1 11
many reasons mud characteristics should be kept
fairly constant, including better acquisition of log
data.
(6) Gradual baseline drift often occurs and is attributed
to bimetallism. Drifting of this type is usually the
DETERM INATION OF SHALE VOLUME condition that affects SP mechanical shifts.
USINGSP (7) The ratio of R, (or R0 ) to Rm must approach unity if
satisfactory amplitude deflections are to occur. In
The SP measureme nt was discussed in detail in Chapters general, chis limits the use of SP as a shale indicator
2 and 3. Using SP data for correlation and the calculation to low- resistivity, fresh-mud conditions.
of Rw were the primary points of discussion, and the
(8) Sorne permeability must exist in a reservoir before
effects of shaliness were mentioned o nly briefly. The
an SP deflection will develop.
theory of SP origin, borehole effect, thin-bed effect, etc.
will not be discussed again in this section. (9) SP noise is generated from a number of sources -
(a) Sine wave-shaped noise occurs at fixed depth
Although SP data occasionall y give excellent indications intervals, and is caused by magnetized moving
of shale, measurement resolution is a major problem with parts of che cable spooling drum, the clutch,
the SP device. If SP amplitude above the shale baseline is the chain, or the logging cable.
not great in permeable zones, resolution is obviously (b) Intermittent contacts with cable armor and
poor. When resolution is more than "' 40 mV deflection metal, such as casing, can cause spurious
from the shale baseljne, the SP trace often performs spikes on the SP trace.
adequately as a shale indicator. It becomes an excellent
indicator when permeable zones have an amplitude of (c) Direct currents often flow through high-resis-
80 m V or more. tivity formations near the SP electrode caus-
ing a bimetallism effect (this is similar to the
action of a weak automobile battery). Effect
Other factors must also be considered in selecting the SP on the SP is small except near high-resistivity
as a shale indicator. formations.

-147-
(10) A reliable SP curve is often difficult to obtain even
if most of the conditions mentioned previously are
satisfied. Offshore, it is often difficult to obtain a
good surface ground. lf the SP ground "fish" is
simply thrown over the side into the sea, crewboats
and passing ships can create disturbances. Rig
power sources and cathodic protection devices
often interrupt SP measurements. On land, pump-
ing wells, power lines, extremely dry surfaces, and
underground mine work can create problems
(Fig 4-1 O). Power lines and radio transmission
signals can also create problems. Ground electrode
type and location are important in any of these
situations.
(11) Shale affects the SP and makes it difficult to select
a maximum clean SP value if there is no clean sand.
( 12) Formation hydrocarbons can have a reducing effect
on the SP deflection; this happens most often when
the hydrocarbon is gas.
( 13) lnterbedded clay laminae within a sand body can
have an averaging effect on total SP deflection.
(14) Certain conditions of deep invasion can cause
unusual SP curve shapes, and in general, reduce the
SP deflection.
( 15) In sorne areas, SP disturbances can occur from
"Northern Lights."
Static SP
Static SP (SSP) is defined as the maximum SP difference
that develops between a shale bed and a permeable reser-
voir when two fluids of different salinities are found (R,,,
is substantially different from Rw.)- SSP has no bed
boundary, but because current flows and the actual SP is
a measurement of potencial changes in the wellbore, there
are variations between SSP and actual SP (Fig. 4-11 ).
To select an SSP, the analyst should ideally determine the
SP value in a sufficiently thick permeable zone that is
clean and water bearing and make any necessary correc-
tions for hole size. Usually a negative deflection, the
value in millivolts deflection from the zero potential
shale baseline is then recorded or marked as the SSP.
20mv
---1 1-- +

Jv~
V
(
"'
(O
o
'-- i - - o
~
~

<
1
lJ
[
(
<
(.

V
[_../

lf
Fig. 4- 1 O - Noisy SP log Fig. 4-11 - Selection of SSP and shale baseline

-148-
Pseudostatic SP
Pseudostatic SP (PSP) is the value recorded as the maxi-
mum SP deflection in a shaly sand if ali the above
requirements are met. Shale reduces the SP value. The
ratio of the shale-affected PSP and the expected SSP has
been defined as the alpha factor,
PSP
a = SSP = 1 - Vsh.
If PSP is used to calculate R11. , the value will be too high
(pessimistic). Nevertheless, PSP in water zones takes the
form,
Hydrocarbons reduce the SP more often in shaly sands,
especially in shaly gas sands. The amount of reduction is
calculated from
Shale Volume Calculation
The conventional method for calcu lating shale volume
from the SP is given as
Vsh (SP) = 1-( Ss;- C /1 -
SP1, ) .
SF;1,
Consideration before Using SP for Vsh
The lengthy number of disturbing factors that have been
presented tends to frighten most analysts away from
using the SP as a 1, technique. It is not recommended as
the only method at any time, but unfortunately, circum-
stances occasionally dictate its use as the only shale indi-
cator. More involved and intricate uses of the SP as a
shale indicator are discussed in an advanced course on
shaly sand log analysis.
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION
Problem 1
lf an SP trace is recorded at formation temperature,
R11, , will it be sufficiently sensitive to use for shale indica-
tion? Yes orno? _ _ _ _ _ __
Problem 2
The borehole mud resistivity, R,,,, is 1.05 ohm-m at for-
mation temperature, and the formation resistivity is
80 ohm-m. Will the SP be a reliable shale indicator? Yes
orno? _ _ _ _ _ _ __
LOG-DERIVED POROSITY (q>)
Although neutron, acoustic, and density logs are com-
monly referred to as porosity logs, resistivity measure-
ments are also affected by avai/able pore space. It is
important to recognize that no log makes a direct mea-
surement of porosif); and ali /og measurements used to
derive porosity have advantages and limitations.
Emprica! methods using data from shallow-resistivity
and microresistivity devices were among the earliest
attempts to derive porosity from logs. Neutron logs were
introduced commercially by Lane Wells in 1948.
ESTIMATING POROSITY FROM NEUTRON
DATA
Neutron devices respond to hydrogen and are therefore
sensitive to both fluid-filled pore space and borehole flu-
ids. Two major limitations are
( 1) Gas in the formation and/or borehole and
(2) Effects of differing lithologies, including shaliness.
Applications of Neutron Logs
There are numerous versions of neutron Iogging devices,
and they incorporate the largest variety of detectors, radi-
ation sources, and source-to-detector spacings of any of
the nuclear tools. Of the three basic types of porosity
tools, neutron devices are probably the most confusing in
terms of too] model, tool size, etc. The neutron devices
with chemical sources are used primarily to determine
rock porosity in a variety of conditions
Empty hole (cable tools or air-drilled rotary)
Fluid-filled boreholes
Cased holes (either fluid or gas filled)
Neutron data also provide information on lithology and
differentiate between fluid and gas when compared with
data from other porosity tools. Neutron logs are often
excel lent correlation devices.
R,,,r=
Neutron Applications to Petrophysics
Petrophysical relationships are based on neutron tool
response in large blocks ofrock (Fig. 4-12). The standard
tool response is determined in the API neutron calibra-
tion facility at the University of Houston. The calibration
pit contains large limestone blocks whose porosities are
1.9%, 19%, and 26%. A 7-7/8-in. borehole is drilled
through the center of each block, and the limestone is
- 149-
 Logging contractors maintain their own individual test
facilities and calibration devices, which are indirectly
calibrated to the University of Houston pit. When a com-
pany develops a new neutron device, severa) of the new
devices must be calibrated to the known parameters in
----~--,
Water--------,,_,
the API pit. Calibrating facilities within the service com-
pany are often more complex, including sandstone, dolo-
mite, and other rock types in addition to limestone.
Hydrogen content of any material is referenced to fresh

~'.~~s~oo~~sity -----,-;e;; ?j water and called the hydrogen index. Table 4-3 lists the
hydrogen index for severa) hydrocarbons and minerals.

Scaling of the Neutron Log

_:_/_:_\/.i):. In many areas, neutron logs are scaled only in limestone

: .:. :- ::..
... .
. _: _.:. : :: .. porosity units, because sandstone and dolomite trans-
. .. . ,.. forms are empirically derived and do not always fit the
19% Porosity -----i.
.: . :. : ~:. .-. :
. :.. .. . :.. ..
lithology correctly. In the United States, log scales often
. . . . . . show chart book correction to sandstone on the header
. .. . . .
. ... (U.S. gulf coast logs are typically scaled in sandstone
. :- ,: ... . . :- . . .
.. . . : . .... : . porosity units reading from 60% at the left of the scale to
. 0% at the right of the scale). In other areas, the limestone
scale may be offset to represent a compatible porosity
. . . . scale for another lithology (Fig. 4-13) .
26% Porosity -----+-,"

PROPERTIES MEASURED BY NEUTRON

TOOLS

The fundamental function of a neutron counter is to

accumulate the number of occurrences per second, later
Fig. 4-12 - Neutron lag calibration converted electrically to counts per second. Older

saturated with fresh water. By definition, a neutron log-

ging tool in the different limestone blocks is expected to
be adjusted to certain values of AP[ units. The University COMPENSATED NEUTRON
of Houston maintains the test facility, and service compa-
nies are expected to build their individual neutron cali- <l>CN (LIMESTONE, %)

bration systems to ernulate the established values in this 130 20 10 o -10

1 1 1
pit. Water-filled lirnestone blocks were selected for the
<l>cN (SANDSTONE, %)
followi ng reasons: 1 1 1
35 25 15 5

(1) Water was available, contains hydrogen, and would

not be expected to exhibit the effects of gas or sorne
lightweight crudes and condensates.
COMPENSATED NEUTRON
(2) Lirnestone is readily available in a relatively pure
forrn of CaCO3, whereas lithology and porosity <l>cN (SANDSTONE, %)
control of other rock types are not. 60 45 30 15 o
1 1 1

(3) Known high-porosity lirnestones and tight low- <l>cN (LIMESTONE, %)

porosity lirnestones were available frorn quarries to 1 1 1 1
provide sorne porosity variation between 100% 45 30 15 o
(large tank fu ll of water) and essentially terminal
pore space ( 1.9%). Fig. 4-13 - Lag scales are often fitted to suit local circumstances.

- 150 -
"
TABLE 4-3 - Hydrogen Content of Various Substances neutron-gamma devices (before 1965) are often scaled
linearly in counts per second. Sidewall neutron and com-
Substance Hydro~en Atoms Hyd1ogen lndex
x 10 3 per ce
pensated neutron devices also measure counts per sec-
Pure water ond, but the data are converted and presented in porosity
so F, 14.7 psi 0.669 1 units equivalent to a particular lithology. Since water-
2ooF, 1,000 psi. 0.667 1
filled limestone of differing porosities is the basis for cal-
Sal! water, 200,000 ppm NaCI
60.F, 14.7 psi 0.614 0.92 ibration, the most accurate lithology porosity scaling is
2ooF, 7,000 psi 0.602 0.90 limestone porosity units (essentially a linear response
Methane CH4 from 1.9% to 100%).
60' F, 14.7 psi 0.0010 .0015
2oo F. 1,000 psi 0.329 0.49
EthaneC2H 6
60. F, 14.7 psi Three types of neutron logging instrumentation are used
0.0015 0.0023
2oo F, 1,000 psi 0.493 0.74 in the wireline industry:
Average natural gas
soF, 14.7 psi 0.0011 0.0017
2oo F, 1,000 psi 0.363 0.54 ( 1) Neutron-gamma ,
N-pentane C 5H 12
so F, 14.7 psi 0.627 0.94
2ooF, 1,000 psi 0.604 0.90
(2) Thermal-epither mal neutron, and
N-bexane C 6H 14
soF, 14.7 psi 0.645 0.96 (3) Thermal neutron (== 0.025 eV).
200' F, 7,000 psi 0.615 0.92
N-heptane C7H15
soF, 14.7 psi 0.658 0.99 The basic operating principie of each device is to slow
2ooF, 1,000 psi 0 .632 0.95 the neutrons by coll ision with the nuclei of other atoms.
N-octane C 6H 18
The number of slow neutrons in the vicinity of the detec-
60.F, 14.7 psi 0.667 1.00
2ooF, 1,000 psi 0.639 0.96 tor is determined by the composite hydrogen index of the
N-aocane C9H20 medium between the source and detector. Water and
soF, 14.7 psi 0.675 1.01 liquid hydrocarbons have approximately the same volu-
2ooF, 1,000 psi 0.645 0.97
N-decane C 10H 23
metric concentration of hydrogen, or hydrogen index. If
60' F, 14.7 psi 0.680 1.02 the rock type is well established and contains small quan-
2oo F, 1,000 psi 0.653 0.98 tities of hydrogen, and the pore space is filled only with
N-andecane C 11 H24
60'F, 14.7 psi liquid, porosity is determined with acceptable accuracy.
0.684 1.02
2oo F, 1,000 psi 0.662 0.99 However, if hydrocarbons are in a single-vapor phase or
Bituminous coal .8424 (C) .0555 (H) 0.442 0.66 dual-phase of gas-liquid, calculated porosities are pessi-
Limonite 0.369 0.55 mistic and represent only the liquid-filled fraction of pore
Gypsum 0.325 0.49 volume. Therefore, a neutron device cannot by itself
Trona 0.284 0.42
Potash
resolve porosity in gas-saturated intervals.
0.282 0.42
Anthracite coal 0.268 0.40
Kaolinite 0.250 0.37 Electrically, neutrons are neutral particles, each having a
Chlorite 0.213 0 .32 mass identical to the mass of a hydrogen atom. The neu-
Serpentine 0.192 0.29
Glauconite
tron source emits high-energy neutrons into the forma-
0.127 0.19
Polyhalite 0.111 0.17 tion where they collide with other nuclei, and with each
Muscovite 0.039 0 .13 collision, the neutron loses energy. The amou nt of loss is
lllite 0.059 0.09 a function of the nuclear mass with which it collides and
Biotite 0.041 0.06 the type of interaction. The greatest energy loss occurs
Comparison to fresh water (under equal pressure and temperatura in the case of
fluids when the neutron directly strikes a nucleus of similar
Remarks: The number of hydrogen atoms per cubic centimeter of a substance may mass (such as hydrogen). This collision effect has been
be determinad as follows:
1) Determine the molecular weight of the substance
described as the billiard effect; when a neutron (or cue
2) Divide the molecular weight by the density ball) strikes hydrogen (colored ball), the neutron slows or
3) Divide Avogadro's Number (6.025x1023) by the above quotient stops (Fig. 4-14). If the neutron collides with a larger
4) Muttiply the above quotient by the number of hydrogen atoms per
molecule of the substance mass or indirectly strikes a similar nuclear mass, the
The density variation for "crude oils" w1th temperatura and pressure used above was interaction causes a partial energy loss. If hydrogen con-
estimated from charts published by D.L. Katz and M. Muskat (see references).
centration is large near the borehole, neutrons are cap-
tured near the borehole. Neutrons travel farther from the
borehole if a low hydrogen concentration exists near the
borehole. Count rates at the detector(s) increase when
hydrogen concentration is low and decrease when the
concentration is high.

- 151 -
,,

Scattered
o
GR (API )
150 500
NEU (CPS)
2500
Neutron

Inciden! Neutron

X
X
~

o
o

Fig. 4-14 - Schematic diagram of a neutron-nucleus collision e

is the "scattering angle," and q> is the "recoil angle. " The energy
loss of the neutron on collision equals the recoil energy of the
nucleus.

As collisions slow the neutrons to thermal velocities

("' 0.025 eV), random diffusion occurs with essentially
no further energy loss until they are captured by the
nuclei of atoms similar in mass (silicon, chlorine, hydro-
gen). The nucleus that captures the neutron becomes Fig. 4-15- Neutron-gamma devices demonstrate increased
excited and emits a high-energy gamma ray of capture counts at low porosity.
(interactive gamma ray). Depending on the type of
logging device, either the interactive gamma ray or the affected by shaliness and gas than epithermal devices.
neutrons themselves are counted by the detection instru- Thermal-epithermal detection is preferred by sorne
mentation. This count rate can be related to fluid-filled analysts, but this technique has severa! measurement lim-
porosity. Compensated devices use a short- and long- itations related to statistical life span of thermal neutrons
spaced detector, and the ratio of their count rates can be and counter technology. Neutron log response is a func-
processed to produce a linear-scaled porosity index. tion of hydrogen nuclei concentration, regardless of the
molecules containing hydrogen atoms. A comparison of
Neutron-gamma devices measure the gamma rays given neutron energy loss and nuclei collision statistics for
off when neutrons are captured. High counts occur in important borehole elements is shown in Table 4-4.
low-porosity rocks and low counts occur in high-porosity Accordingly, the chemically bound waters of clays and
rocks (Fig. 4-15). These devices are sensitive to small gypsum affect neutron logs as if they existed as free
environmental changes in or immediately surrounding liquid in the pore space. As a result, optimistically high
the borehole, and porosity calculations are considered porosities result when hydrogen is present in rock matrix
approximations. or dispersed as sol ids in the pore throats. Shaly sands and
rocks containing gypsum severely limit the effectiveness
Epithermal neutron tools measure the number of of a neutron too! used alone, but these tools can be used
neutrons with an energy leve! slightly above thermal to great advantage in conjunction with other porosity
energy, a condition that minimizes chlorine affect tools.
because the measurement is less related to chlorine TABLE 4-4 - Neutron Energy Losses
affects on the neutron population density. Both sidewall
tools and compensated tools of this type are available. Maximum
Average Energy
The log is normally recorded in limestone porosity units, Number Loss/ Atomic Atomic
but it can be corrected or recorded for a different lithol- Element Collisions Collision Weight Number
ogy. The wall contact devices are not used in cased hole
Calcium 371 8% 40.1 20
but are quite useful in empty holes and very low porosity
Chlorine 316 10% 35.5 17
environments. Rugosity or washouts severely hamper Silicon 261 12% 28.1 14
sidewall tool response. Compensated devices correct for Oxygen 150 21% 16.0 8
rugosity and allow more reliable log measurements. Carbon 115 28% 12.0 6
Hydrogen 18 100% 1.0 1
Thermal-epithermal neutron tools are used in sorne com-
Hydrogen - Average loss due to angular collision is 63%.
pensated neutron systems, but they are generally more

-152-
,.
Neutron logs have found wide application in carbonate
reservoirs because clay contamination is absent to mini-
mal, gypsum is seldom found at much depth; e.g.,
> 1,500 ft, and the log has more effective resolution at
low porosities than most devices.
NEUTRON CALIBRATION
Calibration of neutron devices is in count rates or appar-
ent limestone units, but tool response must also be cor-
rected for environmental conditions such as borehole
size, mud weight, mudcake thickness, mud salinity, for-
mation water salinity, and temperature. Most corrections
compensate for one another; the correction is usually
small, but occasionally extreme effects do occur (e.g.,
very high temperatures, unusually large boreholes).
Computer applications relieve this laborious task, but any
hand analysis requires a spot check to determine neces-
sary corrections.
SIDEWALL NEUTRON TOOL
Software associated with the sidewall epithermal neutron
too! processes the environmental corrections automati-
cally to the measured data. Mudcake thickness can
increase the apparent porosity reading because of its
additional hydrogen concentration. Again, chart book
corrections can be made manually, but computer applica-
tions simplify the task.
COMPENSATED NEUTRON TOOL
The compensated neutron too! was designed to reduce
most environmental effects, and more importantly, to be
run in combination with other devices. The tool is cali-
brated in standard conditions of eccentering in a 7-7 /8-in.
(20-cm) borehole filled with fresh water, water-saturated
blocks, no mudcake or standoff, 75F (24C) tempera-
ture, and atmospheric pressure. Variations in the actual
logging environment require corrections to the measure-
ments, but they are usually quite small.
Effects of Borehole Size and Borehole Salinity
Borehole size corrections are applied from a test pit that
vares in diameter from 4-3/4 in. ( 12 cm) to 20 in. (51 cm)
(Fig. 4-16). Correction charts are organized for borehole
salinities of O to 250,000 ppm NaCI equivalent in incre-
mental stages of 50,000 ppm; six charts are given in both
English and metric. Apparent porosity is generally too
high in largerboreholes [>7-7/8 in. (>20cm)l and too low
in smaller boreholes [== 6 to 7 in. (== 15 to 18 cm)]. Bore-
hole salinity is also very influential. As salinity increases,
apparent porosity becomes increasingly optimistic. The
error is approximately I porosity unit (pu) per inch of
change in hole diameter from the standard. Correction is
- 153-
significant in large holes - the change in hydrogen content
as seen by the instrument in the borehole fluid accounting
for the discrepancy (Fig. 4-17). Oil-filled boreholes have
essentially the same response.
Effects of Mud Weight and Mudcake Thickness
The weight of the drilling fluid is a limited factor, but
the hydrogen index of the mud is influential. Heavier
muds add barite that displace hydrogen from the fluid.
However, only about 2 pu of correction is observed for
15-lbm/gal mud at 30% formation porosity, and 1 pu
of correction is observed at 15% formation porosity
(Fig. 4-18). Correction in 11-lbm/gal mud is slightly less.
Mudcake corrections are minimized by using a dual-
detector system. Logs recorded with a dual-detector
neutron too! require less mudcake corrections.
In freshwater-based muds (no barite), 30% apparent lime-
stone porosity requires == 2 pu of correction for 11-lbm/gal
mud and == 1 pu of correction for 9-lbm/gal mud. At 15%
formation porosity, corrections are about I pu for 1 1-
lbm/gal mud and 0.5 % for 9-lbm/gal mud.
Standoff Effects
If the too! is not eccentered properly, accuracy is severely
affected and apparent porosity readings are too high.
Hydrogen between the formation and detectors causes an
increase in apparent porosity, and corrections can be
made by chart (Fig. 4-19).
Correction for 2-in. (5-cm) standoff vares from as much
as -8 pu in a 12-in. (30-cm) borehole to as little as -1 pu
in a 6-in. (15-cm) borehole.
Temperature and Pressure Effects
Increased temperature tends to decrease hydrogen con-
centration, but increased pressure augments hydrogen
concentration. Test pit experiments have shown there is a
slight decrease in apparent porosity when temperature
and pressure increase, and the magnitude becomes more
significant at higher porosities (Fig. 4-20). At 15% appar-
ent limestone porosity and 300F ( l 50C), the correction
is slightly more than + 1 pu, but at 30%, the correction for
the same temperature is +3 pu. The 15% apparent lime-
stone porosity requires == -0.5 pu correction at 10,000 psi
(== 70,000 kPa), while the correction for 30% is -1 pu.
Lithology Effects
Lithology effects are extreme; therefore, any porosity
estmate from neutron log data alone requires knowledge
of formation lithology (Fig. 4-21 ). At 5% apparent lime-
stone porosity, the effect of lithology adds 4 pu if the
 100,000 ppm NaCI Equivalen! Borehole Fluid
45
.,.v
40
"'
35
~
~ ,t. ,.

-
.
o
u

;
eo
30

25
7
,,,_

L,
"'
7'~
7"'-
~~~
~,'!

~
Q.
CI)
e: 20
o
t
G) -
E
:.J 15 -
'O
~
~ 10
o
(.)

5
-
o 1
-
-5
rt
-5 o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Apparent Limestone Porosity, +a(%)

- g 30 .i-r--..--l-r~:)f.l:ou4---h<JM-+-+++;+...,L_+,:J....-U:M~

-5W...'--'---L-'----'--'---'-'--...L..--'---............- ................._..._......_._,
-5 o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Apparent Limestone Porosity, +a(%)

Fig. 4-16- Neutron corrections for borehole size and salinity

-154-
,.

150,000 ppm NaCI Equivalent Borehole Fluid

45
~7 ,/
;,~
40

35
~
!:., ,,
v'

+
8 30
~~
~
. "

e 25
~
Q)
e: 20
o
ci'
Q)
E
J 15
"O
~ Ir
e 10
o
(.)

o -
-
- -
-5
-5 o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Apparent Limestone Porosity, +a(%)

150,000 ppm NaCI Equivalen! Borehole Fluid

. .--.----.,---.- --.-.--rrt.--,...,...,.--,
45 r---r.-.---r----:--
- ~.

l
+
8 30
.

25
e
~
Q)
e: 20
o
ci'Q)
E 15
J
"O
Q)
o
e 10
o
(.)

o
-5
-5 o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Apparent Limestone Porosity, +a(%)

Fig. 4-17 - Neutron corrections for borehole size and salinity

- 155 -
,.

Freshwater Non-Barite Muds

40
1-++-+-+-+--1-1" .. +1""11-....+. -+-+-+-+-+-t-- 1- - - .. t-+-t-+-,H--+-+-++ .... . . 'I' 7 ;r
i i 1 1 9 lb/gal ~-i- /'i;,'/
~=:~'.=..:~1-.,-E-i;:;7~1ish +-1H-+-1r++-+-+-+-+-+-+-,r+ 1 : ' ~ l'v
35

r ~
1
:f] :
1
J- -::::= 11 lb/g~I ,-,- p~~

~
1
.1-.. . . t
1--+I--+,.....;
1
+--+t--;_++-i'-...+....-t
... 1-..-;,..... ... "'+-t-i-+-+-+-t-i ~i=:r .. :~ ~:
, 1 .1 = 1 /v
V
. ~
Fresh
1

~ 30 Water
8 1-r-1-+-+-+-H-t- -,-;-..-r-1--,.-,-~-1+1..+-+.-.H-+-r-1- t-:~
i
~ ~- - ---,,_,.--_,_>-..,'....,."'11,-..,..,.',-1,---
~
.. -t- . - -r-r-
i- 25
.i
o
o
.... , ... +-lc-t--1-t-; -r1-t-MH-11o/>rt
a. , ..tH-t--t-i-Hh>'1V,.... t- Hr-t-+-t-MI-
Q)
e
o
u
Q)
E
::::i 15
"
Q)

~
o 10
'"
(.) t-++-++-++. ; -r ... -~.1-t-t-+-l-+- ~- . . t-+-t-+-+-1-+ t j+T.
t-_~_-..,+_4,. ,_"'1.,._-~':;t tt>-1~ ;t-Hr-t-+-t
'1
5 1
+-lf-+-i-r-+, t 1
-t ;.-. -r ~--t- t----r t 1t-'f-t--,--r-r-'f
~ ~ 1 - t - . - ' f t

o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Apparent Limestone Porosity, +a (%)

Freshwater Non-Barite Muds

40

Metric
35

~ 30
~
o
o
~

i- 25
'i
eo
a.
Q)
e
20
t t
~.
1
o + j '
u
Q) T
E + r 1 ...
::::i 15
, , 1t
"
Q)
1, r
f !!' i:
~ 10
o
(.)

r r t,
5

t t t

o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Apparent Limestone Porosity, +a (%)

Fig. 4-18 - Neutron corrections for mud weight

-156-
"

Freshwater Borehole
o

-2

-4
~
e.,
e
o
" -6
~
o

o -8
"~
e
(f)

~ -10
;
e
~
-12 t ._.__+

-+
1' .J.--

-14
t._.. __
~

-16
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Borehole Size (in.)

Freshwater Borehole
o,...__-_-_
"'!"'___-f::----.
--_--...,.--_- ,._-.- _
-_ ...,--_...,.
""l'"____ __ - -_
-_-,-_-::":i::..-~---_--f,
: __: : ielric , - . :~~---
~ - - - ~ -mm . -_
- -

=~~~~
--~- --
. ..:~~:::-...,-~~""-.:.--
---.c.:_ -10 .;;;: - - -
-2~-+ --+--- +~~-c ----l-_---- -
:::--.... .:fl.ll~ +---+- -t

~
~
.. -
~ "-

.- ~ .-~<O.-,,,;;----- -- . . -
-4 ,___. ,___ _,_____--,_ "" l~,--- -?'r----:...:_. --->- -
- - e-~ - - - - .-. sf---'-~17,""--:, _~:"-+_-_
\-'<-"--',1\. J----~ _-,,:--.i:-~
- ---l
__ - --1
e -1---,+- --+----- --1----- \'(')~ , - ___ ..__
o -..:;:::
u _51--- i---+ ---+-_-_-_-_r~-- -~-~~~~~s,:~;==~~,t::=-.-+---t ----f
~ - ~\--' ~ . ~ --:::'":_:-::::-
o
l'~\- r"t- - ~;:;: ---
-8 - - -- - -"~-- - - ~
1--- - - t - - - - + - l.- ----- -- - _____,_\.,,___-+-......- + - - - - + -- .....
---+-- --+--- . . -- - - '\. '
' - - i - . -+----+ --.......- - -1--------
~tafldo~- . ~ 1 "r--;: . . - . - .
{ -10
~
_~: =.:.---__ ._: ~: ~ ---: s~~-
-~--- - :: : -~
-12i- ---- -"-- --'----- 't---+-- -+---+- ---'ll'\. ..---+-- --r- -r=~ --:
--t
t---
--:--: - . - l :._: J:
-- . - t - - - -l _-_-_
- ----
l - :-'. .
- - - ---
- -~ ~-""'-
. - . - - - - - - - - . --- - . . 1-----'- +---'l<,
c ' - ---I
-14 .....____-+-
_~~::::_~_-.----+--- +-::_:: : ~'=.:::-:::.-:;_:: :::-:;-.:=-.
.-.-...,...-+ - - - + ~_~~--.~
:~ ~ :~- f ~:~~=-
-16..__....._ __._ _..__ _._---+--- -
_ __._ _..__ _.__.....,____.__ _,
--+_,+-_-::_-_+:- . . . .
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Borehole Size (mm)

Fig. 4-19 - Neutron corrections for standoff

- 157 -
 Temperatura Correction
40
-H+- -
. j' ' - t-
rt=-
If r . _._
11 l 1
. ! 11212F ffl - ~/ /,,?~
(100"C) - ,- - - ~ - - II .11,1
1. t , ! T t , , , ,
--t- . / /
35 f-!--i-l .. ,_ . , , 1111 1 1 1 --H 1 -1/./..,,"++-+-+-+
i .__,_ __ ; l 300F (=150C) _ _ _ _..,,,, .,r_,r.,
1 t T 1- --t+1 ~ . i - ~~-, ... T. / ~/
~
~ 30
--11 t - -, -,-.- r; i ~ -+++---f t,.
:.r_//
V/!
f- f .... ~ - ~ -

s~,,, ; -- ' ,
1 ' 1 i
--- 400F ( = 200C) r t vv,1 / i
J --.- 1 fT +1-1 : i ~p
1,

Tt - .-+-,e-+-,-,.'
~ t- =t=- 1 J -i---H- vl,1 t t t-- +
;

a..
25
'-==-
:t .. ~: ! n l=l-'
j_
l --:==._i i
-
'~........1-.v .1.1
[, ,
,,,.1.1/lt.1"Y1H-+-~-+ 1 , 1 , , , T T-
~i,,,
1 1
1
75~F (24.C.. )- _C'
1--
11

t
~(/) 20 M--+---+-<t-
_ .... --!-+-,.-+--1-4-...j.-"'4,,V,,l'+_+_t-,t- 1-+-._-,....,...
_...., ...\_ , ~,-__,-.. ;.-,
!___+ ..._- i-. :--:+::::::=:
Q) 1-- --t- - - Vfh1Li-t-+--t t t-: 1
: i t ! t; -t-
j ,. +41_rr~r+t-,-l-i~:++...1_~;+-....f+++
151-1-+....,..;,-1-+-1++-+4-cj~/~~~~+~+4t-+-+;,+-,_.- _ ,f -t-
r ....
,~

~~
:=:== -V~~~ t! !trt
t ;
1ij__ O-:
1
1t
t
: ~~8J
-,
o
1 ---

10l-i-++~H-H:MJf9--+-i-++-r-r--4-H-t-t++-t+-H-++~H-H...;....;;
u 1 --- -
T ~-r
1,
~
V -rr---
-w.+_'.
r j 1 1 t ,--
t' t t ' t --
.11 t1 . . -rl+ rt
1 f t 1
--,-- M 1 t~ + , , t --- j
, ,.-!-.- ~ 171 1 r rr- , , t t - - - +-1--+-r-
~ l ,..
5 ;; ~
; ~- 1 ; . r-~-+t r
: > trr-liii ~ l
O - 1 t 1 , t11 r+ 1 ' ,-
1 1 ' t
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Apparent Limestone Porosity, ~ (%)

Pressure Correction
40

35

~
~ - 30
o
-<>- "
~ 25
;
e
o
a..
Q)
e 20
,g
(/)
Q)
E
:.J 15
"O
~
!!?

o 10

Apparent Limestone Porosity, ~ (%)

The above temperature and pressure corrections apply to ali compensated neutron tools.

Fig. 4-20 - Neutron corrections for temperature and pressure effects

- 158-
 50
,
,
/
1..1
45 1..1
,.,. 1/
, 1/
1/ 11'
1..- 111'
/ 1/
40 , /
1..- 1/
/ 1..1 ,
1/ 1/ ,
35 17 ~
/ 1..1
,
-
~
a,
30 /
1/
17
111'

1..1
/
17
1..1
~

+
8 e, 17 ~ 17
,~ 1/ j i,
i!!-
;
e
~1/
-:, /
/ ., i,

& , ~17
25
-~..1
1/
.,
a'! 1/
1/
, .,
io /
/
1..1
1..1
!-)
~-
(.)
20 / / vT
I/ /
/ 1..1
/ 1..1 ,
/ / ,
15 , / ,
, / /
1..1 /
1/
/
., i,

i, /
10 ., 1/ I/
,, 1/ 1/

, 1.1 11'
V
1...-
5 ., / ....
1/ 1,
11 1/ 1/'
/ ,
' V
o '
" V 1,
i,.,

-5 o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Apparent Limestone Porosity, +a(%)

Fig. 4-21 - Series 2435 Compensated Neutron chart to corree! neutron porosity for lithology effects

-159-
formation is sandstone and subtracts 3 pu if it is dolo-
mite. At 15% apparent limestone porosity, the effect adds
5 pu if the formation is sandstone and subtracts 6 pu if it
is dolomite. At 30% apparent limestone porosity, the
effect adds 5 pu if the formation is sandstone and sub-
tracts 8 pu if it is dolomite.
The neutron lithology charts are derived from controlled
laboratory rneasurements in pits of differing lithology
and from empirical analyses of numerous field logs.
Sandstone and dolomite call for opposite lithology cor-
rections relative to lirnestone. Matrix effects are caused
by different neutron slowing properties of constituent
elements; i.e., differences in thermal neutron scatter and
capture coefficients.
A shale correction can be rnade with a chart (Fig. 4-22)
that also includes the corrections to sandstone or Iime-
stone lithology.
Many sidewall and compensated neutron logs record an
apparent limestone porosity trace. Neutron-gamma log
readings are converted from count rates to a porosity
index assuming Iimestone matrix. If Iithology is known
to be sand or dolomite, limestone porosity values deter-
mined from any of the three neutron devices can be cor-
rected (Fig. 4-22). The neutron-gamma tool uses sidewall
neutron corrections.
Formation Salinity Effects
Within a formation, hydrogen displacement by NaCI and
thermal neutron absorption by chlorine affect neutron log
readings. Borehole salinity and formation salinity often
differ. Borehole salinity results in too high an apparent
porosity as a result of increased absorption of thermal
neutrons by chlorine. Any increase in formation water
salinity reduces the hydrogen index; therefore, the only
effect on epithermal neutron tools is to decrease the
apparent porosity. However, increased salinity also dis-
proportionately increases the amount of salt and the cap-
ture cross section of the formation, an effect that causes
capture gamma and thermal-epithermal detectors to yield
apparent porosity values that are too high. In openhole
applications, invasion tends to normalize the borehole
and formation salinity effects and the net correction is
virtually negligible. Charts are given for sandstone, lime-
stone, and dolomite porosity to correct for formation
salinity (Fig. 4-23), but this is not considered an environ-
mental correction.
Compensated Neutron in Air-Filled Boreholes
For work in air-filled environments, the neutron source
can be changed from 20 curie to 5 curie, and only the
thermal-epithermal neutrons at the near detector are
- 160-
counted. The weaker source minimizes the neutron popu-
lation effect in the air- or gas-filled borehole, and the
single detector avoids an avalanche of counts on the
detector system. An alternative method is to use a much
longer spacing between the 20 curie source and detector.
Porosity resolution is severely diminished in the air-filled
environment because of the increased number of neu-
trons in the borehole. The slow-down phenomenon of
epithermal neutrons in the formation is less apparent, and
as the borehole diameter increases, the phenomenon also
increases. The too! is basically more sensitive to borehole
influence than the formation, and this sensitivity
increases with hole size. Sidewall neutron tools are more
applicable for logging in air-filled boreholes.
Casing and/or Cement Effects
Compensated neutron Iogs are often recorded in cased
hole. The effect of casing and cement on an eccentered
instrument inside the well-cemented, centered casing of
severa! test pit experiments indicates apparent porosity is
high because of the large hydrogen index of the cement
and high capture cross section of steel. Thermal neutron
density encompassing the detector system is depressed
and causes the increased log value. This topic is covered
more thoroughly in a cased-hole log evaluation course.
Effects of Hydrocarbons on Hydrogen Index
The dominant phenomenon of ali neutron log measure-
ments is the slow down of fast neutrons by hydrogen
nuclei. Response is primarily dueto the hydrogen index
of the formation, which is proportional to the quantity of
hydrogen per unit volume offormation near the borehole.
Hydrogen index of fresh water is taken as unity. In clean
water-bearing horizons, the neutron logis directly related
to porosity, and for most oil reservoirs, the hydrogen
index is similar. Formations containing gas, liquid con-
densate, and very light crude oils (high API) have sub-
stantially lower hydrogen indices, and apparent porosity
values are pessimistic. Dry gas substantially reduces the
apparent limestone porosity value.
In homogeneous formations known to have fairly consis-
tent porosity, a gas/Iiquid interface can be identified by
the neutron log. A clearer definition of porosity and
gas/liquid contacts is found when neutron data are com-
pared to density and/or acoustic measurements.
Gas in a formation causes an "excavation effect" in the
neutron log response. Significant separation exists
between gas molecules compared to liquid molecules,
and the neutrons therefore travel farther befo.re interact-
ing with hydrogen. This results in a longer path, less neu-
tron energy reduction, and significantl y lower apparent
porosity recordings. This effect is called excavation.
,..

Series 2420 Series 2435

Sidewall Compensated Compensated
Neutron Neutron Log Neutron Log
Shaliness-
Porosity (%) Porosity (%) Porosity (%)
Apparent Corrected Q) Q)

Limestone e e Q)
Limestone o 2 o 2 e
.E ~
Porosity, Porosity, ii ii .E ~ eo
u u u
+. e .2 e .2 e
+cor ctl
<J) o
o ctl
<J) o
o ctl o
o
1\ <J) 40

' \ 30
35 25
' 35 25
30
1\ 30
\ \ 35
\ \
25
\
\
' 30 20
\
,... 30 20
\ \ '\ 30
\ 1\ ' 20
\ \ \
\ \ \ 25 15
25 15
20
\ \ 1\
\ 20
\
\ \
\
\ ' 1\ 15
25

\ \ \ \
\ ,...
\
1\
\ ' 1\ --., 20
20 10 10
\ \ \ \ 20
\
\
1\
\
'\ 1\
\ 10
\ 1\
' 1\ 1\ 15 15
10
\
\
\
\
' 10
5
15
'\ 1\
\
\ \
5

1\ \ \ \
5
\ 1\ ' \ 10
1\ \ \ 10
1\ 10
11\ \ 1\ '
\ 1\ \ 1\
11\ \ \ \
\ \ 1\ 5 o
\
5 o 5 o
,... \ 1\. \
o o 3 3

(%
V sh

Shale) 1
O

r01/~
I7
~/'" 1O 20 30 40 50

4~\,

r 20 C:J~~e-

~!seor =h - Vsh X ~sh1s

Example
Given: In limestone units, ~Is
uncor
(from Compensated Neutron Log) = 20%,
~Is in adjacent shale = 30%, Vsh = 20%

Determine: Shaliness-corrected sandstone porosity, ~ = 18% (for Series 2420 CN Log)

Fig. 4-22 - Compensated neutron and sidewall neutron log lithology and shaliness-corrected porosity

- 161-
 Sandstone Formation Limestone Formation
35 35

30 30

25 25

15

10 10

5 5

o o
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Sandstone Porosity, +(%) Limestone Porosity, +(%)

Dolomita Formation
35

~
30
e..-
o
<.>
~
25
.
;
e 20
LI

~
'
~
E
o 15
oo
"O
Q)
10
~ ~ ~

o
(.)
5

o
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Dolomita Porosity, +(%)

Note: Forrnation salinity is not considered to be an environrnental correction. Rather, it should be used for
interpretive purposes along with Rw, Sw, lithology, etc:.

Fig. 4-23 - Neutron correction chart for formation salinity

- 162-
,.
Neutron log response in hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs Problem 2
is expressed as
Circle the correct answer. Neutron logs "see" shale as -

(a) High porosity

where ll$Nhi = the hydrogen index effect, (b) Low porosity
(e) Negligible influence
and ll$Nex = the excavation effect.
Problem 3
NEUTRON SHALE EFFECT AND SHALE
VOLUME DETERM INATION A sidewall neutron log shows an apparent limestone
porosity of 13%, but the lithology is known to be sand-
Apparent neutron porosities are too optimistic when the stone. What should the porosity be in sandstone units?
formation contains shale. Shale effects can completely Circle the correct answer.
mask light hydrocarbons that cause a decreased value of
apparent neutron porosity. Porosity derived from the (a) 13%
neutron log will be greater than effective porosity (b) 16.5%
because the tool is responding to the hydrogen index of (e) 10%
the entire formation, which inc ludes bound waters in the (d) Unknown
clay portion. If it is assumed that adjacent shale beds
have similar characteristics to shales mixed in the reser- Problem 4
voir rock, an equation for water-bearing shaly formations
can be written as If a compensated neutron log shows 20% porosity on an
apparent sandstone scale, what is the porosity estmate
for limestone? Circle the correct answer.

where Vsh = representative of the shale volume, (a) 15%

(b) 23.5%
and $Nsh = the neutron response in adjacent shale (e) 14.2%
beds. (d) 24.1 %

The values of $Nsh are a function of the types of clay, What is the porosity estimate for dolomite? Circle the
temperature, and pressure and can range from 15% to correct answer.
beyond 45%. Lithology corrections for the apparent
limestone porosity should be performed first. Porosity (a) 20%
corrections for shale volume can then be made by using a (b) 10%
nomogram . Shale volume determined from neutron logs (c) 9%
in carbonate reservoirs is usually reliable. (d) 4%

The neutron response in a shaly, hydrocarbo n-bearing Problem S

formation is approximated as
The equation assumes the neutron log was corrected for
lithology and environmental conditions.
Shale volume is estimated as 10% in a sandstone reser-
voir. The log data were recorded in limestone porosity
units. Correct the following compensated neutron values
for the shale affect and convert the value to sandstone
porosity. Note: $1s in adjacent shale bed is 25%.

PRACTIC AL WORK SESSION Shale-Corrected

Compensat ed Compensated
Problem 1 Neutron $is Neutron $55

Circle the correct answer. Neutron logs "see" dry gas as- (a) 5%
(b) 10%
(a) High porosity (e) 15%
(b) Liquid (d) 20%
(e) Low porosity (e) 25%
(d) No influence (f) 30%

- 163-
Problem 6
A 2435 Compensated Neutron Log shows 22% apparent
limestone porosity. Lithology is known to be sandstone.
Shale percentage is estimated from gamma ray and SP
data to be 20% with an average shale porosity estimated
to be 30%. Formation temperature is estimated at 320F.
What is the corrected estmate of porosity in the reservoir
following the necessary corrections for the above given
data? _ _ _ _ _ __
ESTIMATING POROSITY FROM ACOUSTIC
TRANSIT TIME
Acoustic interval transit time (~t) is a recording of the
time necessary for elastic sound waves to travel across
1 ft of formation. The term is specifica/ly described as
interval transit time between two ar more receivers (fixed
interval) to distinguish it from other terms such as slow-
ness, single-receiver travel time, velocity, etc. The ~t
measurement is the reciproca! of the velocity of an acous-
tic sound wave, and it is often integrated from total depth
to the surface (or shallowest depth possible) for time
comparison to surface seismic records. Yelocity (v) is
normally measured in feet per second (meters per sec-
ond), while .1t is measured as microseconds per foot
(microseconds per meter). Therefore,
~( = 1,000,000 / v.
USES OF ACOUSTIC LOG DATA
Today, conventional acoustic log data are useful in a
number of interpretations:
( 1) Determine porosity of reservoir rock
(2) lmprove correlation and interpretation of seismic
records
(3) ldentify zones with abnormally high pressures
(4) Resolve difficult correlation problems
(5) Assist in identifying lithology
(6) Estmate secondary pore space
(7) Delineate regional tectonics from acoustic profiles
(8) Indicate mechanical integrity of reservoir rocks and
formations that surround them (in conjunction with
density data)
(9) Estmate rock permeability
There are a number of specialized acoustic measuring
devices. These include array acoustic systems, dipole
-164-
systems, numerous cement evaluation devices, borehole
imaging devices, etc.
ACOUSTIC LOGGING SYSTEMS
The first acoustic logging device was developed to com-
pare borehole measured time and specific acoustic events
in a borehole environment to the times and interpreted
events from surface seismic reflections. In other words,
seismic data have not always been as accurate as sorne
would prefer, but onc_e a borehole is available, time-to-
depth correlations are possible. Seismic reflections occur
at interfaces in the subsurface where a marked change in
acoustic impedance occurs, and the strength of that
change is directly related to the magnitude of change. In
simple terms,
Acoustic lmpedance =
Acoustic Velocity x Bulk Density
Acoustic velocity is the reciproca( of the interval transit
time (~t) measurement of acoustic logs. Acoustic veloc-
ity (ft/sec) can be determined by
6
1O / ~/ (sec/ ft)
Acoustic velocities vary from about 6,250 to about
25,000 ft/sec (corresponding ~t values are 160 to
40 usec/ft); a ratio of 4 from minimum to maximum that
is expected in the sedimentary rocks normally encoun-
tered in subsurface oil and gas exploration. Comparable
bulk density range is normally from 2 to 3 g/cm 3 from
minimum to maximum.
The principal cause of reflections is therefore due to
velocity changes because formation density normally
increases as velocity increases (.1t decreases). This is not
always true, but covered in more detail in a more
advanced course. The important thing to recognize at this
point is the importance of the seismic role in developing
acoustic well logs.
The First Acoustic Logging Tool
The first acoustic logging systems featured one transmit-
ter and one receiver. A single-receiver system measures
only the time needed for a compressionaJ sound wave to
travel from the transmitter (T) to the receiver (R).
Elapsed time includes the travel paths A, B, and C as
illustrated in Fig. 4-24. Paths A and C are through the
borehole fluid . A rel iable interval transit time measure-
ment is difficull to obtain from the formation path B
because borehole size and/or tool tilt a lter the lengths of
the paths of A, B, and C. Also, the time length of path B
vares as changes in formation velocity occur and alter
the refraction angle.
,,
T A
B
Fig. 4-24 - Single-transmitter, single-receiver acoustic system
Devices with Two Receivers and One Transmitter
A second receiver was employed to cancel, or at least
reduce, the problems inherent with the original system
(Fig. 4-25A). Interval transit time (L'.1t) was introduced
with this system and is defined as the time measurement
of interval D, which represents the acoustic signa!
refracted through the formation . The path from T through
A, B, and C to R 1 is treated as one time path, and the data
transmitted from T through A, B, D, and E to R are
2
treated as a second time path. The difference between the
two paths is designated as interval transit time. This mea-
surement is fixed between designated intervals of the
measuring system, which makes it different from the
direct travel time of the original system. The measure-
ment is also different frorn two-way seismic time at the
surface, which is sometimes referred to as slowness
rather than velocity.
The two-receiver, one-transmitter device also had its
shortcomings. In fact, during the sarne time period, the
Soviets modified their acoustic logging devices to two
transmitters and one receiver, a method that would have
had similar advantages and problems. When the two
receivers (two transmitters in the case of the Soviet
acoustic too!) are positioned on opposite sides of a
-165-
significant change in borehole diameter (Fig. 4-25B)
and/or the acoustic too! is tilted with respect to the bore-
hole wall (Fig. 4-25C), L1t is lengthened somewhat.
Borehole Compensa tion Devices
The borehole compensated devices (BHC) were intro-
duced to correct for borehole rugosity and too! tilt. These
devices have two transmitters, arranged symmetricaJly as
upper (Tl) and lower (T2), with the sound pulses alter-
nating. Two separate values of two-receiver, one-trans-
mitter interval transit times are provided, and an average
of the two effectively compensate for any problems. The
illustrated travel paths show that the averages of AA',
BB', and CC' are essentially equal (Fig. 4-26).
Another method of compensation, called depth-derived
compensation, uses time-delay circuitry with a single
transmitter and two (or more) receivers. Fig. 4-27 shows
this too! in three positions. The L1t symbol at position one
is the compensated measurement and was determined as
follows,
( 1) At position three, the transmitter (T) is located at
the interval where the far receiver (R2) will be when
the too! is moved to position one. The interval tran-
sit time A (includes mud and formation signals) is
recorded between the transmitter (T) and near
receiver (R 1) and delayed (memorized).
(2) At position two, the transmitter (T) is located at the
same interval the far receiver (R2) will be when the
too! moves to position one. The interval transit time
B is recorded between T and R2 and delayed.
(3) When the too! reaches position one, the two interval
transit times (A and B) are equal to the interval tran-
sit time that would result if a second transmitter
were located below the receivers.
This is an application of the theory of reciprocity. The
correct compensated value of L1t is obtained by combin-
ing the two delayed values of transit time (recorded at
positions two and three) with transit times C and D
recorded at position one. Compensated transit time (L'.1t) is
then correctly represented by
B-A+C -D)
llt = (
2
The algebra is performed by the instrumentation. Depth-
derived compensation is the only method used for long-
spaced acoustic devices.
 A A

B
B
B

e
D
D

(A) (B) (C)

tools.
Fig. 4-25 - Single-transmitter, two-receiver configuration was developed to eliminate earlier problems with single-receiver

A T,

e
A

{ B

Fig. 4-26 - Two-transmitte r, two-receiver scheme used for Fig. 4-27 - Depth-derived compensation method
borehole compensation

- 166 -
Specifications of Most Conventional Acoustic Fig. 4-28) for the first negative arrival, an amplified noise
Log Systems spike may trigger the receiver and result in a short .1t mea-
surement. Most acoustic hardware switches off receiver
Hardware specifications, such as too! diameters, too!
circuits for a short duration to limit the possibility of spik-
type, transducer types, transmitter frequencies, pulse
ing, but this also makes the far receiver more susceptible
rates, etc. differ from system to system. Acoustic devices
to spiking. Most spikes can be identified as they move to
range from 3-3/8 to 4 in. (8.6 to 10.2 cm) in diameter, and
earlier times (to the right) on the transit time trace (Fig. 4-
transmitter frequencies are generally 20 kHz, but may be
29), and they should be edited prior to using the data for
as low as 15 kHz oras high as 30 kHz. Tools with smaller
log analysis or seismic comparisons. Today's digital
diameters are available for small boreholes or for hostile
acoustic logs use despiking circuitry to eliminate time
environments.
measurements that exhibit extreme variation.
Transducers used in conventional acoustic devices are
generally magnetostrictive or piezoelectric and vary in Cycle Skips
size and shape. Sorne are cylindrical in shape; others are
very small and are often referred to as point transducers. Sudden and unusual shifts to higher values of .1t are
caused by skipping beyond the first arrival where detec-
DISTURBING FACTORS WITH tion is intended. Weak, attenuated signals occur at receiv-
CONVENTION AL ACOUSTIC DEVICES ers, and if the threshold detection leve! is set too high,
detection is not triggered until a later arrival with sufficient
Acoustic tools and measurements have severa! draw-
amplitude (Fig. 4-30). Cycle skips normally occur in pre-
backs. Noise, cycle skips, .1t stretch, velocity inversion,
dictable increments of time, related to the timing circuitry
gas effect, and dip angle with respect to the borehole are
(e.g., increments of 1Oor 12.5 sec). Cycle skipping occa-
potential problems that deter effective acoustic transit
sionally results from amplitude reduction on a weak near
time measurements.
receiver and causes an early .1t measurement (Fig. 4-31 ).
Noise Digital acoustic circuitry effectively eliminates most
problems encountered with earlier tools.
Noise spikes are generally intermittent. A certain amount
of noise always occurs on the acoustic waveform. Cable
CALIPER INTERVAL TRANSIT TIME (s)
strum and other small electrical interferences cause sorne 6 16 140 90 40
noise, and telemetry circuitry must be trimmed to
accommodate the cable length; i.e., cables too short or too
long can create problems. Assuming that a logging engi-
neer sets the equipment detection leve) too low (A in t
NOISE
SPIKES

Near Receiver
Signa!\ E1

A
--- ,--
Threshold
Detection
E2
~-~--~
(O
(J1
o

Fig. 4-29 - Most noise spikes are toward lower transit time.

Typical
Signa!
Attenuated
Signa! /l \
1

Far Receiver
Signa!

\
Additional
Time
Dueto Skip
Fig. 4-28 - Far receivers are more susceptible to noise.
Fig. 4-30 - Cycle skip

- 167 -
 CALIPER INTERVAL TRANSIT TIME (s)
6....- - - - ~ 16 140 90 40
.:.
~ 1---------1--P--1-------I
)
o
CYCLE
SKIPS
.:.
8 ~----~---_._-~
o
Fig. 4-31 - Cycle skips on an interval transit time recording
MStretch
If signal through a formation is sufficiently attenuated to
reduce amplitude but not eno ugh to cause skipping, the
time of detection can be delayed 2 or 3 sec. This condi-
tion is referred to as L1t stretch (Fig. 4-32). Measured tran-
sit times are too long as a result, and the error is not always
clear on a log. However, a 3-sec error in transit time can
create a 2-pu error in porosity determination. A cumula-
tive error of 2 to 3 sec over severa( thousand feet of bore-
hole can create a serious error in the integrated travel time
(multiplied by two and compared to seismic two-way
time). Again, downhole digital methods eliminate much
but not ali of the problem.
Velocity Inversion
If a permeable zone is invaded and altered near the bore-
hole, L1t can be faster than it would be in the undisturbed
virgin zone. If both zones are fas ter than the dri lling fluid,
the very best an acoustic tool can do is measure damage
zone transit time. L1t is too short in such conditions.
An example of such a situation is a mud filtrate more
dense than the formation connate water, an inversion sit-
uation restricted to consolidated formations where a
linear porosity-velocity relationship is more likely to
exist. Such a condition is restricted to shallow depths
because fluid effects in formations are restricted by
depth. A flushed-zone transit time 5 sec/ft short of
virgin zone transit time in a zone with 20% porosity
would cause a 1-sec drift. Increased pore pressure in an
overbalanced mud system may have sorne affect, also.
Yelocity may increase as increased pore pressure
improves fluid-to-grain contact, grain-to-grain contact is
impaired, or fluid elasticity is improved.
- 168-
Typical
Signal
Attenuated
/
1
Signal /
--r-----4 - ---
Threshold \~, /
Deteclion _ ~- E
2
Stretch
in Time
Fig. 4-32 - Attenuated signals stretch time to detection
Shallow Gas Zones -
A Special Case ofVelocity Inversion
Gas-bearing zones invaded by mud fi ltrate can create a
special case of velocity inversion. Acoustic logs measure
L1t in the flushed zone. If the formation has no relati ve per-
meability to gas (gas saturatio n does not flush laterally
from the borehole), gas in the flushed zone has a serious
effect on the transit time measurement.
This shallow gas zone velocity inversion phenomenon is
not entirely understood. However, it has been
posnllated22 7 that the magnitude of the effect requires
the acoustic log to be gas corrected by a factorof0.7. Many
acoustic logging experts agree that the gas effect is an "off
and on" happening and that above a certain porosity value
(:: 28%), the gas effect occurs regardless of S8 or invasion.
Below this arbi trary porosity cutoff, gas effect does not oc-
cur. The postulations and q> values are admittedly rough
estimates.
An example log illustrates gas effect on density-neutron
data above 9,448 ft, and the acoustic log displays a corre-
sponding shift in L1t at the same depth and above (Fig. 4-
33). The 0.7 factor would correct the acoustic log values
from 140 to l 00 sec. Other more complex methods have
been suggested for correcting L1t measurements affected
by gas, but these methods require a knowledge of forma-
tion modulus and computer processing is needed if large
amounts of data are to be studied.
Dip Angle with Respect to the Borehole
When the formation dip, relative to the borehole (appar-
ent dip), is steep, acoustic signals may travel along the
refracted paths of dip planes rather than along the wall of
the borehole. The result is a short L1t measurement.
 SP
VELOCITY
APPARENT POROSITY INTERVAL TRANSIT TIME
20MV CALIPER THOUSANDS
, - . . . . . . , ~ ~ - ---
-, F" "--
---'+----r---'-'I
INCHES OF FT/SEC
9 13 S.P. RESISTIVITY 8 10 12
81--~'--'~-~-- ----r----.---- ~-----r.,..,----.- ----1
o
(")

""
i en
UJ
I

~

..
'f
8

Note that in shaly intervals the shorter distances read

velocities that are too low, but in sandy zones all agree.

Fig. 4-34 - Hicks observed that shale hydration effects dimin-

ished when longer transmitter-to-rece iver spans were used.90

Advantages of Long-Spaced Devices

Fig. 4-33 - Gas affects neutron-density and acoustic log data
above 9,448-ft depth.
Fast formations (high-velocity rocks, such as anhydrite,
tight limestones, and dolomites) often appear thicker on
the acoustic log than they really are. The false thickness
indication is caused by the first arrivals from any side of
the borehole taking the fast path to the receivers. This can
occur when dip is very steep in a vertical borehole, or
where dip is reasonably horizontal in a highly deviated
borehole.
Dramatic differences were observed in L1t values recorded
by conventionally spaced and the long-spaced instru-
ments, and the difference was commonly found in shale in-
tervals (Fig. 4-35). With the long-spaced devices, the fal-
lacy of simply making a linear correction to L1t values on
a conventional log was soon obvious because the degree of
change seen in shales was not observed in sandy intervals
(Fig. 4-36).
Formation alteration occurs near the borehole wall and is
believed to be caused by mechanical damage, stress
relaxation, and/or interaction between the drilling fluid
and rock matrix material (clay hydration, etc.). This

EVOLUTION OF LONG-SPACED GR INTERVAL TRANSIT TIME (s)

ACOUSTIC LOGS 250 150 50

')
The difficulty involved in relating acoustic log time to
depth reference with surface seismic was discussed more
than 30 years ago. 90 Erroneously high L1t values in shal-
low, unconsolidated sand-shale sequences have been 1

attributed to both hydration and stress rel ief. Compara- ) LONG

tively speak.ing, the time-depth problem is almost always /sPACED
more severe at shallow depths. Hicks observed that shale )
(
hydration affects diminished when longer transmitter-to-
\
receiver spacings were used (Fig. 4-34). The first long- 'l
(
spaced acoustic tools were developed in the early 1970s 1 ~
for use along the Louisiana gulf coast to prove conven-
tional-spaced recorded shale transit times were abnor- Fig. 4-35 - Differences between conventional and long-spaced
mally high. t.t recordings are attributed to shale alteration.

- 169 -
 The three paths have been related mathematically by
GR INTERVAL TRANSIT TIME (s)
Goetz, Dupa!, and Bowler78, who produced plotted data
250 150 50
relating the affects of forrnation alteration on acoustic
LONG recordings at different transrnitter-to-receiver spacings
SPACED (Figs. 4-38, 4-39). These plots can be considered a depth-
of-investigation experirnent in front of altered forma-
CONVENTIONAL tions; however, uniforrn step profiles are rare.
SPACED

t.tm = 200
\ t.1=130
z0 = 4 in.
3 ft 5 ft
40
Fig. 4-36 - Alteration is seldom observed in sand intervals.
8 ft

alteration leads to higher .1t rneasurernents, which can be _30

<J
explained by observing the three paths frorn transrnitter 1
"O
to receivers using a simple one-transmitter, two-receiver <
setup and assurning an idealized step profile of invasion e
.220
(Fig. 4-37), ~
2
<i:
Path is directly through the drilling fluid.
10

Refracted path in the altered zone. 5

Second refracted path penetrates deeper into the 3 5 7 9 11 13 15

forrnation. Alteration Depth (lnches from Borehole Wall)
(Step Profile)

Transmitter Fig. 4-38 - Alteration effects vary with transmitter-receiver

D spacings.78

3 fl- 5 ft 8ft-10ft
120 100 150
40

Refracted Signa! Path

Conventional Tool
Refracted Signa! Path < 30
1
Long-Spaced Tool "O

/
<
e
Near ,g 20
~
Receiver 2
<i:
Borehole
wa11- 10

t.tm = 200
Far
Receiver o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
122..+12:!..1 Alteration Depth (lnches from Borehole Wall)
Mud ~ (Step Profile)
Altered Zone
Near Borehole
Fig. 4-39 - Effects of formation alteration on different spaced
acoustic measurements.78
Fig. 4-37 - Theoretical differences in signa! paths when forma-
tion alteration occurs?

- 170-
Disadvantages of Long-Spaced Acoustic Devices
Longer transmitter-to-receiver spans [7 and 9 ft (2.1 and
2.7 m) or more] cause the transmitted sound pulse to travel
farther, which attenuates the signal to a greater degree.
Signal-to-noise ratio is decreased, making the measure-
ment more susceptible to cycle skipping and noise.
Long-spaced devices are not immune to alteration effects
(Fig. 4-40). As shown, both the conventional BHC
Acoustilog device and a long-spaced device were run at
1-week intervals over the same zone of a speci fic bore-
hole. Regardless of the spacing, an acoustic logging
device cannot measure formation transit time accurately
if the following conditions exist.
Formation velocity is slower than velocity of the
drilling fluid (shallow depths in unconsolidated
sediments).
Formation velocity of the undisturbed matrix is
slower than the velocity of the flushed zone near
the borehole (many shallow gas reservoirs).
Longer spacings require longer travel for the acoustic sig-
nal, and therefore, the time between switching the re-
ceiver circuitry "on" and "off' is more tenuous; incorrect
triggering can occasionally result. Improved transducers
and digital circuitry maintain more constant signa) levels
and overcome most of these problems. Porosity derived
from conventional or long-spaced devices is similar be-
cause interval transit time is measured in sec/ft (usec/m).
WYLLIE TIME AVERAGE EQUATION TO
DERIVE POROSITY FROM ACOUSTIC LOGS
Wyllie's time average equation describes an average
response. Factors that contribute to substantial error are
pressure differentials, lithology, pore geometry, and
cementation.
The relationship is expressed in the following equation
and is referred to as the Wyllie time average formula,
I <j> ( 1 - <j>)
- = -+--~ ,
V Vf V
1110
where <j> = fractional porosity of the rock,

Gas saturation in the flushed zone is greater than V = velocity of the formation (ft/sec),
the gas saturation in the virgin formation.
v = velocity of interstital fluids (ft/sec),
and v1110 = velocity of the rock matrix (ft/sec).

FORMATION ALTERATION The equation is rewritten to express porosity in log termi-

GAMMA IIAY nology (Llt),
- INff

or
fi.t- /)./11!0
<l> = -,-----
fi.t - fi.t
f ma
where Llt = acoustic transit time (sec/ft) ,

Llt1110 = acoustic transit time of the rock matrix

(usec/ft),

and Llt = acoustic transit time of interstitial fluids

(usec/ft).

Yelocities and transit times for different materials are

Effects of alteration on 3'-5' and 8'-10' Sanie tools, each run at
a one week interval in the same well. (After Goetz, et al. , 1979).
Fig. 4-40 - Long-spaced acoustic devices are not immune to
alteration affects.78
listed in Table 4-5. The value used for !!.t is usually
189 usec/ft (== 5,300 ft/sec fluid velocity) for relatively
fresh drilling fluids. In salt muds, a lower value
(== 185 usec/ft) is often used. Because acoustic logs have
a very shallow depth of investigation, filtrate generally
occupies the interstitial spaces measured in reservoir
rock. Fluid transit time is needed in order to perform the
porosity estmate. Equivalent metric conversions are
used where required.

- 171 -
 TABLE 4-5 - Velocities and Transit Times
for Several Materials

v, 11.t ,
Fluid (ft/sec) (sec/ft) 50 v = 5,300 ft/sec /
Water with 20% NaCI 5,300 189 / /
Water with 15% NaCI 5,000 200 I
/
Water with 10% NaCI 4,800 208 , / /
Water (pure) 4,600 218
40 1.1/ /
/1.2 / /
Oil 4,200 238 , /
/ /1 3 / /
Methane 1,600 626 / / . ,/ /
/ ,1.4. /
Air 1,100 910 ~ 30
o. / / //1.5 /

Formation
Yma
(ft/sec)
ll.tma
(sec/lt)
~
i,
;
eo 20
////;// t
//////
/////
//
/ / / / /1.6

Sandstone (l_
/////
Unconsolidated
111111 Cp
17,000 58.8 '//////
orless ormore
Semi-consolidated 18,000 55.6
10
Consolidated 19,000 52.6
Limestone 21 ,000 47.6
Dolomite 23,000 43.5
Shale 6,000 167
to 16,000 to 62.5 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 11 O 120 130
Calcite 22,000
lnterval Transit Time, Lit (sec/ft)
45.5
Anhydrite 20,000 50.0
vma (ft/sec) tma (sec/ft)
Granite 20,000 50.0
Gypsum 19,000 52.6
Sandstones 18,000 19,500 55.5 - 51.3
Limestones 21 ,000 - 23,000 47.6 - 43.5
Quartz 18,000 55.6
Dolomites 23,000 - 26,000 43.5 38.5
Sal! 15,000 66.7

Fig. 4-41 - Porosity evaluation from Lit

The depth of investigation into the formation itself is
quite shallow. The dual-receiver acoustic systems essen-
tially measure the time it takes a refracted signa! to travel
within the formation between two receivers. Borehole-
compensated systems simply average inverted measure-
ments of L1t to correct for too! tilt, borehole enlargement,
bed boundary effects, etc. Investigated rock volume
varies from 9 in. (22 cm) in soft formations to as much as
3.75 ft (l. l m) in extremely hard formations. This is a
function of elastic propagation wavelength, which is
determined by wave frequency and formation velocity.
Acoustic travel time in rock matrix (L1tma) is influenced
considerably by rock type as chemical composition var-
ies, but compaction and confining pore pressure are also
influential. Lithology identification is important in deter-
mining porosity, and chart solutions are available to
determine porosity (Fig. 4-41 ). However, the Wyllie
equation represents consolidated and compacted forma-
tions (generally <25% porosity in sands).
Compaction Correction in Unconsolidated Sands
a result, L1t values are often much higher than in water-
saturated zones of the same formation. Also, if clay lami-
nae or dispersed and/or structural clays exist within the
sand reservoir, L1t values are increased by an amount pro-
portional to the bulk volume fraction of the clay. In such
high-porosity environments: L1tsh generally exceeds L1tma
of the sand.
If the Wyllie equation is used in unconsolidated sands,
correction for compaction is necessary. Generally, such
sands can be identified by observing L1t in adjoining shale
beds. Formations not subjected to sufficient overburden
pressure do not have enough compaction and rigidity for
proper transmission of an acoustic wave, and as a result,
with decreasing overburden pressure, L1t through uncon-
solidated formations increases disproportionately. An
empirical equation can be used to calculate porosity in
unconsolidated sands,

Unconsolidated, high-porosity sands (e.g., U.S. gulf

coast, Nigeria, Venezuela) often have much higher poros-
~ = ( :r:~ :;:~J ~J'
where the compaction correction factor is
X(

ities ("' 28 to 50%). At shallow depths, these reservoirs

often have low water saturations, high residual hydro- tsh ( C)
carbon saturations, and extremely shallow invasion. As
100

- 172-
,
where L1t51, = specific acoustic transit time in adjacent
shales ( sec/ft), 120

and IO0 = specific acoustic transit time m com-

11 O
pacted shales ( sec/ft). Vf (tVsec)
5,800
The shale compaction coeffi cient (C) is a variable, ranges 100 6,300
from 0.8 to 1.3, and is applied onl y when ,1tsh is greater
than unity. Selection of the coefficient depends o n experi-
ence and the geographic a1 area. In the gulf coast region, 90 -
the coefficient ranges upward to about 1.3 and generally g
diminishes toward inland areas. The 1.3 value is often (.)
Q)

exceeded in shallow sands. 2, 80 -

<

ACOUSTIC POROSITY IN CARBONATE AND (ji

70
COMPLE X RESERVOIRS ~~(lj

Limestone, dolomite, highly compacted cherts, and 60

quarzites, occasionally with evaporite infilling, comprise
much of the rock constituents found in carbonate or com-
plex reservoirs. Such rocks generally have porosities 50
<15%, altho ugh higher porosities are fo und. Lack of
compaction is almost never substantial in these rock
40 '------'- -- -'------ '-- -~ - - ~
types, and invasio n is usuall y moderate to deep. Dis- o 10 20 30 40 50
persed shales and clay particles occur, but usually in such Porosity (%)
small amounts as to be considered negligible. Lithology
and porosity type beco me the major concern. Fig. 4-42 - Special empirical chart for determining acoustic
porosity in carbonates

Wyllie's time average equation adapts well to carbonates

with intergranular limesto ne porosity, but once dolomiti-
zation or other diagenetic influences occur, pore type and
distribution are changed significantl y. In short, sound
velocity in carbonates is related predominantly to the
sound path through p rimary intergranular porosity, and
seconda,y pares are often bypassed as matrix material.
Velocity Variation in Sandstones

Terms such as vugs, sucrosic, intercrystalline, fractures,

The highest velocities observed in sandstones approach
etc. should trigger precautiona ry steps. A special empri-
20,000 ft/sec (50 sec/ft), but most sandstones have a
ca! chart was created for determining porosity from L1t
lower matrix velocity. Adjacent shale velocities are used
through carbonates of this type (Fig. 4-42). A limited
to adj ust the matrix velocity for sands having velocities
range of fluid velocities (5,800 to 6,750 ft/sec) was
lower than 18,000 ft/sec. Guidelines are listed as
selected for the chart. Equivalent ,1t values are 172 and
148 sec/ft. Similar charts can be devised for metric
.1t5 1, (sec/ft) v1110 (ft/sec) ,1/ma (sec/ft)
measureme nts. Although the fl uid velocities used in the
chart are fictitious, experience indicates substituting a
70 - 80 20,000 50
higher velocity value (or a lower flu id ,11) than that
80- 90 19,000 52.5
known to exist results in a more acceptable porosity 90 - 100 18,000 55 .5
value. The chart is devised for a limestone and dolomite > 100 Use compaction correction (Cp)
composite onl y. The original Wyllie ti me average for-
adj ustments.
mula can also be modified empirically to achieve similar
results, but other logs may be better for determini ng When density and/or neutron logs are available, the
porosity in carbonate reservoirs. Acoustic log data are acoustic results should be cross-check ed in clean sands.
effective in deri ving a secondary porosity index in car- Porosiry calculations from densiry and neutron data are
bonates. This method is discussed in Chapter 5. not subject to compaction problems.

- 173 -
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION CORRECTING ACOUSTIC-DERIVED
POROSITY FOR SHALINESS
Problem 1
Clastic reservoir rocks, whether compacted or unconsoli-
dated, usually contain sorne amount of silt or clay parti-
The interval transit times (Llt) listed below were mea-
cles, and acoustic transit times are longer than expected
sured over severa] depth intervals in a sandstone reser-
in clean sandstone. Use of a conventional equation to
voir. Calculate the porosity (<l>ac) using Wyllie's time
determine effective porosity of the formation gives opti-
average equation and a matrix velocity (vmaJ of
mistic results; shale transit times from 62 to 167 sec/ft
l 8,000 ft/sec. Calculate porosities to the nearest 0.5%.
have been cataloged.
Tabulate the answers in the column provided.

<l>ac If no other "porosity logs" are available, fractional shale

volume can be estimated from other measurements
100 strongly affected by shale content (gamma ray or SP). If
both gamma ray and SP are used, select the shale value
94
that indicates the minimal volume.
82
Acoustic log measurements are affected by the amount of
76 shaliness and by the shale distribution. In sand reservoirs,
shale occurs in the form of laminae, as dispersed
67 particles, or as a structural part of the matrix. The type of
distribution defines limiting conditions, and a combina-
Problem 2
tion of types is often found. It is possible, however, to
calculate shale volume from acoustic data.
Log data indicated adjacent shale beds to have an interval
transit time of 125 sec/ft. Determine the sandstone Correcting Acoustic-Derived Porosity for
porosity for the following log values (M) using the equa-
Laminated Shales
tions. Tabulate the answers in the column provided.
lf laminated shales are assumed to have the same charac-
jJ
<l>ac ter as adjacent shale formations, shaly sand response is
therefore assumed to be dependent on the shale content
104 and properties. In well consolidated shaly sands, acoustic
porosity can be resolved as
98
= [ Llt - Mma )- V [Lltsh- Lltma)
<p Llt - Llt sh M - Llt .
J ma J ma
94
In unconsolidated shaly sands, the compaction correction
is introduced, and

:t~--:~J[ ~J- :t:;~::::)

82

76 <I> = [ Vsh[
A simplified approach to both equations is
Problem 3

Listed below are a few shale transit times. Assuming

each is adjacent to a sand reservoir, select appropriate where <l>ac(sh) = porosity calculated for shale by the time
matrix transit times for the sands. average equation.

Correcting Acoustic-Derived Porosity for

jJma
Dispersed Shales

95 When clays are dispersed in the interstitial pore spaces of

the sand matrix, the L1t response is similar to what it
80 would be if only water occupied the pores. The dispersed
clays act as a slurry if the clay volume does not exceed
120 40% of the total pore volume. Above 40% volume, the

- 174 -
 rock is no longer considered commercial because of low
permeability. Acoustic response in a shaly sand, when
only disseminated clays are present, is written as
or
DISTURBIN G FACTS WITH ACOUSTIC
MEASUREM ENTS
Borehole diameter has little effect if it remains relatively
constant or does not become extremely large (size is
somewhat dependent on transmitter-to-receiver spac-
ings). Signa! amplitude becomes attenuated in larger

4> = [:/~:;ia )-vsh

f ma
In unconsolidate d sands, the equation is modified by
introducing the compaction correction (Cp),
boreholes, and centralizers are necessary to obtain maxi-
mum signa) strength. However, in boreholes > 16 in.
(41 cm), the tool should be eccentered to allow it to travel
the low side of the borehole.

4> =[:/~:;na)[~ )- Vsh'

f ma p
Cycle skipping tends to occur whenever the signa) ampli-
tude is greatly reduced - for whatever reason. Enlarged
hole, gas-cut mud, and unconsolidate d formations can ali
or
lead to cycle skips. Noise spikes can be caused mechani-
cally but are more often a result of insufficient signa!
measured at one of the receivers (usually a far receiver).
The fraction of total porosity occupied by dispersed clay
is called the "q" factor, where DETERMIN ING POROSITY BY DENSITY
METHODS
q = <l>ac -<l>eff .
<l>ac Density measurement s have long been an effective
The q factor is called a producibility index in shaly reser- method for determining pore volume in rock and are used
voir rocks. A chart (Fig. 4-43), based on field data from the conventionall y in core anal ysis. Compensated density
gulf coast, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming data from today's high-technolo gy logging devices are
(U.S.A.), is used for predicting the producibility of shaly extremely accurate and offer the best single solution
sands. Tentative permeability cutoffs, using q, are selected available for estimating porosity.
from local experience. Dispersed, Iaminated, and struc-
tural shales are identified with much more confidence and LOG MEASUREM ENTS OF DENSITY
probable accuracy when crossplot techniques are used.
Crossplot techniques are discussed in the next chapter. Density logging was introduced commercially in the late
1950s. The first tools were uncompensat ed and the skid
housing source and detector were eccentered by a spring.
Clay Motors and hydraulic systems were soon employed to
Point provide more reliable eccentering of the skid. The first
compensated systems were put into field use in 1963;
I~~~
1,~,~
they employed two detectors. A lithology-sen sitive
11 . ,\ photoelectric display was added to the system in recent
.8 compacted
11
1 ,\1~~ u.s. Gulf Coast Area
1 years.
1Shales Tertiary Clastic Sediments
1 1 '1 \' \
Considering the physical aspects involved in acquiring
a 6 11Undercompact
1 ' "' \ '. \
bulk density measurement s in borehole environments , it
ed
~ I_ \ \ \\\\'\
is remarkable that satisfactory results are now relatively
u.. Tight Non-Producible common.
0-.4 1 1 1
\ \ '

1 1 \
1 1 \ Uses of Density Log Data
1
.2 1 ~ The proportionali ty of weight is a direct method of deter-
l.~ mining reservoir rock porosity, but the matrix density
~
must be known. For example, a pure limestone with 2%
Sand oJ<o:::::.......1. _.J-_L___l._. J__~___c,~~ ___. Sand
Point O 1O 20
porosity will weigh about the same as a pure dolomite
30 40 Line
Effective Porosity, 4> e(%) with 10% porosity. Density tools are considered the most
reliable porosity-sens itive devices; their measurement s
Fig. 4-43 - Empirical correlation between q factor, effective and are more sensitive to porosity than to lithology. Neutron
total porosity, and production characteristics logs respond more to lithology change.

- 175 -
Density logs used with neutron and/or acoustic data satis-
factorily describe lithology most of the time, but cross-
plotting techniques are not foolproof. Data from density
logs are often combined with acoustic measurements to
compute rock strength, predict fracture gradients or sand-
ing problems in oil or gas wells, and to assist in under-
ground mine design. This combination of data is also
used to resolve acoustic impedance problems when com-
paring synthetic seismograms to surface seismic data.
Many formations have different densities but similar
acoustic velocities. Boundaries between anhydrite
(50 sec/ft) and a tight, low-porosity limestone (48 to
50 sec/ft) are difficult to segregate by seismic or acous-
tic logs, but the difference in densities (anhydrite ==
2.98 g/cm 3 and tight limestone == 2.70 g/cm3) egregates
the two formations. Toe two sets of Iog data provide
acoustic impedance values (velocity multiplied by
density).
The relative importance of each phenomenon for increas-
ing values of atomic number is plotted versus energy
leve) expressed in Me V (Fig. 4-44).
Pair production results when a high-energy photon is
absorbed by an atomic nucleus and its intrinsic energy is
transformed into an electron-positron pair that move
away from one another (Fig. 4-45). This is an example of
the creation of matter from energy, according to Ein-
stein's well known law: E = mc2 . In its rest state, an elec-
tron contains the energy equivalent of 0.51 MeV. Genera-
tion of both particles at rest state requires 1.02 Me V.
Residual photon energy is distributed equally between
the electron and positron as kinetic energy. Because of
these energy requirements, pair production rarely occurs
at energies below a few MeV and onl y becomes impor-
tant above 1O Me V. Cesium-137 sources used for density
log applications emit photons at 0.662 MeV; therefore,
pair production is essentially insignificant to the interpre-
tation of density Iogs.

THEORY OF DENSITY MEASUREMENTS

Pair Production at a Nucleus

A dense, positively charged nucleus consisting of protons Electron

and neutrons is surrounded by orbiti ng, negatively e-
charged electrons. A photon, ata given energy level, will
e+
interact with the atomic nucleus or the orbiting electrons
Pos,tron
depending on the cross section of the target material. The
three phenomena that characterize gamma ray interac-
tions with matter are
Fig. 4-45 - Pair production at a nucleus

Pair production
Bulk Density (pb)

Compton scattering A focused cesium-137 chemical source emits medium-

energy gamma rays into the formation. These gamma
Photoelectric absorption rays collide with electrons in the formation, losing sorne
of their energy to the electro ns. Gamma energy continues
to diminish as more collisions occur. This interaction is
known as Compton scattering (Fig. 4-46). Two sodium
iodide scintillation detectors measure the scattering and
120
.....-PP = CE absorption effects that occurred. The two detectors are
100 located at fixed distances from the source, and the count
cii 80
Photoelectric rate is related directly to the electron density of the for-
.o Effect (PE)
o
(/) Dominan!
mation. Electron density is closely related to bulk density
.o 60 and easi ly corrected by instrumentation. Electron density
e{
o 40 is the number of electrons per unit volume and given by
N
the equation
20

o ll e = NZ/Ap,
0.01 0.1 10 100
Gamma Ray Energy (MeV)
where lle = the number of electrons per unit volume,

N = Avogadro's number (6.026 x 1023),

Fig. 4-44 - Relative importance of gamma ray absorption
mechanisms z = the atomic number,

- 176-
 "
channel spectrum, but a window of that spectrum encom-
Compton Scattering Process Scattered
Photon passes the portien where Compton events are counted.
Energy (hv') The counts (LS and SS), after correction for detector
characteristic s, represent the number of photons.

Spine and Ribs Corrections

e
Compton
Aecoil
Electron
Fig. 4-46 - Compton scattering process
A = the atomic weight,
and p = the density of the material.
Yalues of VA for severa! elements are compared, and
with the exception of hydrogen, are near 0.5 (Table 4-6).
Yalues show a slight decrease as elements become
heavier. Therefore, the values of electron density are rel-
atively close to one-half of Avogadro's number multi-
plied by the actual density of the material. For practica]
purposes, a normalized "electronic density" is redefined
by dividing lle by N/2, giving the equation
Pe= 2Z/ Ap.
Bulk density (Pb in grams per cubic centimeter) is a func-
tion of the matrix density, porosity, and density of pore
fiuids. Count rate measurement s are made at both the
long-spaced (LS) and short-spaced (SS) detectors. The
spectrum at the SS detector is filtered to remove most of
the gamma photons in the energy range where photo-
electric absorption occurs. The LS detector uses a 256-
When ideal logging conditions exist (excellent pad con-
tact in boreholes of 6 to 9 in. ( 15 to 22.9 cm) , no mud-
cake, and no barite-weight ing materials in the drilling
fluid), the density correction curve should indicate zero
correction. Zero correction means that a crossplot of the
logarithm of LS count rates vs. the logarithm of SS count
rates would fall along a straight line called the spine
(Fig. 4-47). As conventional mudcake is encountered and
thickens, the crossplot of count rates should fall to the
right of the spine. Heavy muds weighted with barite
cause the crossplot data to fall to the left of the spine
(Fig. 4-47). The ribs on the plot are derived from con-
trolled laboratory experiments and demonstrate the
amount of shift necessary to correct the density measure-
ment (Fig. 4-47). Actual formulae for determining the
bulk density and mud correction values are incorporated
in data-acquisiti on software; the coefficients are deter-
mined by the calibration procedure. Corrections are
applied to the bulk density in real time during the logging
operation. At the contractor's shop facilities, a calibration
of count rates is made with the too! placed in large mag-
nesium and aluminum blocks of known density. The
spine is established from this calibration procedure. Mag-
nesium shims are used during the calibration procedure
to simulate mudcake and determine calibration points for
the ribs.

TABLE 4-6 - Z/A Ratios of Common Earth Elements 10

Element Abundance Atomic Z/A

(ppm) Welght
1

Hydrogen 1,400
.,
(.)

1.0079 0.9922 "'

~
Carbon 200 12.0010 0.4995 .,
i
Nitrogen 20 14.0067 0.4998 a:
Oxygen 466,000
e::,
16.0000 0.5000 o
(.)
Sodium 28,300 23.00 0.4785
Magnesium 20,900 24.305 0.4937 ~
Aluminum
Silicon
81,300
339,600
26.98
28.086
0.4818 *.,
o
"O
..- Aluminum
0.4985 (.) Calibration
Sulfur 260 32.06 0.4991 "'a.
C/J 103
Block
Chlorine 130 o,
35.453 0.4795 e:
o
Potassium 25,900 39.098 0.4859 ..J

Calcium 36,300 40.08 0.4990

Titanium 4,400 47.9 0.4593
Manganesa 950 54.938 0.4551 4x1a2 ~ - - ' - - ~ - ' - - - ' - - ' - ' - - ' - - - - ~ - ~
lron 50,0000 55.847 0.4656 3x1a3 104
Barium 425 137.33 0.4078 Short-Spaced Detector Count Rate (e sec- 1)
Lead 13 207.2 0.3958
Fig. 4-47 - Spine and rib chart

,.
-177-
Bulk Density Calibration Peak Monitoring and Full-Spectrum Recording

The primary calibration standard for Baker Atlas'

Surface computer facilities determine the position of the
Densilog and Z-Densilog instruments is a test pit consist-
cesium peak every 20 seconds during the logging opera-
ing of water-fi lled porous limestone, dolornite, and sand-
tion (Fig. 4-48). If the peak drifts more than 1.5 channels
stone that define the bulk density (pb) measured by the
from its previous position (20 seconds earlier), a gain
equipment. The following empirical relation has been
correction is sent to the downhole electronics. The cor-
established from the primary calibration procedure,
rection is applied as a high-voltage change at the detec-
pb = 1.0704 Pe-0.1883 . tor's photomultiplier tube.

Variations between actual densities and Pb values
measured by the instrumentation are given in Table 4-7.
...(ZJM) and available Pe values are also given. Values in
the table are from severa] sources, and the * denotes
values determined experimentally.
The entire gamma spectrum can be recorded asan option.
Tape format is similar to that used for Spectralog data,
and both types of data can be recorded simultaneously.
Sampling rates are adjustable on request. The spectrum is
split into four energy windows, and the counts within
each window are summed under different curve names -

TABLE 4-7- SOFT (from 60 to l 00 ke V)

Charge-to-Mass Ratios, Mass Densities, Log Response
Densities, Photoelectric Absorption lndex Values
for Materials Commonly Found in Boreholes SFT2 (from 100 to 140 keV)
Material Chemical UILM p Pb Pe
Formula (charge/amu) (g cm-3) (g cm-3) (b/e)
HRDl (from 140 to 200 keV)
Quartz SiO2 0.499 2.65 2.64 1.806
Calcita CaCO3 0.500 2.71 2.71 5.084
Dolomita CaMg(CO:i)2 0.499 2.87 2.87 3.142 HRD2 (from 200 to 540 keV)
Montmorillonite (Na,Ca)0_33(AJ,Mg)2 0.502 2.06 2.02 2.04
(Smectite) Si 4O 10(OH)2nH2O
lllite KAl4(Si,Al)8O20 0.499 2.64 2.63 3.45 Only HRDl and HRD2 are recorded for Pb A curve,
(OH)4(O,OHJ,o SHR, represents the ratio of counts in the SOFT window
Kaolinite AL2O32SiO22H2O 0.504 2.59 2.61 1.83
to the counts in the HRD2 window.
Chlorite Mg5(Al,Fe)(OH)8 0.497 2.88 2.88 6.30
(Al,Si)4O10
K-Feldspar KAISi3O8 0.496 2.56 2.53 2.86
Plagioclase (Na) NaAISi3O 8 0.496 2.62 2.59 1.68
Photoelectric Absorption <Pe)
Plagioclase (Ca) CaAl~i~8 0.496 2.76 2.74 3.13
Barite BaSO4 0.446 4.48 4.09 266.8
Siderita FeCO3 0.483 3.94 3.89 14.69
The Z-Densilog device records and presents a photoelec-
Pyrite FeS2 0.483 5.01 4.99 16.97 tric absorption coefficient in addition to Pb and the den-
Hematite FeS203 0.476 5.27 5.18 1.48 sity correction trace. Photons of relatively low energy
Anhydrite CaSO4 0.499 2.96 2.97 5.05
(< 0.2 MeV) are completely absorbed on impact with an
Gypsum CaSO42H2O 0.511 2.31 2.34 3.420
Halite NaCI 0.479 2.165 2.03 4.65
atom (Fig. 4-49). A photoelectron is ejected from the
Sylvite KCI 0.483 1.99 1.87 8.510 atom, and excess energy above the binding energy of the
Aluminum Al 0.482 2.702 2.60 2.5715 electron is transferred to the photoelectron as kinetic
Sulfur s 0.499 2.067 2.02 5.4304
energy. This is an oversimplified description of the inter-
Coal
Anthracite C720H2saNsO1s 0.513 1.60 1.57 0.161
action, but the ejected electron comes from an inner shell
Bituminous C532H418N8O41 0.527 1.35 1.33 0.180 and severa! stages of de-excitation and readjustment may
Lignite C4aoH412NJC101 0.500 1.10 0.99 take place within the atom. Pe data are actually calculated
Oil n(CH2) 0.570 0.80 0.79 0.125
from the normalized SOFT/HARD ratio (Fig. 4-50) using
(medium gravity)
Gas (160'F, CnH2n+2(n=1--6) 0.619 0.20 0.08 0.119
a relation derived from the Z-Densilog model. If the
5,000 psia) value for Pe from this method is larger than a specified
Formation water H2O (fresh) 0.555 1.00 1.00 0.358 cutoff value (26 barns/electron), Pe is recalculated by
120,000 ppm NaCI 0.546 1.086 1.081 0.807
replacing the HARD/SOFT ratio with the SFT2/HRD2
Berea sandstone 0.499 2.308 2.305 2.24()
Boise sandstone 2.46()
ratio using a different relation. Resolution corrections for
Vermont marble 4.84() the window counts are made by an iterative process, and
Lockport dolomrte 2.66() Pe is recalculated until the last term in the calculation is
(-) Experimentally measured values (Altman el al., 1987)
less than 0.01 barns/electron. Interpretative use of the
recorded Pe data is discussed in Chapter 5.

- 178 -
 75

"O
e 50
o
u
CI)
U)
,,, 10-11 Spectrum Totals
e::,
o

o
a; Cs Peak from
D
E
::, Interna! Source
z 25

o L.-....L--.... .L----...L--- -_._____ __ _ _......._ _ _ _...1.._ _ _ __.__ _.....;-.,

o 32 64 96 128 160 192 224 256
Channel Number

t
SFT2 Window Energies (keV)

60 100 140 200 500 keV

75 1 ! 1

t HRD2

"O
e
o
u
50
CI)
U)
,,, 140-ft Spectrum Totals
e::,
o

o
a;
D
E
::, 25
z

o 32 64 96 128 160 192 224 256

Channel Number

Fig. 4-48 - Surface computer monitors the cesium peak during logging operations.

- 179 -
 Density Log Units of Measurement
Photoelectric Absorption Process
Bulk density is scaled in grams per cubic centimeter. The
log is presented as bulk density (pb) and usually scaled 2
to 2.5 to 3 g/cm3 from left to right across Tracks II and
III. In many countries, the linear density scale is shifted
e to be compatible with linearly scaled porosity for lime-
Ejected stone or sandstone lithology (Fig. 4-51 ). The too! actually
Electron
measures electron density (Pe), a value that is, fortu-
nately, very simi lar to bulk density (Pb)- Electron density
Fig. 4-49 - Photoelectric absorption process is corrected to bulk density by the instrumentation. The
electron density (Pe) of a material consisting of a single
element is related to bulk density (Pb) as
20 Data ,,_
Theory e Pe = pb(2Z/ A),

where Pb = actual bulk density,

Z = the atomic number (electrons per atom),

A = the atomic weight,

and PblA is proportional to the number of atoms per

cubic centimeter of the material.

The convergence is more involved than the previous

equation, but it is sufficient to say that electron density is
converted within acceptable tolerance to bulk density.
o ___ ____ _ _....L_ _ _L __ ___,_ _......:::=i
0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 Interpretative Aspects of Density Logs
SHR

The common sedimentary rocks are known to have typi-

Fig. 4-50 - Pe as a function of soft-hard ratio (SHR) cal values of matrix density (p 1110) , many of which are
given in Table 4-7. Actual density, electron density, and
the most common response of density tools are often dif-
COMPENSATED NEUTRON ferent, and variations occur for each of the three mea-
FORMATION DENSITY surement types shown. The one rock type that shows
consistency and demonstrates little lithology variation is
1.95 Pb (g/cm3) 2.95 limestone. It is for this reason that the basic method to
<I> N (Limestone p.u.) calibrate density log data is in water-saturated limestone
_15 -----~ ------1f------ ~ ----- - blocks of known porosity. This allows the too! to be cali-
brated linearly from rocks of essentially zero porosity to
Limestone Compatible Scales
100% porosity in a large water-filled tank. Limestone
blocks with known porosities are used as intermediate
calibration points.

Each rock constituent contributes directly to the overall

COMPENSATED NEUTRON
FORMATION DENSITY bulk density as its percentage of bulk volume,

1.85 2.85
<1> N (Limestone p.u.)
where Pma = o/o contributed by the rock matrix,
45 30 O 15
-------1-------r------1------ -
Sandstone Compatible Scales Psh = o/o contributed by shale mixture in
the rock,

Fig. 4-51 - Density and neutron scales are often structured to and P = o/o contribution by the fluid-filled
suit local purposes. porosity.

- 180 -
Shale density (Ps1,) is usually close to the density of sand-
stone, and for semiquantitative purposes, Psh can be con-
sidered a part of the matrix. Shale is typically absent o r
present in such small percentages in carbonate reservoirs
that it is considered negl igible, and the calculated poros-
ity is considered to be effective porosity. Compaction
corrections are not needed with density logs. As a result,
the equation can be rewritten to solve for porosity,
<j> = Pma-Pb
Pma-P f
Tool Resolution
Depth of investigation vares with the density of the rock,
but in general, it is accepted as being within the range of
3 to 6 in. (7.6 to 15 cm). Vertical resolution is considered
to be slightly greater than I ft ("' 0.3 m); it cannot be any
shorter than the source-to- detector spacing.
While it can be said that Pb responds primarily to poros-
ity and secondarily to matrix and the fluids occupying the
pores, Pe is primarily sensitive to matrix and secondaril y
sensitive to porosity and the pore fluids. Severa! elements
and their correlation to the Pe absorption index are listed
(Table 4-7) .
The Z-Densilog instrument utilizes two detectors posi-
tioned at different distances from the radiation source.
The near or short-spaced detector (SS) filters the spectrum
to remove most of the gamma photons in the energy range
where photoelectric absorption is important. The long-
spaced detector (LS) investigates a 256-channel nuclear
spectrum, but these measurements are derived from a
window of the spectrum that encompasses the Compton
scattering events. The parta! cross section resulting from
Compton scattering determines the count rates and repre-
sentative number of photons for both detectors.

Radiation tools are sensitive to logging speed and statisti-
cal variation. The logis usually recorded with tool move-
ment at 30 ft/min ("' 9 m/min) or 1,800 ft/hr ("' 550 m/hr).
In very low porosity rocks (usually carbonate reservoirs),
count rates fluctuate more and the log is often recorded at
15 ft/min (4.5 m/min) or 900 ft/hr ("' 275 m/hr).
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION
Problem 1
Given the bulk density values below, calculate porosity
for sandstone, limestone, and dolomite matrices using
both fresh mud ( 1.0 g/cm 3) and salt mud ( l . l g/cm3).

Influence of Fluids Fresh Mud

Pb Sandstone <j> Limestone <j> Dolomite <j>

The density of the fluids in reservoir rock is generally
accepted as that of the mud fil trate co1Tected to formation 2.50
temperature. Charts are provided for P= l g/cm 3 (fresh-
water filtrates) and P = 1.1 g/cm3 (saltwater mud fil- 2.63
trates). In gas-filled boreholes, pvalues of 0.2 to 0.3 are
commonl y used. 2.28

Salt Mud
None of these parameters are fixed values. They only
approximate a mud filtrate condition. At moderate to Pb Sandstone <j> Limestone <j> Dolomite <j>
deeper depths. fresh filtrates are usually a little above
1 g/cm 3 ; e.g., 1.0 1 to 1.04. Similarly, gas density also 2.50
vares with temperature and pressure. Salt muds are
2.63
known to approach densities of 1.2 at formation tempera-
ture. The type of salinity is not always NaCI; it may occa- 2.28
sionally be CaCl2 salts. CaCl 2 salts have an even greater
effect on neutron responses. Salt-mud charts that use P = Problem 2
1.1 g/cm3 are not always accurate.
The following Pe and Pb values were recorded in a well
Z-Density Values drilled with fresh mud. Calculate the porosity for each set
of figures.
The introduction of lithology-sensitive photoelectric
Pb <1>
recordings (Pe) <loes not preclude the interpretative data
previously discussed, but instead introduces another 1.8 2.25
curve that is often helpful in <j> determination from den-
sity data alone. In the preceding discussion, Pma had to be 4.3 2.50
provided from a known source (e.g., core) or assumed.
3. 1 2.60
The Pe recording provides a choice for matrix density
(Fig. 4-52 and 4-53). 4.8 2.54

- 18 1 -
 Freshwater-filled Borehole, Pt = 1.0 g/cm3 or Mg/m3
1.8
01
-~-' .... _ .... -- .....
......
L.. e, _

1.9
' 1,
r-.. ~
,~ '1

NK1 t

.
1 'I
1
2.0
,lo

"
' . ,_

h..
--., - - - a,1' o ,,~,
'I l..,'
1
' I'- .... ~

1
2.1 'A
..
-- ..
30 'f
"-
,_
~
,. -i-.- 1 'I ,.,r
""
1

2.2 ,., 1
f'\ ~ .......
'-.'~ L.,
M'
E !!
0
e .....
~'
~
Q. t
I'
O>
~
o
2.3
~u I[ -... - -- ;,l

' - - _...,
111-' w
'
_ 1

M
E -,,.. " 'I '"'J
'o
Q ;;; '\. D
~
.o
2.4 ~ 1\.. ...
"-
E,
;
a..
"'\. . ~" V
L/

e
Q)
o 2.5
o 1
-- - I'\.
,n
-
'
-" .. i-
"S
CD
-
,-.
-- u-

2.6
' 1\..
... "
I,"'
/

'\. .....
.. ___ ...-
'\. I,"'
_.,,.,
o -
2.7
'\.

' l'\.
'./

---- - ...
V
fl

,_ Note: . ""'
2.8
-
,_ Follow lines according to

>-
rock mixture as defined by
Sandstone and Dolomite
'\ ... .,
.... 1/
1.....

>-
,_
>-
Limestone and Dolomite
- - - - - - Sandstone and Limestone
'" ...,
IV

2.9

3.0
nrn

o 2 3 4 5 6

Photoelectric Cross Sect ion, P8 (barns/electron)

Fig. 452 - Porosity and lithology determination from Compensated Z-Densilog (freshwater-filled borehole)

- 182-
 Saltwater-filled Borehole, Pt = 1.1 g/cm3 or Mg/m3
1.8

.. -~- - - - -
~-
1~

1.9
"'
- c:n

' ' _,,,,. ., .J< 1

' u
l
l.
1
2.0

-,_
,n

a alt
' -- -- .,.. ,n

2.1 ' ' '- .....

./

,,..
..,
2 .2
t:!O
... -~-~- - --- ,__
1, 1......
~n
,v
f\.. ...
' 1\. 1...... ;
E ,,..
o, 2 .3 ' .,,,, ~,.,, 1ull
.,__ -'
1)
::\?
--
lU
::
o
~
' 1, -- .. -.,,,, ,
..J

~u
.e
<>.
:5-
' '-...
.
1
,.,,,,
...
;
...
--- -' _
e
Q)
'\ ~
O 2 .5

- --
.>t: ~ .. ~

:i
CD
-,-
'" \. .,,,,
, J ...
lU

2 .6 .,

2.7
o
-' 11>
-
'\.
- \.
,.; ,
,u
V
./

- -a--1......
' I'\. ...... D

~
1-- Note: ./

2 .8
-
1--

1 --

1--

1--
Follow lines according to
rock mixture as defined by
Sandstone and Dolomita
Limestone and Dolomita
' '~
.,,,, ...
.,. V

- - - - - - Sandstone and Limestone

-
2.9

.
3.0
o 2 3 4 5 6
Photoelectric Cross Section, P (barns/electron)
8

Fig. 4-53 - Porosity and lithology determination from Compensated Z-Densilog (saltwater-filled
borehole)

- 183-
Problem 3
Given the following Pe values, what lithology would be
predicted?
Apparent Lithology
1.8
3.1
5.0
DEVELOPMENT OF THE POROSITY- TO-
FORMATION FACTOR RELATIONSHIPS
As discussed earlier, <I> can be equated to resistivity by
the formation factor relationships; the problem is the cor-
rect conversion factors, a and m . For the purposes of
basic log analysis training, the following relationship
should be committed to memory,
111
F = a/q> . Sorne of the literature describes the numerator a of the F
The a and m parameters are typically used in log analysis
as follows,
F = l/ qi2 (in most carbonate reservoirs),
F = 0.62/qi2 15 (in most sandstone reser-
voirs),
and F = 0.81/ qi 2 (often substituted in sands for
simplicity).
The appropriate relation from the previous expressions
should be considered a preliminary approach if no addi-
tional information is available. The suggested values do
not typically cause an adverse effect on saturation results.
When additional petrophysical information is available,
it should be used if considered more accurate. The source
of additional a and m data should also be a consideration.
Formationfactor is nota measured lag value. It is a link-
ing mechanism between resistivity and formation fluid
and rock properties. lt has been described as the ratio of
the resistivity of a rock with pare spaces containing only
water to the resistivity of the water itself (F = R0 f Rw ).
CEMENTATION FACTOR, PORE GEOMETRY,
OR PORE-SHAPE EXPONENT
The m exponent is very important in 1og analysis. Reser-
voir field studies are dependent on log analysis for the
vast majority of the information used to characterize a
reservoir. Core data, when available, are usually limited
to a few key wells at most. Special core analysis to deter-
mine the petrophysical parameters, a, m, and occasion-
-184-
ally n, are performed on a very limited basis. The rela-
tions for sandstone and carbonate that were previously
given are empirically derived from a large mix of data.
Although those general relations have stood up reason-
ably well over time, they seldom provide the accurate
results needed "to bank reserves."
Virtually ali basic logging literature refers to the m expo-
nent as the cementation factor. Cementation occurs at dif-
ferent stages after sediment deposition and burial. Early
cementation is often replaced or additional cementing
material is added after sediment burial and overburden
compaction occurs. Sandstone and carbonate diagenesis
are beyond the scope of this course, but both involve a
science within themselves. Cementation affects the shape
or geometry of pore throats, and the constrictions, chang-
ing diameters, and shapes of pore tunnels ali relate to the
m factor.
relationship to represent tortuosity. This remains an
arguable area among many petrophysicists, many of
whom think a should always represent unity.
WATER SATURATION DETERMINATION
As discussed earl ier, Archie found that if R 0 could be
determined from F and Rw (R0 = F x Rw ), he could also
restate the resistivity index equation,
Sn = Ro =
w R,
The analyst must always remember that the Sw solution is
only as accurate as the input data. Val id Rw , R1, <I>, a, m,
and n values are necessary. Numerous charts and nomo-
grams have been published to resolve the previous equa-
tion, but accurate saturation results depend on accurate
input. Charts, nomograms, and algorithms are only aids
in solving the saturation problem. Analysts must also
make a judgment to determine if borehole and formation
conditions are such that the general formation factor
equation will provide an acceptable answer. When perti-
nent petrophysical data are available, they should be
implemented, and the general equations found here and
in other literature should be modified as necessary.
Crossplots utilizing two, three, or more measurements to
determine total effective porosity, secondary porosity,
lithology mix, gas effect, etc. are discussed in detai l in
Chapter 5. Water saturation is discussed in more detail in
Chapter 6.
Crossplot Methods for Porosity,
Lithology, and Gas Determination
With neutron logging already being available, the first
atternpts to more adequately quantify porosity and est-
mate lithology rnix occurred when acoustic logs were
introduced, followed soon afterwards by the introduction
of density logs. Comparing neutron data to the newer log
rneasurernents yielded better differentiation of gas frorn
oil or water. In the early 1960s, neutron (often scaled in
counts), acoustic .t, and density data (usually in sorne
forrn of counts) were ali available. Petrophysicists
quickly realized that different cornbinations of these logs
could provide better estirnates of porosity. Rccognizing
that different log responses occurred in different rock
matrices also led to lithology estirnations. Nevertheless,
the lithology descriptions frorn logs did not gain reason-
able acceptability until about 1970 when cornputer-pro-
cessed log analysis reached rnaturity. Borehole-cornpe n-
sated equiprnent was introduced in stages (acoustic, then
density, and finally neutron) during the 1960s, but ade-
quate porosity/lithology results frorn log crossplot tech-
niques were still considered suspect. Much of the
groundwork for today's lithology/porosit y rnodels was
developed during this time.
The rapid evolution of digital circuitry, rnicroelectronics,
and telernetry has played a rnajor role in bringing forrna-
tion evaluation to its current level. Data acquisition is at
least an order of rnagnitude more efficient than it was 15
years ago. Today, processing routines are quick, well
docurnented, visually appealing, and acceptable to the
industry. That is the good news. The bad news is that
rnany fundamental considerations are overlooked in the
quest to reach goals of speed, eye appeal, and a distorted
view of accuracy. By no accident, training has focused
more and more on direct cornputer rnethods, often
bypassing analytical fundarnentals that provide insight
into the functions of cornputer processing. This chapter is
dedicated to re-establishing basic rules of crossplotting
data to determine what additional insights the results
offer and what crossplotted data do not describe. Those
seriously interested in acquiring expertise in forrnation
evaluation rnust develop a strong understanding of the
fundamentals, including crossplot rnethods.
DUAL-MINER AL LITHOLOGY-POROSITY
CROSSPLOTS
Assorted rneasurernents are available frorn a variety of
logging too Is. Individual cornparisons of any one of these
rneasurernents to the other rneasurernents often define
petrophysical or geological characteristics that are very
irnportant to reservoir descriptions. Crossplots also pro-
vide a rnechanisrn to recognize log calibration problerns
and to correct data not in significant error. Plots can be
- 185-
5
rnade on linear, logarithrnic, sernilogarithrnic, or expo-
nential scales, and one axis of a plot can be a different
scale type frorn the other axis. lnforrnation that relates
log responses to prirnary and total porosity, secondary
porosity, grain-size estirnates in reservoir rock, and
rnatrix rnixes of clastics, carbonates, evaporites, or other
rock types can usually be inferred frorn the proper corn-
parison of log data.
No crossplot rnethod is completely accurate; every
rnethod has advantages and weaknesses. Two or more
measurements can be used for plotting, and quite often,
severa) two-way crossplots are required to obtain the
"best answer." Cornputer-proce ssing facilitates handling
of the data, but plotting by hand still offers an effective
cross-check of accuracy. Experienced log analysts con-
sistently compare cornputer results to hand calculations
for quality control.
lt is irnperative that basic log response functions and their
relation to porosity and lithology be fully understood if
crossplotting techniques are to be intelligently evaluated.
Dual-mineral rnethods utilize two sets of log data to deter-
mine porosity anda rnix oftwo defined rocks or mineral s.
A shale index can be inferred frorn the crossplot or inde-
pendent shale index methods, but at rnost, only two types
of rock can be defined with two log rneasurernents.
Acoustic, density, and neutron log rneasurernents are sen-
sitive to porosity. Each of these logs can be converted to a
porosity value; however, fluid and rnatrix values rnust be
known or assurned in order to sol ve the equation convert-
ing the raw rneasurernent to porosity. The use of two logs
elirninates sorne of the guesswork that rnight be neces-
sary when only one log is available. For exarnple, each of
the three logs is known to have the following response to
sands and clays found in clastics,
Pb = effective porosity clay effect + light
hydrocarbon (gas effect)
<l>N = effective porosity clay effect - light
hydrocarbon (gas effect) or + heavy oil
effect
.t = effective porosity + clay effect + corn-
paction + lig ht hydrocarbon (gas effect)
A dual-mineral crossplot rnakes the assurnption that only
two rocks/rninerals are present in the forrnation (or that
those two rocks virtually dorninate the mixture). It has
never been proven that lithology response is linear
between two rnatrix lines, and ernpirically derived matrix
lines tend to indicate a certain degree of nonlinearity. If
the initial assessment of matrix mix is wrong, the result-
an! output is definitely wrong. Severa] log measurements
are sensitive to lithology, porosity, or both, but the sensi-
tivity to each varies considerably depending on the type
measurement. Protocol requires that the analyst be well
aware of the inherent traps that occupy the road from raw
data to a result. Competen! analytical or digital log analy-
sis requires an awareness of the strengths and weaknesses
of different crossplot methods.
ments and the particular matrices selected. For example,
if lithology is assumed to be limestone and dolomite and
the two log measurements are bulk density (pb) and com-
pensated neutron porosity <l>N (calculated for limestone
matrix), the zero porosity values for limestone and dolo-
mite would likely be
3 3
P b = 2.71 g/cm and 2.86 to 2.87 g/cm for
each of the two rock types

Crossplots are the basis from which computed log inter-

pretation programs evolved. Sidesteppi ng such data prior
to computing log results is a guarantee of mistakes and
customer dissatisfaction.
ARBITRARY MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS
FROM CROSSPLOT DATA
Ambiguity exists in most computerized solutions of
crossplotted log data because the formul ae generally
assume linearity. Individual log measurements were dis-
cussed in detail previously, and it is obvious each logging
device has unique responses to a number of physical,
petrophysical, and geological parameters such as:
<l>N = O and 0.02 lirnestone <1> units, respec-
tively
Specific neutron devices can alter parameters slightly.
Fluid parameters are generall y selected as 1 g/cm3 (fresh
mud) or 1.1 g/cm3 (salt rnud) for the density and l for neu-
tron porosity (Fig. 5-1 ). Severa] log parameters for differ-
ent rocks and minerals are given in Table 5- l. Generally,
crossplots are enlarged to show only the porosity and
lithology trends that occur below the 50% porosity values;
less than one-half the entire model is shown (Fig. 5-2). If
an acoustic log were used instead of the neutron log, the
zero matrix points for limestone (flt= 47.6 sec/ft) and
dolomite (flt= 43.5 sec/ft) would probably be selected,

Lithology 1.9 1
To Fluict/
Porosity (for Series 2435 CN Log) Point
2.0 >--
P = 1.0 g/cm3 or Mg!m3
Drilling fluid salinity, weight, and other
characteristics
2.1
Mud filtrate salinity and depth of invasion

Depth of investigation 2.2

Vertical resolution
0 2.3
E
Connate water salinity o,
~

Gas and/or ol effects on the measurements o 2.4

C')
E
Te mperature and pressure i~..c2.5
c.
Borehole size i,
;
e 2.6
Q)
Mudcake thickness o
-""-
3
CI)
Physical, chemical, geological, mechanical , and electri- 2.7
Pma= 2.71g/cm3
cal attributes are the readily identifiable roadblocks that
inhibit log-evaluation methods. ,<l>a 1 1
2.8 _s 1 1
Pma= 2.86 g/cm3
FUNDAMENTALS OF CROSSPLOT
2.9 <l>a
CONSTRUCTION DOL

Ali dual-mineral crossplot methods use a mnimum of 3.0

-10 O 1O 20 30 40 50
three anchor points to resol ve data from two log measure- Compensated Neutron Apparent Limestone Porosity (%)
ments. One point is always the 100% porosity or fluid
parameter. The other control points represent the predict- Fig. 5-1 - Zero porosity control points for two rock types plotted
able zero porosity value for each of the two measure- at their proper coordinates

- 186-
 TABLE 5-1 - Logging Parameters for Sorne Common Rocks and Minerals

Pe Pb ; .1t <l>cN K u Th
(g/cc) (e.u.) (s/ft) (lime) (%) (ppm) (ppm)

Common Quartz 1.8 2.65 8.0-13.0 51.3- 55.5 -0.04 < 0.15 < 0.4 < 0.2
Sediment Calcite 5.1 2.71 8.0-10.0 47.6 0.00 < 0.40 1.5 - 15.0 <2.0
Dolomite 3.1 2.87 8.0-12.0 43.5 0.02 0.1 -0.3 1.5-10.0 <2.0
Shales 1.80-2.70 25.0-45.0 63.0 -170.0 0.09-0.45

Common Halite 4.7 2.04 748.0 67.0 -0.02-0.03 < 0.3 < 0.2
Evaporites Anhydrite 5.0 2.98 12.3 50.0 0.00 0.25- 0.43 < 0.2
Gypsum 4.0 2.35 18.8 52.5 O.SO- 0.60
Trona 0.7 2.10 18.5 65.0 0.42

Coals Lignite 0.16 1.05 12.8 140.0 0.60

Bituminous 0.17 1.33 16.4 120.0 0.60
Anthracite 0.20 1.57 10.5 105.0 0.40

lron Limonite 13.0 3.59 57.0

Minerals Pyrite 17.0 4.99 90.0 39.0
Siderite 14.7 3.94 52.3 48.0
Hematite 21.5 5.18 44.0

Micas Glauconite 5.5- 7.1 2.54 23.4 0.19 5.08- 5.30

Biotite 6.2- 6.4 2.99 30.0 51.0 0.06 6.7 - 8.3 <0.01
Muscovite 2.4 2.82 16.9 49.0 0.13 7.9-9.8 <0.01

Clays Kaolinite 2.61 12.8 0.37 0.42 1.5-3.0 6.0-19.0

Chlorite 2.88 25.3 0.32
lllite 2.63 15.5 0.09 4.50 1.0- 5.0 < 2.0
Smectite 2.02 14.5 0.17 0.16 2.0-5.0 6.0- 19.0

and fluid transit time might be selected as 189 sec/ft for
fresh mud and l 85sec/ft for salt mud. Sandstone is also
a common selection for one of the minerals, but other
rocks such as anhydrite, salt, or gypsum occasionally
become important crossplot parameters.
Further construction of the density-neutron crossplot
entails plotting of points representative of numerous
values of porosity (5% limestone porosity, I 0% lime-
stone porosity, etc. and 5% dolomite porosity, 10% dolo-
mite porosity, etc.). The numerous points for q> at the two
different lithologies are crossplotted for both Pb and <l>N
(Fig. 5-3).
The various Pb, <l>N porosity levels are connected from
one level to the next, and similar porosities for each
Iithology are connected. The dolomite line in this illustra-
tion is not a straight line. Parameters for each of the logs
and other specific minerals might then be superimposed
on the crossplot. Similar methods are used to construct
any lithology/porosity crossplot (Fig. 5-4).
Shale Volume Determination
The same crossplot can also be used to calculate a shale
volume (\"'.i-1,) because neutron logs are much more
affected by shale (hydrogen content) than density logs.
Control points on the example just described can also be
selected to describe a clean line (0% V51i)- For example,
the line connecting zero porosity limestone coordinates
and the 100% <l>-coordinates could be used as the "clean
line." A point or general area representative of Pb and <l>N
values selected from a nearby shale is then used to estab-
lish a" 100% shale line"; a line parallel to the clean line is
drawn through the 100% shale data (Fig. 5-5). The shale
line is very near the dolomite matrix line, and assuming
limestone is considered clean, a formation that is pure
dolomite will calculate as 80% shale. In such a circum-
stance, density-neutron crossplot data would not be a reli-
able indicator of shale volume. As long as other shale
indicators (gamma ray) show a lower percentage of shale,
the crossplot indication does not hinder the analysis.
Gas Correction on Density-Neutron Crossplots
If the neutron log is affected by gas, the apparent neutron
porosity will be undervalued. Density logs are also
affected by gas on occasion, but not as severely as neu-
tron logs. For example, if Pb = 2.23 g/cm 3 and <l>Nts= 0.1 O,
the data wi ll plot above the empirically derived sand-
stone line. (Salt and/or excessive hole signal cause simi-
lar responses on density and neutron logs, and caliper
information therefore becomes important.) The conven-
tional way to correct gas-effected crossplot data is to
adj ust the crossplotted point a 30 slope downward to the
right; the corrected point will be on the clean sand line at
= 23.5% porosity (Fig. 5-6).

-187 -
 1.9

P1 1.1 g/cm3 or Mg/m3

Pma = 2.65
2.0
40 Pma = 2.71
40

35 2.1
Pma = 2.86
35
40
30
2.2
30
35
25

25 e,' 2.3
E
30 O)
20 ::;;
o
('")
20 E
_ 2.4
15 25 ~
.,_ .0

15
z=,
;
e:
10 Q)
20 o 2.5
.:,,:
:i
10 al

5
15
2.6
5
o
ta 10
SS
o 2.7

ta Note:
LS Follow lines according to
5
rock mixture as defined by
Limestone and Dolomite
2.8
Sandstone and Limestone
- - - - - - Sandstone and Dolomite
o
+a 2.9
DOL

3.0
- 10 o 10 20 30 40 50
Compensated Neutron Apparent Limestone Porosity (%)

O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Compensated Neutron Apparent Sandstone Porosity (%)

Fig. 5-2 - Typically, chart book crossplots are scaled from O to 50% porosity.

- 188 -
"
1.9 1.9 , - - - - , - - - - . - - - - r - - - , - - - - , - - - - ,

(for Series 2435 CN Log)

2.0 - p = 1.0 g/cm3 or Mg/m3
1
'
2.1
. .
2.2
,;,
V
. ,;,
E
2.2

.0, 2.3
:E -~ . . o,
:E
2.3
oc;
o q_~ o
~ 2.4
, . (')

~
E 2.4
~ -9

~
.o
".: 2.5
;
. a.
.o
i, 2.5
;
e
~ 2.6
_o,(_ . . e
o
Q)

_o,(_
2.6
:5
CD
2.7
. :5
CD
2.7

2.8
. 2.8

2.9 2.9
o

3.0 3.0
-1 O O 1O 20 30 40 50 -10 o 10 20 30 40 50
Compensated Neutron Apparent Limestone Porosity (%) Compensated Neutron Apparent Limestone Porosity (%)

Fig. 5-3 - Crossplot construction requires that points be plotted Fig. 5-4 - The lines in a crossplot are connected between the
for severa! difieren! porosity values of the proposed lithologies. plotted points and labeled for porosity value and lithology, with
interpolation used between the two lithology lines to estmate
lithology mix and porosity values.

In sorne areas, gas correction is modified to fit local

emprica! evidence. Gas affects neutron, density, and
acoustic measurements differentl y and to different
degrees depending on invasion. Neutron devices have
slightly deeper depths of investigation and are more sus-
ceptible to gas effects. Density logs are affected by gas if
invasion is very shallow, such as in the high-porosity,
high-permeab ility formations in the Gulf of Mcxico.
Acoustic log measurement s are made from such a shal-
low depth of investigation that gas seldom affects .t
measurement s, but when it does, the log often cycle
skips. There are no sophisticated rules, but the following
"rule-of-thum b" is suggested as a guide, or functional
variable, depending on locality.
Porosity Range Gas Correction from Horizontal
> 30% 45 slope to the clean matrix line
13-29% 30 slope to the clean matrix line
< 12% 15 slope to the clea-n matrix line
Comparing gas-effected log data to core data is often the
best way to obtain estimatcs of total effective porosity.
Correcting a data point to a clean matrix line also
requires another source of lithology reference.
DENSITY-N EUTRON CROSSPLO T
VERSATILI TY
Virtually ali formation evaluation specialists agree that
the density-neutr on crossplot is the most accurate log
analysis method for determining porosity. Both tools are
calibrated against a water-filled limestone basic calibra-
tion fixture. With respect to the limestone calibration
standard, sandstone and dolomite cause opposite
measurement responses. Gas effect also causes an oppo-
site response, and although the neutron is usually more
affected by gas, emprica! corrections have found general
acceptability. The density log measurement is more sen-
sitive to pore space, and the neutron measurement is
more sensitive to lithology changes; these tendencies
also balance out in crossplotted results.

- 189-
 1.9 ~ - ~ - - ~ - - ~ - - ~ - ~ - - ~
(for Series 2435 CN Log) (for Series 2435 CN Log) 45
Pt = 1.0 g/cm3 or Mg/m3 Pt = 1.0 g/cm3 or Mg!m3
2.0 1----'=====,====,====,=='--+--+--IJL----I 2.0

2.2

1~ 2.3 t - - - - - + - - - t -- -+---.i'--t---++-H----t t
0
2.3
o ~
C')
5 2.4 t------+---t------,11----1--,<-H---+----t ! 2.4 t----+----'-"'l>"---,'4---+-,'----+---I
~ E
.!
.o O)
a.
i, 2.5 t-----+---+#--+-----:~~--------1 D 2.5 1----.---,---+--r--+--~,t-+-----+- --1
;; a.
e .
Q) ;;
~ 2.6 >----+----+----++---+-Point -+------< ~ 2.61----+--+--+---+-,11'---t-----+---I
:i o o
a:, ~
:i
a:, 2.7 ---------------+---<

2.9 t - - - - - - + - - - + - - - + - - - t - -- - - + ----t

3.0 - - ~ - - ~ - - ~ - ~ - - ~ - - ~ 3 . 0 - - ~ - - ~ - - ~ -- - - ~ - - ~
-10 o 10 20 30 40 50 -10 o 10 20 30 40 50
Compensated Neutron Apparent Limestone Porosity (%) Compensated Neutron Apparent Limestone Porosity (%)

Fig. 5-5 - Average shale values can be determined and plotted Fig. 5-6 - Correction for gas effect on a known lithology
on the crossplot.

Density-neutron crossplot techniques have been the

preferred dual-mineral method in carbonate reservoir
rocks for nearly 30 years. Despite a few drawbacks, these
techniques usually provide satisfactory shale volume
estimates in sand-shale sequences and are the basis for
several commercial computed log analysis prograrns
(Fig. 5-7). The major handicaps for the crossplot models
in clastics are gas effects in shaly sands, admixtures of
carbonate or evaporite, borehole rugosity and washouts,
and resolution in low-porosity (<I> < 12%) rocks.

Sand-shale models of density and neutron data are

also used to determine the percentages of silt and clay
(commonly considered shale in log analyst terminology).
A clean sand line is typically established using the
common sandstone parameters for density (2.65 g/cm3) Q
and neutron (<l>Nts) "'-0.03 to -0.04); a clay line is estab-
lished from a dry colloid point (Pb "' 2.85 g/cm3, <l>Nls
...
"'O. l-0.30) to the 100% <I> fluid point (Fig. 5-8). The dry
clay band represents clay minerals that have been baked Quartz (Q), clay (C), and fluid (F) points for a triangle, the
dry in the laboratory and have average rneasurernents of building block for many computed log analysis programs.
2.85 g/cm 3 (-0.12% <l>sd)- Different clays exhibit different
neutron responses, and different neutron tools often Fig. 5-7 - Three control points for a shaly sand crossplot

-190-
 1.0
1.9
p = 1.0 45
Pm= 2.65 1
1.2
2.0
40

1.4 35 2.1

30
2.2
1.6
25
2.3
1.8
f
9 oss(%)
20

15 2.4
pb~
2.0 10
.o 2 .5
a.
5
2.2
2 .6
o o
2.4 2.7

2.8 Dry
2.6 .___ _ ___,_ Colloids

2.9
2.8
- Dry Colloids 3.0

3.0
-.2 o .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
-10 o 10
- 20
<l> N1s(%)
30 40 50

<i>Nls
Fig. 5-9 - A silt index point is selected from a concentration of
crossplotted data that occurs between the wet clay line and zero
Fig. 5-8 - Sandstone-shale models utilize a statistically determined porosity.
clay line that extends from the fluid point to the dry clay line.
60~- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
respond differently to the same clay. A 100% silt point, or
index, is selected from data points that represent a high
apparent V51i and lie between the zero porosity sand point 50
and the c lay line (Fig. 5-9). Data that plot similar to the
indicated star (Fig. 5-1 O) would be construed by the com- 40
puter program as having an approxima te mix of 66%
sand, 25% silt, and 9% clay. Total porosity, including the
30
noneffective pore space, would be selected from the loca-
tion of that data point and corrected to effective porosity
9oss(%)
(<l>e) using the mnimum Vsh value calculated at that 20
depth. Vsh is calculated by several methods, and the pro-
gram accepts the method that calculates the least shale.
10
Silt Point
Clays occur in three forms-struc tural, dispersed, and cbo= 0.125
9 N=0.25
laminated (Fig. 5-11 ). Empirical attempts to segregate o o
the effects on density-neutron measureme nts are
bracketed on the crossplot (Fig. 5-12). Dispersed clays -10
generally cause a considerably lower value of effective -10 o 10 20 30 40 50
porosity, but clay laminae do not appreciably lower total <l> Nss (%)

effective porosity because the porosity is restricted to the

sand laminae. Structural clays essentially fall into the
"unlikely area," the area where appreciable amounts of
questionable log data and bad hole data plot.
Clay-typing with density-neutron data is arguably ambig-
uous and subject to question and speculation. Neverthe-
less, postulation s have been made that sorne smectites are
Fig. 5-10 - Sil! coordinates permit a calculation of sand, sil!, and
clay proportions.
related to structural clays (montmori llonite) and occur
more frequently within the higher porosity rocks (usually
younger, less compacted shaly sand environs). Kaolinites
and mixed layer clays generally occur with laminar and
silty fractions of shale. High-potassium illites relate more

-191 -
 2.0

*
.
Clay dispersion 2.2
.

Clay lamination

~ 2.4
.
;
e
Structural clay Ql
o
:!!e
:::,
CD
Where: - Clay mineral J,,,,~,,.:<J Sand grams (quartz) 2.6 Kaolinite - Chlorite

Fig. 5-11 - Effects of clay distribution

_ _ _ _ _ _4.....0 -
2 8 '----'-0--------'20
Neutron Porosity, <PN (%)
Fluid Point
Fig. 5-13- General locations of clay types on a density vs.
neutron crossplot

SHALY SANOS ANO ACOUSTIC-OENSITY

CROSSPLOTS

It was discovered early that crossplots of density and

acoustic log data were very helpful in clarifying sand-
shale mixtures and determining more accurate water sat-
uration in shaly sands. Shales are considered loose,
earthy mixtures of clay and silt-sized particles that are
dominated mostly by clay minerals. The structural lattice
of clay minerals results in a highly negative electrical
charge, caused mostly by the substitution of Al+++ ions.
Electrical imbalance is compensated for by cations that
Neutron Porosity, <l>N ___.
attach to the surface of the c lay sheets. The positive sur-
Fig. 5-12 - Clay distribution patterns on a density vs. neutron
face charge, cal led the cation exchange coefficient
crossplot (CEC), is discussed in more detail later in the text.

The presence of shales (or clay) within a formation com-

to the dispersed clays that are detrimental to reservoir
quality (Fig. 5-13).
Today, the density-neutron crossplot is the basic cross-
plot used in most log analysis routines. It has also been
used effectively to differentiate sand from shale where
"radioactive sands" occur. Natural gamma ray counts in
such sands may indicate high APl values indicative of
shale, whereas the crossplot data indicate relatively clean
sands. These "hot sands" are usually high in potassium or
thorium and potassium content. Natural gamma ray spec-
troscopy and/or z-axis plots play an important role 10
identifying these phenomena and are discussed later.
plicates the definition of porosity because clay's bound
surface waters often provide a significant amount of pore
space, albeit noneffective. Log measurements are affected
differently by the amounts and properties of particular
shales, and the way shale is distributed in the rock
becomes significant to log analysis. Many sand reservoirs
were created in conditions that cause layers of sand to be
separated by layers of clay, and the sand laminae are
essentially unaffected by the clay laminae that separate
the layers. Shale also occurs as a structural component of
the rock; the shale is part of the matrix and has mini mal
effect on the porosity responses of logs. Clays are also dis-
persed in the pore throats of sorne sand bodies, partially
filling the interconnecting lattices, and thereby cause a
large reduction in permeability. Any combination of the
three clay types can occur simultaneously.

- 192-

Laminar Sand-Shale Model
An acoustic-density crossplot was introduced as early as
1963. 2 159 The graphical solution was constructed from
the two linear response functions,
Pb = (<l>ss Pss P, Psh V5h), and
!:,,t = <<l>ss !:,,tss. /:,,t, !:,,tsh and vs/t),
where
<l>ss = porosity value calculated for sandstone
using the linear functions for each
respective device,
p = density values used respectively for
sandstone matrix, chosen from log data
in an adjacent shale anda value for fluid
density,
!:,,t = transit time values used respectively for
sandstone matrix, chosen from log data
in an adjacent shale anda value for fluid
transit time,
and
Vsh = shale volume determined from the
acoustic vs. density laminated sand-
shale model.
Again, the crossplot is constructed from three control
points that represent the 100% porosity fluid point, the
zero porosity sandstone point, and the 100% shale point
(Fig. 5-14). Typically, the 0% point for sandstone or
quartz (Q) is plotted at the point where Pb of 2.65 g/cm 3
and !:,,t of 55.6 sec/ft intersect (other parameters are
sometimes used for sandstone matrix). For fresh-mud
drilling fluids, pof 1 g/cm 3 and /:,,tof 189 sec/ft typi-
cally represent the 100% porosity fluid point (F). The
fluid point would be slightly different ("' l.l g/cm3 and
185 sec/ft) for salt muds. The shale point (S) is arbi-
trarily chosen from reliable Pb values and !:,,t values
observed in adjacent shale beds. This technique assumes
the adjacent shale is similar to those within the sand
body. Lines are constructed between the points QS, QF,
and SF. The line QF is linearly subdivided into percent-
ages of clean sand porosity. The line QS is linearly subdi-
vided into percentages of Vsh. The FS line is also subdi-
vided linearly, which allows lines parallel to QF to be
constructed for apparent porosity (<l>a). Lines are also
constructed parallel to the clean sand line and segmented
into linear percentages of sand/shale mixture out to the
100% Vsh point. Log data plotted at any point on the
crossplot then lead to an estmate of sand and shale per-
centages and total effective porosity (<l>e). This plot is
known as a laminated model. Dotted lines are con-
structed to fan out from the Vsh point to incremental
values of porosity along the clean sand line QF. Clean
sand porosity is interpreted within the dotted line bound-
-193-
Acoustic Travel Time, t.t -
Fig. 5-14 - Crossplot concept for a laminated shaly sand
aries as the clean sand portion of the laminar model and
is used for saturation determination in the laminar model.
Resistivity of the clean sand laminae is calculated as
follows,
Once the clean sand resistivity is determined and poros-
ity is converted to formation factor by the proper rela-
tionship, only connate water resistivity (Rw) is needed to
calculate water saturation in the clean sand portion of the
laminated reservoir rock. The apparent water saturation
(Swa) is then found by
Swa=~-
Similar laminated models can be constructed with den-
sity-neutron data. In laminated shaly gas sands, a com-
parison of both models has often been employed success-
fully to determine more accurate and acceptable <l>e and
Sw values.
Dispersed Clay Model
At the outset, a crossplot for sands and dispersed clays is
constructed in a fashion similar to that for other
plots (control points Q, F, and C are plotted). The QF line
(Fig. 5-15) is again linearly subdivided into percentages
of clean sand porosity. The term clay becomes very
appropriate in this model, and assuming a 100% clay
point (C) as illustrated, line QC is subdivided into per-
centages of dispersed clay. The points along the QC line
are used to construct lines parallel to the QF line. The
concept of using acoustic and density data to evaluate
sands with dispersed shales is based on the premise that
!:,,t values are "seeing" the clays as a slurry, and the log
value is accepted as total porosity (<1> 1). Pb values are
essentially unaffected by the dispersed clays and see only
matrix and effective pore space. This is because the
 Conventional chartbook crossplots of density vs. acoustic
data include matrix lines for limestone, dolomite, and
sandstone (Fig. 5-16). Matrix resolution between any two
of the three lines is poor, and density-acoustic crossplots
are therefore used more for evaluating sand-shale
sequences than for any porosity-lithology mix in carbon-
ate environments. Obviously, the two clastic models dis-
cussed are accurate only for the conditions described; the
laminated model yields inaccurate results for sand with
dispersed clays, and the dispersed clay model provides
inaccurate results if laminated sand-shales are the rock
characteristics. The two-way crossplots have limitations
and require known or assumed parameters to provide
accurate answers.

ACOUSTIC-NEUTRON CROSSPLOT
-10 ~-~o---_2._o___
.4._o_ _...,_6~0---.s-'-o--~1.oo
4>AC Construction of this crossplot also requires control
points. The acoustic-neutron crossplot closely resembles
Fig. 5-15 - Dispersed clay model
the density-neutron crossplot (Fig. 5-17) and is often sig-
nificant in differentiating radioactive or "hot" carbonates
difference in Pct and Pb values is relatively small. Later, from shales and evaluating tight shaly gas sands. It is
these concepts led to the conclusion often not a wise choice, however, for determining shale
volume. For example, !:,,tsh "" 100 sec and <l>Nsh"" 30%
are not unusual shale parameters in many geographical
areas, but these values plot at or near the clean sand line
where q is representative of the amount of dispersed clay. on the acoustic-neutron crossplot. In other words, when
Earlier work39 41 suggested water and dispersed shale using this plot for V511 calculations, shale beds may
conduct electrical current as a mixture of electrolytes, appear as clean sands.
resulting in a complex equation illustrating Sw to be the
water saturation of the true effective porosity fraction. In radioactive dolomites, natural gamma rays may cause
The value q leads to acceptable estimates of the dispersed high readings (high concentrations of uranium or potas-
clay fraction , but values for R51 were much more difficult sium), and the gamma ray measurement is therefore not a
to define. The simplified approach takes a resistivity realistic indicator of Vsh. Neutron and acoustic data gen-
value from the adjoining shale beds. This value is not erally provide reliable shale estimates because the dolo-
critica! if R 51 >>> Rw ,which is usually the case. The sim- mite line has ample resolution compared to the probable
plified form of the dispersed clay saturation model shale point. For example, !:,,tsh "" 80 sec and <!> Nsh values
became of "" 20% are typical shale values found near such
2 environs (typically complex supratidal and/or intertidal),
.._ FzRwl R 1 + q I 4 -q/2
Sw =- ~--------- , and they usually plot near the sandstone matrix line or
1-q between the sandstone and limestone line. This crossplot
where is often significant in the analysis of shallow, nearshore
reservoirs, but it typically gives optimistic estimates of
Sw = water saturation determined, porosity in shaly sand reservoirs because both logs are
influenced by shale content.
Fz = the formation factor determined from <l>a
and the appropriate transform, Gas Affect on Acoustic-Neutron Crossplots
Rw = the connate water resistivity,
Corrections for gas affects discussed for density-neutron
R, = the true formation resistivity, crossplotted data also apply here. Although acoustic data
are seldom affected by gas, the affects are usually
and
extreme when it occurs and cycle skips occur. In many
q = the estmate of pore space occupied by tight, shaly gas sands, density, neutron, and acoustic data
the dispersed clays. are necessary to effectively evaluate the reservoir.

-194-
 Specific Acoustic Time, lit (s/m)
150 200 250 300 350
1.9
:
1
Pma = 2.65
p1 1.0 g/cm3 or Mg/m3
40 2.71
Pma 2.0
t.t1 = 189 s/ft or 620 s/m
40
'1
---;--~ ___:-_;_;-:--,'",_-;...'-_:-_:-.;_;-_-c---:t--~_t_;::.-:;;:-'--r,-!~ . i, - - : - . ; - ' - ; - : -
'-.-.1-_-:_--,-,...,..-_-_,___J__
35
Pma 2.86
2.1
35 40 ,~
..,, ,
,
30 ~
r:q:--, ~~~~:~+::~-~-~
~~-:--- .-.- --~-~- ; -~ ,~
-f--l--___._H,~-----1 r-J......
7

-------~_ _,_____,__ ~.....---+-

'~-,..-------r-:', - ~...,.~::;:-+,-'>.,J:_.,.,..__,,.,'--..,
-,,-..
' -,h-tt---t_._'+-t
30 , ,
35 2.2

25

25
30 2.3
20
o
<') 1
20 E
Q
25 .9
2.4
, ,., ,7 "'
15 .o
Q.

.
; ,-,. ., J

10
15

20
e
Ql
o
,.,_
.., 'J
17

.,
I

I ' ,
:i 2.5 .L"' I

CD ,,.I ,., ..,.,,

7 1 -'

.,, '
10
,,
5
15
, ,.,,,"'
'1
2.6
..._-_--:_-'._'--.,.'-.--_-..,+..,-1,_-_-'
t--++-_ .. ".._1-
._ .-,.
., "','l,.::!;j/'
.:.t.t"'"l-.,"-_-_'-_'-....._-_,+..,-\_-i_-.~+1-_,.
.. "_..,._..,._-_-<,_-_-+1-_-'-_.+_.+_-:_~;....,_++.,.-+-_..,_;-_-_+-+-+-+-++..,....
_"""..,-,..e-,_i-._+-t-.+,.-+.... '-t-t--,_.......
, -t_r + -t-+-t-t
5 T I
., r ..,,
o
+a 10
SS 2.7
o
,i
+a
LS
5

2.8 ,.
1'

o N.

+. 2.9
DOL

'"
'.,
3.0
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Specific Acoustic Time, lit (s/ft)

Fig. 5-16 - Porosity and lithology determination from compensated density and BHC Acoustilog

- 195-
 Alma= 55.5
110 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 360
40 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Alma = 47.5
Al1 = 189 s/ft or 620 s/m -.
40
'
Alma= 43.5 340
35
40 ~ e
~
100 r..
'
35 -1, 320
30
35 .
I

'
25 30 90
. 300

} ?
:,
30 1(
280
'
20 25 "
g ~ 'I
25 (J)
.3, 80 r,
260
I
.3,
< \
<
cli cli
15 E E
20 F F
(J .... (J
~ f
20 :::, ' ' 240 ~
:::,
o o
;{ ;{
(J
!E 70 (J
;;:::
15 (J "
Q)
a. ' r, a.
Q)

en ' ~
220 en
15
IJ
5
10 200
60
10 . ~
' ~
I'<

o ()

180
+a 5 ' ~
SS
5
'' ~

Note:
50 , Follow lines according to
~

rock mixture as defined by 160

o ~
Limestone and Dolomita ~

+a l Sandslone and Limestone

LS - - - - - - Sandstone and Dolomita
o
+a 140
DOL 40
Acouslic porosily -10 o 10 20 40 50
30
computad from
Compensated Neulron Apparent Limestone Porosity (%)
Wyllie-Rose.

O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Compensated Neutron Apparent Sandstone Porosity (%)

Fig. 5-17 - Porosity and lithology determination from BHC Acoustilog and Compensated Neutron Log

- 196 -
,.
PRACTICA L WORK SESSION
Problem 1
On the linear graph, scale the y-axis to increase down-
ward (in Pb increments) and the x-axis to increase to the
right (in <l>Nis values). The scale should extend from about
1 to 3 g/cm3 and from 0% to 100% apparent limestone
porosity. The drilling fluid is fresh-mud gel - plot the
100% porosity or fluid point. The given matrix is lime-
stone - plot the zero porosity matrix point. Adjacent beds
- 197 -
have shale values of approximately Psh "" 2.6 g/cm3 and
<l>Nsh"" 0.40 - plot these points.
Connect the three points with lines to form a triangle. At
this time, you have established three coordinate points
for a density-neutron crossplot. Along the matrix-to-fluid
line, interpolate porosity segments in increments of 10%.
When this is completed, you have established a dual-
mineral crossplot designed to solve for porosity and
limestone vs. shale lithology rnix.
Problem2 By plotting the log data from a shaly sand with the values
given below, porosity and sand-shale distribution can be
The working area of a crossplot is generally within 40% estimated.
to 50% porosity limits (occasionally higher). That is why Porosity Lithology Mixture
chart books generally show crossplots that do not extend
beyond 50% porosity values. The grid and lithology lines Pb = 2.40, <j)Na = 0.10
are given for a density-neutron crossplot that is designed
for sandstone, shale, and porosity estimates. You are Pb = 2.30, <j)Na = 0.20
given Psh ~ 2.5 g/cm 3 and <j)Nsh ~ 0.40 as values from
adjacent shale beds. First, construct the lines from the Pb = 2.20, <j)Na = 0.25
clean sand matrix point to the approximate 100% shale
point. Then, construct eight separate but equally spaced Pb= 2.20, <j)Na = 0.10
parallel lines (parallel to the sand matrix line) between
sandstone and shale. Pb = 2.15, <j)Na = 0.30

45
1.9 V

1
pf = 1.0 g/cm3
40/
2.0

2.1
35,
/
/
2.2 I i
,f
,::'

o" -& 25-.. V

0~ /
2.3

2.4 15 7
2.5
10/
2.6
o-J
si/ Shale Point
pb = 2.50
~Nsh = 0.4)

2.7

2.8

2.9

3.0
-10 o 10 20 30 40 50
~Nis

- 198-
- ,,
Problem 3 total effective porosity, and porosity of the sand laminae
using the following input values.
A density-acoustic chart book crossplot for fresh mud is
given below. The lithology is sand-shale, and the sand- ~eff
stone line is constructed on the plot. Plot the shale values
[Psh =2.6 g/cm3 and /:;.tsh = 100 sec/ft (or 328 sec/m)]. Pb = 2.50, t:.t = 73
Then, connect a line from the zero porosity sand matrix
point to the shale point, and construct nine lines parallel Pb = 2.52, t:.t = 93
to the clean sand line, between the 0% shale and 100%
shale points, thus dividing Vsh incrementally between the Pb = 2.41 , t:.t = 80
two points. The next step is to construct dashed lines
from the sandstone porosity values (along the sand Pb = 2.54, t:.t = 74
matrix line) to the shale point. You now have a laminated
shale model for the reservoir. Determine percent shale, Pb =2.57, t:.t =72

Specific Acaustlc Time, 61 (,s/m)

150 200 250 300 350
1.9
. - ''r-t'r""

P.,. 2.65 ..,

Pr 1.0 g/cm 3 ar Mglm3
40 P.,. 2.71 2.0 ...
tt1 189 s/ft ar 620 s/m
40

:-++ t~ ~
35
P.,. 2.86
2.1
- .. .
..,.,-,- ~... ~---+---
35 40 ,f +t:
_;_
30
~t-t,- ~~ rr ,-
l
;---+,.t ;... ~
i----1-
..
30
35 2.2
r' ..Y., ~H'i",'t-- .'
25 - ~ :-.
;__ ~ '14- ,
25 ...-,-,.
30 '"O>E 2.3
"
20 ::; -+-~ - r 'Y,t:,

15
20
25
1
s"
o

.. D
2.4
---~ .-. <>Y
....,..._:H -+- f+...;- ..J..,E
y
...
"'= (!- _._ .
"-

~
;;
15 e:
o"' r
10 20 ><
2.5
3
ID :
10

5
15
2.6
5
,. ;'
r

o
+.
SS
10

o 2.7 ~

+.
LS
5

2.8 r

o
+.
DOL 2.9

3 .0
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Specific Acaustic Time, 61 (,slft)

- 199-
Problem 4 Apparent Lithology
LogValues Lithology Porosity( % )
Given a neutron-density crossplot, and assuming it is the
correct chart for the log data provided, determine cross- (1) Pb =2.52, <l>NLs = 0.11 _ _ _ _ _ __
plot porosity and an estimate of the lithology mix for the
(2) Pb = 2.70, <l>NLs =0.05._ _ _ _ _ __
following given conditions:
(3) Pb = 2.15, <l>NLs =0.35_ _ _ _ _ __

(4) Pb = 2.20, <l>NLs = 0.24_ _ _ _ _ __

(5) Pb = 2.60, <l>Nts = 0.22._ _ _ _ _ __

Pma = 2.65
45 1.9
Pma 2.71
45
p1 1.0 glcm 3 or Mglm3
40 Pma = 2.86 2.0
40 45

35

35 2.1
40

30

30 2.2
35
25

25
3 2.3
20

20
25
15 0 2.4

15

10 20

10
5
15
2.6

o
+.
SS
10

o 2.7
Note:
+.
LS
Follow lines according to
rock mixture as defined by
5
Limestone and Dolomite
2.8 Sandstone and Limestone
----- Sandstone and Dolomita

o
+.
DOL 2.9

3.0
-10 o 10 20 30 40 50
Compensated Neutron Apparent Limestone Porosity (%)

O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Compensated Neutron Apparent Sandstone Porosity (%)

-200-
,.
Problem 5

Given a slightly different neutron-density chart with the

fluid, matrix, hard shale, and wet clay points defined, plot
the five data points from Problem 4 and define them as
shaly sands that have dispersed clay, laminated clay,
structural clay, or clean sand.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

2.0

2 .1 /
/ /
/
/
/

// J'
/
/

/
I
/
/

/ /
/ / ' To / 1 I

2.2 / 3
/
/
/
/ Fluid// I
/
/

v-~ 0 ~ / ,'"/ /
/
/ I
/

e:,'lf ~ / /
/
/
/
,I
/

I
I
2.3 'l>~ ,
00 O.<::l( v' /

2.4
'/ /
/
/
/
/
/
,/
I
/

I
I
I

i--,....
V
/ [/ I I
/
/ /
,_- _-

~---
/

K~ -----
0.19-
pb 2.5

/ G)
/ /
/
/ Wet Clay Point
-
/ / Pb= 2.48

--
/

2.6
/ l--7 //~ I
/
/
I <l> N=40

o
_ /
5

~/
~ /
/
~
(5 ,:,.0
-:,..O~
0 /
;Z
/
2.7 :-.. / / (._~ / ,I I'--- Hard Shale Point
,2./ / / ,
V / I Pb= 2.53
/ / / I q, N= 28
/ / / I
2.8 , ,
/ /
/ / I I
Dry Colloids
2.9

3.0
o 10 20 30 40 50 60
_<l>Nsd

-20 1 -
"
M-N CROSSPLOTS and

Mineral identification from M and N data is not a 3-D

crossplot technique. A crossplot is nothing more than a
comparison of one type data (abscissa) to another type
data (ordinate). The M-N plot actually compares a mix of For fresh-mud drilling fluid, the chart book values are
acoustic and density data with a mix of density and neu- .t== 189, P == 1, and $N == l. The chart book values in
tron data. In M-N plots, ali three sets of log data (in two salt mud are .l == 185, P == 1.1 and $N == l. Fluid den-
forms) are used to crossplot the mixes from two differing sity is not a constant value, but vares somewhat with
data sets to achieve a "better idea" of the mineral mixture. temperature, pressure, and depth, and the multiplier for
Since the raw measurements from ali three logs are inter- the M solution is used for convenience to allow compati-
rnixed, the M and N values are essentially independent of ble scaling. The M and N plot is entered with calculated
porosity and therefore supply important lithology-sensi- values, whereas the rocks/minerals indicated in specific
tive information. M and N are defined as areas or at specific points on the plot represent empirical
and laboratory data (Fig. 5-18). M and N are no more
than terms to represent their individual mix of log data.

- t - .. +. . l j . ----i-l,
.' l + .
l . . + - - . + . . .
-
. + + : : ; : t : :- .+ .+t-, . __ ' J
. ' '.-t +--
+. +

, ~-1-...... .......... +
-----,......+---1---

T t--- i- .
. +
.... tt +
1 1 IFt---t--t :.t:.:.:.:.t::.t-.::.-+------ir--"--+--i---t----+---+-,--+-...-----+--+--+--+---lr--"--i-+-----1
-+ ---t~
' :

11-+........-+--,-. -:__+. _ ....-......l_._~_,___ -+--~--+---+- -, - . !- : : +. --- 1 - t +. . 1

... ~ +- +-- - - ..,..... , + ... ---4 - t . ... . --+- t"7 ..---+---t--
:: - +1- -
+- ., - - - - -- .i,

tt t -,
t " " '. + - -1---- - ~ . " .+- .,.
j t . i .
h - t- ... ---- ; ..... .......... --....-----+-+-f--- l-- + T 1--- + .... -+---- _,. . _. . . ___
+ ' ' ' ..
-+ -
' . __:__:_
---
;
........
1
_ - ::___

- -
1 ,
i----,-------t-
1

1 ,O
-~ t-~+---~---+
~......._.... . : , - +
~
~+-+-----+---~ L
[
1 +
--,
1' 1 .
". f , _.!,.._-_--+_,.u_'--
t-- - i- +---+ '

' ' + __--+-'---....;......+----+------! __ .! _ , . l-_- r- \

t ' - _ ' + 1 ! --~!-+---~- !- ' - ..... - t- -
, t
t i t t-
, - + +
+ + .- t
_----,_~+ t ++- 1- --
--
- --+
-+-,.
- ---t------+----+-~........
L
M
p.:_;_ i : - -- : :-:-:-f:: ~ i , t +1 _:: j.. 1
-1 . _." -T.. .. 1 - - -T - , - -
0.9 ,: 1--:-z:: _LJ --,-1- T- t . "='"rf~P . f.). _J. - f _, . 1- _::_:_

!- :!+"" .. , t
rr:-tf
. , f-:: -l L. '. ' : _t_ . + , , .; 1 _3~ /V .; = 18 000 -tt__ r i ~ i ~-81IT/: u . --j _ --~-,....-
' t- -~- ~ r -":. eston,
,,
,,., 1 { J.., 35%
1/ _,; ' t --
'F -~+-+--1--1---1 , , 1 t 1- ,

, t l. 1
tt
-+--0o-I)10,";'.1,e -+ . e, :.: , -.,..,.,,,.
--.--+ 1,_. +- -H +- --, -ri
......-+-1--~~.._r~-t- ..1W--,--t--+
r+
+--'-~+--..........---1~ t . - ~ ,i,'l . . _, ' ' t t ~ ' - f j
o.a LJ , 1-
.
, ,- , ~ + - ,.;, . ::-7-H _._ ~. -, 1 7 - 1. --
+ . ..
- -+'"i----r-
~ ' ' _: r - '"iW, P1 r . .u,l:.1'"'f' ,i~I~
t':.. .,. + ..
1
1 i +. IPtf .o-:Mgtb2;--~1/ = _p~QJ t!I!.l:
+- ~----+------+---
1 1 '
- + 5/ j . +/ +- ---i- ~ ~ -, _,__.__,__,__ __,_.---+-+--+ - J . _ ~ ~ _ _ . ; _ _ + .. . '

; : . , t-1 -W-1-1- , - , j --....... !- . ..... .L. .;...-+---,--- --1- ' t- -t-+

0.6 ~ ~ --,-
'..' j 11 . 1. t j7'- h- 1 ~1- . h -+... , ~ 1 1 1 1

0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 o.a 0.9 1.0 1.1

N

l - $cN
English or metric (for Pr in g/cm3 or Mg/m3 ): N = - - --

Fig. 5-18- Mineral identification by M-N crossplot

-202-
Matrix parameters for given sedimentary rock/mineral
types are seldom fixed values, and the values in Table 5-1
are approximations. In severa) cases, a plus or mjnus
spread in values is given for a mineral response on cer-
tai n log types. Data are presented for freshwater and salt-
water muds, but applicable responses differ in oil-based
muds, air-drilled holes, or mud systems such as those
using KCI drilling fluids.
If a mixture of three minerals is known, log data are accu-
rate, and a mud condition is given, the point on the plot
resulting from crossplotting M and N should identify the
mineral mix with reasonable accuracy. For example, if
M = 0.76 and N = 0.55, the point will be within the dolo-
mite-quartz-anhydrite triangle and will indicate an equal
mixture of the three minerals. However, if the three
known rock types are dolomite, quartz, and shale, a com-
pletely different interpretation will result - a slightly
shaly, sandy dolomite. The crossplot does not determine
the lithology mix; the analyst determines the lithology
mjx by relating the log responses to a known mix.
The apparent mineral mix from M-N plots can also be
mjsieading if any of the three logging devices is affected
by gas, secondary porosity, shaliness, or unfavorable
borehole conditions. Admixtures of other rock types such
as gypsum or salt and heavy minerals such as pyrite
(FeS 2) or siderite (FeCO3) can also distort M-N results.
Use of M-N techniques therefore requires a comparison
of ali the previously described crossplots to determjne if
any of the logs are affected by gas, secondary porosity,
salt, gypsum, or other minerals. Combining ali the infor-
mation available is necessary to achieve a satisfactory
interpretative estmate of porosity and lithology fractions.
MINERAL IDENTIFICAT ION (MID) PLOT
The MID plot is another approach that essentially uses
the three types of log data differently to provide more
sens11lv1ty to lithology, gas, and secondary porosity.
Again, acoustic, density, and neutron data are required.
Two crossplot steps are required to determjne the values
needed to enter the MID plot:
Density and neutron data are plotted to determine
the total apparent porosity (<l>a).
Acoustic and neutron data are plotted to determine
a total apparent porosity (<l>a).
Porosities from the two crossplot solutions virtually never
agree, but each of the individually determjned values is
used, respectively, in the solution for apparent matrix
density (Pmaa) and apparent matrix transit time (f;.tmaa),
Pmaa= ( 1 -q>a
1)
pb - <l>aP
- 203 -
and
).fmaa
where
= bulk density value from density log,
).l = interval transit time from acoustic log,
P = density of the pore fluid,
f;.t = transit time of the pore fluid,
and
<i>a = apparent total porosity determined from
the two crossplots previously described
The two apparent matrix values are then used to enter the
matrix identification plot (Fig. 5-19). Again, the appro-
priate crossplot charts for the too! types and mud salinity
are necessary.
The MID plot differs from the M-N plot because of the
different too! mixtures used to determine the entry values
for x and y coordinates. On M-N plots, the M value
resulted from acoustic and density data and the N value
resulted from neutron and density data. Density and neu-
tron measurements are used to obtain one value for entry
into the MID plot, but acoustic and neutron data are used
(not density and acoustic) to obtain the other entry value.
MID plot lithology definition is also hampered by the
affects of gas, secondary porosity, bad hole conditions,
shaliness, and the effects must be recognized by the user.
Nevertheless, MID plot resolution is superior to that of
the M-N plot.
Z-DENSITY DATA
Pe data improve interpretation with the density log.
Deriving a porosity value from Pb alone requires assump-
tions for Pma a bit of guesswork that can lead to consid-
erable error in the calculation. Photoelectric cross section
is a very lithology-sensitive parameter, and it can be used
to establish within reasonable tolerance whether a forma-
tion is sand, limestone, doJomjte, or a mixture. Calcula-
tion of porosity from Pb requires a pararneter for matrix
density; not an absolute lithology description, but a rea-
sonably accurate value for matrix density. Z-density data
permit a dual-mineral solution to analyze the mixture of
two mineral types for a more effective porosity estmate.
Charts are provided for both freshwater and salt-based
muds (Figs. 5-20, 5-21). The algorithms for resolving <l>a
from Pb and Pe are
 41ma, (slm)

100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240

2.0
;- ++ I+ <
..
H-i . o
t
2.1 1
1
11 1

H-t + 1

H:i+r -t " !++ :+ ++

2.2 1

H++' 7 -+t
' ' 1
H-h
-
1
' +H- f+ +r
2.3 1 1
..___
+ -:+L
,-l-- -! t-
~::-H- t-H
1.
-t . .
1
'
1
1 1

2.4 1 ' '

,:;--
E
O)
-- 1
:t.::::.~ j_
r 1+ ,-+f 1-' -
-
:::;;
2.5 1 1 T
o +h ... __ + h
"'e ._
: t11eb --1.-
o
__ .
__ LL... :::t-:-1 +- f--- ...J.W-,
f - - ~ .. ..._
i-1-
~ 2.6 1
---,. 1

~
., 9t
E
"-
2.7
it
1
'-7'
1
1

- 1------1 :im;;g;
,
Pr - t
---1.~;:
-++=
4J- !+ -,--t:-4: ,+-
1
,
~
f--- ...J/r i-1;V 1-l 1

1--t-x-- ' ----r-

--

2.8 1 '+ _ ....J..._ l L

1-
.:::-:T_r ~~ -~--~ /-+ -,- 17-
r-
~t . '- ~- TTt -0:1~ .- - -.- 1 1~ --
, -1-

~ --Jt~-:1 --,- 7 ,
--'-
1

- H- --'-- +-
2.9
q:r.:: 1. )mi,'
: _.J..,.
-'-+-
L"- ~Ji. - ~ -~1:-t- 4-'--,,1~
_ .;..; !
H r+--
. ...~

$::l=-r-=: --. .~L1-H -~--~t: +--t

3.0 1

3.1
.-- ::r
C- - -
~ r
f
..-L.,..:.:_ +
,-
1--l-+ -
_ __

-+ --f-t-'-
30 40 60 70

Piog - '1>01N Pr t1og - '1>AIN l>tr

1 -1)>D/N 1 -q>A/N

where,

'1>otN = density/ neutron crossplot porosity

q> AI N = acoustic/neutron crossplot porosity

Fig. 5-19- Mineral identification plot

Pe = electron density index

(Pb + 0.1883)/1.0704,
and

1, 2 = density, U values, and bulk volume

values for minerals 1 and 2.
where
When Z-Densilog and neutron data are used, a more
Pb = log measured bulk density (g/cm3), accurate definition of lithology and a better estimare of
porosity are made available. A direct benefit is much
Pe = photoelectric cross section
(barns/electron), better distinction between oil and gas. If the predominant
mineral mix is two matrices, it is a relatively simple well-
Uf = U value of fluid (charts assume 0.398), site application.

-204-
- #

Freshwater-filled Borehole , Pt = 1.0 g/cm3 or Mg/m3

1.8
' .... -- ..
'' ,. - 1
-~-
...... 1
L.. i-A

1.9 ' ' ~

l.,'
;-

1"'-~ t

,o .__ ,_ ' 1

-- - -
~
2.0
1\.. _.._ ..
11..
L__..
rm
1' ~~,

2.1 '' ., .... 1

1
,A

30
~ -.. . -
2 .2
'
'- - - ... 1..-
'l/

~
,, ..... !!! .....
l..... ~ i..,.- !!: t'
' :: ~""
1;. 1, ~ t
E
e, 2.3
~ ./ --.
,
- -- - - "~ r,~
:E

-- -
O::LJ
o l"'
!\. .., .
"'E
Q
> - '"! :o
(/) "\. l .....
.2l 2.4 ,.
.Q ~ I"\.
Q. Q.
i'I.. .....
i!' .....
;
e ' ......
Q)
o
.>e.
2.5
10
--' -

lt'
J

20
--
..

"S
- - -
.

al A

'
V
./
I"\.
~.,.
~ ....
2.6 11.

' "\. .v
7

e ,loo,,_
i'I.. J,,

...
2.7 ' 11,.

' I"!\.
i- - -
~

--- - - ., L h
, ....
~""
,......
'\
1-- Note:

2.8
-
1--

>-
>-
Follow lines according to
rock mixture as defined by
Sandstone and Dolomite
Limestone and Dolomite
11,.

' ~
i,
1/

1-

>-
- - - - - - Sandstone and Limestone " L.,
V

2 .9

, ..... _J L~

3.0 1
o 2 3 4 5 6
Photoelect ric Cross Section, P {barns/electron)
8

Fig. 5-20 - Porosity and lithology determination from the Compensated Z-Densilog
measurement

-205-
,.

"

Saltwater-filled Borehole, Pt = 1.1 g/cm3 or Mglm3

1.8

,_

1.9
~

1,,.

~
-
I'...
---
~
I- - -

...
., ,r:::n
-
""- .....
l.,'
""-
:u l
2.0 In
.. - - ... '
' 1\.
'-
.. - ---
l.....
Al"\
,. ~i,,it

2.1 ... ~

.... ~

l'll

o ... .
2.2 G) ...
,
-... -- -
o
1 "' 1\.
., l....... -
~ 11,. ........ ;
~' e
2.3
<!
' ~- ....
..... -
u,

.-
l.,,"

---~-"
\
IV ::
o u
(')

Q
E
o
:,
' 1\.
..
~
... - -
... iu
.2l 2.4 \. t; 7
e:,_
.o
... .; -
:..
;;
e
Q)
' c. 1, ... "'
~

"' ~

O
-"'-
:5
CD
2.5
\. -----1- ,,
,..
-- ., .. 10
'
'
~

7
2.6 .... ...
1,
.,. 1......
-' .. -,__, ....
IV ..... -~-
2 .7
- ~ 1
' 1\. ~

- Note: r.....-

- ...
,.._ Follow lines according to V
"\
rock mixture as defined by "
2.8
-
,_
,_
Sandstone and Dolomite
Limestone and Dolomite
\.
.e
i.....
~

- - - - - - Sandstone and Limestone

2.9

3.0
- -
o 2 3 4 5 6

Photoelectric Cross Section , Pe (barns/electron)

Fig. 5-21 - Porosity and lithology determination from Compensated Z-Densilog measurement

- 206-
lf the solution of lithology, porosity, and gas affect from the Pe vs. Pb crossplot is often more reliable. Pe and
involves three or more minerals, more sophisticated com- Umaa values for severa! lithology and fluid types are
putations and crossplot analyses are required. Computer- given in Table 5-2.
processing techniques are almost prerequisite if such
complexity occurs. Bulk density and neutron data are TABLE 5-2
Typical Matrix Values for Commonly Encountered Materials
crossplotted in the conventional manner to determine <l>a
and Pmaa The apparent volumetric cross section (Umaa)
Pe Pmaa Umaa Pb u
is found by following the Pe data point vertically upward
to Pb, then horizontally across to <l>a, and downward verti- Dolomite 3.14 2.88 9.11 2.88 9.05
cally to determine Umaa (Fig. 5-22). Thc volumetric term Limestone 5.08 2.71 13.78 2.71 13.78
Sandstone 1.81 2.65 4.79
(bams/cm3) can also be calculated, 2.65 4.79
Magnesite 0.83 3.00 2.50 2.98 2.47
Pp-,..UJ
e e 't'a f
umaa =( 1-<l>a , Anhydrite
Gypsum
5.05 2.98 15.06 2.98 2.47
3.99 3.69 18.76 2.35 9.38
where Halite 4.65 2.36 12.44 2.04 9.49
Sylvite 8.51 2.25 23.08 1.86 15.83
Pe = photoelectric absorption cross section,
Chlorite* 6.30 3.39 23.63 2.76 17.39
Pe = electron density (Pb +0.1883/1.0704) . lllite* 3.45 2.92 10.97 2.52 8.69
Kaolinite* 1.83 2.96 6.14 2.41 4.41
<l>a = apparent total effective porosity, Montmorillonite* 2.04 2.89 7.28 2.12 4.32

and Muscovite 2.40 2.97 7.35 2.82 6.77

Uf = volumetric value for the fluid. Biotite * 6.27 3.10 19.80 2.99 18.75
Glauconite * 6.37 3.05 21.52 2.54 16.18
The two porosity values derived from the two crossplots
Coal, bituminous 0.17 1.99 0.87 1.24 0.21
are similar if the formation is fluid filled and borehole
conditions are tolerable, and the density-neutron solution Barite 267 4.09 1091 4.09 1091
is generally accepted. Gas-filled formations affect ne u- Hematite 21.5 5.27 113.5 5.18 111.3
tron logs more than density measurements; therefore,
porosity from the density-neutron crossplot is somewhat Fresh water 0.36 1.00 0.36
Salt water (330 ppk) 1.64 1.1 9 1.95
pessimistic if gas is present, whereas porosity derived
Oil 0.12 0.88 .11
* Typical values

(1) Enter from Pe value (4.8) to pb value (2.40)

(2) Extend a horizontal line from pb to <:>a value (.18)

Complex lithology is resolved somewhat by crossplot-
(3) Extend a vertical line down from <l> a toread Umaa (14) ting the U11100 value against the Pmaa value (Fig. 5-23).
The triangular points for quartz, calcite, and dolomite are
<!> a(%) configured from conventional matrix values for each

pb 2.5
3.0

2.0
~o
20
30
l mineral, and the lines connecting points along the three
edges of the triangle denote the percentages of each min-
eral. For example, a point that falls at A is considered a
40 mixture of 40% limestone and 60% dolomite, whereas a
point that falls at B is considered a mixture of 20% sand,
20% Iimestone, and 60% dolomite. Triangles can also be
constructed for other mineral mixes such as salt, anhy-
drite, and dolomite (Fig. 5-24) or salt, dolomite, and
limestone (Fig. 5-25). Points for other minerals in rela-
6 5 4 3 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 tion to their response on ~ , Pb , and <l>N measurements
- --Pe--- - - - Umaa - ----+ can also be indicated (Fig. 5-26). However, gas affects
and borehole irregularities must still be considered, and
for accuracy, clays, shales, and additional rock types
must be estimated by other means. Accurate solutions
Fig. 5-22 - Chart determination of the apparent matrix volumetric require a sufficient number of measurements to solve for
cross section (Umaal the number of rocks and minerals present.

- 207-
 18
14
16
Anhydrite
13 14

12
12
10
Umaa
8 Dolomite
11
6
10 ()
4
SE..
Umaa
~ 2 '----'--.l......---'-- - ' - - - - ' - --'----'---'----'-....L..---'-
3.1 3.0 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0
9
Pmaa

8 Fig. 5-24 - Triangles can be constructed for difieren! rock types.

7 18 -
16 -
6 14 >- Limestone

12 >-
5 ~
Ouartz 10 -
Umaa
2.00 2.~ 2.00 2.~ 2.ro 2.~ 8- Dolomite
Pmaa
6
Fig. 5-23 - Complex lithology is resolved somewhat by cross- 4
plotting the apparent matrix density vs. the apparent matrix
volumetric. 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

3.1 3.0 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0
Pmaa
Variations of lithology can lead to different triangular
Fig. 5-25 - Another lithology triangle concept
charts; e.g., gypsum-anhydrite-dolomite, salt-anhydrite-
dolomite, or limestone-dolomite-anhydrite, etc. Sorne
knowledge of lithology is required for input if adequate \ Biotite
results are to be obtained. 18 Pyrite Chlorite
Siderite
DEFINING LITHOLOGY TRIANGLES 16
Chlorite .
Glauconite
Sylvite-
Anhydrite
The concept of lithology triangles is built on the assump- 14 Calcita
tion that virtually ali the formation is a mixture of a
three- mineraJ group, and that points representing those
three minerals on the plot will encompass any log data
from that formation. Triangles representative of shale-
12
.
lllite

10
free carbonate and anhydrite zones demonstrate the Umaa Hal i t e -
Dolomite
hypothesis (Fig. 5-27).
8
Gas
Shale is a loose geological term that is generally accepted Kaolinite K-Feidsp;------_
as describing minerals or formations falling within a 6

certain distribution of grain size and made up mostly of
clastics. Ambiguity exists, but for the purposes of log 4
Quartz
analysis, carbonate reservoir rock and evaporites are
generally shale free. The area marked as Shale Region on
Fig. 5-28 is below the anhydrite and silica points of 3.0 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4
the M-N plot. A unique shale point is not possible Pmaa
because of the variable characteristics of the bound water Fig. 5-26 - Points or general location of other rocks and
and material form. minerals can be placed on the crossplot.

-208-
 No matter what vintage of density, neutron, or acoustic
log, a three-way crossplot does not totally resolve the
lithology dilemma.
1.Qt- Secondary porosity does not affect the calculation of N
Salt Mud on an M-N crossplot, but it does affect the M value as
secondary pore space increases. This is because the
0.9- acoustic transit time measurement does not typically
Limestone increase in the presence of vugs, fractures, or sucrosic
e ~ Sandstone pore space. Similar effects occur on the MID plot; Pmaa is
o.a ... unaffected by secondary porosity, but flt111aa reflects a
Dolomltv
M lower value as the amount of secondary porosity
increases. A general attempt to define the percentage of
0.7-
Anhydrite ali possible three-mineral sets would be futile, and
undoubtedly many exceptions would be noted. By care-
ful local study, however, analysts can determine prefer-
0.6- ential mineral groupings that lead to reasonable lithology
estimates. If local information is lacking, a "most likely"
combination is used, and that alone is the target of chart
0.5- book representations.
1 1 1 1
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
1

o.a Ali three-mineral plots discussed have applications, but

N artificial solutions from any of them are lirnited to the
three minerals that establish the triangle. They are not 3-
Fig. 5-27 - Limestone, dolomitic limestone, limey dolomite, and D; they are 2-D plots with lines connected between the
anhydrite are indicated from the location of plotted data. three control points that establish a linear mixture. Math-
ematical solutions can be used to resolve a matrix
1.1- mixture, but consider that math is a nearly perfect science
being applied to geology, an ambiguous and somewhat
unpredictable science far removed from the disciplinary
1.0- approaches of mathematics and computer science.
Fresh Mud
Numerous crossplot techniques can be used to manipu-
0.9 ,-. late the data. M can be plotted against GR, SP, Pb, <l>N, or
!J.t to verify selected control parameters. Neutron-density
Limestone crossplot porosity can be compared to acoustic porosity
0.8 ~~Sandst one to determine the effects of secondary pore space, shali-

M
Dolomltv V Shaly Saods ness, gas affects, etc. Density, neutron, and/or acoustic
data can be crossplotted against GR and/or SP data to dif-
0.7 - ferentiate the effects of natural radiation, shaliness, bore-
Anhy71 hole conditions, or lithology/porosity variances between

0.6 - u Shale Region

zones when the use of only one log might cause separate
depth intervals to appear similar.

0.5 -
1 1 1 1 1

0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 o.a

N

Fig. 5-28 - Shale data are identified from the general area.

Linearity on any three-way plot is also affected by the

nature of the logging devices. For example, acoustic log
data indicate porosity type as well as amount, and neu-
tron measurements are distinctly nonlinear in dolornite.

- 209 -
PRACTICAL WORK SESSION Apparent Lithology

Problem 1 M = 0.83, N = 0.57

Given the knowledge that anhydrite, salt, and dolomite M = 0.75, N = 0.54
are the probable rock types in particular depth intervals,
enter the M-N plot (salt mud) with the following values M =0.81 , N =0.57
and estimate the lithology mixture for each of the follow-
ing input M and N values: M = 0.72, N = 0.55

M = 0.86, N = 0.60

: -:-
1.3 r-.:-:.~;"":'~1-=- .'" : -:-.
: ;~ _"':-=-
: :-: ! .-.:-."'.:'"-i--:-:-""T"':'~':"T":~~~=~ ~==,i--.-.1-:,~..,...,.-:-,:-,~e,:--,-...,.._
~ , _,.....,.
'!""':"" :
_ ...,...,
, ..,...,. :"'=.""--:-~~-
t .. + -+---'--+-- --+-- t"" -
-, - ~-
' 1
f
-
. ,

. : r.::: _::: : :: ~----'----+--++---+,~ --..._~-.-.-~-----+-------;

- -- --... ..

....... ., +. ... ... 4 '

. -~
,. --t

' ,.-,-4-----
. . .

- to,to..----,
.... ----- -
o.7 F---
'
.........
+
---1---+--.......+-->-L-
1 ..
-m,;hrr,.n,j,-,.---,----+.,....-----+ --~-n-:-=---bHll/fn-/t'T!Jf--M-:--=--f.A=,,,r1';1f,,n-----f
,. t
t ..... +
- ~ - + ,.- - ' ' . l
t . . . .1 + 1
' t 1 t . 1,

1.
--,.
1 --+- _,
0.6
0 .3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
N

l - <l>cN
English or metric (for Pf in g/cm3 or Mg/m3 ): N =- -- -

- 210-
,.

Problem 2

Given a MTD plot and the following input data, estmate

the lithology.

Apparent
Lithology

Pmaa =2.80 g/cm3, .t 11100 =48 sec/ft

Pmaa = 2.77 g/cm3, .lmaa =46 sec/ft
Pmaa = 2.62 g/cm3, .111100 = 59 sec/ft

Pmaa = 2.94 g/cm 3, .111100 = 48 sec/ft

Pmaa = 2. 16 g/cm 3, .111100 = 65 sec/ft

<11ma,V'sim)

100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240

1 1 1 1
2.0

2 .1

2.2

2.3

:;- 2.4
E
01
:::
2.5
o
ME
~
EJ
.,
E
. 2.6

" 2.7

2.8

2.9

3.0

3.1
30 40 50 60 70
<11ma,V'sllt)

Piog - $otN Pf d10 g - Q>A/N tr

1 -.PotN
6tma.11 =
l -,PA/N

where,

.PotN = density/neutron crossplot porosity

,P AI N = acoustic/neutron crossplo1 porosity

-2 11 -
Problem 3 Lithology Porosity

Pe = 3, Pb = 2.40
Frorn Z-Densilog data only, determine porosity frorn the
following rneasurernents using the freshwater mud chart Pe = 1.8, Pb = 2.36
below.
Pe = 4.6, Pb = 2.48

Pe = 5, Pb = 2.65

Pe = 1.8, Pb = 2.17

Freshwater-filled Borehole, Pt = 1.0 g/cm3 or Mg/m3

1.8
15{
- -- - - - .,,. --
"" ,
-'-'

1.9 "' f'o.J...:

~
1/
'
t
\
,
'D
2.0
' --- 1 , _,
./ ..'o1
" "'
~

V 1
2 .1 ,,,
ho t
~ - - --- ---- T
2.2
.,,.
, /
y ~ ,

' '" ,o.,

Q)

/
V t
1o, 2.3
e / !'. ,.
:e ~
-.. --- - 3C -~ ,v
.. ._
-~ 1

o "' ---
"'E
- ' "'.: ;o
i.,_
.e
2.4
;;
::'. ' I'\.
.,,. /
1
a.. / 1
V
' I'\.

2.5
o -- --
>[

1\.

'\
--- 1/
,v

1\. V
,
2.6
' I'\. V
1/

- -...
o _,

---- -
I'\. - _,
,_
2.7
I'\.
-
.....
,_ ,

- Note:
Follow lines according to
"\ V
_,.

-
2.8 lo- rock mixture as defined by
,__ - - - Sandstone and Dolomite
,__ - - - Limestone and Dolomite
\
~ 1,,-
_,
.....

,__ - - - - - - Sandstone and Limestone IV

2.9

1
3.0
o 2 3 4 5 6

Photoelectric Cross Section, P 8 (barns/electron)

- 212-
Problem 4
Apparent
Pmaa q>a Lithology
Given the following log data, use the fresh mud density-
neutron chart below to determine Pmaa and effective Pb = 2.40, q>Nls = 0.23
porosity (q>e)- Also, indicate the apparent lithology and
note by ** if gas affect occurs. Pb = 2.36, q>Nls = 0.15

P/J = 2.48, q>NJs =0.19

Pb = 2.65, q>Nts = 0.06

1.9 .
. 45
45
P1 1.0 g/cm 3 or Mg/m3
'l>
2.0 :''l> <;:, 40
q <-,,'o
Salt .
40

35 " .
<v:., .
2.1 1_ ~
35
: "' 40

2.2
o"
-~
30
-
,_.

30
~
-."'~
~

~.::.,
</ ,12
35
~u~ 25 .
'c,'l> ~ "T ~
~-
2.3 ;n ....,
-~Q
.
r,-~ 25
,,,~.
30
.
1 C>
::e
20
.
20
Q
~
.,!!>

;s ...
.
..,o
~
2.4
15 ~ ~5
E
-!e
~

~
"-
D

10
. 15

; 2.5 20
e
Q)
Cl
.>: 10
3
al 5
1s-'
2.6
5
. .
o
. . ~-

2.7
o

2.8
~
2.9

Anhyd rite
3.0
- 10 o 10 20 30 40 50
Compensated Neutron Apparent Limestone Porosity {%)

- 213 -
Problem 5

Using the Pb and Pe input values from Problem 3 and q>

values in Problem 4, determine an approximate matrix
volumetric (Umaa) using the chart below.

Umaa

Zone 1

Zone 2

Zone 3

Zone4

Zone 5

r
10
pb 2.5
20 4>a(%)

2.0 30

40
l

6 5 4 3 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
- -- - - - - Pe - - - - - - - - -- - Umaa - - - --

(1) Enterfrom Pe value (4.8) to pb value (2.40)

(2) Extend a horizontal line from Pb to <Pa value (.18)
(3) Extend a vertical line down from <Pato read Umaa (14)

-2 14-
Problem 6

Using the chart be low and considering no shale volume,

estimate the lithology by crossplotting the Umaa data
from Problem 5 and the Pmaa data from Problem 4 for
each of the 5 zones.

Apparent Lithology
Zone 1

Zone 2

Zone 3

Zone 4

Zone 5

18

L1~, " \
16 .. E ar e

Lm s bne
(? 14

~
e
E
V J

/ r't;f
:o
e
"'"'E
::,
12
~o
I"'
_Q
e:' ~. J'- ',,
IA I
e
~

e
t3
1-
- I
v

1/ '
"
\

"
(1) I J
(/)
1/) 10
{
,,
~ ~ e
1/)
e
I '
/
' '\ f .::,.,11
o Do or~it 4 V I '\ --, -
~ / ' f ', r
-,
"'11.. o
E ~ ~ J
:, 8 e
~ " ' V \

~-
J
'\ _( 1 ~~
e '5 ., "'11..
(1)

:oa. ~ "V ' ~

......
a. 'O V( .... f
<: 6
v.: ,11

' ....,
' 1 11,.

..
-
4

2
3.1 3.0 2 .9 2 .8 2.7 2 .6 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2
Apparent Matrix Grain Density, Pmaa (g/cm3 or Mg/m 3)

-21 5 -
PLOTTING DATA ON A Z-AXIS

Within individual cells

Thus far, the discussion has been devoted to severa! average GR intensity increases
crossplot methods that use either two or three log mea- .40 with corresponding digit lncrease -~0

surements to solve for porosity and lithology. Shale,

from 1 to 9 0v
cJf
borehole rugosity, secondary porosity, and gas influenced ~~
.30 0,0
ali the crossplots to sorne degree. Ali the plots were 2-D,
and data were plotted in sorne form with an abscissa (x-
axis) and ordinate (y-axis). The crossplot coordinates of <I> Dss .20
two input data types resulted in an estmate of lithology.
General areas of the plots were designated as regions .10 Point
where gas, shale, or hole rugosity would cause crossplot-
ted data to fall. Computer processing of log data often
presents crossplotted data for selected depth intervals by o
frequency of occurrence at each cell or coordinate
(Fig. 5-29). The data can be overlaid with the familiar
lithology lines and permit an estmate of porosity and o .10 .20 .30 .40 .50
lithology to be made (Fig. 5-30). e, Nss

Fig. 5-30 - The eighteen data points of Fig. 5-29 appear to be

representative of dirty sands or silts in the shaly sand model.
Depth lnterval 2 ,500 - 2 ,800 ft
Frequency Plot
.50.---- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 7 1
.40
Dss vs. <i> Nss
<i>

Frequency Plot
.40 " 900 ft lnterval
.30
3
2 t 51 1
2 1322 t 1 3
.30 A 1 t 15 11 g 3 2 1
2110 4 5 1 1 2

/ !1~!!~ ~2:;22
3 1 5 16 1 1 2 3 21
3 5 7 5 3 3 1 1 3 1 3 2 3
111'10 '<1 2 <1 S 4 5 2 3
5 5 110 1 2 5 7 3 t 1'19 1 7
/ . 1 7 5 11 t 1 11 13252711' 11 1
.10 3 3 1 1 S 7 t713 710 . 232310 7tt 5
3 3 1 5 115 , ,, 1'15l52028 2S t220 1 1
5 1020 1 1 111 14 12 1511 1920222311 5 1
, , , . 1 , 5 5 3117131<1 6 , ,o 4 ,
2 3 10 t 3 :t 311 1 4 311 5 3 7 2
.10 1 2 10 3 2 1 2s 3 s 1 , 5
5 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 11
o 1 11 2 2 2 3

'''
o
o .10 .30 .40 .50

o .10 .30 .40 .50

Fig_ 5-29 - Eighteen data points from the selected depth interval
tell in the illustrated cell.
Fig. 5-31 - Frequency crossplot of density porosity vs. neutron
porosity

In 1970, with the efficiency of high-speed computer pro-
cessing, a new concept was introduced to crossplotting -
the Z plot. Both gamma ray and SP data are influenced by
shale or shaliness within an otherwise clean formation
(Chapter 4). Caliper information describes changes in
hole condition. Neutron measurements are often affected
by gas. The z-axis concept provides a weighted average
for selected third data types that are imposed as a simula-
tion of the z-axis at any coordinate of a dual-log cross-
plot. If, for example, neutron and density data crossplot
at the designated coordinates A (Fig. 5-31 ), a gamma ray
z-axis can be used to determine shaliness at that depth
(Fig. 5-32). Again, designated coordinates B (Fig. 5-33)
could be better interpreted with caliper information
imposed on a z-axis (Fig. 5-34). These plots were the first
known log semblance to 3-D plotting, but remember that
the weighted average on the z-axis for a specific cell
might occur where several data points fell. Sorne of the
depths related to those crossplotted points may have a
low gamma ray count ora gauge hole, while other points
that fall at the same coordinates may have higher gamma
ray values or sorne hole rugosity.
The plot program weights the z-axis value for each cell
from I to 9; the lower values usually represent low GR
values or caliper measurements equivalent to gauge hole
conditions, etc. Provision is made to allow a second z-
plot to be made, dropping cells with high values; caliper

-216-
#

.5 0 r - - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - .50
Average gamma ray intensity Salt Mud
Is represented on Z - axis increasing
.40 from 1 Thru 9 .40
Z - axis caliper data
lndicates the borehole to
High gamma ray intensity
.30 .30 be in gauge at cell B
represents data within
cellA

<l> oss .20 Q .20

Dls

.10 .10

o o o

-.10 o .10 .20 .30 .40 .50

o .10 .20 .30 .40 .50
<l>Nss <!>Nis

Fig. 5-32 - Crossplot of density porosity vs.neutron porosity with Fig. 5-34 - Low values for caliper on a z-axis indicated excellent
average gamma ray intensity shown as a z-axis representation borehole conditions.
(higher values = higher gamma ray)

.50 .50
Sal! Mud Ali Z - axis caliper data presented
for a selected depth interval
.40 .40

.30
.30
<l> oss
<1>01s .20 Frequency of Points
.20
Cell B

.10
.10
Data remaining alter dropping
o bad hole data points
o
o
o .10 .20 .30 .40 .50
<l>Nss
-.10 o .10 .20 .30 .40 .50
9Nls Fig. 5-35 - Comparison of z-data for ali crossplotted data to
z-data alter dropping cells with z values > 7
Fig. 5-33 - On the Fig. 5-32 crossplot data, Cell B would be
estimated as a 50-50 mixture of dolomite and limestone having
about 18% porosity. tal rock constituent to identify is shale. Among severa]
methods (GR, SP, neutron, resistivity, and various cross-
weights 7 through 9 might be considered representative plots), natural gamma ray spectroscopy provides one of
of depths that are predominantly shale as well as having the most reliable shale estimates. In the mid 1970s,
rugose hole. To avoid the clutter of bad hole data, the user Baker Atlas introduced the Spectralog service, a too]
could plot the data again, dropping those cells with the system that analyzes the entire gamma spectrum to deter-
higher z-axis caliper weights (Fig. 5-35). Other data can mine the contribution of severa! elements to the total
also be implemented on the z-axis to compare with data response. Natural gamma rays, of particular interest to
crossplotted from x and y coordinates. the petroleum industry, primarily result from the pres-
ence of these radioactive isotopes.
NATURAL GAMMA RAY SPECTR OSCOPY
potassium40
It has been well documented that total gamma ray counts
thorium 232
are related to the decay of the many long-lived natural
radioactive nuclides. In log analysis, the most fundamen- uranium 238

- 217 -
Potassium (K4 ) decays directly to stable argon with emis-
sion of a 1.46-MeV gamma ray. Uranium (U238) and tho-
rium (Th 232) decay sequentially through severa! daughter
products until they achieve stabilization as lead isotopes.
214
The uranium series nuclide bismuth (Bi ) emits gamma
rays at 1.76 MeV and the thorium series nuclide thal-
lium208 emits gamma rays at 2.62 MeV (Fig. 5-36).
Assuming secular equilibrium, the daughter products
decay at about the same rate they are produced from the
parent isotope. Relative proportions in an elemental series
should remain essentially constant. Gamma ray popula-
tion in the specific windows of the spectrum should there-
fore indicate the population of the parent isotope.
Energy Window Calibration
200 211
Th2.62
173-- - - - - - - - - - - - , ( '
~ 139 - - - - - - - - - - - , r
~ 100
z
115=============;::
113 K1 .46
Q) 94 - - - - - - . , r
e
e
Ctl
.e
O ~-~~--~-~~~~--~-~~
o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Gamma Ray Energy - MeV
Fig. 5-36 - Energy window for Spectralog calibration
The downhole too! assembly contains a high-resolution
gamma ray spectrometer that consists of a thallium-acti-
vated sodium iodide crystal optically coupled to a photo-
multiplier tube. The scintillation detector is housed in a
vacuum-flasked pressure housing. Downhole digital
electronics and a sophisticated telemetry system are used
to transmit the measured data to the surface where a mul-
tichannel analyzer identifies the energy wi ndows and cor-
responding peak energy values. S low logging speeds are
used to minimize statistical variations, and thorium data,
located at the high-energy end of the spectrum, are scaled
and recorded directly. A special stripping technique
removes downscattered gamma rays of thorium from the
uranium window, and downscattered gamma rays of tho-
rium and uranium are stripped from the potassium
window.
The only unstable isotope of potassium is the nuclide
K 4; it is also the main contributor and easily identified.
Because of its abundance in nature, K is presented as a
percentage; uranium and thorium are presented in parts
per millio n (Fig. 5-37). Total gamma rays measured can
be presented as counts/minute or API units. Ratio traces
are optional (K/Th, Th/K or Th/U). Table 5-3 lists
-2 18-
2000 CPM 22 000
o %K
Fig. 5-37 - The common abundance of potassium with respect
to thorium or uranium products forces it to have a different scale
value on log presentations.
nuclides, mode of integration, and half-life of members
in the uraniu m and thorium series. Table 5-4 shows the
observed gamma ray lines of the important naturally
occurri ng radionuclides. Table 5-5 lists common rocks
and minerals and related KUTh data determined from
field experience and literature search.
Clues as to c lay type, presence or absence of mica or
feldspar, evaporites, and/or presence of organic material
can be obtained if natural gamma spectroscopy devices
are used effectively. Sorne knowledgeable input is
required, however, if the proper minerals are to be esti-
mated. If parameters for feldspar, illite, anda second clay
are input, the computer program will likely find sorne of
each mineral in a selected depth interval. Mica could be
present instead of feldspar, yet the program would iden-
tify sorne of the nonexistent mineral and would not find
any of the available mineral. There are limits to the capa-
bilities of artificial intelligence, and clay typing with log
data is definitely a form of artificial intelligence.
Identifying the dominant clay type in the reservoir rock
is an important consideration because it can affect not
only estimates of reservoir productivity but also subse-
quent decisions about drilling fl uids, completion flu ids,
etc. I I.I 3 Different clay types as well as certain types of
feldspars, micas, and evaporite admixtures tend to have
preferable depositional and diagenetic environments.
The potassium, thorium, and uranium elements have cer-
tain characteristic occurrences, transport relationships,
and chemical properties that provide sorne evidence per-
tai ning to the depositio nal environment (Table 5-6).
Potas ium is encountered in many rocks and reservoir
fluids. Withi n the rock matrix, K is very sensitive to ero-
sion, weathering, and diagenetic effects. These effects
can change clays that swell to mixed layered clays or to
illite clays. Thorium compounds have extremely low sol-
ubility and therefore exhibit very limited mobility during
weathering processes, a condition that limits them
-,
TABLE 5-3- Natural Gamma Ray Emitters TABLE 5-3- Natural Gamma Ray Emitters
(Continued)
Uranium Series
Mode of Material Potassium Content by Weight (%)
Nuclide Disintegration Half Life (Average) (Range)

UI u238 (l 4.51 X 109 yr Sylvite 54

92
Potash 44.9
ux, 90Th234 B 24.1 d Langbeinite 20
UX2 91Pa234m B,IT 1.18 min Microcline 16
Kainite 15.1
uz 91Pa234 B 6.66 hr
Carnallite 14.1
UII u234 2.48 X 105 yr
92 (l Orthoclase 14
lo 90Th230 (l 8.0 X 104 yr Polyhalite 12.9
Muscovite 9.8
Ra 88Ra22a (l 1620 yr Biotite 8.7
Rn 8aEm222 (l 3.82 d lllite 5.2 3.51 - 8.31
84Po218 Arkose (sandstone) 4.6 4.4- 5.1
RaA a, B 3.05 min
Synite 4.53
RaA' 85At218 a, B 2 sec Glauconite 4.5 3.2-5.8
RaA" 8aEm218 (l 1.3 sec Granite 4.0 2.0-6.0
Norite 3.3
RaB 82Pb214 B 26.8 min Granodiorite 2.90
RaC 839214 a, B 19.7 min Shale 2.7 1.6-9.0
lgneous rock 2.6
RaC' 84Po214 (l 1.6 x 1o-4 sec
Grayrock (sandstone) 1.5 1.2-2.1
RaC" 81Tl210 B 1.32 min Diorite 1.66
RaD 82Pb210 B 19.4 yr Basal! 1.3
Sandstone 1.1 0-5.1
RaE 839210 a, B 5.01 d Gabbro 0.87
RaF 84Po210 (l 138.4 d Diabase 0.75
Kaolinite 0.63 0-1.49
RaE' 81 Tl206 B 4.2min
Limestone 0.27 O- 0.71
RaG 82Pb200 Stable Montmorillonite 0.22 0-0.60
Orthoquartzite 0.08 0-0.12
(sandstone)
Thorium Series
Dolomite 0.07 0.03-0.1
Mode of Dunite 0.04
Nuclide Disintegration Half Life Sea Water 0.035

Th 90Th232 (l 1.42 X 1010 yr

MsTh1 88Ra228 B 6.7 yr
TABLE 5-4 - Gamma Ray Lines in the Spectra of the
MsTh2 8sAc228 B 6.13 hr lmportant, Naturally Occurring Radionuclides
RdTh 90Th228 (l 1.91 yr
Nuclide Gamma Ray Energy Number of Photons
ThX 88Ra224 (l 3.64 d
MeV per Disintegration
Tn 8aEm220 (l 51.5 sec in Equilibrium Mixture
ThA 84Po216 (l 0.16 sec
Bi214(Rac) 0.609 0.47
ThB 82Pb212 B 10.6 hr 0.769 o.os
ThC 83Bi212 a, B 60.5 min 1.120 0.17
1.238 0.06
ThC' 84Po212 (l 0.30 sec
1.379 O.OS
ThC " T208 B 3.10 min
81 1.764 0.16
ThD 82Pb208 Stable
2.204 o.os
Te28(ThC) 0.511 0.11
0.533 0.28
2.614 0.35

K40 1.46 0.11

With intensities greater than O.OS photons per disintegration

and energies greater than 100 keV .

-2 19-
 TABLE 5-5 - Potassium (K), Uranium (U), and Thorium (Th) Distribution in Several Rock and Minerals
K(o/o) U (ppm) Th (ppm)
Accessory Minerals
Allanite 30- 700 500-5000
Apatite 5-150 20-150
Epidote 20-50 50-500
Monazite 500-3000 2, 5x1 o4 - 2ox1 o 4
Sphene 100- 700 100- 600
Xenotime 500 - 3, 4x104 Low
Zircon 300-3000 100- 2500
Carbonates
Range (average) O.O - 2.0 (0.3) 0.1 - 9.0 (2.2) 0.1 - 7.0 (1.7)
Calcite, chalk, limestone, dolomite (all pure) < 0.1 < 1.0 < 0.5
Dolomite, west Texas (clean) 0.1 -0.3 1.5- 10 <2.0
Limestone (clean)
Florida <0.4 2.0 1.5
Cretaceous Trend (Texas) < 0.3 1.5- 15 < 2.0
Hunton Lime (Oklahoma < 0.2 < 1.0 < 1.5
westTexas) < 0.3 < 1.5 < 1.5
Clay Minerals
Bauxite 3-30 10 -130
Glauconite 5.08-5.30
Bentonite < 0.5 1 -20 6 - 50
Montmorillonite 0.16 2-5 14-24
Kaolinite 0.42 1.5-3 6-19
lllite 4.5 1.5
Mica
Biotite 6.7 - 8.3 < 0.01
Muscovite 7.9-9.8 < 0.01
Feldspars
Plagioclase 0.54 <0.01
Orthoclase 11.8-14.0 < 0.01
Microcline 10.9 < 0.01
Sandstones, range (average) 0.7-3.8 (1.1) 0.2 - 0.6 (0.5) 0.7 -2.0 (1.7)
Silica, quartz, quartzite, (pure) < 0.15 <0.4 < 0.2
Beach sands (U.S. gulf coas!) < 1.2 0.84 2.8
Atlantic Coas! (Florida, North Carolina) 0.37 3.97 11.27
Atlantic Coas! (New Jersey, Massachusetts 0.3 0.8 2.07
Shales
"Common" Shales (range (average)) 1.6 - 4.2 (2.7) 1.5 - 5.5 (3.7) 8-18 (12.0)
Shales (200 samples) 2.0 6.0 12.0

-220-
 TABLE 5-6 - Clues Relating KUTh to Particular Depositional Environments Might be Found
When KUTh Estimates are Compared to Particular Minerals 14

Chemical Properties Transport Occurrence

Potassium Valence 1+ Soluble In solution for large distances Detrital sediments

K40 Feldspars and micaceous
materials in suspension
Only a small part of original K
transported arrives at the sea
K is extracted from seawater
by algae
In immature sediments such as feldspars
and micas
Clays in general (by absorption)
In micaceous clays structurally chemical
sediments
Heaviest concentration in evaporites
In limestone originated from algae

Thorium Valence 4+ Insoluble Uniquely in suspension Only in detrital sediments

Th232 Usually in the silty fraction In clay minerals by absorption
of shale In heavy minerals (monazite, zircon, rutile)
Where heavy minerals are In volcanic ashes (tuff, tuffaceous sandstone)
more abundan! In residual sediments that remain alter K
and U are eliminated by erosion
Th has never been detected in pure limestone
or dolomite

Uranium By far the most soluble Detrital sediments

u238 Valence 4+ u 4+ is soluble Post-depositional transfers are In clay minerals by absorption (high content
Valence 6+ u 6+ is soluble common chiefly in solution may indicate high concentration of organic
Very soluble material that in turn may indicate a source
Very mobile bed)
In the complex form uo/+ In suspension In heavy minerals (zircon)
depending upon the pH and eH Migrates easily during leaching In volcanic ashes (tuff and tuffaceous
and dissolution of carbonates sandstone)
The ion uo2+ is combined Concentrates in styolites in Chemical sediments
with sulfates, carbonates, or animals that attach to uranium In carbonates (high in organic material)
organic materials In phosphates
uo2+ is precipitated with In organic materials
phosphates

primarily to their original environmental setting - pre-
dominantly marine. Uranium mobility and accumulation
in subsurface rocks are controlled mostly by physical,
chemical, biological, and hydrological factors whose
interaction dictates how, what, and where uranium com-
pounds will finally be deposited. Precipitation from sub-
surface waters is controlled for the most part by the Eh
and pH redox potentials. These are the downward move-
ment or infiltration of meteoric waters along with oxygen
loss, bacteria! action, geochemical reactions, etc. that
cause Eh changes from positive (oxidizing conditions) to
negative (reducing conditions).
Matrix composition can be described when two or more
porosity/lithology-sensitive log measurements are avail-
able. The type and number of measurements available, as
well as the complexity of the rock, are the inhibiting
factors in defining complex rock mixtures. Unfortu-
nately, radioactive elements complicate the dual-mineral
protocol because concentrations of K , U. or Th occur in
clean rocks that might be designated prohibitive reser-
voirs when observing only total natural gamma ray Iogs.
KUTh measurements are therefore very necessary in
accurate log evaluations in complex reservoirs.
SHALE, SILT, AND CLAY
Log analysts often concern themselves with shale
volume CVsh) more than clay type or clay volume, but
clay type and volume can be very important to reservoir
engineering. Remember that shale is generally consid-
ered a rock type, whereas clays are generally considered
minerals. A fine and ambiguous line separates the differ-
ent terms, and many technical disciplines use or abuse
the terms in different ways. A rock is made up of frame-
work grains that form a self-supporting frame at the time
of deposition. The matrix can consist of various grain
sizes and minerals that are interthreaded by pore tunnels
(filled with fluids or gases). Matrix material is cemented
by precipitation of pore fluids, and cementing can take
place severa! times after burial (Fig. 5-38). Diagenesis is
the term used to describe physical and chemical changes
that take place after deposition, including compaction,
cementation, recrystallization , and mineral replacement.
Wentworth's grain-size classification is almost univer-
sally accepted as the scale for clastic sediments. Never-
theless, layman and sorne of the literature generalize
clays as natural, earthy, fine-grained materia]s that

-22 1 -

Fig. 5-38 - Albite overgrowth on a detrital feldspar grain
(SEM photo)
develop plasticity when mixed with water. Shale is also
generally defined as an earthy, fine-grained (< 62 m)
sedimentary rock with a specific laminated character that
includes both silt and clay-size particles. Clays, on the
other hand are < 4 m in grain size and are generally
composed of small crystalline particles that allow typing
according to crystal structure.
Severa) specific groups of clay minerals are of interest to
petroleum engineers and petroleum geologists,
kaolinite
smectite
chlorite
illite
mixed-layer minerals
Determination of Clay Type and Amount
Log analysts generally use crossplot techniques to rec-
ognize dispersed, laminated, and structural clay. Neu-
tron-density crossplots attempt to categorize clays as
structural, dispersed, or laminated (Fig. 5-12), and empir-
ical approximations are also used to define clay type
(Fig. 5-13). Earlier in this text, methods were discussed
to determine porosity and v'.sh content with different
models (dispersed clays or laminated sand-shale series).
Log determination of clay type and amount is at best con-
troversia!. Comparison to SEM studies of core from the
same horizon and wellbore is necessary at sorne point to
corroborate log-derived clay analysis.
-222-
CLAY ANALYSIS USING SPECTRALOG DATA
Potassium and thorium are used in a variety of ways to
determine clay type and to estimate the percentages of
different clay mixtures within a reservoir rock. Although
the methods provide a quantitative estimate, the results
are approximations and other factors often influence the
different log responses used in a crossplotting technique.
Potassium is chiefly associated with shales but is also
found in evaporitic sequences and algal limestones. It is
most common in arenaceous rocks composed of terrige-
nous sediments, usually associated with chemically
unstable grains such as feldspars, micas, and alteration
products including kaolinite and chlorite. Potassium is
considered an element that owes its origin to erosion; it is
often reworked and transported for long distances.
Thorium is associated only with detrital sediments, never
with purely chemical sediments (limestone, dolomite,
and aragonite). Therefore, in carbonate reservoirs, tho-
rium becomes a very important clay indicator. It is found
in mudstones where it is absorbed by clay minerals, and
with heavy minerals such as zircon, monazite, and rutile,
which are often abundant in the silty fractions. Thorium
is also abundant in residual sediments formed from alter-
ation of volcanic ash and is common in tuffs and tuf-
faceous sandstones. The nature of the thorium habitat
causes its presence to be a clue to the depositional set-
ting. Thorium is generally considered a marine element.
Uranium is found in both detrital and chemical sediments
(shales, conglomerates, sandstones, and carbonates) and
is also common in tuffs, tuffaceous sandstones, and phos-
phates. Carbonates rich in organic matter that forro under
reducing conditions are often very high in uranium, and
they can be easily misidentified as shale from total
gamma ray log data. These "radioactive carbonates" are
often productive reservoirs and occur as limestone and
dolomite or mixtures of the two rock types. Uranium
nuclides are also absorbed by clay minerals. Associated
with organic matter and uranium-bearing heavy minerals,
the Spectralog uranium measurement often indicates
sand and silt fractions of coastal carbonates (supratidal
and intertidal environments) to be radioactive in the clas-
tic or evaporitic admixtures. Excessively high uranium
content in shales indicates source rock.
In general, subsurface precipitation of formation waters
is controlled by pH and Eh potentials. As meteoric waters
infiltrate downward, a combination of oxygen loss, bac-
teria] action, and geochemical reaction within the host
rock occurs and causes Eh changes from (+) oxidizing
conditions to (-) reducing conditions (Fig. 5-39). Petro-
leum reservoirs commonly demonstrate a negative redox
potential. The available uranium ions transported in
 TABLE 5-7- Selley's Four Generic Classifications
Muscovite
Holloysite Marine Non marine
lllite
Allophone Montmorillonite Gtauconite No Glauconite
+ (1)
Kaolinite "O ::,
Eh 41 o Barrier
3:: 41
o u } Marine
CII
e e Bar Shelf Eolian
e
.eo
Biotite
CII
ai eu
3: o
- Shoal
Sands

"O
41 (1)
6 7 8 3:: ::,
pH
o o41
e Turbidites Fluvial
e u Lacustrine
CII
e Deep Sea Fans
Deltaic
o
>- .e
Fig. 5-39 - Generalized stability realms of clay minerals and -:
micas o ai
o (.)
CL

migrating subsurface waters, on exposure to organic mat-
ters, cause H2 S and SO2 , which precipitate as UO . This
2
precipitated uranium is often concentrate d in fracture and
fissure systems, along fault planes, and it may migrate
into any permeable clastic, carbonate, argillaceous, or
igneous rock.
ANALYZI NG COMPLE X LITHOLO GY WITH
SPECTRA L GAMMA RAY, Z-DENSIT Y, ANO
NEUTRO N DATA
Common sedimentary environmen ts can be segregated
into four main groups of rocks and minerals for log anal-
ysis purposes. Groupings can be made as follows:

Spectralog data utilize three energy windows (W , W ,
1 2
W 3) to evaluate the contribution of K, U, and Th. The
preceding discussion addressed the petrological, mineral-
ogical, and environmen tal relationship s of these three
elements in nature. Minerals have characteris tic concen-
trations of the measured spectra, which can be used to
indicate the occurrence probability of certain minerals.
Certain other lithologica l and fluid-sensitive measure-
ments are excellent for comparison to the spectral data
(Pe, neutron).
( 1) Detrital minerals - These survived the vigors of
erosion, transport, and reworking prior to burial.
(2) Seconda,y minerals - These formed during the
transport and weathering process; the dominan!
secondary minerals are clays.
(3) Precipitated nzinerals - These formed directly
from solution, either chemically or biochemica lly;
carbonates are the dominant group of which ali
might be authigenic.

Numerous comparison s of petrophysical parameters have (4) Authigenic minerals - These formed in sediments
been published. Geologists can predict rocks that should d uring and after deposition. Evaporatio n of sea
occur in particular geological setti ngs and, in most water precipitates salt, whereas anhydrite is a
instances, can certify an e nvironment by recognition of buried evaporite that often occurs as a secondary
certain minerals, fossils, porosity/lithology relationships, mineral formed from primary gypsum.
etc. Input data of this type are not only desirable but nec-
essary if adequate mineral analyses from log data are For log analysis purposes, common minerals that occur in
expected. For example, if glauconite is identified in well sediments are convenientl y grouped into six categories:
cuttings (information often available from mud logs, ( 1) carbonates
sidewall cores, or full core), it is clear evidence that a
sediment was deposited in marine conditions (Table 5-7). (2) evaporites
Knowing this, it would be somewhat preposterou s to
(3) si1icates
consider that certain minerals of continental heritage
would be present in large amounts. The comparison of (4) clays
spectral (KUTh) data to other log data must be viewed as
a volumetric estmate at best because other minerals can (5) feldspars
exhibit similar, if not identical, log criteria fingerprints. (6) micas

-223-
 Spectralog, Z-Densilog, and neutron log measurements
provide a plausible approach to recognition of distinct
minerals from the previous categories. Spectralog mea-
surements of K, U, and Th can be used to estmate high-
and low-potassium clays and either feldspar or mica (the
wrong input will give the wrong answer). Z-Densilog and
neutron data are used to resolve the mixture of sand,
limestone, or dolomite, or other three-mineral combina-
tions on a three-way crossplot.
The models rely heavily on empirical observations;
The Th/K ratio is a function of the mineralogical compo-
sition of shale because of the ratio relation to illite per-
centage (Fig. 5-40); the Th/K ratio decreases as illite per-
centage increases. Similar relations exist between the Thl
K ratio and feldspars, micas, and other clay minerals.
Potassium (K) concentrations by weight were obtained
from chemical analysis and used to develop a Th(ppm)
vs. K(%) chart for spectral estimates of radioactive min-
erals (Fig. 5-41 ). Interpretation models are based on this
chart or similar observations.

(1) Spectralog measurements (K, U, Th) are affected

mostly by feldspars, micas, and the various clay
12
,.
10 -
minerals.
~ 8-
(2) Photoelectric, density, and neutron measurements
are capable of distinguishing limestone, dolomite,
""o
~ 6-

.. ,

and silicates, and those rocks are distinguishable

from the various evaporites if the rocks are clean.
:.::
:e
1- 4-

.......

......:-
2-
(3) Corrections to the Pe, Pb, and <l>N measurements for 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
the influence of feldspars, micas, or clays improve 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100
the interpretative capability of differentiating car- Percent
bonates, silicates, and evaporites. Fig. 5-40 - Correlation of illite clay percentage in shale with
Th/K ratio
Spectralog Mineral Estimates

10
Spectralog data are used to estimate vol umetric fractions
of feldspar or mica and two clay types. Glauconite or ...- Muscovite
anhydrite can be substituted for the feldspar or mica
para meter.

Conventional gamma ray measurements are equivalen! to

the following weighted sum,

where the e values representa constant. Originally, Spec-

tralog data were used as a shale indicator. However, ura- Y100% Volume
2 50%
nium is associated with radioactive minerals other than 0%
those found within shales (organic minerals) and is nota Kaolinite Bentonite
Montmorillonite Bauxite
reliable shale indicator. As a result, it seemed sensible to
compute a "uranium-free" curve by subtracting the o 10 20 30 40 50
weighted value of uranium from the total gamma ray Thorium (Th), ppm
count. A combined ThK curve is often a good shale indi-
Fig. 5-41 - Typical potassium and thorium concentrations for
cator.
difieren! clay minerals and product index clay volume

The uranium-free ThK curve becomes an ineffective

shale indicator if potassium feldspars or micas (both high
in K) are present. When this occurs, sorne improvement
is often found by using a Th/K ratio to type clays in
shales or rocks expected to have high potassium concen-
trations.
X-ray diffraction data suggest most radiation originates
in feldspars and clays; micas are infrequent in most sedi-
ments (the North Sea is an exception). In a specific case,
natural radioactivity might be assumed to originate from

-224-
 feldspar and one clay type. If a linear too! response is
assumed, the weighted percentage of each of the two
minerals can be estimated,
where The, Ke, Thc1, and Kc1 signify too! response in
"pure feldspar" or clay, respectively. The Wc1 equation
demonstrat es constant weight fractions of clay corre-
spond to lines that parallel pure feldspar lines (Fig. 5-42).
If feldspar is suspected in the rock matrix, an appropriate
clay/shale indicator could be defined,

and

Th/Thfel -K/Kfel with e becoming a constant depending on clay type.

Thc/Th fe/- Kc/ K Je/
A more general situation might dictate that feldspar and
two clay types be modeled after observing the close

12 1
Potassium !..-Averag e Feldspar Line T 100% lllite
Evaporites / 1
I'
.
I
I
!..-Averag e 100% Clay Line
I
I
10 '

Micas
I'
I
'
8
I'
I
I'
I

I'
I
K(%) 6 '
I'
I
'

4 Smectites and
Mixed Layer Clays I'

I
I
'

I'
I

2 I'
I
'

o 5 10 15 20 25 30
Th (ppm)

Fig. 5-42 - An interpretative model for spectral gamma ray mineral identification

-225-

proximity of the 100% points for kaolinite, chlorite, and Wc1 must be accepted as a function of Th and K. The
montmorillonite (Fig. 5-43). Suggested definitions for resultant model allows mineral weight fractions to be
points follow, convcrted to volume fraction s (Fig. 5-44). These data
vary with differences in natural gamma ray spectroscopy
(1) el 1, a low-potassium clay point instrumentation, but the information demonstrates how
Spectralog data can be used more effectively. Intelligent
(2) el2, a high-potassium clay point (generally consid- input controls are prerequisite to obtaining relatively
ered illite) accurate results; in areas where mica is common, it
would be substituted for feldspar, and a slightly different
model would result.
(3) fe/, a low-thorium, high-potassium point represent-
ing feldspar

(4) ma, representing the clean matrix point I

I
I I
10 I I
10 I I
I I I r,">,/
r I ~---

8
cii
a.
en
3?
,~
I
I
8

I
I
/
, I
//
__ ,(
,f I
1:::::, I ~/
'"~--
I v.~--
6 '
~/
" I
K(%)
6
,_.- I ,- Clay 2

_fo.1 ~
K(%) ~/
I
- \ '\ ~<~
Clay 2 4 \ v;~j/ / '-~lay<
4 ;'<"'
/
/ ,_.- ,'

__ .-, .f:tay< ,,
-

1........ ....... ........ ,c.:_

2 2 _,- /
Clay 1

Clean
o 5 10 15 20 25 Matrix --==--___JL___---'------'---- --'-----
0 5 10 15 20
Th (ppm) Th {ppm)

Fig. 5-43 - Modified model of feldspar and two clay types Fig. 5-44 - An empirical model to estmate proportions of
(approximations only) feldspar and two clay types

Z-Density and Neutron Estimates of Lithology

A line connecting el I and el2 is called the elay fine, and
the line from the o rigin through the fe! point is called the
The Pe and Pb measurements are sensitive to the presence
feldspar fine . The weighted fraction of clay (Wc1) is
of any of the six sedimentary categories described as car-
found by interpolating between the clay line and feldspar
bonates, evaporites, silicates, clays, micas, and feldspars.
line. A differcnt model and different lines would be con-
Apparent total porosity (<1>,a) calculated from a neutron-
structed for clays and mica, clays and anhydrite, or glau-
density crossplot can be corrected to water-filled porosity
conite and two clay types.
if required. The variables Pmaa and U11100 are used to con-
struct the three-way crossplots scaled with the appropri-
The proposed Spectralog interpretation model is then ate values, and the theoretical location of various miner-
als (based on chemical composition and calculated
porosity) can be imposed on the chart (Fig. 5-26).

lnformation derived from the chart typically provides

relatively accurate lithology analysis for clean sand and
carbonate rcservoirs. Nevertheless, the results can be
heavily biased if feldspars, micas, or clays are present.
/ = Wc1 1 + Wc12 + Wma + WeJ Spectralog data analysis techniques minimize the bias

- 226 -
,.
effect; Pmaa and Umaa variables can be corrected for feld-
spars, micas, or clays. Clay points can be established on a
model by using predicted too! responses (e.g., typical
neutron clay response might be 40% porosity).
A fundamental problem with this technique, however, is
that evaporite corrections must be considered for U aa
111
and Pmaa values when used in the presence of feldspars,
micas, and clays. A chart for silica, limestone, and
dolomite with a second triangle for anhydrite, salt, and
dolomite is one method used to resolve the evaporite
problem. For illustrative purposes, assume the silica-
limestone-dolomite triangle has been accepted as appro-
priate, and the input variables Umaa and Pnwa are to be
corrected for the known presence of feldspar and clay. A
correction for mica proportions is required and can be
resolved by
where
Pmaa = apparent matrix density,
Umaa = apparent matrix volumetric cross section,
p numbers = densities of minerals I through 5,
P numbers = proportions of minerals I through 5,
and
U numbers = vol umetric cross sections of minerals
1 through 5.
The indices numbered 1, 2, and 3 correspond to three
mineral points of the triangle. The indices numbered 4
and 5 correspond respectivel y to the feldspar and clay
corrections , while P4 and P5 were obtained from the Th
and K spectral gamma measurements as discussed previ-
ously. It is convenient to define the matri x (Ma- 1) as
Ma
_1
=
rP, P2 P31
U U U
1 2 3 dolomitc is typically used as a cross-check. The probabil-
I I I ity of each model is then computed, and final estimates of
The vector of the tool response (t) can be defined as
t =
Pmaa1 .
u (2)
[ maa
I
The vector correction to the too! response (te) can be
defined as
P4P4 + P5Ps
p4 + P5
te = (3)
P4U4+P5 U5
P4 + P5
I
The solution to the preceding system of equations ( 1, 2,
and 3) can then be written
[: :] = M,- (P 4 +P5 )M"
M 1 vector represents a noncorrected three-mineral
estmate of proportions. M 1c vector represents the correc-
tion direction, and P4 + P5 represents the amount of
correction.
There should be little doubt that this method is more
suited to computer processing, but it is instructional to
apply the correction manually to crossplot data. The last
equation demonstrates that the correction for clay should
proceed along a line through both the data sample and the
clay point (Fig. 5-45). Assuming the silica-limestone-
dolomite model is acceptable, the minimum amount of
clay possible corresponds to that amounl found at the
intersection of the correction line and lithology triangle
at Point A (Fig. 5-46). The maximum amount possible
correspond s to the intersection of the correction line and
the lithology triangle at Point B (Fig. 5-46). The propor-
tions are easily determined. The clay proportion (P )
5
computed from Spectralog proportions of Th and K must
be constrained by the triangular model.
Ali the previous equations, including constraints on clay
proportion, define the basic complex lithology model for
the circumstan ces in the above description. A check is
made to test for the presence of other minerals or rocks
depending on local geological conditions. In carbonate
( 1)
locales, the evaporite model using anhydrite, salt, and
silica, limestone, dolomite, salt, and anhydrite are those
obtained from the two triangular models; the silica-lime-
stone-dolomite model having been corrected for clay and
feldspar. Weighting must be in accordance with the prob-
ability of the respective models.
A logical flow path is implement ed, but detailed estima-
tion of probabilitie s is beyond the scope of this text
- 227-
 (Fig. 5-47). As an example, it can be said that the proba-
22~-------------------, bility of anhydrite increasing occurs as a plotted data
point (Pmaa and Umaa) , diverges from the silica-lime-
20 stone-dolomite triangle toward the anhydrite point, and
$Nis decreases. However, the probability is for anhydrite
18 to decrease as clay estimates increase.

16 There are reasons for constructing such a complex

Anhydrite
model,
14
lllite
Clay
(1) The si lica-Jimestone-dolomite triangle frequently
12 results in erroneous interpretation of dolomite if
Umaa shales or clays are present.
10
(2) Spectralog data using Th vs. K frequently leads to
8
the misclassification of feldspar as mica, mica as
feldspar, or either as a clay.
6

Quartz
4

2 L__...J...._ _L _ _ - - ' - - - L - - - - ' - - - - ' - - - - '

Begin interpretation
3.1 3.0 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4
Pmaa
1
Fig. 5-45 - A line is first established through the data point and Spectralog analysis
the clay point. to estmate clay and
feldspars or micas

l
Z-density and neutron data
22r------------------, used to limit proportion
of clays and other minerals
20
l
18 Z-density and neutron corrected
tor clays and feldspars or micas

16
Anhydrite

Determine proportions of quartz, calcite,
14
and dolomite and thei r probability

12
Umaa
Determine mineral proportions and
10 probability of 2nd, 3rd, ... model

8 !
Select the most probable model
6 and its mineral estimates

4
Ouartz
!
2 ~ -........- - ' - - - ~ - - ' - - - ~ - - - ' - - - - ' Process results
3.1 3.0 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4
Pmaa

Fig. 5-46 - Mnimum clay percentage should occur at point A, Fig. 5-47 - A logic path and procedure to resolve lithology and
and maximum clay percentage should occur al point B. best estmate of porosity

-228-
,.
(3) The silica-limestone-dolomite triangle can miss
evaporite zones, and quite often many are missed
despite complex analysis routines if the depth
intervals for zoning are not carefully selected
(manual zoning becomes prerequisite).
(4) There is a need for an expert system that recog-
nizes the common sedimentary rocks and minerals.
SPECIA L CROSSP LOTS OCCASI ONALLY
NEEDED TO DISTING UISH LITHOL OGY
The availability of severa! log measurem ents assists in
formation evaluation, especially if computer facilities are
available to manipula te the data; i.e., plotting variable
against variable to find the most distinct method of segre-
gating two minerals.
M-N products are easily accessible in computer-pro-
cessed interpretations of log data if the necessary mea-
surements are available. Earlier, it was noted that M-N
crossplots are porosity independ ent and, for a given min-
eral combinat ion, yield a constant value. If the M-N prod-
uct is plotted vs. Pma, the four major reservoir constitu-
ents (sandstone, limestone , dolomite and anhydrite) will
plot along a straight line (Fig. 5-48). By knowing Pma, an
accurate estmate of effective porosity is possible.
6
5
3
2 '------'' -----''--- --''--- - ' - - - - - - '
2.5 2.6 2~ 2.8 2.9 3.0
Matrix Density (g/cm3)
Fig. 5-48 - Plot of density data vs. the product from an M-N
crossplot can help revea! lithology.
A plot of M-N vs. Pb also allows checking log calibration.
Sorne restrictions exist; shale pulls data to the southwest
comer of the plot, and light hydrocarb ons and secondary
porosity show M-N product values that are too high.
M can be plotted against Pb, !lt, or <l>N to define mineral
trends including shale values, ali of which are important
in selecting the correct lithology model. A quality check
against calibration is also afforded. Data will extend from
the basic matrix material toward shale. With M on the y-
axis, the shale percentage will follow a trend from the
-229-
shale point toward the clean value (Fig. 5-49). However,
density and neutron data should be omitted as shale indi-
cators when hole rugosity is a problem because both
measurem ents are adversely affected. M vs. SP and M vs.
GR often define the clean and shale extremes of SP and/
or GR measurements.
Secondary Porosity
0.9 + '
"Gas ''
Poros~ Calcite
0.8
au:rtz Dolomite
\ /. Anhydrite
M 0.7-
1
Shales
0.6 -
0.5 .___ _...__ _.....,_ __...__ __,__ _..._
, _ __,,
2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
Bulk Density (g/cm3)
Fig. 5-49 - A plot of M vs. density data
These types of crossplots are very useful in computer log
analysis and should be incorporated in the software pack-
ages of any computed log analysis program - They pro-
vide another view of the data to be analyze_d.
SPECIA L CROSSP LOTS
In most geographical areas, the methods previously
described provide acceptabl e answers. Nevertheless, the
location of plotted points on conventional crossplots can
be misleadin g for sorne unusual geological horizons.
Jurassic Sandston es, North Sea
Jurassic sandstone s in the North Sea often contain high
concentrations of micaceou s minerals (Pb"' 3.1 g/cm3 and
<l>N"' 0.3). Density-a coustic crossplot data identify the mi-
caceous trend (Fig. 5-50). Acoustic-neutron data also es-
tablish the mica trend (Fig. 5-51). Density-n eutron data
are also sensitive to the mica trend (Fig. 5-52). Similar
problems occur with glauconit e (Nigeria) and iron-rich
minerals (North Slope of Alaska, South China Sea, etc.).
As a result, local specialized crossplots are not unusual,
but special-application crossplots are not meant to be used
universally. Although similar applications might be
needed elsewhere, the degree of implementation may vary
considera bly. A special factor (P) has been establishe d for
the North Sea Jurassic sands. Like M and N or MID plot
data, Pis essentially porosity independent. Pis defined as
100 -<j>N
p = ---.
llt_r -!lt
Mica and clay have similar affects on most log
measurem ents, partially because both minerals are in the
 Fluid
2.0 Point

2.1
30

2.2

2.3 .o
a.
u
.!
Gypsum i,
; Carbonates
E e
.9 2.4 o
Q)

.o
a. .:.:.
~ :5
a)
; 2.5
e
o
Q)

.:.:.
:5 2.6
+
a)
O)
_Q
;
2.7
o
e Mica
Q)
o
2.8
Neutron Porosity lndex, IP N __.,

o
2.9 Fig. 5-52 - Density vs. neutron modelled for micaceous Jurassic
sandstones of the North Sea.
3.0 o
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Specific Acoustilog Time, t ( sec/ft) form of sheet-like silicas. Both mineral types are radio-
acti ve and affect gamma ray response significantly. ShaJe .
Fig. 5-50 - Typical crossplot of acoustic travel time and density points fall close to mica points on the density-neutron
crossplot (Fig. 5-52) and fall close to water line-mica
points on density-acoustic crossplots (Fig. 5-50). As a
result, conventional shale/clay indicators cannot be used
in the presence of mica. The range of shaJe values (North
Gypsum
Sea) for density is == 2.36 to 2.55 g/cm3, 4'Nsh == 35 to
45 pu, !:J.t sh == 97 to 110 sec/ft, and R sh == 3 ohm-m. A plot
40
of the calculated P value vs. GR data expands the ability
35 to segregate shales from micas (Fig. 5-53).
-e- 35
i,
;
35
~ 30
c. 111Clay
Q) Micaceous
25 Shales
ci
Q)
E
:.J 20
$
t /
E e
~ ::,
Mica
~ 15 a:
a. <(
<(

e10
=
a:
>,
C1l

C1l
Q)
z 5
E
E
cii C1l
E <D Carbonates Quartz
; o
.s
a.
o I
UJ o
-5 L..--'--....l....----'-----'--..L......- -'----'------J
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 11 O
Specific Acoustilog Time, t (sec/ft) "P" - Factor ___.

Fig. 5-51 - Typical crossplot of acoustic travel time and neutron- Fig. 5-53 - P factor vs. GR for quartz/mica/clay model in
type data Jurassic sandstones, North Sea

- 230-
SUMMAR Y AND CONCLU SIONS Problem 2
CONCER NING CROSSPL OT METHOD S
Given the chart below (Pe vs. Th/K), plot the following
values to estimate the apparent clay, mica, feldspar, etc.
The preceding description of crossplot methods does not
for each set of log data provided.
encompass the entire range of data manageme nt in the lit-
erature but does provide sufficient introduction to cross- Pe Th(ppm) K(o/o) Th/K Estmate of Mineral(s)
plotting advantages in log anal ysis. Computer processing
has led to an uncountable number of methods to help the 6.2 6 7
analyst determine the quality and usefulness of various
data types. Histograms are used in many complex com-
3.5 16 8
puted log analysis routines. Variations of the many mea- 2.5 12 <I
surements are crossplotte d against o ne another for spe-
cific purposes, occasionall y to resolve special problems 6.2 20 2
that occur locally (e.g., North Sea micas). Time and space
restrict the coverage of more techniques in this introduc- 2.0 25 2
tory material , but it is sufficient to say that data manage-
ment is not universally similar and instead adapts to local
necessities.

PRACTIC AL WORK SESSION Chlorite

Problem 1

Suppose you are given log data from a formation known Th/K

to be of mixed lithology (limesto ne, dolomite, sand, silt,

clay, and sorne anhydrite). The data include dual later-
olog-micro laterolog-G R, Z-Densilog , compensated neu-
tron, and acoustic measureme nts. Which of the interpre- ' Feldspars
tation models would you select first?

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Why?_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ Pe

Problem 3

What other logging service(s) might benefit the interpre- Describe in your own words the attributes of crossplots.
tati ve effort?

Why?_ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ Which crossplots are most useful for a quick manual

analysis of log data?

Assuming a computer analysis is to be performed, what

special crossplot would you want to use?
Which crossplots are complicate d enough to require
computer facilities to enable the analysis of severa) feet
(or meters) of reservoir data?
Why?_ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __

- 231 -
 Saturation Determination
One of the basic objectives of well log analysis is deter-
mining the saturation percentages of oil, gas, and/or
water occupying the pare space of reservoir rocks.
Although saturations can be determined by any number
of methods, most of which require similar log measure-
ments, specific circumstances affect or limit the accuracy
of each method, and it is crucial to use the appropriate
method.
Saturation is the calculated amount of fluid or gas that
occupies pare space and is a function of numerous physi-
cal, chemical, and biological factors. There are no magic
numbers for saturation values that definitely predict
water-free production or water production only. Frac-
tional saturations are a function of:
Type of pare space, connected or isolated
Amount of pare space
Size of constituent grain structure
Homogeneity or heterogeneity of the reservoir
matrix and pare avenues
Relation of vertical permeability to horizontal
permeability
In-situ pressures and temperatures
Capillarity functions
Wettability of the matri x
Type of reservoir drive
Shape of reservoir
Size of reservoir
Structural/stratigraphic trap mechanism
Severa( measurement s and petrophysical parameters are
essential in deriving accurate saturation values from log
data:
Reliable and accurate resistivity and temperature
values for formation water and drilling fluids
Resistivity values recorded by the appropriate
instrument for the salinities, porosities, bed thick-
nesses, etc. encountered
-233-
6
Accurate determination s of R1 , Rxo,or R
Reliable and accurate porosity determination
Adequate formation factor to porosity relation
Adequate exponentiaJ for saturation calculations
Adequate shale volume and resistivity determina-
tion
Awareness of and corrections for any conductive
minerals in the formation
Other factors, many of which are possibly still
unknown
Most of the petrophysica l numbers (a,m,n) traditionally
used in log analysis are derived empirically, usually from
core and log comparisons. Although core data remain the
bedrock of petrophysics, core analysis, as well as ali
other analyses and tech niques discussed previously in
this text, also has its imperfection s.
Numerous advantages and disadvantages of log data
have been discussed. Limitations of different measuring
systems have been addressed, and the interpretative
efforts applied to many measurement s have been openly
discussed not only far applicability but also for their lim-
itations or inability to resolve certain formation evalua-
tion problems. The Archie equation, at least three resis-
tivity ratio saturation methods, and two shaly-sand satu-
ration techniques were discussed earlier. The test of time
has shown Archie's formula to stand up well against
numerous assaults from the formation evaluation
discipline.
Severa! authors have suggested more laboratory model-
ling and less empirical content. Numerous technical
papers have addressed the problem of shaliness with
shaly-sand saturation equations (Table 6- 1), whereas
only five of them are commonly addressed throughout
the industry. Ali revert back to Archie's relation when
shale content is zero (Chapter 3). Attempts to character-
ize free and bound fluids to more accurately estmate
total effective porosity, and to get a quantitative estimate
of producible fluids or gases continue.
Severa( methods of determining saturation from cross-
plots or quick-look methods are discussed in this chapter.
These methods also have inherent problems and are
affected by d1fferent circumstances. Quick-look methods
of one type may work well in one area but fai l miserably
 TABLE 6-1 -A Few of the Many Shaly Sand Saturation Equations

Simandoux e= 1for high s~

e< 1for low Sw.

Schlumberger 2 F relates to the free fluid porosity of the

total rock volume, inclusive of intra-
formational (laminated) shales.

Cw 2 (Cbw- CwvoOv)
Clavier et al. Ct =
Fo
S
w
+ - - - - - ,Fo
=----S
w
2 Dual-water model
F0 relates to total interconnected porosity.
Sw relates to the total interconnected
pore space.

Waxman and Smits 2 F * relates to total interconnected porosity.

Sw relates to total interconnected pore
space.

Cw 2 ( Csh ) V sh<l>shSw 2 Normalized Waxman-Smits equation

Juhasz Ct=-Sw+ --Cw
F Fsh <p F=1A)>m where <l> is the porosity derived
from the density log and corrected for
hydrocarbon effects.

F sh = ~ where <l>sh is the shale

<l>sh
porosity derived from the density log.
Sw relates to total interconnected pore

Poupon and Leveaux

Poupon and Leveaux e1-- Cw 2 - / CwVshCsh

F Sw+2-\J F Sw2+Vsh2 c hsw2
5
3 sImpIIe 1ormua
11 d Ind onesIa < O5
1 1or Vsh-.

in another; in sorne cases, performance vares from reser-
voir to reservoir. Again, knowledge of local conditions is
important.
Profiles compari ng flushed-zone saturation to virgin-
zone saturation are very effective in most cases, but their
accuracy diminishes with decreasing fluid salinities.
Nevertheless, movable and residual oil volumes calcu-
lated from such methods have been amazingly accurate
in many controlled studies.
SATURATION VALUES
Log data has been conventionally calculated as a percent
water in the available pore space of a volume of rock.
Water saturation (Sw) is a convenient log calcu lation
because resistivity devices respond primarily to the con-
ductive fluids (water) in pore space. Obviously, water sat-
uration can never exceed 100%; however, the nature of
different log responses used in the calculations causes
sorne statistical fluctuation. Vertical resolution and the
horizontal investigation distance are somewhat different
for each resistivity device, and the tools are affected dif-
ferently by borehole size, borehole salinity, and severa!
rock characteristics. Nevertheless, valid log interpreta-
tions always reflect water saturations within acceptable
limits of I 00% in known water-bearing horizons. At the
other extreme, water saturations are probably never at
0%; in fact, when Sw < 10%, and accurately determined,
the oil in place is virtually never producible by conven-
tional well extraction methods.
Accepting these premises, effective log analysis should
result in Sw of about 10% mnimum to 100% maximum.
Later in this section, irreducible water saturation (mni-
ma! Sw for a specific reservoir) and critica! water satura-
tion (lowest Sw at which water influx will occur) are dis-
cussed. Each reservoir has its own unique identity and is
affected by many of the variables listed earlier. It is true
that many reservoirs have identical characteristics, but

-234-
virtually no two reservoirs can be classified as identical
twins. For example, one shale-free carbonate reservoir
may have porosity and permeability values similar to
those of another shale-free carbonate rock, but the two
reservoirs may have different irreducible water satura-
tions (S,.) because of differing Rw values or grain sizes.
The numerous variables that affect saturation make it vir-
tuall y impossible to have totally identical characteristics
in different reservoirs.
TAKING A CLOSER LOOK AT SATURATION
IMPONDERAB LES
Data acquisitio n and the methods used to compile and
eventually interpret the data are less than perfect. On the
other hand, it is somewhat amazing that such measure-
ments can even be made in the subsurface. Recognize the
strength of the downhole information acq uired, but
always be aware that it is difficult to provide 100% quan-
titative interpretation accuracy.
The material in this text is purposely organized to build
gradually through interpretation steps that provide the
data needed to calculate saturatio n. O f course, ali data
must be relati vely accurate if accu rate saturation values
are to be determined. Commo n sense dictates that when a
log analysis is performed fro m acceptable data and sev-
era! depth levels are calculated at "" 120% S 11. , one or
more of the terms in the saturation equation must be in
error. The anal yst must then backtrack and investigate the
accuracy of individual terms. For example, Rw may not
have been corrected to formation temperature, R1 value
may be incorrect, or an assumed petrophysical exponent
may be incorrect, etc.
Another situation can occur when severa! depth levels
calculate as 70% Sw in known water-bearing horizons.
Once the sources of error are found and corrected, S 11 can
again be calculated.
Saturation Behavior to Reservoir Variables
Most oil reservoirs are considered water wet; the surfaces
of the rock grains are coated with a fi lm of water
although rnost pore throat volume is occupied by oil.
Assurne the film of water is uniform in thickness
throughout the o il-bearing portion of the reservoir. Satu-
ration may still vary because of grain size changes,
which, in turn, changes the arnount of surface area coated
by the film of water.
Perhaps the fi lm of water and grain size rernain uniforrn
throughout the reservoir but sorne isolated pores occur.
Those isolated pores rnay contain o nl y water because o il
was never able to rnigrate into them. Again, Sw will vary.
- 235-
Sorne pore throats may be more restrictive than others.
Restrictions can be caused by clays, fines migration, or
in-situ pressure differentials that, in turn, affect petro-
physical pararneters. The a, m, and n values vary some-
what from leve! to leve! because of the heterogeneous
natu re of the rock.
Ali these irnportant imponderables cannot be accounted
for with log analysis alo ne. The rnost sophisticated corn-
puter-processing routi nes do not normally attempt to
cope with the petrophysical changes that occur within a
reservoir, but instead use average values to best estmate
saturation rcsults. Core analysis does not totally resolve
the problem; plugs frorn a full core do not describe ali Lhe
rock, but only the portion represented by the plug. Fur-
therrnore, the core is no longer part of Lhe reservoir.
Nevertheless, a piece of the rock and controllcd labora-
tory measurernents of it are the accepted benchmark of
petrophysics. Heterogeneity in reservoir rocks is
common and occurs laterally and vertically. A value for
m or n might vary from o ne depth level to the next and
rnight have considerable variation in value, but most
analyses are based on an average value . The analyst rnust
be continually aware of such variables and how a change
in any of the terrns used in an equation wil l affect the
resultant saturation calculation.
SATURATION IN CLEAN FORMATIONS
Archie's fundamental satu ration experi rnents were dis-
cussed previously. Development o the forrnation factor,
the link between res istivity and rock porosity, was also
discussed alo ng with the developrnent of the Humble
relatio nship for sandstones. These fundamental re lations
generally hold true if the reservoir is shale free and con-
tains homogeneous intergranular porosity. However, ali
clean forrnatio ns are not ho rnogeneous, no r do ali clean
formations have intergranular porosity. This disturbs the
sirnplicity of the basic relations; i.e., parameters do not
accurate ly fi t a set rule for calcul ating saturations. Never-
theless, most log analysis uses pararneters generally
prescribed for sandstones or carbonates (Chapter 3), and
saturation results are satisfactory in most cases.
It is not quite accurate to say that unusual rock properties
occasionally occur, because they probably occur more
often than not. A computed saturatio n profile that demon-
strates a sudden Sw change within a reservoir's productive
zone is often shown little regard although it indicates
changes in rcservoir characteristics (Fig. 6- 1). The anom-
alous behavior of the profile is often explained as a
change in the invasion profi le when it rnay be a change in
mor n caused by differences in grain size, sorting, lithol-
ogy mixtures, cementation, wettability, porosity type,
permeability, etc.
 <j> = determined porosity value,
WATER SATUAATION POROSITY ANALYSIS BULK VOLUME ANAL YSIS
PEACENT PERCENT PERCENT and
100 O 25 O 100 O

AESIDUA MOVABLE WA'TER CLAY MATAD( POROSIT

m = representative of pore shape or
geometry.

A similar saturation expression can be written for the

flushed zone,
S n = Fx Rmf
xo R
XO
where
R mf = mud-filtrate resistivity at formation
temperature,

Rxo = flushed-zone res1st1v1ty usually deter-

mined with a microresistivity device,

and
Sxo = water saturation of the flushed zone.
The accuracy of calculated saturation depends on the
legitimacy of Rw or R mf R 1 or R xo or R 0 , and F. For best
results, input values should be determined from data cor-
rected for borehole signal, bed thickness, invasion, etc. It
Fig 6-1 - Formation heterogeneity often affects saturation
is also important that the correct resistivity tool is used to
profiles.
resolve saturation.
Archie's saturation equation is the basis for essentially all As a demonstration, if R 1 is near 2000 ohm-m, <j> < l %,
saturation determi nation methods, and F is assumed to be equal to llf,
water saturation can
FxR be calculated at J00% only if R w = 0.20 ohm-m at forma-
S n= w
w RI tion temperature. If Rw is given as any value < 0.2 ohm-
m, saturation will calculate at < 100% water. If Rw =
where 0.25 ohm-m, saturation will calculate at > 100% water
Sw = calculated water saturation percentage, (125%). Where is the most logical source of error? Was
R 1 determined from a laterolog or induction device? Was
n = saturation exponent, porosity determined from a single device, two devices,
Rw = formation water resistivity at formation three devices, or compared to core? Is R w accurate, and
temperature, what is the source of information? Are the correct a, m,
and n values imposed? Each input value is subject to
R, = the true formation resistivity, question.
R0 = representative of true resistivity if the
In this example, the accuracy of any resistivity measure-
formation is LOO% water bearing,
ment in the 2000 ohm-m range must be questioned.
and, Perhaps <j> was determined from /1t only, and in rocks of
this type, acoustic logs usually lose their ability to recog-
F = formation resistivity factor.
nize pore space unless it is primary. If < 1o/o pore space is
F is typically taken from calculated log values or mea- available, there is not much water to cause an accurate
sured core porosity and related to resistivity as follows, conductive response to deep-induction measurements. In
short, measurement accuracy deteriorates rapidly in these
F = al<j>m, conditions, and the analyst must recognize that insofar
as reserves are concerned, the result is possibly somewhat
where
insignificant. More porous intervals are the true quality
a = numerator (considered to be related to check on log analysis. The same parameters (Rw =
tortuosity by sorne whereas others 0.2 ohm-m and R 1 = 2000 ohm-m) with 10% pore space
believe it to represent a unit volume of available are more significant to reserve totals. Again,
rock and its constituent pore space), using a= 1 and m = 2, Sw = 1% water in the pore space.

-236-
,.
Not being a likely number, the analyst should again ques-
tion the input terms. The deep laterolog device may have
been a better choice for deep-resistivity determination ,
and density or density-neutr on porosity values may be
more accurate for porosity determination .
Most reservoir rocks have resistivitie s less than
500 ohm-m when Sw is low, and it therefore makes sense
to check log data at the low end of the resi stivity spec-
trum (R 0 ) if a water-wet zone is available . This opportu-
nity is not always available, but use it when it presents
itself. Yerify input values in as many ways as possible,
and investigate other data that may provide information
on the reservoir character.
SATURATION NOMOGRA MS
For many years, nomograms provided a graphic
approach to obtain a saturation value. Today, the use of
computers or hand calculators has ali but replaced the
nomogram. Nevertheless, a quick check on log data can
be made using this simple graphic device (Fig. 6-2). If,
for example, the high-resistivity low-porosity problem
had occurred below the ol-water contact in a thick reser-
voir section, it would be a simple exercise (if <j> and Rw
are correct) to work backwards from 100% Sw in the
nomogram and determine what R1 value would yield the
100% value. The nomogram can be used in severa! ways
to verify different values if other measured values are
accepted as valid.
RESISTIVIT Y VS. POROSITY CROSSPLO TS
There are severa! methods for comparing resistivity to
porosity on crossplots; the two most common plots are
the Hingle and Pickett plots. Both methods have versatil-
ity in that they not only eventually lead to a more accu-
rate Sw solution but also help resolve other parameters
necessary to successful log evaluations. Many companies
routinely use these methods to plot the necessary reser-
voir data on each well and then use that data as a control
on subsequent wells. The control may be to identify inac-
curate log measurement s, to recognize gradual changes
from well to well, or to accumulate fieldwide statistical
data that can be molded into a uniform control for more
detailed field studies.
Hingle Plot
Originally, this was a plot of resistivity/conductivity vs.
acoustic !lt values.93 It was quickly applied to resistivity
vs. density data, resistivity vs. neutron data, resistivity vs.
crossplot porosity, and microresistivity (Rxo or R ) vs.
porosity sensitive devices.
The basic premise is to plot data points of e ither resistiv-
ity or conductivity on the ordinate vs. measurements
from a porosity-sens itive device (such as M) on the
-237-
abscissa. For example, a !lt scale of 50 and 11 O (left to
right) might be imposed on the x-axis to fit acoustic log
data, and the y-axis might be scaled from O upwards to
2000 mmhos conductivity on the left of the plot and from
00 upwards to 0.5 ohm-m
resistivity on the right of the
plot (y-axis).
On the U.S. gulf coast, the deep-inductio n measurement
is typically taken as R, and plotted against the data from
the porosity-sensitive device. Sensitivity of the log data
(mnimum to maximum values of the different measure-
ments) is used to employ adequate scaling. Scales can be
selected differently (Fig. 6-3) depending on locales. After
ensuring that two different sets of log data are on depth,
the analyst plots severa! data points from the zone of
interest. Data points from the water leg of a reservoir are
very important and should be plotted (Fig. 6-4). lf a large
number of points are plotted, a shotgun pattem usually
forms. If Archie's saturation equation is combined with
Archie's formation factor relationship, the saturation
equation can be written as
aR w
s \V
11 =
If m and n are equal to 2 and a = 1, then
sw .A-.'1' = 'RIR.
,J" w' "t
This equation demonstrates that if Rw remains constant,
Sw <j> is proportional to 1/ Jiii
and Sw <j> is equivalent
to the bulk volume water per unit of measured volume.
When induction and acoustic data are used, the data plot-
ted (Fig. 6-4) can also be used to determine Rw and matrix
vclocity, V,11a, if sufficient points are available and if
water-bearing intervals are included on the crossplot. A
line is projected through the points found to the left and
upper part of the pattern (NW points). The line is pre-
sumed to be R0 if a deep-resistivity device is used (e.g.,
deep induction). The projected line can be extended
downward (SW direction) to the abscissa, and the point of
intersection will give an estimate of !ltma zero porosity.
The llt scale across the x-axis can then be scaled in terms
of porosity for the lt 111a value determined from the Hingle
plot. This is a useful plot when ltmaor V,11c, are unknown;
however, control points from the R 0 line should be defin-
itive. This requires sorne spread in the plotted values of
res1st1v1ty and !lt. Obviously, difficulty will be
encountered if a water-wet zone (R0 ) was not available
from the logs. The plot remains useful if R0 control points
are not present. A knowledge of lithology allows the ana-
lyst to assume !lt1110 or V,110 using conventional values for
sandstone, limestone, or dolomite.
 Aw Ro Ro sw
(Qm) (Qm) (%)
Rt
0.01 100 0.001 100

0.02 Rt
F 0.002
50 (Qm)
1000 50
0.05 10,000
500
0.1 5000 0.005
200 n

//
0.2 100 2000 0.01
20 20
2.5
50 1000 2
0.5
20 0.02 o
500 8
10 10 5 10
5 200
2 0.05
100 1.0
2
5 50 5
5 0.1

10 20
0.2
10
20 2 5 2
0.5
50 2

0.5
2
0.5
0.1
Sw = (Ro IRt )11"
5
R0 = FRw

0.2 10

0.1

Example

Given: Rw = 0.05 Q m; F = 20; Ri = lO Q m; n = 2.0

Determine: Sw; ~ = 1.0 Q m; ~/Ri = 0. l ; Sw = 32 %

Fig. 6-2 - Nomogram to determine saturation by Archie's equation

- 238-
 If Rw is unknown, the Hingle plot can also be used to
Conductivity Resistivity determine connate water resistivity. If the NW line was
(mmho/m) (ohm-m)
2000 ..,.....,.-,-r-r-...,......,....,.........,....,.........,.....,...,.-,-............,.......,....,.........,.....,......, 0.5 projected through data points representative of R 0 , the
resistivity of any data point can be divided by the forma-
..1--l-+-+-+-+-++-+-+-++-i-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-t--+-H .6 tion factor value,
1500
.,_.-+-+-+-+---+-+ -+-+-+--+--<>-+--+-- +-+-+-+-+---+-+-+-1 ---i O. 7
J-+-+-+-t--+-+- ++-i-+-+-t-+-+-+ -+-+-+-+-+-++- iH .8

1000 +-+-+---+-+-+-+-+-- +--<>-+--+--+-+-+-+ -+---+-+-+-+-+---+-- <f-i

-r+-+-+-t--+-+-+ +-i-+-+-t-+-+-+ -+-+-+-+-+-++- iH 1.2 The porosity is typically scaled using conventional values
for matrix, 11t111a = 55.6 sec/ft with acoustic data in sand-
1-++-i-+-+-t-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-1-+--l---l-+-+-+-+-+-+--11 .5
stone or Pma = 2.71 g/cm 3 for density data in limestone,
500 +--+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+--+---1---l-+-+-+-+-++-+-+-++-iH 2 etc. (Fig. 6-5). A grid scale for formation factor (F) can be
400 2.5 set up below the porosity scale utilizing the proper trans-
300 3 form, F = 1/q,2 or F = 0.62/q,2 15 (Fig. 6-5).
25Q+--+-+-+-+-+-+-t--+-t-+--l---l-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-H
200 5
150t::t=t:::t::t:::::t:t:::!=t:::t::t:::::t::t:::!=t::t::t:::::t::t:::!=:::1 Saturation lines can also be drawn across the Hingle
100
:!::!~tt:!::!~=t:!::f::!=tt:!::!~=t:!:=i:!=t:!:!:!~
:}--!-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-++-i-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-t--+-H 15
1
O
plot after the R 0 line is established. For example, a 50%
~ ~
Sw line will have ordinate resistivity values four times
greater than ordinate resistivity values of the R0 line
20 50
10 100 (Fig. 6-6). When severa! Sw lines are constructed, Sw can
5 ~o be determined quickly for any data point on the plot.
o 1,000
1-
l4-'-
o _ _'"'"
,5-'-
o _ _..._,6_0_ __._11_0_ _.....1a_o_ _ llt
1

50 160 170 [JO 190 ~ 00 11 0 llt

1 1
Conduclivity Resislivily
Fig. 6-3 - Hingle plot scale selection for llt, Pb, etc. can be (mmho/m) (ohm-m)
adjusted to fit specific reservoir conditions. 2000 T""T..,....,-,-....,......,....,........,.....,.....,.....,......,....,.-,-.....,....T""T..,....,......, 0.5

.1-+-+-l-+-+-++-+-+-l-+-++-+-+-+--+-++-+-l--+-l O.6
1500
Conductivily -l--+-+-l-+-+-++-+-+-1-+++-+-+-+-1-+++-+-l--+-l O.7
Resislivily
(mmho/m) (ohm-m) .l-+-+-l-+-+-++-+-+-1-+++-+-+-+-1-+++-+-l--+-l O.8
100 10
1000++-+-l-+-+-+-+-+-+-l-+++-+-+-+--+-++-+-l--+-l
~
80 -1-+-+-l-+-+-++-+-+-t-+-++-+-+-+--+-+-+-+-l--+-l 1.2
IR _B!J_11_
w- F -310-.039 /
t-+-+--+-+--<-+-+--+ --+-+-+->-+-+-+-+-+ -+--+-+-+--+-+--< 1.5
15
60 500 -t--+-+-<-+-+-+-+-+- +-t-+-+--+-+-+-+--+- +--+-+--+-<>-+-1 2
50 J 20 400 2.5
40 300 3
25
J ' 250~-+-l-+-++-+-+-+--+-++-+-l-+-+-++-+-+-l--+-l
30 30 200 5
25
Ro= F Rwl ' 15
20 / 50
fii~;~~
100+= ~tii~~~~~tii~
t +:t=l=1!:1=t+:t=l=1!:1=tt+:t=l:::t:::=t+:t=l::1!:115
10

15 I
~ w
10 20 50

5
' I
'
100
150
10

o :t;;~~;~t**~~~~t***~~;~t**~~;~
5 ..........................................
.,..
..........L....L..J......L..J....L...J....L....L..J.....L..........
~
100
1000
200
~

1
2
I
61m-47.5
Vm-21,0001
200
500
s.s.[ o
wilh
60 70
10
80
20
90 100 61
30 9AC (61m=55.5)
1000 500 100 20 10
0.5 61 F = .62/q,2.15
/ 1 1 5000 1 1 1 1 1
o
45 1 50 55 60 65 ~
61
Lime[
wilh 5
2.60
10
2.50
15
2.40
pb
410 (p m =2.71)
o 5 10 pb 400 200
4> 1s 100 50
1 1 1 1 F =..!.
q,2
Fig. 6-4 - Hingle plots allow Rw and Vm to be determined from
Fig. 6-5 - Scales for porosity-sensit ive devices are selected to fit
adequate resistivity and acoustic data.
the sensitivity of reservoir parameters.

-239 -
 Hingle plots are routinely constructed with data acquired
F- 0.62 from the zones of interest in discovery, appraisal, and
~ - cp2. 15 development wells. Such plots establish petrophysical
:~ markers from well to we!l and serve as a well-site guide
o::, RIND
"O to log quality. The plots can also be implemented in com-
e oRMLL
o puter crossplot routines.
Rmt Rw =4.5
1,000 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - - - f
Pickett Plot

Calculating water saturation involves severa! steps,

(1) Obtain a porosity value from log data or core

(2) Use an estimated or laboratory-determined m value

to establish a formation resistivity factor relation-
ship

(3) Calculate a Resistivity Index (I) from the relation-

ship of R1/R0 or R/F R w

(4) Calculate Sw from the relationship sw-n = I

Despite the development of sophisticated Iogging tech-

10 100
nology, log analysts still face challenges in determining
"'
accurate Sw values. Although errors can be caused by
O 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 t.t uncertainties in the knowledge of Rw ,determination of <p,
'o 10 20 30 40
cj>AC and correct determination of R 1 , incorrect m values can
"' 100 50 20 10 4.5 F also lead to significant error. Undoubtedly, the n expo-
nent also has significance in saturation results, and it is
Fig. 6-6 - Lines representing specific saturation values can be discussed later in this chapter.
established on the Hingle plot.
As previously discussed, one method of estimating
Resistivity Index utilizes a log-log plot of resistivity vs.
The proportionality between <I> and 1/ jR, can also be porosity. Crossplotted data points identify graphically the
written as
location of water-saturated zones 149 15 and data from
Av 1
<1>=--
hydrocarbon zones demonstrate departure away from the
water zones. The concept has been fundamental to log
sw jR, analysis for many years, but Pickett's intent was to con-
Based on the previous equation, if deep resistivity is rep- vert the amount of pattern distortion to accurate estimates
resentative of R0 , Sw = 1, and the ordinate becomes an of water saturation without knowing many parameters
inverse square root scale of resistivity vs. porosity, ali R0 (e.g., Rw or m) normally required. Hingle plots require a
points fall on a straight line defined by <I> = JR:I J"ifo . knowledge of the m exponent. Pickett's approach began
Points corresponding to other constant values of Sw will with consideration of the basic equation for true
also fall on a straight line (50% Sw line demonstrated ear- resistivity,
lier). The Hingle plot remains a functional part of log
analysis today because it is a convenient method to R1 = <l>-m aR \V
l
determine the necessary matrix parameter for converting
density, acoustic, and neutron data to porosity. The parameters are by now familiar with the exception of
the (-) superscripts and the Resistivity Index ([). l is
If a microresistivity (Rx0 ) device is available, the plot can related to Sw through the emprica! relation
be used in a similar manner to determine Sxo water satu-
ration of the flushed zone. The x and y coordinates do not I = S \V-n ,

change, and the same plot can be utilized. Rxo values are
plotted with the porosity-sensitive data using a different where n is the saturation exponent. Pickett took the loga-
code ( o ) for the data points. Sxo = 100% should be repre- rithm from both sides of the equation and converted it to
sented by a line projected through the points that fall in the linear relation,
the NW section of the plot. The Sxo = 100% line will
differ from the Sw = 100% line if Rw and R mf differ. = LogaR I - m log <I> .
w

-240-
 On a log-log plot of R1 versus (j), this equation represents
a family of straight lines with slopes of -m, and inter-
cepts of a R,J on the resistivity abscissa where (j) = 100%
on the ordinate. The equation for the water-beari ng zone
on the plot is
log R0 = log aR,j - m log q>,
where R0 represents the resistivity of those sediments
whose pares are 100% filled with water of resistivity Rw,
and / = 1. Pickett's routine is important because it is not
necessary to know mor Rw in advance of estimating Sw.
These equations demonstrate the crossplotted log data
will exhibit a straight line for those data sets having the
same Rw and a constant l. A linear group of points should
be found that represent 100% S11 Any points having the
same porosity value but increasing resistivities will have
/ values equal to the ratio of their resistivities to the resis-
tivity of the water-beari ng line at that porosity. lf Rw is
known, and the Archie relationship a/q>m = R 1Rw is
0
acceptable, an R 0 line can be extrapolated through the
water-bearing data points of the log-log plot (Fig. 6-7). If
Rw is well documented, the a term can be defined by solv-
ing the R0 = aRwl equation (reading the value at the point
where the R0 line intersects the abscissa at the top of the
chart). The slope of the R 0 line is representative of the m
exponent, negative because of the slope direction. The
slope - m is easily resolved by utilizing the x and y coor-
dinates and the logarithmic scale (y= mx + b is the equa-
tion of a line). The negative sign (-) for m is normally
ignored in convention al log analysis.
Sw can be determined graphically by using an Rw index.
Water saturation charts for any given Rw and known m
and n values are easily constructed. 15 The log-log plot
of porosity vs. resistivity is used as the basic crossplot. A
"water scaler" overlay for known m and n values is then
indexed. For demonstration purposes, m and n values of 2
and Rw = 0.04 ohm-m are used. The chart is constructed
using the follow ing steps,
()) Define the maximum and minimum Sw lines with
any four arbitrarily chosen points (Fig. 6-8). The
100% line is chosen using two (j) points ((j) = 10%
with R0 =4 ohm-m and (j)=3% with R0 =44 ohm-m)
and a 10% Sw line is established using two other
control points ((j) = 10%, R1 = 400 ohm-m and (j) =
30%, R 1 = 45 ohm-m).
(2) Place a logarithmic scaler (Fig. 6-9) between the
minimum and maximum Sw lines and scale the
intermediary Sw lines parallel to the mnimum and
maximum Sw lines. The completed water scaler is
then printed on transparent material for overlay
purposes.

0.1 10 100
100 100
""-
""-
E
E 1
<Xl
'<t 11.1
11 '
>-
~
~ -m =2.0
~
; 10
10
eo
o..

1.0 .___ _ _ _ _ _ _...___ _ _ _ _ _ _...___ _ _ _ _ _ _..,____ _ _ _

_ ___, 1.0
0.1 1.0 10 100 1,000
Resistivity
F = Ro = ~
Rw $m

-m= ~ =.!~=-1 .8
F 1.1
" = cp1.8

Fig. 6-7 - Pickett plots can be used to determine values of a, m, and formation factor.

-24 1 -
 100
'
1
' r-..
*qi
r-,.. ....er S.q1,

.,,,
~q1,
'Ot
50
,::..o%
q, =30%
'

20
r------ - -- -- --- _,.. ...... ------
"
--
'}
R1 =45Qm

......
..... '-
""""'---- --- -- - -- -

~ ~ t-(% ~
----- _J~3g~_
G- !'--..... i'----.. q, = 10%
.i
V)
10 ~----- -- ~ k --- - ----- --- ~ l.....R1=400 Qm

eo (j> = 10% ........ 3l% '

Q. Ro= 41nm ~

-..
f'J"'
-so.
.7--
..... -,....'60;:-
~ ....
............... -.;:) ~;,o
5 -.;:: so;:
~ %
---- - ,..._ - ~- ... -- ~----- q,r..........
= 3% "*...::::_
_,__,..._ ---- --- -- - - ,_ -
R 0 = 44 Qm -....
'r--.

~
2
m=2 l. .
n=2 I)
l o
Rw = 0 .04 Qm
1 'l
1
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000

R1 ( Qm)

105
Fig. 6-8 - Pickett plot versatility permits rapid Sw determination by using an Rw index to construct a saturation scaler.

105
Fig. 6-9 - A completed transparent saturation scaler can be used as a quicklook overlay on Pickett plot data.

- 242-
 (3) Using the example values, place the transparenc y
over the log-log grid with the index on the R =
0
4 ohm-m, (j> = 10% control point because Rw =
0.04 ohm-m (Fig. 6- 1O). The completed chart can
then be reproduced (Fig. 6-1 1).
Separate charts can be constructed for different Rw values
or for differing values of mor n.
QUICK-L OOK METHOD S TO DETERM INE
SATURATIONS
R"' = R/F== R/ F,
where F is determine d from porosity-s e nsitive log
data and the proper formation factor-to-p orosity rel a-
tionship. In sandstone reservoirs, the F = 0 .62/q, 2 15
(or F = 0.81/q,2 ) relatio nship is commonly input.
Deep-indu ction values are general ly used as the
apparent R1 value. Porosity is often determi ned from
acoustic tlt, density Pb, or density-ne utron crossplot
data.

There are many quick-look methods for recognizmg
hydrocarbo n-bearing horizons and estimating their satu-
ration. These methods are used mainly to provide reason-
ably accurate porosity and saturation data at the well site
to faci litate decisions on running casing and testing or
abandoning the well.
Today's well-site computers present quick-look logs with
much less effort than required with earlier analog units.
Sorne of the drawbacks to these methods are listed below.
(] ) Experience and interpretative abilities of well-site
personnel
(2) Availability of necessary well-site computer capa-
bilities
(3) Availability of important and sometimes critica!
parameters needed for an accurate analysis
An Rwa >> Rw indicates a water saturation less than
100%. Saturation can be calculated easily by using
Obviously, invasion must be sufficiently shallow such
that the deep-resist ivity measureme nt is not affected;
porosity determinat ion and the formation factor relation-
ship must be relatively accurate. In addition, the follow-
ing requiremen ts are necessary in order to successfull y
implement continuous ly recorded R"' techniques:
( 1) Rw must be relatively constant or vary in a consis-
tent and predictable manner over the interpreted
depth intervals.
(2) Li thology should be consistent, predictable , and
known (sand-shale sequences are best).

(4 ) (3) Permeable horizons should be essentially shale

Any combinatio n of the above
Severa! older and relati vely simple interpretation meth-
ods are still available in sorne form today. These include
simple resistivity overlay techniques (R,m, F R/FAC FR/
F0 ) and Rx0 IR1 methods.
free, or at worst, have similar shaliness characteris -
tics.
Quick estimates of saturation can usually be made if the
following Rw to Rwa comparative values are used,

Rwa Technique

A real-time Rwa curve has been available for more than Rwa 2 times the value of Rw: 71
25 years. Knowledge of Rw in certain reservoir rocks per-
mits a quick comparison of that value to the recorded R,rn 3 times the value of Rw: 57
Rwa When logging through a water-wet horizon, the Rwa
value should be similar to the known Rw. If Rw is not R,rn 4 times the value of Rw: 50
known, the Rwa c urve is often used to establish Rw for
specific horizons if sorne or ali the reservoir is believed to
Rwa 8 times the value of Rw: 35
be 100% water bearing. Rwa is simply a mathematical
rearranging of the Archie equation; i.e.,
Rwa 16 times the value of Rw: 25

Rwa 25 times the value of Rw: 20

S
w
11 =
[
__
FR
R
,v ) = [a
__ R,_v )
m
, (j> . R,
Rwa 40 times the value of Rw: 16
If F = a!<j>m and R0 = F Rw, then Rw = R0 /F. If R > R , a
1 0
similar calculation can be made but an apparent Rw will A nomogram converting Rwa to Sw is also available
be calculated if the zone is not water bearing, (Fig. 6-12).

-243 -
 100
1
90
80
70 1

60
1
50
1
40 1
1
30 1
1
1
20 1
1
-0-
1

ie 109 ------ --- E - l 1ndex

o 8
o.. 7 ~I
~ I
6 11
5
4
~,
x'

S:
3: 1
a: 1
3 1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 20 50 100 200 500 1,000

R1 (Qm)

Fig. 6-1 O - The overlay technique can be used to create a chart for specific reservoirs -
Example with Rw = 0.04 and q, = 10% as a control point. 105

100 ......... .......

90 ........__
1
1 1 -...... '
1
80 ........__ 1 1 't--... 1
70 ..........__ ' 1---..... i--. 1
60 '-.....
50 ~ ~ ~ 1
......._ -...... .......... l
40
'------...... '------ 1
.Joo I r----....

30
:::----................. '---- ~
<lo' ......
r---- t--...,_ -----~ 1
1

~ ~ r---... r----" r--.._ ~ r----... I'-- r----

r----"
1

~~
t--... 1
20 .....
~
~
~
r---... r--t-- " I'--.. 1

s~
r----r--. 1
~ r---...
. r--i--. '-......_ r-------.. t-,...._
~,~~ '-......_ 1
-0-

-~ 10
r---...
~~ t-,...._
r<----::
r--i--.
p,,. t: ~ ~"'
r-----
:--.... ,.___ .... ,_,_
"i--.
r-..1'--c - - -
._ __ ~ %
:g 9 ......... ........__ ........__ ......... ........__ -...__ ~
......._
o 8 1 r----. ---- .... -
o.. 7 ...... ........__ ........__ .... ----
......... i--. ......... . r-.
1 i--..._..........__ ..........__ ---- .... ........__ ---- .... 't---.. "----
..........__ r--
6 t-----...........__ ........__
5
1 ~--------.....:
......_
t-----. i--...._ .... ~ t-----...
<O'.
1 r-..
4 1 ~ ~ r-...... r---- i--..._
t-----.
......_
............... t------.. ...____,------.:;.___
---- r----" t--...i--. ~
~r----
~ t------- ....
1
3
1 ------ t-,...._
i--.
..........
t------.. ~ i% r--r--

~~~
1 't-,...._ ------ i--. i--.
r----" o r-----
1
1 r----"
r--i--.
i--..,...
r----r--i--.
2
~~
~G:::~
1
"-...
1 r----- r--
m=2
~ ~~;
~
1 r----r-.i--.
1 n=2 r-----
1 r----- r----r-.
...... r--..
1 '
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 50 100 200 500 1,000
R1 (Qm)

5
Fig . 6-11 - A completed Sw chart for Rw = 0.04 ohm-m'

-244-
"
Rw Determination
+ Rw
(%)
Sands (Q m)
Carbonates
3

4
3

4
~.
(Qm)
50

5 5 30

6 20
6
sw
7 (%)
7 2000 10 100
8 8
1000 90
9 9 80
10 2 500 5 Aw 70
10 4 (Qm)
11 60
11 12 5 200 3 1.0
12
14
14 I
,:;
E
10 100
e
2 0.5
50
45
16 40
16 18
s 20 50 ~
0.2
35
u- a: 0.1 30
18 20 ?: 50 20 . 0.05
20 22 :~ 100 10
:~ 25
22
24
26
13
:,
'O l
a:
0.5
0 .4 0.02
20
24
26
28
8
e: 200 5 ., 0.3 0.01
30 2
28 "'2 500 2 >- 0.2 15
30 35 >-
1000
34 40
38 2000 0.5 0 .1 10
40
5000 0.2
o.62+-2 ''=F+- 2 0.05
10,000 0.1 0.04
0.03
0.02

ConductivityDerived Porosity (CDP) 0.01

Determination R.,,...
CDP - - - -- -- - - - - - - - - - - (Q m)

Example

A sandstone has a porosity of 24 % and

R, = 3.0 Qm; Rw = 0.02 Q m
Water Zones: Oil/ Gas Zones: Find: Rw, = 0.225 Q m
Sw=30%

Note: Conductivity-derived porosity is valid

only when Rwa = Rw.

Fig. 6-12 - Chart for converting Rwa to Sw

Severa( years ago, R mfa traces were recorded with the ( 1) lf Rll'a == R 1110 or Rwa < R 1110 , shallow invasion
Rwa information. The R mfa trace was used as a check for occurred, and the Rwa estimates of producibility are
invasion, productivity index, and flushing, if the mud was probably accurate.
not salt-saturated. Apparent mud-filtra te resistivity (R ,J
11
is determine d by
(2) If R wa > 3 Rll'and R 111 0 > R111, this confirms the Rwa
indication of producibl e hydrocarbo ns.

(3) If R ,,,0 == R 111 and Rw < Rwa ~ R,,,, deep invasion

where Rxo values are from a microresistivity device.
However, many of the quick-loo k traces used are shal-
low-resistivity measurements (e.g., short normal). Com-
parisons of the Rwa and R 11 ,a curves led to the fo llowing
interpretative conclusions:
is suspected , and favorable Rwa values should be
further investigated.
The Rwa method is considered an Archie approach to sat-
uration because poros ity and resistivity values are used .

-245 -
The Rwa to R ,,10 comparison is comparable to the resistiv- The separation between the deep and shallow F curves is
ity ratio methods discussed previously (Chapte r 3). an index of movable hydrocarbons, whereas the separa-
tion between the shallow F and the porosity-derived F
(acoustic data in the example) represents residual hydro-
Formation Factor Ratios as a Quick-Look Technique
carbons. A logarithmic scaler can be used to quickly est-
mate Sw by fi xing the 100% grid on the porosity-derived
A continuous computed trace can also be made that com- F trace and reading the Sw value where the deep resistiv-
pares formation factor ratios of resistivity to porosity. ity-derived F trace crosses the scaler.
The deep-resistivity measure ment is converted to F along
with the formation factor conversion from a porosity
A different approach and presentation converts the poros-
device. The deep resistivity is considered an adequate R,
ity-derived F trace to an R0 trace. The deep-resistivity
measurement and is converted to water-filled porosity,
measurement (and microresistivity data, if available)
<l>w, which in turn, is converted to Fdeep Porosity deter-
re mains as recorded. The R 0 curve is created by shifting
mined from tH (or other porosity derivations) in the
the F curve along the logarithmic grid by an a mount of
accepted local manner is converted to formation factor.
resistivity equal to Rw, thus making it an R0 trace. In
Typically, Archie's F = llf
or the Humble or equivalent
water-bearing horizons, the deep resistivity and R0 trace
conversion is used to obtain formation factor. In areas
should overlay almost exactly. If Rw is not known, the
where invasion and flushing is sufficiently deep, a
deep-resistivity and R 0 curves can be normalized in
pseudomovable ol plot is often made using an F curve
known water-bearing horizons, and Rw can then be
converted from a shallow-resistivity device (Fig. 6- 13).
calculated by knowing the value of F at the point it over-
lays a deep-resistivity curve in the water-bearing zone,
Rw = Ro/F.
DEPTH FORMATION FACTOR
SATURATION BY THE WAXMAN-SMITS
FsHALLOW SHALLOW FOCUSED LOG
0.3 1.0 10 100 1000 EQUATION
RFL
Rmf = 0.8 at BHT F = Rmf
FAC POROSITY ACOUSTILOG Theories that clay conductivity must be considered in
0.3 1.0 10 100 1000 determining saturations in shaly sands were documented
- - - , - - 1 - - -1 - - - - - - r - - - - - -,- -
F=~2 30% 10% 3%
as early as 1950. Ali clays have a negative c harge
Fo EEP DEEP INDUCTION LOG because of the imbalanced electrostatic nature of their
0.3 1.0 10 100 1000
-- - --. - - - -, - - - -r - -RLD -- r--- - crystal lattices; i.e., broken bonds around the edges of
Rw= 0.03at BHT F = Rw
silica-alumina units. Partial balance is attempted by
i adsorption on the clay surface by ions of opposite charge,
,
. . - l ~~ ...;,
'' and additional amounts of these counte r-ions form in liq-
RESIDUAL OIL uids near the clay surfaces. Cations adsorbed o n the clay
111 11 , surfaces are easily exchanged for other cations in those
~
~ FDEEP
1111
;- .
1
liquids. The amount of exchangeable ions is called the
cation exchange coefficient (CEC) and was first proposed
in 1956.92 It is typically measured in milliequivalents per
100 g of dry el ay. T he hig h conductivities of these el ay
surfaces are the result of high concentrations of counter-
ions on and near the clay surfaces. Total c harge and CEC
are independent of water salinity; however, in a highly
saline solution, the counte r-ion atmosphere is com-
,J .. pressed to the surface area of the clay lattice and causes
decreased mobility of counter-ions as well as less ability
Pseudo movable oil plot F-MOP to conduct electricity. The mechanics of CEC are respon-
Quicklock Sw scaler sible for the increased contribution of clays to conductiv-
f.
8
f. f.
o
f.
..,o o"-
oC')
f.
o ity measurements in shaly reservoir rock, and this is par-
"'r-- "' "'

F Fixon J 1 1 1

Read Sw off FIL0 curve

1 1
ticularly the case in fresh or brackish connate waters.

AL curve The CEC correlation originally proposed was modified

by Waxman and Smits 2 1 in 1968 and again by Waxman
Fig. 6-13 - Pseudo-moveable oil plots can be constructed from and Thomas 2 11 in 1974 to extend the concept to hydrocar-
ratios of recorded or manually constructed F curves. bon-bearing shaly sand reservoirs. Waxman and Smits

-246-
-.
compare d resistivity ratio to S,v, water conductivity, and
CEC per unit pore volume,
.-:::.s 2+ BQ
C Experimental data have shown that the CEC of clay is
C = __v S
t F w F w directly related to the clay's capacity to adsorb and hold
where F and Sw are values related to total interconnected
pore space.
The previous equation is included in many compute d log
anaJysis programs today and is regarded by sorne as the
benchma rk saturation equation in shaly sand reservoirs.
Simply stated, the Waxman-Smits equation requires that
connate water resistivity be corrected for the contribution
to conductivity from clay (function of counter-ions in
contact with clays and equivalent conduct ance of clay
exchang e cations as a function of Rw) -
Another term, Qv, was introduced as a value of reservoi r
rock representing CEC per pore volume,
CEC values are measured from core samples. Typically,
clastic reservoir rocks are heterogeneous and extensive
sampling for CEC and Qv analysis is required. It is time
consumi ng, tedious, and expensive. Severa! attempts
have been made to correlate CEC and Q" measurements
with specific (sometim es combine d) well logging param-
eters. The correlations are meant to provide a continuo us
computa tion of CEC and Q11 values in given horizons,
geological strata, or local areas.
A number of attempts have aJso been made to estmate QJ.'
using the SP curve, 18898 gamma ray curve, io7 . io4 .9ls
dielectric constant, 104 reservoir~orosity, 100-99-98 , 104,95 . 114
gamma ray-reservoir porosity, 8 clay composition-reser-
voir porosity,31 clay properties-reservoir porosity,99 - 100
and natural gamma ray spectroscopy. 75 A proposed CEC
determination from laboratory measure ments of adsorbed
water on shaly samples 28 established a correlation between
CEC and the quantity of water adsorbed by the surface of
clay minerals at 40% to 50% relative humidity.
Another experimental relationship between the amount
of bound water (Bw), equilibrium solution salinity, and
CEC was developed in salinities ranging from 13 gal/liter
NaCI to saturated solutions.92 Bw and CEC were linear at
constant salinities, passed through the origin of the two-
paramet er crossplot, and exhibited a slope egua! to
0.084 c0 0 -5 + 0.22 . CEC can therefore be derived from
the equation
CEC = B /0.084 C
w o
-O.\ 0.22
Qv, which represents CEC per total pore vol u me, can
then be calculated as
-247-
Qv =
l <j> - IJ /
8 wq> 1
l 0.084C 0
-O+0.22
5 ) .
water. Montmorillonite clays have the highest CEC
values and the greatest capacity to adsorb water. Kaolinite
and chlorite have very low CEC, and their capacity to
adsorb water is low. The Baker Atlas lag analysis soft-
ware uses these experimental relationships to resolve Sw
from the Waxman-Smits equation.
DUAL-WATER MODEL
Another common ly used saturation equation suggests
that a water-saturated shaly sand formation behaves as
though it contains two types of water: water near the clay
(bound water, Bw) and water removed from the clay sur-
faces (free water, Fw)- Free and bound water are said to
behave as conducto rs in a parallel electrical circuit; 33
therefore, the true water conductivity is
e w -- e Fw . 'l'eff ; ,1,'!' + e Bw -'l'Bw ; 'l't
,h ,1,
,h
The equation can also be written in terms of resistivity,
Freewater <Fw) resistivity is determined by conventional
methods in clean, water-bearing reservoirs. R w is more
8
difficult to determine because R , among other factors,
0
depends on Qv .lf selected R8 w values result in hydrocar-
bon saturations occurring in zones consider ed I 00%
shale, R 8 w is probably too low. If Sw values exceed
100%, R8 w is probably too high.
From a practica) log analysis standpoint, there is little
argumen t that the influences of water conductivity in
shaly reservoi r rocks must be considered in saturation
calculations.
Severa) years ago, salinity comparisons of interstitial
water in shales and adjacent sands were made and typi-
cally demonst rated low salinity in the shale. 67 181 Severa)
laboratory experiments showed that mineralization of
solutions expelled from shale decrease d progressively as
overburden pressure increased. As a result, concentra-
tions of interstitial solutions from shales are expected to
be lower than the free water around and between the sand
grains. Oil production from reservoirs surround ed by
overpressured shale sequenc es has shown that produce d
waters demonst rate decreasi ng salinity with time. This
may be caused by an influx of fresher waters from the
shales.
"
INDONESIAN MODEL crosslinkage of the two networks, as suggested sorne 20
years earlier. 49 -50 A simplified version usually provides
This saturation model is not restricted to Indonesia but adequate Sw results if Vc1 does not exceed 50%,
acquired the name because of the geographical locale to
which it was first adapted. 163 At the time, Sw results in
Indonesian shaly sand reservoirs were often over- e 2+ [ 2
C = ____:!!_5 e w vsh esh )S 2+ V C S 2.
t F 11 F 1r sh sh w
estimated. lt was recognized that severa] parameters
affect true resistivity (R1) - total effective porosity (<l>e),
As with any saturation equation, the accuracy of input
connate water resistivity (R w), water saturation (Sw), clay
content (Vc1), and clay resistivity (Rc1) - Earlier laboratory values <!> , Vc1, Rc1, R, Rw ,a, m, and n must be within a cer-
tain tolerance.
efforts of severa] investigators had shown that R1 - Sw
relationships were affected mostly by the contribution of
clay. The conductive influence of the clay affected not SATURATION DETERMINATION IN
only Vc1 and Rc1 but also Sw. LOW-SALINITY RESERVOIRS

Severa! R1 - Sw equations were investigated by making Most reservoir rocks contain saline connate waters, and
frequency crossplots of Vc1 estimates and computed S 11, their saturations are determined with deep-resistivity
values. The quality of the Sw results was assumed satis- measurements that effectively segregate water-bearing
factory if water-bearing formations exhibited a concen- zones from those that contain oil or gas. When low-salin-
tration of Sw values near 100% (allowing slight, statisti- ity formation waters occur, the deep-resistivity device
cal scatter above and below the 100% value) over the begins to record high values because there are few, if any,
entire range of Vc1 values. Points corresponding to water- dissolved salts present, and water-bearing horizons
bearing formations should delineate a clear vertical trend appear similar to adjacent oil-bearing horizons on the
centered on 100% Sw (Fig. 6-14), and horizons contain- resistivity log.
ing hydrocarbons should exhibir data substantially lower
than 100% Sw.
Quite often, high- and low-salinity reservoirs are sand-
100.-------------.----------, wiched together. Even with a knowledge of Rw in many
of the zones, it remains difficult to segregate those hori-
90
zons that will produce oil from those that produce only
80 fresh water. In sorne areas, sands containing fresh water
70 are interspersed with sands containing highly saline
-60 water, and either may be intermixed with oil. In addition,
~
!?...-
>,
50 many older fields have undergone waterflood to enhance
~ 40 oil production, and the injected waters may have been of
>
30 low salinity.
20
10 A measuring method less dependent on water salinity
o.____,__,__.........__...._..........._-'-='-...._~....,___ _ _ _ __, was needed in order to reconcile the problem, and dielec-
O 15 30 45 60 75 90 100 % tric measurements were developed for this purpose.
Sw(%)---+
Except for water, mosr of the components of sedimentary
rocks have very low dielectric constants (Table 6-2).
Fig. 6-14 - Crossplot of computed results demonstrates a clear
vertical trend at high Vclay content in water-bearing intervals. Fresh water and salt water also demonstrate large differ-
ences in permittivity (E). Electromagnetic waves propa-

l
gated through homogeneous media experience amplitude
The best results were obtained with a very complicated attenuation, and by comparing the amount of attenuation
to wave velocity, dielectric constant and conductivity can
equation, [ 2_ v
e e v ,,. e be determined. A long-spaced-to-short-spaced receiver
C = ____:!!_5 2+ 2 w sh sh S2+ V2 - 1-;,,C S2. amplitude ratio decreases as attenuation increases. The
1 F w F w sh sh w
phase angle shift (degrees) between two receivers
increases as propagation time increases and varies
The idea expressed is that conductivity of shaly forma- inversely with velocity. Atlas tools were modeled sepa-
tions depends on three terms, two of which are the con- rately, based on sonde frequency and transmitter-to-
ventional conductive network of clays (Ve/ - Rc1) and the receiver spacing. Both models arise from Maxwell's elec-
porosity-formation water network (R 1 - Rw)- The third tromagnetic equations ( 1873), modified for well logging
tenn represents the additional conductiviry resulting from environments. 155,97

-248-
..
TABLE 6-2 - Dielectric Constants and Propagation Times
for Several Commonly Encountered Materials

Propagation Time, tp1 (ns/m)

Dielectric Log
er 47MHz 200 MHz 47MHz Receiver
Electronics
Gas 1.0 3.3 3.3
Oil 2.0-2.4 4.7- 5.2 4.7 - 5.2 Fresh Mud Borehole
20Q m Water 79.0 29.6 28.6
1 Q m Water 77.0 52.3 35.0
0.1 Q m Water 59.0 146.3 73.4
Sandstone 4.65 7.2 7.2
Limestone 7.5- 9.2 9.1 -10.2 9.1-10.2
Dolomite 6.8 8.7 8.7
Anhydrite 6.35 8.4 8.4
Shale 5.0-25.0 7.5- 16.7 7.5-16.7 Undisturbed
Formation
Frequency-dependent approximate values
Approximate values
Transmitter
Coil --..,.-.-;...++- +e:.~
... . .-,.. . . .. . .
where E0 =8.854x10-12 farads/m
Transmitter
E=dielectric constan! (farads/m) Electronics

Schematic diagram of 47 MHz dielectric

Baker Atlas offers dielectric logs at frequencies of 200 logging instrument in a wellbore.
and 47 MHz (Fig. 6-15). The 200-MHz pad device can be
run in highly conductive formations (= 3000 mmhos); it
has a vertical resolution of 3 in. (7 .6 cm) and a depth of
investigation of 5 in. ( 12.7 cm). The 47-MHz mandrel
device is restricted to formations having conductivities Dielectric Log
200 MHz
less than = 200 mmhos (> 5 ohm-m). It has a vertical res-
olution of 8 in. (20.3 cm) and depth of investigation of 5 Transmitter &
Decentralizer Receiver Electronics
to 10 in. ( 12.7 to 25.4 cm). The tool differences permit
the 200-MHz device to be used as a shallow-reading tool.
The 47-MHz device reads somewhat deeper, and a com-
bination of the two measurements allows estimates of lnvaded Zone
invasion and movable hydrocarbons. Investigation is
deep enough to minimize the affects of mudcake and
Measures
borehole signa! and to recognize sorne essential forma- primarily in
tion properties. Vertical resolution is excellent for both Receivers flushed zone
devices, allowing interpretative problems encountered in - {when deeply
thinly bedded reservoirs to be resolved. In addition, invaded

dielectric measurements can be performed in oil-based

mud, and the 200-MHz device is an effective indicator of
movable hydrocarbons (Rxo type measurement ) in wells
drilled with oil-based fluids.

Undisturbed
Formation dielectric constant or permittivity (e) is influ-
Formation
enced by temperature and salinity, but in the ranges com-
monly encountered, the effects are not serious. The
dielectric constant (e) is a measure of a material's ability Schematic diagram of 200 MHz dielectric
to be polarized in an electric field. Resistivity values are logging instrument in a wellbore.
calculated from measurements of velocity and attenua-
tion of the high-frequency electromagnetic waves propa-
Flg. 6-15 - Baker Atlas Logging Services dielectric tools
gated through the formation.

-249-
The 47-MHz too! propagates its high-frequency waves
through the formation where velocity alteration and
attenuation occur. Wave velocity is found by measuring
the phase difference between the signals at the tool's two
receivers. Attenuation is determined from the ratio of far
and near receiver signa) amplitudes. A primary measure-
ment is propagation time (tp) , derived from the phase
difference measurement and related inversely to the
velocity (Fig. 6-16). Log data are presented (labeled) as
ratio of voltage measured at the far receiver to voltage at
the near receiver (R2AT), resistivity (R2SL), measured
propagation time (T2PL), computed dielectric constant
(D2EC), and phase shift in degrees (P2HS). The number
2 in labeled curves denotes 200-MHz data; the 2 is
replaced with a 4 when the data are from the 47-MHz
device. The equation used to calculate tpl is
9
tpl = [0/ (360) (/) (L)] . 10
Phase angle (0) is divided by a constant value of 3.384 to
determine the propagation time for the 47-MHz tool. The
same method is used to determine propagation time (tp)
for the 200-MHz too), but a constant of 5.486 is used.
The different values are needed to correct for the differ-
ent too! configurations and were determined from
models. In addition to the dielectric constant (e), propa-
gation time and phase measurements can be used as an
alternate method for distinguishing hydrocarbons from
fresh formation water.
Measuring the amplitude ratio and phase shift allows
both dielectric constant and resistivity to be determined.
Instrumentation was numerically modeled, and those
charts are used by well-site computerized logging sys-
tems to process the dielectric constant (e) and resistivity
from the measured parameters (Figs. 6-17 and 6-18).
,

where

f = transmitter frequency in GHz (either 0.2

or 0.047),

L = receiver spacing in meters (either

0.0762 m for the 200-MHz too) or 0.2 m
for the 47-MHz too!),

0 = phase difference measurement in

degrees,

and
1.___..__~ - ~ -'--_..__...,.,._~~ -~-~
O 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150
Phase Degrees (47 MHz)
tpl = propagation time in nanoseconds/meter.

Fig. 6-17 - Transposed dielectric response chart (47 MHz)

"''

<~
. ,;,
100
~"r-, == > 80- Dielectrc
it:: s s: ~ Ratio Constan!
.e,,._ ~
1 1
' - e 1Fresh Water
"";; ;;:: -~ e 10
.e
~ ~I>
~ -2.
'(
.

=-- .. :i
2-
~<I)

-~ I:= >
.,
;

~ 1.0
.... ?: 5
:
Saline
Water
-.:,.._
l<'.f -::: === -? ;
(Homogeneous Case)
,: i3 =;:~
I>- :i'.. 0.1
200
o 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
_, ,.._
> ,.j 11..,
Phase Fluid Degrees (200 MHz)
,$
:. ::, ::
Fig. 6-16 - A typical presentation of a Baker Atlas Dielectric
Log Fig. 6-18- Dielectric fluid groups (200 MHz)

- 250 -
"
Porosity is calculated from dielectric measurements as For attenuation, it becomes
follows,

In either circumstance, the determined porosity (<!>) is

where water-fi lled pare space C<l>w)- Most Sw methods using
dielectric measurements assume the too! responds to
<I> DE = porosity derived from the dielectric log, hydrocarbons in the same way it responds to rock matrix.
Another assumption is that an insig nificant amount of
DEC1 = dielectric constant from the log, attenuation occurs in the matrix material.

DECma = dielectric constant of the matrix, If true porosity is compared to <l>oE, the water saturation
of the investigated zone should be given as
and

DECw = dielectric constant of the formation

water. In cases of extremely shallow invasion, the 47-MHz tool
may approach the depth of investigation needed to
tpl Saturation Technique provide a true calculation of Sw, but in most cases, its
measurement is affected by fluids in the transitional zone
Water saturation methods usi ng data from dielectric tools
encompass several formulae, but Atlas normally uses one
or both of two methods. One method is the lpt approach;
the t/J and attenuation measurements assume that a mate-
rial balance can be applied to the phase shift ancl/or atten-
uation measurements. The tpl saturation technique does 1,000,--..--- - - - - r - -- - - . - - - - - - - ,
not use porosity calculated from the dielectric log, but Dielectric Curve Fit Data
Phase Water vs. Rw
rather the porosity obtained from another source. The 200 MHz
phase-shift relationship is generally explained as

~
t pi = t pf . <p + ( 1 - <p) t pma , ;soo1 - -- --'<-- + - - - - - -+ - -- - - - 1
~
~
where Q.

tp = the propagation time from the log (ns/m),

'----- - - ~
0.01 0.1
-- - - - -'---- - ---'10
'Pf = total fluid propagation time (ns/m), and
Water Resistivity (ohm-m)

tpma = matrix propagation time (ns/m).

Water saturation may be calculated by 1,000, - --.-- - - - - .- - -- -- r - -- - - - ,

Dielectric Curve Fit Data

sw = (t pf - f
ph
) / (t pw - t ph ) '
Phase Water vs. Rw
47MHz

where t..
:;;
~5001 - - - -- - -- - ---+-------1
tp = total fluid propagation time (ns/m) .,
"'
~
Q.

tph = hydrocarbon propagation time (ns/m),

and
O' - - - - - - - ~ - - - - --'--- - -- --'
0.01 0.1 10
Water Resistivity (ohm-m)
fpw = water propagation time (ns/m).

Water propagation time (ns/m) varies with frequency and

salinity. Fig. 6-19 - Curve-lit data

- 25 1-
 o.a ---.----.--......--.-----.--......--r----,---r---r---r--.----.--,

Oielectric Constant
51 61

0.6

0.2
47MHz
Dielectric Log
0.1 Homogeneous Case
No Lithology

o
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 11 O 120 130 140
Phase Angle ()

Fig. 6-20 - 47-MHz dielectric fluid groups

of invasion (RJ On the other hand, the 200-MHz device
is probably affected by flushed zone fluids (R 111) or
transition zone fluids (R:); this depends on the depth of
flushing.
Recall that both dielectric tools read frorn as little as 3 in.
(7 .6 cm) to as far as IO in. (25.4 cm) away frorn the bore-
hole. Occasionally, the flushed zone (Rx0 ) is being rnea-
sured, and the 200-MHz dielectric log can be said to pro-
vide a flushed zone saturation (Sx0 ). Sorne idea of the
depth of invasion and invasion profile is necessary in
order to ascertain the particular zone frorn which a satu-
ration value is obtained. In rnany cases, a pseudo-Sxo or
pseudo-S11 , calculation is rnade. This is thc rnost disturb-
ing factor of dielectric saturation calculations.
Calculation of Phase Water (P w) from Rw
If connate water resistivity (RII') is known, phase water
(?111) can be calculated frorn an ernpirical equation or
deterrnined by a chart (Fig. 6- 19). Plotting the hydro-
carbon, freshwater, and saltwater fluid groups on the
rnodeled charts (Fig. 6-20) readily segregates ali three
groups. The curved line connecting the freshwater and
saltwater fluid points forrns a water line; i.e., any water
points fall on that line regardless of salinity. Conversely,
fluid points falling away frorn the line indicate less water
saturation and more hydrocarbon saturation as the dis-
tance frorn the water line increases. A crossplot of resis-
tivity vs. phase angle can be rnodeled by transposing the
resistivity (conductivity) and arnplitude ratio curves
(Figs. 6-2 1 and 6-22).
Cornbining both the resistivity and phase angle algo-
rithrns for water salinity and ternperature suggests a rela-
tionship between phase angle and water resistivity
(Figs. 6-23 and 6-24). Curve-fitting techniques reduce
slight errors that norrnally occur when cornbining two
different algorithrns and give a one-to-one correspon-
dence between R11, and phase angle (Figs. 6-25 and 6-26).
A second polynomial curve fit has the forrn
1/RII' = aP.} + bP1, , + e,
where
R 111 is the connate water resistivity (ohrn-rn),
P.., is the phase water value (degree),
and
a, b, e are constants obtained separately for the 47-
MHz and 200-MHz devices and provide high cor-
relation coefficients (Table 6-3).

- 252-
 Homogeneous Medium Dielectric

',,11
20 ~,
1
40 60 80 Dielectric Constan!
47MHz

0.6 Amplitude Ratio t.- Temp F

.s '~, 300
1 1 ~5001 - - - -- -1_00_...,.._ _ _ _ _- + - - - -- - - ;
0.5 1
.,
::i
.e
a.

o.__ ______._______,_______ ~

15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 0.01 0.1 10

Phase Degrees (47 MHz) Water Resistivity (ohm-m)

Fig. 6-21 - Transposed dielectric response chart (47 MHz) Fig. 6-24 - Phase water values from Aw and temperature
(47 MHz)

1.000 ~ ~ -- -- ~ - - - - - - ~ - - - - -~

Dietectric Curve Fil Data

Phase Water vs. Rw
200 MHz
E

.e
101---jl--::--'lc-=i- -:--+--'=i--i,c:;1:::- + - -tt- + - - 1
2. :
a;
f;;; ~ 5001 - - - - -->,--- + - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - - J
.,
;;
5l
'; 1.01 - - t - - t - - t - - - t - - + --=,;...::""-ct:"-::f"'c"- 'ic-- - i ~
a.
s Salina
: Water
(Homogeneous Case)

0.1 ' - - ~ - ~ - ~- ~ - ~ -~ - ~ - ~ - ~ - ~
O 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
~-----~-
0.01 0.1
-- ---_,_-- - - -~ 10
Phase Fluid Degrees (200 MHz) Water Resistivity (ohm-m)

Fig. 6-22 - Dielectric fluid groups (200 MHz) Fig. 6-25 - Curve-lit data (200 MHz)

1,000 \1 1,000 ~ - - , - - - - - - , - - - - -- - ~ -- -----,

Dielectric
~-~
, 200 MHz Dielectric Curve Fit Data
Phase Water vs. R w
t,.. 47MHz
,.
\',

- \

.,
~500 1-- - - - ----- - - - - -- + - - - - - -~
5l
~
a.

...... _. .__--=--======
O~ - - - - - ~ -- - - --_,_----- -~ O'------~ ---- - -_,_- - - - -~ 10
0.01 0.1 10 0.01 0.1
Water Resistivity (ohm-m) Water Resistiv,ty (ohm-m)

Fig. 6-23 - Phase water values from Aw and temperature Fig. 6-26 - Curve-fil data (47 MHz)
(200 MHz)

- 253 -
Phase Angle (<1>) and Sw Determination Method
The material balance equation relating phase angle to
S11 is also used for pulsed neutron logs and for clean
formations; i.e.,
P = Pma (l -<jl) + Pq>,
Combining the previous equations that solved for Pw
and/or Rw, phase material balance solution for Sw, and
Archie Sw provides a method to crossplot phase fluid vs.
fluid resistivity. Use of 011/y the fluid values eliminares
the effects of lithology and porosity. Excellent resolution
is provided at higher resistivities (]ow salinity), but the
usefulness of the charts diminishes at higher salinities.

where Empirical Fluid Resistivity vs. Phase Fluid Method

P = phase angle (degree), for Saturation Determination

P111a = phase matrix value (degree), Field experience with crossplotted data indicates less con-
vergence at higher salinities than originally expected anda
P = phase fluid value (degree), model was developed empirically (Fig. 6-27). Divergence
in the low-resistivity area of the chart is thought to be the
and resull of geometric spreading factors causing electromag-
<1> = porosity (%). netic waves to be less planar; i.e., pore geometry varia-
tions, dielectric loss in higher conductivity, etc.
In terms of water saturation (S11,), the equation becomes

P = P111a ( 1- q>) + P...,. Sw q> + Ph ( 1 - Sw) q>,

where
Pw = phase water value (degree)

and

P, = phase hydrocarbon (degree).

TABLE 6-3
Phase Water vs. Water Resistivity Curve-Fit Constants

Constants 47MHz 200 MHz

200 PWLA = 283
Phase Fluid
a 4.0237 X 10-S 6.3926 X 1o-S

b 0.001232 0.004751
Fig. 6-27 - Dielectric empirical constan! exponen! model exam-
e -0.47696 -2.2677 ple (200 MHz)

Since the phase fluid value is A simplified calculation method uses fluid resislivity to
estmate an apparent phase-water (Pwa) line by rearrang-
P =[P - P111a(l-q>)]lq>, ing the P w equation given earlier,

the Sw solution can be simplified as

Pwla = { [b 2 - 4a (e - l!R)]112 - b) / 2a,
Sw = (P- P1,) / (Pw - P,).
where
Considering dielectric logs, the Archie Sw used with
resistivity logs can be applied as follows, Pwla = apparent phase water line calculated from
fluid resistivity, assuming the zone is wet.

The phase fluid-to-phase water line ratio, PI Pwla, pro-

where RoE is the dielectric resistivity. Dielectric fluid vides a saturation estmate,
resistivity (R) can be calculated from the relation
R= RoE / F, where F is the formation factor; therefore,
the Archie S11, is simplified for dielectric logs toread
where np is the empirical phase saturation exponent and
ranges from I to 3.

-254-
-,.
The 200-MHz tool example (Fig. 6-27) uses values of
np = 2, R = 0.24, Pwla = 283, and P= 200, and yields
Shale compone nts are added as necessary . If S is
111
assumed to be 100%, the equation reduces to

Sw = (200/283) 2 = 50%. "'

'l'phs = (P-P ma )/(P w -P
111a
) '

where the phs subscript is used only to distinguis h calcu-

If Papproa ches Pwla S,v approach es 100% . Field experi-
lated q> values and not to define true porosity values. ln a
ence indicates np values are > 2 in higher conductiv ity
hydrocarb on-bearin g interval, <l>ph~ will likely be less
zones. Compute r programs automatic ally compensa te for
changes in phase saturation compone nt as a function of than true porosity.
conductiv ity. Saturation charts for this method are also
available (Figs. 6-28 and 6-29). Data from actual field Therefore ,
results are shown in Figs. 6-30 and 6-31.

Salinity Determination
dcpendin g on the depth of investigat ion of the tool used
and depth of invasion. Typical phase values are listed in
Phase water value (P ,,) is determine d by rearrangin g the Table 6-4.
phase angle material balance equation and by using the
previousl y obtained empirical Sw data.

E
E
'.
~ 1
::;;

~
1
z-
~
; 0.1
Q)
a:
""5
:
0.01 '----'--'----'-_ _,__~...___J __,__ __,__ _..__..__~__,_ __,
100 200 300 400 500 o 100 200 300 400 500
Phase Fluid Degrees (47 MHz) Phase Fluid Degrees (200 MHz)

Fig. 6-28- Simplified empirical dielectric analysis (47 MHz)

Fig. 6-30 - Simplified dielectric analysis (200 MHz)

E 1O 30 50 70 90 100 Water Saturation (%)

E
.e
~

~ lf--...\--Jl,-.\ -----'......,.A f--- - - 4 - - - - 1 - - - ~

8 ....
"'1 "'1
-~ z-
> :~
~ o.1t-- ---t- __c,.,-t-__::,......_-:::?-~2::"~~::::;;;::::::::---1
Q)
-~ 0 .1
a: Q)
a:
""
5 ""
5
: :

0.01 L-----1--L--'- -'--...J._-"---' ----'---'--'--'- -..J...._J.._J, ___J'-----'

100 200 300 400 500 o 100 200 300 400 500
Phase Fluid Degrees (200 MHz) Phase Fluid Degrees (47 MHz)

Fig. 6-29 - Simplified empirical dielectric analysis (200 MHz)

Fig. 6-31 - Simplified dielectric analysis (47 MHz)

-255-
 TABLE 6-4 - Phase Values for Sorne Common Materials The dielectric material balance equation can be rewritten
as
Typical Phase Values
Material (200 MHz) (47 MHz)

Air/Gas 12 6
Oil 26-37 16-22 Then an exponent w is introduced as w =m =n, and thus
Fresh Water (25C) 160 100 the material balance equation can be combined with an
Salt Water
41
Archie equation to become
Sand 25
Lime 52 32
Dolomite 48 30 SXOn MIi _ (S . ,.)w _ (t!. )w _
'I' - XO '!' - 't'phs -

Simplified Shale Corrections

Throw away the unnecessary parts, and it becomes

Obtaining effective Sw values in shaly reservoirs
requires a shale correction to dielectric logs. One method
is to provide a shale phase angle parameter to the mate-
rial balance equation,
The textura) parameter w is found by
P = Pns ( 1 - Vs,) + P sh Vsh ,

where
Again, assuming w =m =n, the Archie equation becomes
P = log phase value,

Psh = shale phase value from log,

P ns = phase value of ali components exclud- which means the same could be done with virgin zone
ing shale, data to provide
and

Vsh = shale volume fraction from GR or other

shale indicator. An example from the Wilcox formation in Louisiana
(U.S.A.) uses the following input data; <j) = 32%, P = 77,
Solving for P,w
R 111J = 0.5, R w = 0.04, R 1 = 7, and Rxo = 13 (from a MLL
device).

P115 is the corrected phase value after removing shale Pw was calculated using R mf to be 224, and
effect and should be used for the P value in previous Sw
equations if shaly reservoirs are encountered. <Jlp1is =77-41 /224-41 =0.198.

Determining m and n from Dielectric Data The textura) parameter w becomes

Obtaining accurate input values to resolve saturation is w = Lag (0.5113) / Lag 0.198 = 2.01.
often complicated by the petrophysical parameters m and
n, and dielectric data can be used to improve the values. The Archie equation can then be used to calculate Sw as
Again, a look at Archie's Sw relations, follows,

Sw = (Rw Jf R1) 112 = (0.04 / 0.322 7) = 24%,

or and residual saturation can be calculated as

If a is assumed to be unity, then the equations can be

rewritten as
Micro Laterolog measurements provided the Rxo value.
Measurements from the two devices agree, and therefore,

or R mf IRxo -_ Sxon. ,.111

'!' movable hydrocarbon saturation = 61 - 24 = 37%

-256-
,
DETERMINATION OF POROSITY AND
SATURATION FROM MAGNETIC
RESONANCE LOGS (MRL)
Since the late 1950s, measurements from magnetic reso-
nance tools have been sought in order to resol ve reservoir
parameters of Sw, <!>, residual oil saturation (S0 r), and
permeability (k). Such tools are one of severa! openhole
logging methods to estimate reservoir saturation.
Magnetic resonance tools are designed to measure free
movement of proton nuclear magnetic moments in the
earth's magnetic field. A very strong DC polarizing mag-
netic field (Hp) is directed into the formation and is
designed to aligo the spinning protons as nearly as possi-
ble to an axis perpendicular to the earth's magnetic field
(HE)- A characteristic time constant for the spin polariza-
tion is called spin-lattice relaxation time (T 1). Full polar-
ization requires about five times T 1 for the polarizing
field to be affected. Following polarization, the too! is
quickly turned off. Since the spins cannot follow such a
sudden change, the protons are momentarily abandoned
in a state of alignment (H- The Larmor frequency (f L =
y HE) describes the proton movement about the earth's
magnetic field, and y is the term describing the gyro-
magnetic ratio of the proton (y = 4.2576 x I o3 Hz/G).
Depending on the geographical location, Larmor fre-
quency vares from 1,300 to 2,600 Hz. A pickup coil with
sinusoidal signa! frequency (f) is included in the spin
operation and has an amplitude proportional to the
number of protons in the formation. Lack of HE homoge-
neity causes the spins to dephase and result in an expo-
nential decaying sine wave with time constan! T2 and
frequency f L
Measurements include evaluations of parameters of
interest to formation evaluation specialists, including res-
ervoir engineers; i.e.,
Effective porosity, <l>e (%)
Irreducible water saturation, Sw (%)
Residual oi l saturation, S0 r (%)
Heavy oil recognition
Estimate of permeability, k
One of the principal measurements is free fluid index
(FF[), the volume of free fluid that is not bound electri-
cally or chemically to the clay lattice, to rock surfaces, or
to sorne other mineral lattice. This includes free oi l and
water but excludes irreducible water; therefore,
or because Sxo + S0 ,. = 1,
-257 -
Sw is found by comparing FF! to<!>,
S.., = 1 - (FF//<j>).
FF! can be compared to <l>e, and since it is not affected by
water bound to matrix lattice, it is an effective <!> device in
hydrated minerals (gypsum, carnalite, polyhalite).
While other logs provide data from which to infer satura-
tion values, MRL devices directly sense S0 r and the logs
do not rely on the accuracy of petrophysical parameters
and other input to an equation. Until recently, magnetic
resonance tools required that drilling fluid be "doctored"
with paramagnetic ions to ensure invading mud filtrate is
paramagnetic. This procedure reduces relaxation time so
that FFI measurements respond only to the residual oil in
the flushed zone (S0 r <j>). A newer version of the MRL
too! does not require the drilling fluid to be "doctored"
artificially. It is necessary, however, to displace high-
salinity drilling fluids with fresher mud prior to logging.
MRL devices have been used effectively to identify
hcavy oil for more than 20 years. The instrument
responds to the heavy eructe as a solid (little to no FF! log
response), and any FF! signa! indicates free water in the
formation because viscosity of water is < 1 cp, and the
viscosity of the heavy eructes is severa) hundred centi-
poise. Formations containing this eructe and demonstrat-
ing any free water will probably produce water.
CONSIDERING THE SATURATION EXPONENT
Until now, the saturation exponent n has been discussed
only to the extent of Archie's original work more than 40
years ago. Archie relied on severa! sandstone core sam-
ples and four data sets to plot his saturation relationship
to resistivity (Fig. 6-32). The plot demonstrates why
Archie suggested that n was apparently near the value of
2. In general, the value of 2 has been reasonably well
accepted, but criticism was heard early on, and it contin-
ues today.
0.1Q.___ _ _ __ _ _ j _ __ _ _ _ ___:.:,,,._:,-
1 10 100
R Resistivity of Oil or Gas Sand
Ro= Resistivity of Same Sand 100% Water-bearing
R
Relation of Sto Ro
Fig. 6-32 - Archie's data sets were used to construct his
saturation relationship.
The first hint that n was more difficult to ascertain and
certainly not constant carne from work in the Soviet
87
Union that was reported by Hubert Guyod. Laboratory
results from severa! Baku sands showed n to vary from
1.64 to 4.2 (Fig. 6-33). Later, G. V. Keller investigated
rock wettability and found it to be a cause for variance in 10,000

n. 102 Keller's Bradford sand data (PA, U.S.A.) were plot-

ted as resistivity vs. water saturation and showed oil-wet
pores to exhibit completely different behavior from
water-wet pores (Fig. 6-34). Keller did find water-wet n
values to be near the value of 2.

X
(1)
'"O 10 20 50 100
E
z, Sw(%)
:~
ci
-~ 1O1 - - - - - 1 - - - - t - - - - - - - - t - + - - - - i Fig. 6-34 - Oil-wet and water-wet Bradford sands (PA. U.S.A.)
a: were found to have very difieren! saturation exponents (alter
Keller, 1953).

100
...... ......
'\ ._[1=8.0
'\ ...... _
50 i-....._
'\ ......
5 10
Sw%
20 50 100 n = 2.0 '- ....... ...... ~
'\
...... ...... ......
~.
'\
" '\ -
- ......
o
~
Fig. 6-33 - Results of laboratory saturation studies from the ...... ......
Soviet Union during the 1941 to 1948 era (reported by Guyod) '\
10 '\
'\
- 1

After finding this disturbing difference, Keller and P.H. '\

'\
Licastro made measurements on freshly drilled core 5
10 100 1,000
chips from the Bradford sand and found n results that Resistivity lndex
varied from 2 to 8 (Fig. 6-35). 116 These experiments
were not sophisticated by today's standards, but the basic Fig. 6-35 - Laboratory saturation measurements on Bradford
sand chips demonstrated the spread (alter Licastro and Keller,
results have never been questioned seriously because
1953).
time and further experiments have shown Keller's expla-
nation to be plausible for n variations in oil-wet and
water-wet rocks. Water coats the grains in water-wet res-
ervoirs, thereby providing a continuous path for ion con-
duction at any saturation. However, oil-coated grains trap
water in the middle of the pore and at low water satura-
tions; the water is separated from water in adjacent pores
(Fig. 6-36). The break in the conductive path will cause
resistivity to increase, resulting in a high value for n.

-258-
;

Further work in describing the affect of pore-size distri-

bution has been reported by K.M. Diederix a nd B.F.
Swanson.44 195 Capillary pressure data were used in both
experiments and the knees or bends of data are attributed
Water-
to grain coatings and microporosity (Fig. 6-38).
Wet
Grains

- _ .... --
.... '.:,.__:'-:.......
10L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _....L_ _ _ _ _,,,_:::.....J
Oil- 1 10 100
Wet Resistivity lndex
Grains
Fig. 638 - Data from Rotliegendes gas wells (North Sea) - SEM
inspection correlated the wells with the bend to be relatad to
microporosity (after Diederix, 1982 and Swanson, 1985).

Fig. 6-36 - Concept of water-wet and oil-wet grains
Sweeney and Jennings performed experiments on water-
wet and oil-wet carbonates. 196 While Kel ler's data showed
a sharp bend in data plots for both water-wet a nd oi l-wet
sand data, these carbonate experiments demonstrated a
bend only with the oil-wet carbonate data (Fig. 6-37). The
oil-wet carbonate data al o bent in an opposite direction
from Keller's oil-wet data in sands. Sweeney and Jennings
attributed the lack of a bend in the water-wet data to the
fact that their carbonate samples had large, well connected
pores. The two groups of oil-wet data were interpreted to
be the result of pore-size distribution.
As stated earlier, virtually all log evaluations are still per-
formed with n set at 2, while a few analysts believe n
should be set equal to m. The laboratory work with water-
wet and oil-wet samples effectively demonstrates that
oil-wet rocks often require n to be higher than 2 if more
accurate saturation and reserve calculations are to be
obtained. The expense of special core analysis is war-
ranted for effective technical and economic decisions.
Close observation shows Archie made sorne implicit
assumptions. 137
( 1) The saturation-resist ivity relation is unique; there-
fore, only one resistivity can be measured at a
given saturation.

(2) n is constant for a given porous medium.

Separate Oil-
Wet Trends
(3) Ali the brine contributes to the flow of electric
50 l------l-...,.,.r---1 1------.....:....:,i-. -..:E===--=----l curren t.

Nearly 50 years of experience and research have s hown

the rock-fluid relationship to pore saturation and resistiv-
ity is much more complicated. Few doubt that resistivity
is increased as hydrocarbon increases in comparison to
the conducti ve water in pores. Virtually ali electrical con-
\ duction relies on the transport of ions through the pore-
\
10L------ -'---~---' '---------' fi lling waters. Rocks with well-connected pore paths
1 10 100 1,000
Resistivity lndex filled with water allow the ions to flow easily, which
results in a low resistivity (R0 ). Rocks having sinuous
Fig. 6-37 - Laboratory saturation data on oil-wet and water-wet a nd constricted pore paths hinder the ion flow and result
carbonates (atter Sweeney and Jennings, 1956).
in a resistivity increase. Thus, conductivity is lessened. In
both cases, resistivity increases when nonconductive oil
or gas replaces sorne of the water.

- 259 -
The method in which fluids (or gases) are distributed in PRACTICAL WORK SESSION
pore space affects resistivity measuremenls. As a resull
Problem 1
of this conclusion, such factors as wettability, pore-size
distribution, and displacement history become importan!.
Given the values below, calculate water saturation,
Archie's assumptions are valid only whe11 the reservoir
assuming zero shale volume, and values of 11 = 2, m = 2,
a11d coreare strongly water wet.
and a = 1. Rw = 0.05 @ formation temperature.

SATURATION SUMMARY <1> (%) Sw (%)

R1

Severa( complex saturation equations have been dis- ZoneA 55 22

cussed in detail. More than 30 saturation equations have
Zone B 20 12
been proposed and reported in the literature, and virtually
ali were targeted at resolving problems in shaly sand ZoneC 220 8
analyses. Perfection has not been achieved by any of the ZoneD 8 18
numerous equations. The complicated saturation equa-
Zone E 5 10
tions are not easily sol ved manually, but high-speed com-
puter processing makes efficient use of the complex algo-
rithms. The purpose here has been to expose the analyst Problem 2
to the more common methods and the philosophical
approach behind their origin and to provide insight as to Given the values below, calculate water saturation,
why certain relations are preferred by users of log data. assuming zero shale volume, and values of 11 = 2, m = 2.
amd a = 0.81 (the Ridgefield relation). Rw = 0.12 @ fo r-
For severa( years, it has been stressed that improvements mation temperature. Then, recalculate Sw changing m to
in rock physics are needed, and that more laboratory 2.15 anda to 0.62, (the Humble relation).
modeling and less emprica! content is required. Addi-
tionally, improved boreholes usually occur when oil- Ridgefield Humble
based muds are used, but that does not necessarily R1 <1> (%) Sw (%) Sw (%)
enhance the ability to acquire certain types of log data. In
fact, it inhibits the ability to acquire sorne types of infor- Zone A 20 28
mation. Highly deviated and horizontal wells with Zone B 30
extended reach of up to 6,000 ft ( 1830 m) present new
obstacles for the science of formation evaluation. Smaller ZoneC 15 15
boreholes are planned for exploration and possibly for ZoneD 12 12
development wells downstream, and they create another
barrier that must be transcended by logging companies.
Most purchasers of log measurements have little interest Problem 3
in the hardware requirements for data acquisition, but
they do require accurate saturation results. Given the following values for input as necessary, calcu-
late Sw using ( 1) a straight Archie relationship, and then
Since its inception, scientists have been seeking alterna- (2) using the Waxman-Smits equation.
tives to Archie's equation, and although the many
attempts have not resulted in a total success, it is impor- Given: a = 0.81, m = 2.0, 12 = 2.0
tant to continue research. Therefore, as the size and Vsh = 10%, Rsh = 5 ohm-m
number of new petroleum discoveries shrinks, the chal- Rw = 0.05 ohm-m @ l 80F
lenge to measurement technology and economic commit- B= 14
ment are: R 1 = 10 ohm-m
<1>=25%
Resolving the problems of scale CEC= 16
QV = 1.27
Correlating different magnitudes of data
A generalized form of the Waxman-Smits saturation
equation is
Acquiring a better understanding of the heteroge- FxR w
neous and anisotropic nature of reservoir rocks
s \V
11=
R1 [ ( 1 + R,) B Q) / S1/
*Use the Sw value calculated from the Archie relationship.

- 260-
"
tpf
20
100 o
tpf = tQI - tE!!!!8 (1 - +)
90 + 10

80 20
15
70
30
" 15
lpw

40
tpf
lpma 10 50 Sv,(%)

' 10
60

lp1 70
5
-5
Sw = tQf - tQh
80
tpw - tph

90
t ph

100
o 10 20 30 40 50 100

Porosity, +(%)

Problem 4 Problem 5

Given the following 200-MHz log data, the necessary Given the following data, use the phase method to deter-
parameters, and the 200-MHz chart, determine tp and mine P 1.
pseudo-Sw (as the case may be).
Pma = 7.5 / 0.18227 =41
tpma = 7 .5 ns/m tpw = 85 ns/m p\V = 85 / 0.18227 =466
t pi = 17 .5 ns/m tph = 5 ns/m p
q, = 30% = 17 .5 / 0. 18227 =96
P1, = 510.1 8227 =0.3
Enter the left side of the chart with the ,,mw
value. Con- <I> = 30%
struct a straight line from tpma through the crossplot inter-
section of the q, and tpl values to find tp From the tp
value, project a line through the crossplot intersection of
lpw and lph to the right scale and read the saturation
Problem 6
answer.
Given the Problem 5 data and your answer for P,, deter-
= s\V = ___ _ _ mine saturation from the following phase equation.

-26 1 -
"
Problem 7

Given the following calculated results for q> and Sw,deter-

mine the depth intervals of water-free oil production, the
transition zone, and the oil-water contact. Indicate each
with brackets around those depth intervals.

Depth (m) <!> (%) Sw(%)

3000 23 43
3001 22 42
3002 24 38
3003 22 41
3004 24 38
3005 22 52
3006 20 58
3007 18 74
3008 19 83
3009 21 80
3010 22 78
3011 24 83
3012 23 93
3013 22 98
3014 23 101
3015 21 102
3016 23 100

Problem 8

A carbonate reservoir was drilled with salt-based rnud

(Rm= 0.06 ohrn-rn @ forrnation temperature) into a res-
ervoir that has an Rw = 0.04 ohm-m @ forrnation temper-
ature. Values of a = 1, m = 2, and n = 2 were used in the
calculations. Porosity was derived from cornpensated
density rneasurernents using a value of 2.79 for Pma
Deep induction resistivities rneasured across the reser-
voir interval range between 1O to 600 ohrn-rn. Satura-
tions from 9,810 through 9,818 feet are believed to be
transitional above an oil-water contact at 9,820 feet.
Given the following calculated results for <!> and Sw ,
describe why the Sw results rnight be in error.

Depth (ft) Apparent Re <!> (%) Sw (%)

9,800 200 10 14
9,802 600 8 10
9,804 600 6 14
9,806 100 12 17
9,808 150 10 16
9,810 500 9 10
9,812 120 8 23
9,814 15 9 57
9,816 10 10 63
9,818 9 12 56
9,820 8 10 71

- 262-
Analyzing Porosity/Saturation Results and
Estimating Permeability and Productivity 7

The saturation, porosity, and shale volume of reservoir
rocks are the values typically used to decide if a well is
productive, what the production will be, and to estmate
how much permeability exists. These parameters are
used to calculate reserves in place, and with accurate res-
ervoir data, can be extended to estmate reserves for a
large geographical area. Cl ients buy logging and inter-
pretation services to answer these questions, and it is
extremely important that the answers they receive from
log analysts are correct.
METHODS USED TO CHECK THE ANSWERS
The log of Rx0 /R1 can also be plotted against SP(Fig. 7-
2). If SP = O, the ratio Rxo/R1 should equal zero, and
points reading less than the water line should define
potential pay zones (S"' < 1). Properly scaled parallel Sw
lines can be constructed to allow quick Sw estimates.
However, streaming potential on the SP can lead to
overly optimistic estimates, and very deep invasion can
result in pessi mistic determinations. This is nothing more
than a ratio method for saturation determination; Rx0 IR1=
R,,,I Rw in water-bearing horizons, and the two data sets
will diverge in permeable oil or gas zones.

There are severa! cross checks available to ensure log

analyses are within acceptable tolerances. The most obvi-
ous is local knowledge of particular reservoirs. Industry
t
personnel familiar with a reservoir have a perception of cf
oX
the porosity and saturation range that normally occurs a:
Cl
within that particular reservoir. Obviously, saturations .2 f?_ .. __
calculated much higher than !00% are an indication of
error. If saturations in known water zones do not
1.0
approach 100%, there is also something wrong. If poros-
ity is much higher or lower than normally encountered,
the log data merit further investigation. Most errors in a
log analysis are not so readily identifiable, and crossplot SP-
methods have been devised to check results for accuracy
Fig. 7-2 - Sw can also be determined from Rxo and Rt data that
and clarity. are crossplotted vs. SP, and the results can be compared to con-
ventional saturation results.
Rw and Sw Determination

In water-bearing horizons, Sw and S,w should always be
equal to 100%; therefore, RmIRw = RxolR1 and a plot of
log R,w vs. log R1 allows calculation of a water line
(Fig. 7-1). Values that depart from 100% water should
fall below the water line. This technique works best when
R,,,> Rw and formation water salinity does not vary con-
siderably with depth. Values less than the water line can
also be calibrated for Sw .
Rwa versus Gamma Ray
In many cases, a crossplot of computed Rwa values vs.
gamma ray deflections will approximate the Rw value
despite shaliness variations. The water line will extend
from the "clean" gamma ray value and Rw through the
shales (Fig. 7-3). Hydrocarbon-be aring intervals wi ll plot
above the line.

log Rwa versus SP

1
o / This technique defines the Rw value on either a straight
X /
a: line or curve. Curves are found in intervals where salinity
Cl / Assume: Sxo = Sw0.2
.2 / gradually vares with depth, such as encountered across
/ Then:
A RxofRt = (RmIRw) (SwlSxcl2
unconformities or in overpressured zones (Fig. 7-4).
/ < Sw = (Rmt/Rw) (Sw1 .6)
/ log <j> versus log R,
/
logRt-
Archie's equation can be rewritten as
Fig. 7-1 - Sw can be determined from !he crossplot and com-
pared to conventional saturation results. R1 = function of 111, F, Rw, n, S11, .

- 263 -
,

,f'e,,.
"1-..e\ /
<1> =100% ....
~~/ j.
/
/

/,e.?,.,
1
Hydrocarbon Sw= (Ro/Rt)n

l Effect

/
/
/

1 /
,,. ,,. Shaly Sands
log Rt ..

Rw Fig. 7-5 - Pickett plots are also useful in clarifying conventional

- an Sand (Sw = 1.0)
/ log analysis results.
/

GammaRay - Ringle Plots

Fig. 7-3 - Confirmation of Rw accuracy in shaly sands can be
made by crossplotting Rwa vs. gamma ray. The Hingle plot can be used in the same manner as the
Pickett plot to cross-check answers with the values used
in the original computation of log data.

Many companies use either Pickett or Hingle plots for

quality control. When a few sets of well data have estab-
lished a pattern (R 1 vs. <!>) in a given reservoir, a master
plot is used for comparison to the plotted data on new

l ~
wells as they are logged.

a:
C)
.2
Positive o Negative
SP-Value-
Fig. 7-4 - A crossplot of log Rwa vs. SP can also be used to
confirm Rw values used in conventional analysis.
The log-log crossplot defines the water line (S11, = 1) by
the lowest resistivity data if porosity and water salinity
remain constant (Fig. 7-5). The slope of the water line
defines the m exponent, and the intersection of the line
with 100% porosity defines Rw. Points plotting to the
right of the water line should be hydrocarbon bearing.
The plots can be made with acoustic, density, or density-
neutron crossplot data. This plot is simply a standard
Pickett plot being used to clarify the results. If a known
Rw is used, the water line should intersect at the proper
value. The a and m values shou ld be approximately the
same as those used in the original analysis.
Movable Hydrocarbons
Archie's saturation equation applies to saturation deter-
mination in the flushed zone as well as the virgin reser-
voir. If the proper log measurements are available,
flushed zone saturation (S_w) can be determined. Cross-
plots of log Sw vs. log Sxo characterize the amount of
flushing from filtrate invasion (Fig. 7-6).
Basically, S_w = S1/ when x = l, and there has been no
flushing of movable hydrocarbons. lf x = 0.15 to 0.2,
extensive flushing, high permeability, light ol, or an
overbalanced mud system can be the cause. Saturation
results of the movable ol plot (MOP) interpretation tech-
nique are known to be very sensitive to drilling mud, res-
ervoir rock characteristics, and Rxo Nevertheless, log
evaluation methods can be evaluated using the plot of
log Sxo vs. log Sw to check flushing efficiency. The
importan! point of the plot "after processing" is that data
should fall within the limits illustrated (Fig. 7-6).
Tabular Lists of the Processed Log Data
Whether log analysis is manual or computerized, a list of
the calculations should be made. Sw values should never
exceed 100%, but sorne statistical limit (3% to 5%) can
be tolerated. Flushed zone saturation lists should also
show a statistical limit within 3 to 5 percentage points of

- 264-
 (2) What is the gross and net pay thickness?
Water Point
Sw=Sxo=1.o

.... --- ---

--- ------
)()(::0.2
S)(o== Sw '.------
-------

/ /
/
---
/
/
(3)

(4)
What is the average saturation and average poros-
ity of each potential pay zone?

Are the zones sufficiently permeable?

/

(5) What will the zones produce?

u:i:~;y /:: /

t
o
X
/ +-
/ 0~
/ //
/.+ Unfortunately, the numbers game is often implemented
in too many areas. As an example, Sw = 50% is often used
(/)
/ //
Ol as a cutoff value. The assumption is that any zone where
.2 / 0+
/ Sw>50% is water productive and any zone with Sw<50%
/
/ is hydrocarbon productive. Be suspicious of such home-
/
/ spun rules. Experience in many areas and particular res-
/
/ ervoirs may empirically define certain q> and Sw values as
I/
cutoffs, but the source and validity of those numbers
logSw - - should always be suspect until proveo otherwise.
Fig. 7-6 - Crossplots of log Sw vs. log Sxo to determine flushing
efficiency as well as checking the accuracy of exponentials used Oil company management needs answers to the five
in saturation calculations questions in order to weigh technical positives and nega-
tives against economics. A simple quote of q>, Sw, and
ner thickness values is futile because the oil company
manager needs figures on reserves, potential recovery,
100% in porous and permeable water-bearing zones. In and the monetary value of porential production vs. cost
those water-bearing horizons, Sw == 100%; therefore, S.w es timates.
values should also approximate 100%.
Sw versus q> to Determine Sw
lf Rw , formation temperature, a, m, and n values, and q>
are accepted as accurate, the analyst should look else- Having determined and accepted values of q> and S 11, , rec-
where for error and determine if the correct deep resisti v- ognize that a reservoir at irreducible water saturation will
ity device was used. No too! truly measures R1 lf R,,, = produce no water, but zones in transition will produce
R11, or R,,,< Rw ,an induction device will virtually always sorne water (Fig. 7-7). The value of Sw and the volume of
be pessimistic because the tool is strongly influenced by pore space have a large effect on the amount of water
the conductive column of borehole fluid. Results might produced from transition zones.
be relatively accurate at 100% S11 ,,but they will be exces-
sively pessimistic in hydrocarbon- bearing ho1izons. lf a given rock type remains relatively consistent but
demonstrates a variation in porosity, a crossplot of S 11
On the other hand, if a laterolog device was used (same and q> data will form a hyperbola if the reservoir is at
R,,, and Rw conditions), it may be somewhat inaccurate irreducible conditions (Fig. 7-7), or data that fall within
in the water-bearing zones because the laterolog "seeks" tolerable limits of a hyperbola represent those depths that
resistive rather than conductive events. Below I ohm-m, are at S;w Log-derived S11, can be determined in granular
the laterolog measurement is often 0.1 to 0.2 ohm-m opti- rocks based on the relationship <!> S;w if the grain size is
mistic, and S11, values may have to be adjusted to force consistent. The hyperbola is defined by the hyperbolic
Sw = 1. This slight adjustment seldom causes any sub- equation,
stantial change in the pay zones (e.g., 30 ohm-m might be
adjusted to 30.2 ohm-m). C = function of (<!> S;w),

INTERPRET ATION OF RESULTS where

C = constant for a particular intergranular

Once satisfied that porosity and saturation of potentially
rock type and grain size.
productive intervals are adequately defined, other ques-
tions remain to be answered.
A geological horizon yielding <!> and S w data that fall
along such a hyperbolic pattern will produce no water,
( 1) Which zones will produce? only oil and/or gas.

-265 -
 30

28

26
Water Cut= O
1~
(Water Free Hydrocarbon
Production)
24
:::,
(/) 22
~ Above Transition
c.. 20
e'." Sw=Sw,
<'O
='= 1 18
g t 1
t
- 1;;::;::;i Sw > Sw,
Water Cut> O
16
1))(%)
14

-------------
1

Water Zone Sw = 1000/o 12

o 100
Water Saturation, Sw (%) 10

Transition
Water Cut> O
4

20 40 60 80 100
Sw(%)-

Fig. 7-8 - Comparison of Sw vs. Swc

Water Saturation, Sw (%)

Fig. 7-7 - Crossplots of computed porosity and saturation values
are very importan! interpretive tools.
irreducible conditions. An S11, of 25% might be the value
calculated at 15% porosity, whereas S;w may be consider-
ably less when porosity is 25%. Nevertheless, hyperbolas
can be established for both S;w and Swc if one saturation
condition is known.

In transition zones, Sw wi ll begin to increase with depth

and the cross-plotted data points will not form a coherent
hyperbolic pattern. Although the data are below 100%
Sw, the zone may produce more water than hydrocarbon.
Critica! water saturation, (SwJ, is the value that defines
the point at which most, if not ali, the production will be
water. Jf S111 is well defi ned, Swc can be e timated,
The "rule-of-thu mb" method can be reversed to estimate
S;w if a reasonable idea of Swc is available; i.e.,
For example, if S;w = 25 %, then S111c = 50% (Fig. 7-8).
The problem with such estimates is that porosity varia-
tions change the saturation values for both critica! and
This technique works within acceptable tolerances if
grain size or rock type does not vary. Different grain sizes
or lithologies tend to result in different hyperbolic data
sets for S;w conditions (Fig. 7-9), and two or more S111
hyperbolas might occur in such circumstances. Recogni-
tion of such changes becomes importan!, especially if
construction of a Swc hyperbola is also planned. Once
again, the importance of correlating certain log data to
other types of borehole information is prerequisite.
The C value is representative of the hyperbola. An S;w of
25 % and q> of 20% would become a C of 0.05. At this
irreducible condition, if q> = 10%, S111 ,,, 50%, and where
q> = 15%, S;w ,,, 33%. Most reservoirs have a relatively
constant C value, and the method just described works
well as long as reservoir porosity has sorne variation.

-266-
,,
25 Production
Capillary Pressure Reservoir Behav1or
Coarse- Medium- Fine-
Grained Grained Grained
~

L
~
20 o:" Above Sw S1w Clean Oil
~ Transition No Water Cut
~ ------
u
..
5.
Transit1on
- --Sw > S 1w - -
(but < 100%) pce8SiQ
~
15 '1 Aquifer S., 100% Water Only
O '' 50
'
100

q,(%) ----+-s..
s, ---t-
1
10 Relativa Permeabll1ty
B

A = lntersect1on of kro and kn,w curves. 011 and

water now al equal ease. Hence, watercut
5 is 50% . Position on capillary pressure
curve defines elevation (height) in reser-
voir above free water table.

B = Residual od saturatJon (nonmovable 01I).

1 50 Th1s oil cannot be recovered by water
20 40 ftood1ng, only by enhanced recovery.

Sw(%)
60 80 100 s,-:::::=:.s.. C lrreducble, nonmovable water sa1uration
Frac1ional Flow characteristic for a specific reservolr rock.
Waterfree production from reservolr occurs
Fig. 7-9 - Effect of grain size on saturation results above elevation of point C, provided proper
zone isolation (cementat1on) is present.

Permeability Estimates

In many cases, values of porosity and permeability are so 100

s, ::::::::: s,.
related; in other situations, no relationship exists. A gen-
eral empirical relationship [k = Cq//(S,vf'], first proposed
by Wyllie and Rose, incorporates Siw The basis of the Fig. 7-10 - Basis of the Wyllie-Rose concept to determine per-
relationship was illustrated by comparing permeability to meability
Sw, which did not make permeability dependent on
porosity (Fig. 7- 1O). The general expression led to sev-
era] emprica] estimates of permeability by using Sw and
<j) values from well logs.

The hyperbolic equation C = <j) S"' permits an estmate

of Sw to be made over the entire zone of interest. As the 10.---------= ----------- -. k Permeability, md. for oil
Wyllie-Rose work demonstrated, e was related to perme- 0.1 For Gas, Permeability = k(0.1)
1.0 2.5
60 5 10
ability (k) as were <j) and Sw. For log analysis purposes, C
is used, but the relationship to permeability is clearly
related in the equation (although the dependency of per- J 50
e
meability on porosity was not discussed). o
~::, 40
Severa( investigators have presented emprica] relation- o
(/)

ships to estmate permeability from log data. Reliable Q)

log-derived Sw values permita more realistic estmate of ~Q)

formation permeability, and ali the log relationships find :o

;
::,
their origins in the Wyllie-Rose concept. The two most 'O

commonly used equations are the Morris and Biggs ]

equation (Fig. 7-1 1) and the Ti mur equation (Fig. 7-12),

Morris and Biggs 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Porosity, +(%)
Timur

Use of either chart requires Sw and <j), and the permeabil- Fig. 7-11 - Morris and Biggs chart and equation to determine
ity result is read at the intersection of the crossplot point. permeability from log data

- 267-
 determined from crossplots of Sw and <I> have been sug-
gested as

90
,f-
~ 'e
80 25 '"'>leq . and
50 '6,1
'Y,% kro = [(0.9 - S,)/(0.9 - Sw)f,
~ 70 100
~
~
c where
60
o
-~ k,w = relative permeability to water,
:5
o 50
C/) and k,v = relative permeability to oil.
j 40
Based on laboratory data, the relationship for relative gas
Q)
:o permeability (krg) in a simultaneous gas-water flow may
'
:,
'O
be expressed as
~
krg = [l -(S111 -Sw) / (1 -Sw)l { 1 -

[(Sw - S;w) I (l - S;,)l 114 . s,/4 l i12_

Graphic solutions (Fig. 7-13) are available for these

Porosity, ,p (%)
equations.

Relative permeability for a fluid is the ratio of the effec-

Fig. 7-12 - Timur chart and equation to determine permeability
from log data (alter Timur, 1968). tive permeability for that fluid to the absolute permeabil-
ity. Therefore, the relative permeabilities for water, gas,
and oil are represented by

Severa! assumptions are built into the charts. The chart is

good only for the portion of a reservoir that is at irreduc- and
ible conditions, and the hydrocarbon is assumed to be
medium-gravity oil. A correction factor for the hydrocar-
bon can be used if necessary; i.e.,
where

l
C' = - 1 + 0.00083 Pc1. + 0.02 )
3
sin( Js; . . - 0.04) , k,w, k,.g, kro are the relative permeabilities for
water, gas, and oil,
where
and
Pe = capillary pressure (psi), k11. , k8 , and k0 are their respective effective per-
meabilities.
S;w = irreducible saturation at the Pe eleva-
tion, and the sin function is given in The ratio of relative permeabilities for any two fluids is
degrees. equal to the ratio of effective permeabi lity for those
fluids.
Ali permeability equations have worked well in a given
reservoir or field , but ali have also failed to provide ade- After relative permeability values are calculated from the
quate answers in other fields or reservoirs. The perme- equations, the ratios of effective permeabilities for the
ability equations are often modified to yield values com- fluids are determined. The only additional data needed to
parable to core-derived permeabilities; i.e., log data are calculate the water-gas or water-ol ratio and the
calibrated to core data whenever possible. expected water cut are the specific fluid properties (reser-
voir volume factors for oil and/or gas and the oil-water
Water-Oil and Water-Gas Ratios and/or gas-water viscosity ratios). These properties
cannot be determined from well logs but are obtainable
Mathematical relationships between the relative perme- from produced samples, test samples, or empirical
ability values for water and oil as a function of Sw and S;w relationships.

-268-
;

100

k,0 =O
90

0.02
80
-g.

l c,f 70

c,f ,Q
1
,Q :,
1 ;
(/)
:,
; ai
(/) ; 50
ai 3::
;
'6
3:: ~
a,
'6 V)
a,
~ a:
a,
V)
a,
a:

krw = [(Sw - S,wl / (1 - S,w)]3 k,0 = [(0.9 - Sw) / (0.9 - S,w)) 2

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Irreducible Water Saturation, S,w (%) Irreducible Water Saturation, S,w (%)

100

'6
~
a,
V)
a,
a:

k,9 = [1 - (Sw - S,w) / (1 - S,wll

11 - [(Sw - S,w) / (1 - S,w)]' Sw' i '"

O 1O 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Irreducible Water Saturation, S,w (%)

Fig. 7-13 - Charts and equations to estmate relative permeability to water, to oil, or gas

- 269 -
Yiscosity data for formation water and various eructes are
given in Figs. 7-14 and 7-1 5. Values for dry, wet, and
very rich natural gases are also given Fig. 7- 16. From the
given informatio n sources, the water-oil ratio (WOR) or
water-gas ratio (WGR) can be calculated,
A quick-look graphical estmate of water cut in reservoir
rocks that contain either very light-, light-, medium-, or
low-gravity oil can be made from emprica! charts
(Fig. 7- 17).

1.0
and/or
Salinity in ppm NaCI

where 0.8

80 , Bg = reservoir volume factors for oil and gas,

0.7
kw = effective permeability of water, a.
(J

?:- 0.6
k0 effective permeability of oil, ;
o(J
U)
0.5
kg = effective permeability of gas, >
t
.;;
ll,,v water viscosity at reservoir conditions, ~ 0.4

0 oil viscosity at reservoir conditions, 0.3

and
0.2
g = gas viscosity at reservoir conditions.
Water-Cut Estimates 0. 1

The anticipated water cut for any well test, completion, o..__..___ _..__ ___._______._ __.__ _....
68 100 150 200 250 300 350
and production attempt can be estimated by
Reservoir Temperature, F
WATER CUT = WOR/( 1 + WOR),
or

WATER CUT= WGR/(l + WGR). Fig. 7-14 - Chart used to estmate vscosty of water

100. , . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , ,
- 80
~ 60 Gas-Saturated Crude
Gas-Free (STO) Crude ~ 40 al Reservoir Conditions
et
<O e 20
'O

::,
~
Q)
::, 10
~ a. ci 8
u. (J (/)
6
U) := -g
"'
C) o"' 4
o ~ ~
~ ~ ci 2 ,~()
; 3 Q)
o(J ,-~(l
, ,,
,,~e
"' a.
U) '.J? E
> U) Q)

2::,
o
"' 1-
C) ~
- o
o 2: 0.4 '
.., ...:OO Solution Gas-Oil
Ratio, cu ft/bbl
U)
D -~ ~ -\,~oO
<{ U) Q)
8 a: 0.2
U) -
>:!.
20 30 40 50 60 2

Crude Gravity, API (at 60 F and Atmospheric Pressure) Viscosity of Dead Oil, cp
(Al Reservoir Temperature and Atmospheric Pressure)

Fig. 7-15 - Charts used to estmate viscosity of difieren! crude oils

-270 -
 Dry Gas
O.OS
0.04
0.03
:!'
;
o
o
V)
> 0.02 0.02
0 .015
Gravity = 0.6
Temperature , F
Fig. 7-16 - Charts used to estmate viscosity of different natural gases
DETERMINATION OF HYDROC ARBON TYPE
Identifying producible hydrocarbo ns and estimating their
volume in place is relatively easy once the type of hydro-
carbon is known. Compressibility, temperature, pressure,
etc. ali become importan! to the petroleum engineer who
must determine productivity rates at surface conditons
as well as downhole. The analyst must a lso become
familiar with reservoir decline curves because production
decline is very important in the analysis and manageme nt
of hydrocarbo n reservoirs. It is imperative to determi ne
hydrocarbo n type quickl y.
Gas detection is usually not difficult. Quite often, mud
log analysis has given effective information (gas or
liquid) prior to running wi reline logs. Crossover methods
(<!>o or <l>Ac >> <l>N) often identify gas-bearing horizons
promptly, but the analyst must be wary of the matrix
parameters and scaling compatibil ity used to calculate
and display those porosity values.
Nevertheless, qualitative gas detection from logs can be
difficult in sorne shaly sand reservoirs and is often con-
fusing in mixed lithologies. For example, if log porosity
is recorded from a computed limestone matrix value, and
the true formation lithology is dolomite, the crossover or
reversal of the neutron and dens ity traces may not occur
because of lithology responses. In such a situation,
although manual or computerized analysis determines
accurate values of porosity and saturation, the user may
remain unsure of the hydrocarbo n type.
Another example is the recording of density and neutron
logs with a limestone porosity display. Crossover (<j) >>
0
Wet Gas Aich Gas
o.os
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
100 200 300 400 500
Temperature, F Temperature, F
<l>N) may be apparent across sand reservoirs, but it may or
may not be caused by gas affect. As much as 7 pu of
crossover can occur from the incompatible scaling; i.e.,
porosity was calculated on a limestone scale although the
reservoir is sandstone. Peculiarities such as these often
arise in routine log analysis, and the purchasers of log
data are often unaware of such idiosyncrasies.
Hydrocarb on density can be estimated from neutron and
density measureme nts that are corrected for temperatur e
and excavation effects (Fig. 7-18). Two charts are illus-
trated; one for compensat ed neutron devices and one for
sidewall neutron tools. The charts are relatively simple to
use - values of <l>Nl<l>v define the entry point to intersect
with the calculated hydrocarbo n saturation (1 - S"').
Sorne apprehensi on may still remain after determinin g
hydrocarbo n density from the chart. An empirical chart
relating estimated gas pressure to estimated formation
temperatur e gives an approximat ion of the density of dry
gas in a particular reservoir (Fig. 7-19). In general, dry
gas is less than 0.3 g/cm 3 for most conditio ns. Oil densi-
ties as low as 0.55 g/cm 3 (high API) and as high as
0.9 g/cm 3 (low API) occur. Liquid condensate should
fall into the gray area separating dry gas (0.3 g/cm3 or
less) and ol (0.55 g/cm3 or greater). Reasonable esti-
mates of the upper limit of Pg and the lower limit of p
0
are of great help in resolving the dilemma. Most conden-
sate tends to fall in the 0.45 to 0.55 range of the chart
(Fig. 7- l 8), leaving a questionab le prediction when
values from 0.52 to 0.60 occur. The quality of log data
and proper corrections to the measureme nts are critica!.
In the API range of 46 to 52, prediction of hydrocarbo n
type is also difficult, but liquid is predictable .
-271 -
 70

Very Light Oil (65 API) Light Oil (35 API)

60
~
~
~
rif 50

o
-~
~
40

(/)

~
30
~
(1)
:o
:
~
20
-o
~

o..__ __._____,,__.......,__.A-,,-_ ___,...,,...._ ___....,.__ _.

1O 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 1O 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Water Saturation, Sw (%) Water Saturation, Sw (%)

Medium Gravity Oil (27 API) Heavy Oil (19 API)

60

10

o..__ ___,,_________..__........__ __.___

1O 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 1O 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Water Saturation, Sw (%) Water Saturation, Sw (%)

Fig. 7-17 - Charts used to estimate water cut in the transition zone of an oil reservoir

PRACTICAL WORK SESSION

Problem 1 (a) True

Is it true that log derived values of porosity and water sat- (b) False
uration alone can differentiate between good and mar-
ginal production? Circle the appropriate answer. (e) Not enough inforrnation

-272-
 Compensated Neutron Sidewall Neutron

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 .8 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Hydrocarbon Density, ph
Hydrocarbon Density, p h

Fig. 7-18- Estimation of hydrocarbon density

o Problem 2
1 Circle the appropriate answer below. If the grain size or
:2
;

~ 3
lithology change within a reservoir, then the constant "C'
of the Sw vs. <I> plot is
;j
(/)
(/)

~
4 (a) Still valid
Cl..
(/) 5 (b) Not valid
(1l
(.'.) (c) partially valid
6
uQ)
ci 7
-,~ 8
Problem 3
w
9 In the following Sw and <I> values, calculations were above
10 the transition zone and can be assumed to be at irre-
0.1 0.2 ducible conditions (S;w) A permeability estimate can be
P (g/cm3)
made from the log data. Estimate the permeability in
Fig. 7-19 - Estimation of gas density at reservoir conditions each zone; first using the Morris and Biggs chart (or
equation), and second using the Timur chart (or equa-
tion).
<I> (%) S ;w (%) Morris/Biggs Timur
ZoneA 20 30
Zone B 25 20
ZoneC 12 40
Zone D 35 21
Zone E 18 35

-273-
Problem 4 Problem 7

What is the water viscosity for a 180,000-ppm NaCI Given the following sandstone porosity and saturation
solution at 200F? Circle the appropriate answer below. values, first determine the hydrocarbon density for each
zone and then predict the type of production to be
(a) 0.46 cp expected.
(b) 0.50 cp
(e) 0.32 cp Zone <l>cN <l>o Sw p, Type of Production Expected
(d) Not enough information
A 0.30 0.35 0.25
Problem 5
B 0.20 0.33 0.40
What is the relative permeability to oil in a zone with Sw
= 20% and Sw = 60%? Circle the correct answer below. e O.JO 0.17 0.50

D 0.18 0.23 0.40

(a) 0.18
(b) 0.10
E 0.30 0.33 0.30
(e) 0.14
(d) Not enough information
Problem 8

Problem 6 A formation 10,000 ft deep has an estimated reservoir

temperature of 220F. Estmate the pressure you would
What is the predicted water cut for a zone at Sw = 50% expect at that depth, and determine an estmate of p8 for
and Sw = 20% for a 35 APl oil? Circle the appropriate the reservoir.
answer below.

(a) 45%
(b) 15% Problem 9
(e) 25%
(d) Not enough information lf the estimated formation pressure is "" 3,000 psi and the
estimated formation temperature is "" l 60F, determine
In !he fo/lowing problems, you are given average density the expected p8 for the reservoir in question.
and neulron porosities (determined using !he given
matrix parameters) and average water saturation values
ar the following indicated zanes. Reservoir temperature
and pressure va/ues are also listed where necessary. Con-
sider that the proper corrections have been made to the
log data. Use !he previous charts (Figs. 7-18 and 7-19)
and record the answers determined from the charts.

-274-
AppendixA
BAKER ATLAS LOGGING SERVICES
DEPTH-CO NTROL SYSTEM
Depth measurements are the most fu ndamental parameter
determincd during wireline logging operations. The abil-
ity to accurately measure and resol ve depth permits wire-
line loggi ng techniques to offer unique depth-related
information. As in any measurement system, the depth-
control system relies on calibration and verification. In
openhole logging operations, the wireline cable is the
only device that can be used to accurately determine depth
of the logging instruments. The depth calibration is based
on known and measurable properties relating to cable
stretch characteristics, and the verification procedure
ensures accurate compensation for variations in the effec-
tive length of the cable as a function of tension variations.
Using current technology, several assumptions are inte-
grated with a knowledge of known cable characteristics
to define both the accuracy and limitations of the system.
Both cable characteristics and the method of measuring
cable length contribute to accurate depth measurement.
An inelastic or permanent stretch will always occur with
new cable when it is first put into service. This permanent
e longation of the cable length generally occurs during the
first 30 logging runs (or less) for a well-designed cable.
Permanent stretch is approximately I ft (0.3 m) per
1,000 ft (300 m) of cable. After "seasoning," the cable
will perform asan elastic member without further creep.
Factors effecting inelastic stretch are:
Voids in cable armor
Embedment of armor into the core
lnner armor coverage
Hot pretensioning
Post-tensioning
Storage of cable
Old cable may experience additio nal permanent elonga-
tion under certain conditions, such as:
Excessive tension
Exposure to excessive temperatures
Spudding
Low inner armor coverage
Storage of cable for long periods at low tension
-275-
In general, wireline logging cable is the lifeline, a type of
elastic umbilical cord, that connects the downhole mea-
suring systems to surface systems where the measure-
ment data are processed into the log data that is used to
interpret reservoir petrophysical and geological attributes
of potential reservoirs. Simply put, the logging instru-
mentation is suspended at the end of the cable, often sev-
eral thousand feet or meters below the surface, and that
cable will have sorne elastic slretch similar to that
observed with a strong rubber band at a more observable
scale. As long as tension and elastic coefficient of the
cable are known, the true length of the cable can be deter-
mined. The stretch coefficient (K) of the cable is obtained
by using an extensiomete r or "stretch meter" to measure
its elongation when tension is varied at precise amounts,
and calculated as follows,
K = !J.1./L X .T,
where
M = change in length (ft),
L = sample length (ft),
.T = change in tension (lbf),
and
K = stretch coefficient (ft/ft per lbf).
For example, values for K for the 7J46 cable are typically
8 x 10- 7 ft/ft per lbf. Factors that can cause the stretch
coefficient to change are:
Age of cable
Rotation
Temperature
Cable contractors provide catalogs that give the tempera-
tures at which a particular cable will perform satisfacto-
rily under normal operating conditions. The principal
load carrying the cable is the cable weight, and under-
standing that temperature gradually increases with depth,
cables can be expected to fail at temperatures less than
their specified rating if there is low inner armor coverage
or excessive tension occurs.
Cable problems might also be encountered if a cable is
exposed to sour gas (H2S) or acid, but precautionary pro-
cedures can generally reduce the effects of such hostile
fluids. Occasionally, water or gas permeates the cable
insulation, or the insulation is broken. Pull-out of the
cable head is another problem that will open electrical The tension developed by instrument weight and fric-
circuits. Cables with special insulation are used for par- tional drag during logging operations goes from zero at
ticular hostile environments. the bottom end of the system to those cumulative values
multiplied by cable length. The average tension is there-
fore one-half that value. Too! weight (W/) acts over the
To avoid cable crushing, it must be installed properly on
entire length of cable, which permits total cable sfretch
the spooling drum. Cables being used for very deep wells
(MT) to be computed,
may require a special high-strength drum. Cable must be
routinely inspected for loose or broken armor wire, cor-
rosion, and especially around splices. Electrical continu-
Af...,-= KL/j,T= KL [1/2 (w'+ j) L + WT1
ity and insulation tests should be performed on a regular
MT = KL/2 [(w'+ j)L + 2WT']
basis.

Af...r = KL/2 [Ts + W/]

WIRELINE TENSION CHARACTERISTICS
where w' = effective weight per unit length of cable
It is necessary to know the tension distribution in the
cable before the stretch of the cable within a borehole can and f = frictionaldrag of cable at uphole log-
be determined. Severa! types of hydraulic and strain ging speed.
gauges are used to determine cable tension. These gauges
are usually attached to the upper sheave wheel (the turn- DEPTH-MEASURING SYSTEMS
around spool) in the derrick of the drilling rig (Fig. A 1),
or mounted to the spooling armor of the logging unit - There are two basic types of depth-measuring systems.
the derrick method is the more accurate. The device is
used to determine cable tension in a borehole as demon- Calibrated Wheel
strated (Fig. A-1 ).
Severa! types of wheel systems employed include:

Tension Wraparound wheel in the measuring head

Strain
Gauge
Tangent wheel in the measuring head

Calibrated sheave wheel

Twin measuring wheels

However, to obtain accurate depth measurements with a

wheel, it is first necessary to have a perfect wheel and
also a memory to accumulate the tension history of the
cable as it is used periodically in boreholes. Problems in
obtaining accurate wheel measurements include:
Ts = w'L + fL + Wr'
Cable diameter
T5 = (w' + f) L + Wr '

Ts = Surface cable tension Cable condition

w' = Effective weight per unit
length of cable f Wheel slippage
f = Frictional drag of cable

at logging speed up hole L
Indentation
Wr' = Effective tool weight
Worn gear effects

Wear of wheel surface

Taking these into consideration, it remains necessary to

know the tension history of the cable as it passes under
Fig. A-1 - Wireline rig-up diagram the wheel. It is not unusual to have an average tension

-276-
difference of 1,000 lbf bctwcen the "going in" and
"coming out" of a well, and the perfecl wheel will mea-
sure eight additional ft on the ascent from a 10,000-ft
borehole.
Calibrated Cable
This system requires that the cable be measured and
marked magnetically (or shimmed) while the cable is
under standard reference tension (T0 ), usually 1,000 lbf.
True depth is obtained by locating a magnetic mark (or
shim) and making a differential stretch correction to the
depth indicated by the mark. Differential stretch correc-
tion is the difference in stretch (M0 ) the cable has when
it is marked at tension T0 and the total stretch of the cable
(MT)-
Equations used to prepare stretch correction charts for
field use are
M = KU2 [Ts + W/1 - KLT0 , and
WIRELINE LENGTH CALIBRATION
Periodically at shop faci lities, the wireline cable is accu-
rately measured in set lengths ata defined horizontal ten-
sion. Either metric or English measuring systems can be
used; i.e., meters and kilograms in metric or feet and
pounds in English. Each length is "marked" on the cable
by locally magnetizing (or shimming) the steel armor
wires. Typically, 25 m or 100 ft intervals are used, and
the tension used for openholc logging cables is typically
1,000 lbf (300 lbf for small diameler cased hole cables).
The 25-m or 100-ft lengths are chosen because these
intervals provide convenient benchmarks against which
accurate subdivisions can be based, yet are sufficientl y
far aparl Lo retain individual identily. A 1,000-lbf tension
can be accurately controlled and is a reasonable mni-
mum Lension encountered in average logging operations.
This Lension is also consistent with the manufacturer's
definition in stretch-correction charts. The entire wire-
line, or that length of wireline that can reasonably be
expected to be used in any series of operations, is marked
at these constant intervals while being subjected to the
constant tension. This marking procedure can either be
conducted by hand (requiring stringent consistency,
accuracy, and quality control) or, as is now more wide-
spread, using an automatic marking device.
- 277 -
WIRELINE STRETCH CHARACTERISTICS
The ability of the wireline to stretch and contract as a
function of tension is a mechanical function determined
by Hooke's law and the mechanical properties of thc
cable design. The behavioral characteristics of a cable are
influenced by the counter winding of the inner and outer
armor wires, the number and size of the king wires, and
to a lesser extent, the behavior of the core-to-tension.
There is no simple relationship between tension, length
of cable, and the ensuing stretch. Furthermore, while the
cable is suspended in a borehole, cable tension is not uni-
form; i.e., tension decreases along the length of the cable
in the direction of the cablehead. Accounting for cable
stretch is an integral of individual stretch increments
along the length of the cable from the drum to the cable-
head.
Since the cable length is defined in units of 25 mor 100 ft
at a constant 1,000-lbf tension, the accumulated stretch
over a suspended length of cable may be more or less
than the total stretch imparted on the cable at the constant
1,000-lbf tension when defining its length. The combined
length and tension that gives a net extension of the cable
equal to that at a constant 1,000-lbf tension defines the
"ZERO STRETCH" line of the stretch characteristics of
the cable (see Fig. A-2).
Increases in length and tension above the ZERO
STRETCH line will result in an overall increase in the
net stretch of the cable compared to that same length of
cable at 1,000-lbf constant tension. This condition is
referred to as "positive stretch. " Lesser lengths of cable
and lower tensions will result in "negative stretch." Due
to the asymmetric nature of the stretch lines, complex
changes in the net stretch will occur as a cable changes
length by being moved along the wellbore. Consider the
following cases:
Case I
As the cable length increases from point A I to point
B 1 (Fig. A-2), the stretch of the cable relative to the
1,000-lbf constant tension elongation gradually increases
from 0.3 to 6.2 m; i.e., over the length of borehole, the
total stretch undergone is 6.2 - 0.3 = 5.9 m.
Case 2
As the cable length increases from point A2 to point B2
(Fig. A-2), the overall elongatio n of the cable increases
from - 0.5 to O m; i.e., O.O - (-0.5) = 0.5 m. This increase
in length is only effective beyond point C2 as between
A2 and C2, the elongation of the cable is constant com-
pared to the same length of cable subject to a constant
1,000-lbf tension.
 "'
"TI
<p.
~
1\)
1
Depth, 100 (m)
~ 70 75 80 85 90
is o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 --
55 60
-- 65
' 1 1 '
1
5
11 ' ' ' ' ' 1 1
' ' 1 1
' ' 1 1 1
' ' 1 1
'
(1)
n 1 1 1 32 33,34 ......_
35--...,_
0)
rr 29 3031......._r----...r----...--...,_
qj" 26 27 28...... t---....' r----.. . .
r----...r----... --...___
!!l. 10
ro 22 23,24~"1'---.l"--=::::~~----=:h:

=s- 20 21 '-.., --.._..__ ...........__ ' I"--~ ' r------......r---... r---..... r----......
o
::s-
9
18 19 ' ..... .....__ "'--- 1--.... r----... r---...." . . .
~ ~
0)
;:: 16 1 7 ~ ""-~ ............ ............ r----..:: ......... --- . . . . .__ 4

~e,e\<:> 14 15 '- . " r----..."--l'---.r----,_1"--1'---~r----......~~~f<'.~

~\~ 13 'r-,..,. :'--.._ '---._r-,..,._ "-.1'---.r-,..,._ i"--1'---t---... ~ ~r-.... t>< t-----.
8 0

~
o\\ec.'~1r12,._
10
""'
,,,---.......
:-,.__ ---....... " ---
...........__,-.......__
.........__
r----.-
-......
k - -<...
r---.
--.,__
r---.-
- -
c,\\~\C, 9.0,9.5""'-- '-..._
- 8 o8.5'' , i---...
'-.. 'r----......'---~r---...r----......r---.....r---.....k
,___ t----.. t-->-<'. --
::-r------t:::
--.._.___ ~
i--.

o
7
7.5 ' '- ~::-----C'--
i7 o r---..... r---~ r--- r-:::: k:" r-- '--
r----. r----....._...... t-----. V ~
3 o
0)
c:r
a,
1 't---=::r----.:::
5.5 6.0 6 -5 , ~ ~ ~r----.....r---... ~ C::::: r---.
, ' r-----:::
' r----. r---. N
r---- t>< l><r----..J r--- - --- k r--.
r--t---..t:>< --- r-- - i---::
0)
c:r
a,
-i
5.0 t-... t---.... B 1--..... ....___ "--- .___, r--. r--1---._ -i
6
-t>~-i----=:--:::::--
(l)
(l)
45 '---
~" -... i"-. -::::--......_'r--,,,,,~~--=:::::::><C--:::~-
, 4 :::,

-~--
:::, (/)
!!!. 4.0 . ' , l"--i'--...-. .. o
N o
'r---..."-- "'---......_~l."'- -R _ _ _:::,

~ r---.~~ s ~~~~~D ~ 1 Correction

~~
-:i _=, 3.5 ......._
00
o 2.5
M'~~
~~ 1-- ~ o
1 1 o
o
5
2o
. ' ...
I " "

r---.....
!'---. t-,....__
--. Case 4 ....._
r---.t:Y~ r---.
---
___ 1---
r--
'-- t---
~ ,__- r--. ~~ r----r---.___
k::~ r-- r-----
1
t-- t---
-.._1--
--
-
_ t-- -
t--- -
-
1-- ~
Range - ~ i--- . _
-~ --~
- - ~
2J
o
o

- -. . .__ ,.__ -. . . .__ r--...., ?'F---c: l:>-' ,~,a'D5

..___
o'
!!!-
1.5,
.- Z: B5- 1---::::-i---::--
_ 1 -=~ -=
4
1.0 ,r----.
'-- " A p r:::..__r--k._V?"'~~:::;[1"-case5::-

Case 1 ;,, " - -
'==: ~

,___ 41 - - V ,.- ... e;.. r_.......- C5-t--f-

.5...... i----1-7-l:::::__ V- ~ ..'!--- l+VE Stretch 1
3
_,. ~
..... A 41 ~
-i--,__""A ~" '1 1
..--- Bl 1 _ _ .. _ N.B. Between any two stretch ;.
o , 5
.__. _ _ .. --~- ... .. . _.... . . _. .- .... ,-. . ...., !Zero Stretch Lmel. -, -......... - .- .. - !mes 1s suff1c1ently accurate to e:
i '__. _____..- =
=---__- =---
._

e~-=- . -
Case 1 1 1 linearly interpolate to the nearest oil m
2

,..- ~ -r..-,-~ _ B3 - - 1-VE Stretchl == == == = == == M1

v A2
_,,,
Case 3
----- - - - -
---
- - -
STRETCH CHART
7 H4 CABLE f-

1/ V IJ- -5

A3 -1.0
,1
C3
,.,
-1.5 ......... -2.0/' - - - -
,_ - - -
-
(.464"0.D.) ( 11. 78 mm)
CALIBRATED AT 1000 LBS.
(453.6 KG) TENSION
1.........----- / 1 ,.,,.. 1 ..--- 1-2.5..---- .3_0_.-- CHART TO GIVE TRUE DEPTH
.........- - 1
o
o 1 l 1 1 T l 1 1 r J ,
o 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
Depth, 100 (m)
..
Case 3
As the cable length increases from point A3 to B3 (Fig.
A-2), there is an overall elongation of the cable equal to
zero as points A3 and 8 3 lie on the same (negati ve
stretch) line corresponding to the overall elongation of
the same lengths of cable subject to 1,000- lbf tension. In
this case, however, the cable behavior first displays
increasing -VE stretch and then decreasing -VE stretch
as the length and tension move thro ugh point C3. The
net movement from point A3 to point C3 is approxi-
mately -0.7 - (-0.5) = - 0.2 m. Likewise, from C3 to 83,
the net elongation is -0.5 - (-0.7) = 0.2 m.
Obviously, the same principies apply to a metric stretch
table as to a stretch table given in feet. Note that Fig. A-2
is specific to a 7H4 cable calibrated at 1,000 lbf, and it
gives the true depth. This is important as each type of
cable will have its own characteristics since no two types
of cable behave in the same way.
STRETCH REGIMES AND RELATIVE STRETCH
The exact stretch of the cable is thus a function of its
length and the tension applied to it. Variations in the
stretch will be determined by variations in length and ten-
sion. In the same way that no two wells are ever exactly
the same, the behavior of the stretch of a cable as a func-
tion of depth will a lso be unique to each well . This
applies likewise to the types of wireline too! string run;
e.g., a smooth tool string may have a movement along a
wellbore characterized by a lower tension whereas a tool
string (of the same, or even less weight) using strong cal-
iper or centralizers may induce a significantly higher
overall tension over the same length of wellbore.
Case4
A tool string is run with a net tension increase of
1,000 lbf in the wireline compared to that represented in
Case 1 (Fig. A-2). The overall stretch is increased from
5.9 m in Case I to 8.6 - 1.4 = 7.2 m.
Cases I through 4 are based on the assumption of a
straight-line relationship between points A and B. This is
usually not the case in real boreholes, however. Changes
in borehole geometry and geology cause major depar-
tures from the projected lines on the chart. Doglegs, devi-
ation, rugosity, sloughing, or sticking shales can ali cause
deviations from the assumed straight-line relationship.
Case 5
Two opposing situations are portrayed in this example
(Fig. A-2). C5 and D5 represent differing tensions for the
same net length of cable. The difference in the cable
-279-
elongation at the same depth is 4.0 - 2.3 = 1.7 m at
4500 m, despite the net elongation being 4.7 - 0.3
= 4.4 m across the interval AS to B5.
The behavior of cable stretch within a wellbore for any
given log is known as the "stretch regime," and it can be
seen that it is essentially unique for each well, too! string,
and hence, each log. It is not often important to know the
absolute cable stretch over the entire length of the well.
The effective stretch incurred from a known or tied-in
depth is usually more relevant. Hence, the concept of
"relative stretch" - the expression of the elongation of
cable from a known or defined depth compared to the
elongation of the cable subjected to a constant 1,000-lbf
tension is important.
In cases I through 5, if points A are defined as known or
fixed definition depths (e.g., a previous GR log depth,
casing shoe, etc.), then ali points deeper than points A
represent stretches greater (or less in case 3) than that at
points A. Point A may also be at the surface, in which
case, the relative stretch corresponds to the absolute
stretch.
DEPTH DETERMINATION
The determination of well depth is subject to the follow-
ing prerequisites,
Definition of a depth reference point, or "tie-in"
point - This may be ORT, SFL, CSG, or a depth
definition determined by a previous loggingjob.
Knowledge of the number of 25 m (or 100 ft)
marked lengths of cable below the tie-in point
Knowledge of the tension at the tie-in point and at
the point of interest
The number of marks having passed after the tie-in point
defines the increase in the length of cable in the hole. The
difference in tension between the tie-in point and that at
any point further down the well defines the relative
stretch.
The summation of the number of marked lengths of cable
and the relative stretch defines the effective length of
cable at each cable mark. As the marked lengths are at
constant intervals (given 1,000-lbf linear tension), each
mark represents a defined length of cable subject to a
known differential tension, and hence, relative stretch.
Thus, each mark represents a depth comprised of the tie-
in point, the integral number of marks to that point, and
the corresponding relative stretch.
;,
Consider Case 1 for example - After correlating the log
depth to a previous log, a mark was noted at 2550.0 m at
2,500 lbf. Near TD, approximately 5000 m and 5,000 lbf,
the mark nearest TD will represent the lowest effective
measure point now being at
2550 + n.25 + RS,
where n = number of marks to the last mark from 2550
=97
RS = relative stretch
= 6.2 - 0.3
=5.9 m
2550 + (97 X 25) + 5.9 = 4980.9 m
In other words, irrespective of the depth indicated on any
type of depth measurement system, the mark on the cable
before TO represents an effective depth of 4980.9 m.
Subsequent marks further up the cable represent depths
with corresponding decreases in relative stretch. Near the
tie-in point, the relative stretch decreases to zero, and the
last few marks will represent depths being an exact mul-
tiple of 25.0 m beyond the tie-in mark depth.
Because each mark represents a defined length of cable,
and the behavior of the cable is known for given tensions,
the depth definition is based on the calculation of the
stretch and the length of cable each mark represents. As
such, it is possible to predetermine, assuming a given
stretch regime, the effective depths each mark represents.
Consider Case 1 again,
Tie-in mark @ 2550.0 m @ 2,500 lbf
TD@ 5000 m@ 5,000 lbf
Mark number 97 = 2550 + (97 X 25.0) + 5.9 =4980.9 m
96 = + (96 X 25.0) + 5.7 = 4955.7 m
95 = + (95 X 25.0) + 5.5 = 4930.5 m
94 = + (94 X 25.0) + 5.3 =4905.3 m
93 = + (93 X 25.0) + 5.2 =4880.2 m
etc.
05 =2550 + (5 X 25.) + 0.2 = 2675.2 m
04 =+ (4 X 25.0) + 0.2 = 2650.2 m
03 =+ (3 X 25.0) + .l = 2625.1 m
02 =+ (2 X 25.) + . = 2600.0 m
01 = + (1 x 25.0) +O.O= 2575.0 m
l. Linear interpolation between absolute stretch lines
usually provides ample accuracy in the determina-
tion of the relative stretch.
2. The role of the line measurement device is not in
determining the depth of each mark; on the con-
-280-
trary, the mark defines the depth together with the
stretch correction. The line measurement device
provides an indication of cable length that is usu-
ally used to help determine the exact depth repre-
sented by a mark; e.g., the TO mark representing
4980.9 m may have been indicated at 4986.6 m.
The mark still represents 4980.9 m irrespective of
the actual value indicated by the line measurement
device. Hence, the indicated value is adjusted to
read that depth the mark represents, in this case,
5.7 m less.
3. While logging, the marks and the tension define the
depth logged, and the line measurement-derived
depth is adjusted as is necessary such that the line-
measured depth tracks the mark and tension-
defined depth. Each mark on the cable will repre-
senta calibrated length of cable, and the line-mea-
sured depth must continually conform to this.
As the logging progresses, it may become apparent that
the initially presumed stretch regime is incorrect, and
instead of a straight-line relationship existing between
points A I and B 1 (Fig A-2), there is actually sorne sort of
progression that implies a slower initial los:s of tension
(e.g., Case 5, AS to B5 vs. AS to B5 by means of D5). If
this is the case, only minor adjustments have to be made
to the figures in the relative stretch.
Consider Case 1,
Mark Projected Projected Real True
Number Relative True Depth Relative Depth
Stretch Stretch
97 5.9m 4980.9 m 5.9 m 4980.9 m
96 5.7 m 4955.7 m 5.8 m 4955.8 m
95 5.5 m 4930.5 m 5.7 m 5930.7 m
94 5.3 m 4905.3 m 5.6m 4905.6 m
93 5.2m 4880.2 m 5.5 m 4880.5 m
The incremental differences are small, but cumulatively,
they can show a significant departure of the true depth
from the projected depth. It is particularly prudent, if
long intervals or crooked holes are to be surveyed, to
check the tension at a number of intervals (e.g., every
500 m) while descending into the borehole. This permits
a prognosis of the stretch regime that is to be encountered
prior to the commencement of logging operations.
After the depth of the lowest mark has been calculated,
the incremental distance between the mark depth and too!
pick-up off bottom can be ignored in terms of further
adjustments for stretch. The pick-up depth, and hence,
total-measured depth, can be directly read off of the
adjusted line-measured depth.
"
DEPTH ACCURACY
Using the previously described method, the absolute
determination of measured depth becomes a reasonably
accurate process. lt can be easily seen that an accuracy of
l m in 3000 m or 3 ft in 10,000 ft should be attainable in
good conditions. The depth accuracy from one log to
another should be subject to similar criteria, and it should
be quite possible without active correlation to be within
0.2 m. The accuracy of depth intervals; e.g., bed bound-
aries and ol/water contacts or gas/water contacts, identi-
fied from logs should have similar accuracy.
PROCEDURES WHILE LOGGING
1. A defined tie-in point is selected suitable to the log-
ging (e.g., CSG, previous GR log, geological
marker bed). Tools are lowered below a mark
underneath the tie-in point, and then a tie-in log is
made over the mark and the tie-in point. While log-
ging, the indicated mark depth and tension must be
accurately noted.
2. The tie-in recording is compared to the defined
depth, and the difference between the tie-in depth
and the definition depth is determined. This differ-
ence is appl ied to the indicated mark depth to give
an accurate position of the mark nearest to the def-
inition-depth reference.
3. As is necessary, an approximate depth/tension rela-
tionship is established for the well, giving a pro-
jected tension regime while descending the bore-
hole. Note that it is necessary to determine cable
tension as the tool ascends the wellbore. In terms of
accuracy, it is not usually necessary to have the cal-
iper arms open when determining these guideline
tensions.
4. Near TO, an apparent mark depth and the cable
tension are noted. The relative stretch can be calcu-
lated. Knowing the initial tie-in mark, this mark
near TO represents the summation of the initial tie-
in mark, n, times the number of marks and the rela-
tive stretch. Correction is made at TO for the differ-
ence between the apparent mark depth and the true
depth the mark represents. Any stretch differential
over the ensuing interval can be ignored.
5. Using a prognosis for the stretch regime for that
well, the first four or five mark depths are calcu-
lated. Using the SRP, the logged depth is fitted to
the mark depth by incrementally "adding" or "sub-
tracting" depth. This is performed in increments of
0.1 m per 5.0 m or 1/2 ft per 25 ft. Should these
incremental adjustments represent a constant
- 281 -
"adding" or "subtracting," whether caused by
stretch adjustment or mechanical line-measure-
ment error, an automatic "add" or "subtract" can be
engaged, leaving the engineer free for other tasks.
Manual adjustments to this automatic process can
still be made as necessary.
6. As logging progresses, the stretch regime develops,
and the prognosis is adjusted to fit actual logged
tension. Minor adjustments are made to the mark
depths as necessary. Further mark depths can be
calculated as the logging progresses, based on
returning to the mark immediately below the tie-in
point. Usually, once the first few marks are on
depth, marks every 100 m or 500 ft suffice in
ensuring accurate depth control.
7. It is required that each step in the depth-control
procedure be carefully noted. Should an error
develop, it can then be traced to a point of origin,
allowing accurate correction to be made to the log
depth after logging.
LIMITATIONS TO THE SYSTEM
Severa) factors limit the accuracy of depth determination
using a calibrated cable.
1. Should the cable tension not be evenl y distributed
along the length of the cable, an artificially high
tension will be used for the calculation of the rela-
tive stretch.
2. Instantaneous rises in tension due to tool sticking
can give major movements of apparent depth that
mayor may not be worked out of the stretch regime
before the next magnetic mark. These inaccuracies
are difficult to quantify.
3. The depth accuracy can only be as accurate as the
marking of the cable. Loss of marks through aging
or magnetic disturbances in the casing, or the
"movement" of marks through permanent cable
tension effects obviously cause serious compro-
mises to the accuracy of the system.
4. The stretch charts are designed to work for a partic-
ular type of cable. New cables have quite different
characteristics compared to old cables that lose
their e lasticity with age. For that reason, stretch
charts representa compromise between practicality
and accuracy.
5. No account is taken of hydrostatic forces and their
effect on the buoyancy of the cable.
6. The stretch charts assume a geothermal gradient of 8. Add this difference to the initial apparent pickup
l 0F/lOO ft to allow for the thermal expansion of depth.
steel. Severely high- or low-geothermal gradients 9. Add the tool dead end to the true pickup depth to
may be a minor source of inaccuracy. determine the calibrated TD.

7. Individual stick and pull movements of the tool
string are not accounted for in cable measurement.
The tool string may be moving quite differently
along the borehole than is indicated by the cable
movement at the surface.
Until real-time depth definition is achieved downhole,
depth measurement using the cable will in ali likelihood
remain the basis of depth measurement. Irrespective of
which system is used to determine the line measurement,
these principies will remain in force.
10. Using the prognosis of the stretch regime, deter-
mine the first four mark depths above the lowest
mark.
11. What are the apparent mark depths at 100-m nter-
vals thereafter to the casing shoe mark, assuming
the prognosis of the stretch regime is correct?
12. While logging, the tension initially drops off more
quickly than expected. At about 3250 m and 3,000
lbf, this trend stops, and the tension decreases more
slowly. How does this affect the values obtained in
question 11?

DEPTH-CONTROL EXAMPLE
Solutions:
The data below are provided as a guide through a typical l. True casing shoe mark depth = 2589.3 + 2.3 m
depth control exercise. = 2591.6 m
2. Absolute stretch = 0.5 m
Given:
3. Absolute stretch = 0.9 m
Driller's casing shoe 9 in. @ 2576.8 m (Relative stretch = 0.9 - 0.5 = 0.4 m)
Driller's OH TD 8-1/2 in. @ 3796.0 m 4. Absolute stretch = 2.9 m
Tie-in lnterval (previous GR log) 2550 m and 2475 m (Relative stretch = 2.9 - 0.5 = 2.4 m)
RIH 2589.3 m @ 2,700 lbf
(mark beneath casing noted at) 5. Mark nearTD = 2591.6 + (n x 25.0) m + RS
= (3791.6 - 25.0) m + RS
Tie-in film was recorded 2.3 m shallow; i.e., recorded
= 3766.6 m + RS
depth 2.3 m less than the previous GR depth. 6. Effective depth of the mark near TD = 3766.6 + 2.4
= 3769.0
RIH, tension 3.000 lbf @ 3000 m 7. Line-measured depth = 3764.9 m
RIH, mark above TD noted at 4,000 lbf @ 3764.9 m Effective TD mark depth = 3769.0 m
RIH, initial pickup noted at 4,400 lbf @ 3790.3 m Depth difference = 4.1 m
8. Calibrated pickup 3790.3 + 4.1 = 3794.4 m
From the too! measure point to the too! dead end is 1.8 m
9. Calibrated TD = 3794.4 + 1.8 m
Problems to be resolved: = 3796.2 m
1O. Relative stretch @ TD = 2.4 m
l. Locate the true casing shoe mark depth. RS @ 3600 m = 2.0 m
2. Establish the absolute stretch by plotting the casing Mark @ TD = 3766.6 + 2.4 =3769.0 m
shoe mark. -1 = 3741.6 + 2.3 = 3743.9 m
-2 = 3716.6 + 2.2 = 3718.8 m
3. Plot the approximate intermediate tension. -3 = 3691.6 + 2.1 = 3693.7 m
4. Determine the relative stretch immediately above -4 = 3666.6 + 2.0 = 3668.0 m
TD.
5. Determine the depth represented by the mark near
TD before allowing for the relative stretch.
6. Determine the effective depth of the mark near TD.
7. Note the difference between the noted depth and
the effective depth identified in step 6.

-282-
-
1 l. Mark Depth RS True Depth

3766.6 2.4 3769.0

3666.6 2.0 3668.6
3566.6 1.7 3568.4
3466.6 1.4 3468.0
3366.6 1.2 3367.8
3266.6 1.0 3267.6
3 166.6 0.7 3 167.3
3066.6 0.5 3067.1
2966.6 0.4 2967.0
2866.6 0.3 2866.9
2766.6 0.2 2766.8
2666.6 0. 1 2666.7

12. Mark Depth RS True Depth

3766.6 2.4 3769.0

3666.6 2.0 3668.6
3566.6 1.5 3568. 1
3466.6 1.0 3467.6
3366.6 0.7 3367.3
3266.6 0.5 3267. 1
3 166.6 0.4 3167.0
3066.6 0.3 3066.9
2966.6 0.2 2966.3
2866.6 0.2 2866.8
2766.6 0.1 2766.7
2666.6 O.O 2666.6

-283-
,,.
Work Session Solutions
CHAPTER 1 WORK SESSION (page 41)
Problem 1
Porosity is simply the percent of rock volume that is void
of matrix material. In practice, severa( dcscriptions of
porosity (<l>) and porosity type cxist but for the present,
the previous statement is an adequate perception.
Problem 2
Permeability is a measure of a rock's ability to allow
fluids or gases to move through its pore avenues. Perme-
abi lity is one of the most important petrophysical param-
eters required by reservoir engineers.
Problem 3
Appraisal or confirmation wells are drilled to establish
the areal extent or peripheral margins of a reservoir. The
purpose of the exercise is to define or refine the reserves
and economics to determine if the reservoir should be
developed.
An exploration well can be described as one dril led into
any new geological structure or st ratigraphic trap, sorne-
times including a test of deeper horizons beneath estab-
lished production.
Afrollfier wildcat is a well being drilled in a remote geo-
graphical area; e .g., a geological basin or geographical
area that does not have a history of oil or gas production.
Frontier wi ldcats are also exploration wells.
A rotary drilling rig is one that bores a hole by applying
force (or weight) downward as the drillpipe is rotated
from the surface. This rotating action allows the bit to dig
into the subs urface formations as a continua! circulation
of drilling fluid passes down through the pipe and back
up around the pipe periphery. The circulating fluid acts as
a coolant and lubricant to the bit, and also cleans the cut-
tings from the hole by carrying them to thc surface on the
outer periphery of the drillpipe.
A carbonate reservoir is gcnerally considered to be
limestone, dolomite, or a mi xture of limestone and dolo-
mite (aragonite is not generally recognizable from logs).
Many carbonate reservoirs also contain mixtures of clas-
tics and/or evaporites. The material that forms carbonate
rock is typically formed in the locale of the deposit site.
Chalk and marls are also carbonate rocks.
-285 -
A clastic reservoir is generally considered as one made
of sandstone, shaly sand, or dominantly sandy-type sedi-
ment, but includes silts and c lays. Clastics are materials
that have been transported to the deposit site prior to
burial and preservation.
Problem4
The general responsibiliti es of a reservoir engineer
include the characterizat ion of a reservoir including
reserve cstimates, reservoir maintenance, simulation
studies of reservoir performance under differing circum-
s tances, and often reservoir management.
An exploration geologist is generally regarded as a geol-
ogist whose primary goal is to locate the best geographi-
cal areas to dril! wildcat wells; i.e., he or she is responsi-
ble for studying the geophysical, geological, and other
pertinent data that relate to the geology of their assigned
area. It is their responsibility to recommend the best drill-
ing prospects to oil company management.
A production geologist is generally assigned geological
responsibiliti es for field development. Persons having
this title have very specific or very diversified responsi-
bilities but in general, they work closely with a reservoir
engineer in developing a field. In sorne companies, this
person may serve as the reservoir manager. Exploitation
or development geologi sts might also be production
geologists.
A drilling superintendent is usually a "company man ;"
i.e., an oil company employee who represents the drilling
department. In sorne instanccs, a dri1ling engineer or both
cngineer and superintende nt are present on location.
A toolpusher is usually in charge of a drilling contractor's
rig, but is often responsible for more than one rig. All the
drilling c rews that work his rig are under his command.
Generally, the driller from each tour (pronounced
"tower") reports to the toolpusher.
A rouglmeck is a member of the drilling crew. The size of
the rig determines the number of crew members. Onc
roughneck works in the derrick when a pipe trip or pipe
connection is being performed, whereas the other rough-
necks work on the derrick floor and make the connections
(or disconnection ) of the drillpipe as necessary. Each
roughneck is typically assigned additio nal chores, and ali
report to the drillcr. Drilling personnel are usually
employees of a drilling contractor, but occasionally oil
companies own and maintain their own rigs.
A mud /ogging engineer is generally an on-site represen-
tativc of the mud logging contractor, and provides a ser-
vice that monitors the mud returns as they reach the sur-
face. Samples are also collected and described by mud
loggers. The mud logging engineer is responsible for the
mud log, which includes gas detection measurements, a
description of the rock cuttings, pe netration rate, etc.
A mud engineer is a representative of the contractor who
provides the additives to drilling fluid , and periodically
checks the mud mixtures in addition to reporting the con-
tents. Their most recent mud reporl is usually posted near
the driller's table in the doghouse.
ProblemS
The most common use of log data by geologists is to iden-
tify the depth and apparent thickness ofspecific geological
formations. Secondly, those forrnations are correlated
from well to well and used to construct cross sections,
fence diagrams, isopach rnaps, structure maps, and to
determine preferential directions ofthickening or thinning
for reservoir rocks. The typical geologist uses multiwell
log data mostly for geological purposes, not fo r petro-
physical use. The base log (usually a resistivity device) is
often the only well record that provides continuous overall
coverage of the entire le ngth/depth of the well.
Problem 6
Reservoir engineers are also interested in depth, thick-
ness, and the well-to-well cornparisons. Specific petro-
physical parameters such as porosity (q> ), hydrocarbon
saturation (S,), type of hydrocarbon, and most impor-
tantly permeability (k), are essential to his work. Temper-
ature, pressure, viscosity, reservoir limits, etc. also play
an important role in the volumetric determinations they
must perform.
Problem 7
Various types of core acquisition and core analysis pro-
vide data that are important to both geological and petro-
physical studies. Drillstem tests, mud logs, measurement-
while-dri lling (MWD), sample descriptions, seismic
data, etc. are ali utilized with, or in lieu of, wireline logs.
Problem 8
The costs of casing, cement, tubing, and other parapher-
nalia to lift the oil to the surface may adversely affect the
return on investment in the 10,000 ft well. Less expense
is usually required for a 1,000 ft well; therefore, it offers
a greater chance of profitable return. But, there are many
othe r factors than depth to consider in the economics of
well cornpletions; e.g., geographical location, difficulty
-286-
in drilling, labor costs, weather conditions, political
requirements, environmental considerations, etc.
Problem 9
Filter cake builds up on the wall of a borehole as mud
solids are filtered out of the rnud during the invasion pro-
cess. Where targeted reservoirs are encountered, it is
important that muds be treated to keep cake permeability
low, to rnaintain a stable borehole, and to minirni ze fil-
trate invasion and possible formation damage. Mud cake
should effectively prohibir filtrare particle invasion.
Problem 10
pH is irnportant to mud quality and to rock cuttings, and
it can definitely affect the wall of the borehole in either a
positive or adverse manner. Adverse affects to the
borehole wall can cause difficulty in obtaining valid log
measurements.
Problem 11
The color of shales is informative, especially to those
interested in defining source rock, depositional settings,
reservoir drainage patterns, and the most efficient and
economic means of exploiting a reservoir. The colors of
shale and the rneaning of those colors are:
Yellow or brown are low in iron and organic material.
Green or red are high in iron and Jow in organic
material.
Black or gray owe their color mostly to organic
content.
CHAPTER 2 WORK SESSION (page 84)
Problem 1
Circulated mud samples are preferred because they
should be representative of the fluids used in the drilling
operation just prior to logging.
Problem 2
Representative mud samples are important to log analy-
sis because the measured resisti vities of the mud and mud
filtrate are used to determine invasion profiles, depth of
invasion, to make borehole corrections to Jog measure-
ments, to calculate severa! important parameters, and
often dictare the type of resistivity log that should be run.
 Problem 3
The time that mud and mud ji/trate temperature measure-
ments are made is important because resistivity changcs
with temperatur e. Resistivity decreases as temperatur e
increases and vice versa. Formation temperatur e is typi-
cally much higher than surface temperatur e. Ali resi stiv-
ity values (mud measureme nts at the surface and log
measureme nts downhole) must be converted to a
common temperatur e value for interpretati ve purposes.
Typically, formation temperatur e is the focus of log anal-
ysis, and that temperatur e is used.
Problem 4
The SP is a natural occurring poten tia/. Electroche mical,
and to a lesser degrcc electroki netic forces. originate in
the borehole due to potential differences that occur
between drilling fluid, permeable and impermeab le
rocks, or an electrol yte movement through the rock. The
borehole fluid is generally accepted as the catalyst that
causes the chemical reactions to occur.
Problem S
High gamma ray coums are usually, but not always, rep-
resentative of sha/e zones. Other rock types can contain
highly radioactive minerals, but shales are the most
common sediment to be hi gh in radiation content. Dolo-
mite, limestone, a nd sandstone can be radioactive dueto
certain deposit site or diagenetic conditions.
Problem 6
The para/le/ circuir of the induction measuring system is
mostly influenced by conductive features of the rock
and/or borehole fluid. The series circuir of laterolog mea-
surements is more attracted to resistive properties in the
rock or borehole fluid. lnduction logs can operate in gas,
air, o l-base fluid, or any type of water-base fluid Later-
ologs require water-base drilling fluid.
Problem 7
Fresh mud is generally much less saline than salt mud,
but in the jargon of well Iog analysis, fresh mud is gener-
ally considered the mud type when R,,,is > 3.5 times Rw
Problem 8
The most basic uses of wire line logs are:
( 1) Depth measureme nts to geological formations of
interest and the thickness of those specific horizons.
Such strata are correlated from well to well to
delineate structure, stratigraphy , and the geometry
of reservoirs.
- 287 -
(2) Log data are generally the only permanent record
of ali the formations traversed in a wellbore.
(3) Caliper data provide a record of the borchole size
and in sorne cases, its geometrica l shape; informa-
tion that is often important throughout the life of a
well.
Problem 9
It is very importan! that log headers be filled out as com-
pletely as possible. Much of the information contained on
logs is considered a legal record and must therefore be
accurate. Equipment numbers can be uscd for numerous
tool maintenanc e queries. Depths, casing data, bit size
data, and mud information are ali important to log analy-
sis. Names of the logging engineer(s) and witnesses are
also very important criteria.
Problem 10
If a well is drilled with salt base mud (R111 = 0.03 ohm-m
@ formation temperatur e) and the reservoir connate
water (R 11 , = 0.03 ohm-m @ formation temperatur e), the
Dual Laterolog and Micro Laterolog are the proper resis-
tivity devices that should be recorded. An induction
dcvice wou ld read pessimistic ally low values of resistiv-
ity in pay zones. In water-saturated zones, ali three of the
lateral resistivity devices should read essentially the
same resistivity val ues. However. sorne minor variations
can be expected due to the different spacings and depths
of investigation of the three measuring devices. Remem-
ber that hole size can have an effect on the measurc-
ments, and the hole is filled with very conductive drilling
fluid.
Problem 11
With the same conditions and Problem 10 logs, the three
log traces should react in the following manner across an
oil zone with 35% water saturation:
The Micro Laterolog should read the lowcst resis-
tivity because it is reading the flushed zone (R.w),
mostly saturated with the conductive mud filtratc.
The Laterolog Shallow trace should read somewhat
higher resistivity than the Micro Laterolog because
it is most li kely obtaining most of its measured
signa! from the transition zone where a mixture of
native fluids and mud filtrate occupy the pore
spacc.
The Laterolog Deep trace should record the highest
resistivity of the three curves across the pay inter-
val. Most of its measured signa! comes from the
undisturbed virgin zone where only o il and the
native connate water (Rw) exist.
These considerations assurne that sorne porosity
developrnent exists across the interval, invasion is not
extrernely deep, and the hole size is not abnorrnally large
(< 12-1 /4 in. or 30.8 cm).
Problem 12
Fresh mud conditions (R,)Rw = 20) exist in this example
problem. The induction devices are more suited for use in
these conditions as the laterolog devices would have a
tendency to measure the more resistive mud signal,
whereas the induction measurements tend to be attracted
to the more conductive events that must occur in the for-
mation. Assuming that borehole size, bed thickness, and
invasion depth are normal or corrected for those effects,
the Dual Induction-Focused Log should typically record
the following traces in relation to one another across a
porous and permeable water saturated zone:
The deep-induction trace (RLLo) should read the
lowest resistivity value because it is essentially
unaffected by the higher resistivity rnud (R111 =
1.0 ohm-m) and mud fil trate; i .e., it read the virgin
reservoir conditions that are saturated with very
conductive formation water (Rw = O.OS ohrn-m).
The medium-induction trace (RLLM) should read a
slightly higher value of resistivity compared to the
deep induction because it will probably be some-
what affected by mud filtrate invasion. However, if
invasion is shallow, it may read essentially the
same value as the deep. Keep in rnind that the
medium-induction curve is more severely affected
by borehole size, and that standoffs are essential
for this measurement.
The shallow focused curve (a laterolog eight
device) should read the highest resistivity value
under the stated conditions because of the three
measurements, it is the most affected by the inva-
sion of the higher resistivity mud filtrate. With a
20: 1 ratio of mud-to-connate water resistivity, R FOC
would probably read considerably higher than RnD
Problem 13
Assuming the same conditions as Problem 12, with the
exception of a 25% Sw, the DIFL curves should react as
follows:
Ali three curves could essentially read the same
value if circumstances were just right. RLLD might
read the hi ghest resistivity value in sorne cases, but
considering the 20: 1 ratio of mud-to-connate water,
RLLD would likely read less than RFoc; however,
the spread between RLLD and RFOC would be con-
- 288 -
siderably less than it was in the water-wet condi-
tion of Problem 12. Porosity and permeability are
important functions of what would happen, assum-
ing that borehole size, bed thickness, and invasion
are in the realm of normal circumstance.
Problem 14
This exarnple problem is an unusual situation, but is
known to occur in sorne geographical areas. Salt mud
(Rm = 0.03 ohm-m @ formation temperature) and con-
nate water (Rw = 0.30 ohm-m @ forrnation temperature)
creates a super-saturated salt mud condition insofar as
well log interpretation is concerned. The ratio of Rm to
Rw is 0.1, an extremely saline condition for logging
devices. Induction devices are extremely pessimistic
under such diverse conditions, and are severely affected
by the highly conductive borehole signal. In an oil-bear-
ing reservoir (Sw = 30%), the DIFL would likely lead to a
log analysis that condemned the zone with water satura-
tions of 60 to 80%. The dual laterolog and microlaterolog
are the only logical choices in such extreme conditions of
mud salinity vs. formation salinity. DLL-MLL resistivity
responses could be expected across this zone as follows:
The Micro Laterolog wou ld read the lowest resis-
tivity because it is mostly responding to the very
saline mud filtrare.
The Laterolog Shallow would likely read a some-
what higher value than the microlaterolog because
of the mixture of filtrare and connate fluids that
occupy the rock it receives most of its signa! from.
The Laterolog Deep would read the highest resis-
tivity value across the zone because it is most
affected by virgin zone conditions.
The same log would occur in porous and permeable
water-saturated horizons except that the spread between
each of the curves would be considerably less than the
spread observed in the oil-bearing zone.
CHAPTER 3 WORK SESSION (page 91)
Problem 1
The SP and Dual Induction-Focused Log both indicate
permeable zones as follows,
10060 - 10106 101 37 - 10160
1O163 - 10170

Problem 2
The separation between Deep Laterolog (labeled DLL),
Shallow Laterolog (labeled SLL), and Micro Laterolog
(MLL) indicates permeable zones at the following depth
intervals,
3888 - 3912 and 3922 - 3931
The zone from 3912 to 3915 is possibly permeable, also.
Note that the gamma ray reads high in the 3888 - 3912
and 3912 - 3915 zones. The high radioactivity is proba-
bly caused by high-uranium or high-potassium content;
i.e., the rock is probably not shale. Spectralog data would
clarify the issue.
Problem 3
The caliper indicates a gauge borehole throughout the
interval shown. "Positive separation" (the micronormal
reads higher resistivity values than the microinverse) is
observed at the following depth intervals,
3900-3912 3914-3916 3925-3927 3930-3948
3986-3992 3994-4001 4002-4011 4026-4030
lt is important to recognize thecaliper readings where the
microresistivity traces indicate permeability. Positive
separation is only valid as a permeability index when the
hole is in gauge, and sorne indication of mudcake is
apparent. The other intervals where separation occurs
appear to be "negative separation" and are not indicative
of permeability.
CHAPTER 3 WORK SESSION (page 107)
Problem 1
The kelly bushing (KB) elevation is given as 82 ft above
sea level. The subsea top would be the top of the sand
(8,935 ft) minus the KB elevation, or 8,935 ft - 82 ft =
8,853 ft.
Problem 2
Ground leve] (GL) is given as 39 .5 ft, or 42.5 ft below
KB. The simplest method is to set the depth odometer at
42.5 less than the zero value. On analog logging units,
this might caJl for a 9,957.5 ft reading, which is 42.5 ft
less than the zero reading that the odometer should read
as the too] passes ground leve] on its descent into the
- 289 -
borehole. Computer software should handle the depth
measurements more easily since most log depths are neg-
ative (-); i.e., below sea level.
This is a confusing problem to many young logging engi-
neers, and if they perform their algebra poorly, the error
in depth measurements can easily be twice the difference
between the ground leve! and the KB. Most oil compa-
nies use the KB, rotary table (RT), or sorne such visible
value to zero log measurements, drilling measurements,
etc. There are few who choose to zero logs at ground
leve!, sea leve!, sea floor, etc., but the infrequency of
doing so often leads to serious depth errors. Visual zero
points above the surface still permit accurate subsea ele-
vations (i.e., formation tops, bottoms, etc.) to be made.
Problem3
The top of the sand was selected at a depth of 8,935 ft,
and the bottom of that permeable zone is 8,966 ft, an
apparent sand thickness of 31 ft. However, the shaly
streak from 8,950 ft to 8,953 ft is probably impermeable;
therefore, the net permeable sand thickness is ""43 ft.
CHAPTER 3 WORK SESSION (page 121)
Problem 1
Using the temperature of 210F (99 C) and 292, 196 mg/1
NaCI equivalent, the resistivity of the in-situ connate
water should be approximately 0.015 ohm-meters.
Problem 2
A R 0 value of 5 ohm-m (or 200 mmhos) was selected
from Zone C on the log. This assumes that Zone C is
l 00% water saturated, a reasonable assumption consider-
ing the resistivity profile. Using a given porosity of 14%,
and the 1/<t, 2 formation factor relation, the resultant Rw
calculation should be 0.098 ohm-m.
Problem 3
Using the same R0 and F values but a formation factor
relation of 0.62/<t,2 15 , the resultant Rw calculation should
be 0.117 ohm-m.
Problem 4
Again, using the same R0 , but a porosity value of 17%,
and formatio n factor relation of l/cjl2, the calculated Rw
value should be 0.145 ohm-m.
Comparing these values for Rw illustrates how different CHAPTER 4 WORK SESSION (page 146)
formation factor relations or different porosities affect Rw
calculations, and demonstrate the irnportance of obtain- Problem 1
ing accurate porosity and petrophysical parameters.
A linear calculation, l cR, could be made as follows,
GR-G Rcn 40-15
1GR = GR sh -
GR = 90- 15 = 33 %
en
However, the linear result should be corrected by use of
the empirical c hart (Fig. 4-9). Assu ming the Tertiary age
CHAPTER 3 WORK SESSION (page 136) is correct for this formation, the most correct choice of
answers would be
Problem 1
(d) 11 % - ora similar value ( 12%) if it was calculated .
Using the given data, the resultant Sw values should be
close to or the same values as the following, Problem 2

Resistivity Index Sw = 79% Yirtually every depth leve! is somewhat shaly in depth
intervals that encompass shaly-sand horizons. The clean
Flushed-Zone Method S1v = 10%
line should be selected at the cleanest point. It was
Resistivity ratios remain very useful, although the Sw chosen as 20 API. The value for pure shale was selected
accuracy is often questionable. Recognizing different as 96 API. Using the Problem I equation and empirical
values of resistivity infers the invasion profile, that per- chart to resolve the data given in the example log, the fol-
meability exists, and the relation of one trace to the othe r lowing should resemble your answers
trace(s) can lead to a quic k qualitative determination of
hydrocarbon presence. A comparison of ratio Sws to the Zone GR (API) vsh (%)
more conventional Archie-porosity solutions permits a
more accurate determination of saturation values. A 88 76
B 100 100
Problem 2 e 40 10
D 26 2
Using the tornado c hart (Fig . 3-52), the followi ng values E 22 1
were deterrnined. F 26 2
G 28 4
R/Rxo = 8.0 d == 16 in. R1 = 82.6 H 39 10
53 19
and Sw == 35%, as determined by resisti vity ratios.
Problem 3
Problem 3
These pre-Tertiary carbonates and shales should be inter-
preted with the same equation a nd chart as the previous
Using the tornado chart (Fig. 3-53), the following values
problems, but in this case, the empirical line of the c hart
were de termined.
would differ. As stated in the text, carbonate rocks are
generally clean, and selecting GR values for clean points
d == 53 in. R1 IRw==0.9 R, = 9.0 RXOIR, = 2.0 should encompass most of the low GR response. The
clean value was selected as 25 API, which is probably
Rm= 0.45 @ 180F (82C)
pessi mistic. The pure shale value was selected as
100 API, but mj ght be slightly higher. Nevertheless, your
Given l 0% V fh Sw from the nomogram == 36%. answers should be similar to the following:

Given a shal y sand and porosity value of 16%, the Zone GR (API) vsh (%)
Humble Relation (F = 0.62/qi2 15) is used to determine
Formation Factor as 31.9. Using the conventional Archie A 22 o
relation to determine S1v, B 28 3
e 32 5
S 2 = 31.9 x0.08 = 53 % . D 23 o
\V 9
E 22 o
F 21 1.6

-290-

CHAPTER 4 WORK SESSION (page 149)
Problem 1
The SP trace would not develop sufficiently to be usedfor
shale indication if Rmf"" Rw at formation temperature.
The log curve would show little, if any, deflection from
the shale baseline.
Problem 2
If the resistivity of a permeable formation is 80 ohm-m,
and the mud resistivity at formation temperature is
1.05 ohm-m, it is questionable if the SP would serve as a
reliable shale indicator. The 80: 1 ratio will tend to round
off the SP at bed boundaries, but if the formation is suffi-
ciently thick, an inflection point should be readily identi-
fied at the bed boundaries. However, the 80 ohm-m resis-
tivity could be the result of bracki sh-to-fresh formation
water; i.e., Rw >> Rm at formation temperature. The
higher formation resistivity could also be due to a hydro-
carbons, in which case, the SP may be suppressed.
CHAPTER 4 WORK SESSION (page 163)
NOTE: The following exercises were given and the solu-
tions determined as they are often approached in the real
world, i.e., much of the information is not available, and
as a result, many of the corrections for salinity, tempera-
ture, borehole size, tool type, shale values, etc. are not
made. Rational assumptions can sometimes be made
(usually requiring sorne local interpretative know ledge).
Whenever the proper information is available, it should
be utilized, and neutron data should be properly corrected.
Problem 1
Neutron logs "see" dry gas as low porosity. Remember
that the log measurement responds to hydrogen, and dry
gas contains little orno hydrogen.
Problem 2
Neutron logs "see" shale as high porosity in most cases
because shales contain a great deal of bound water in the
isolated pore spaces; therefore, the hydrogen index is
high.
- 29 1 -
Problem 3
A sidewall neutron log with an apparent limestone poros-
ity of 13% would convert to an apparent sandstone
porosity of 16.5%.
Problem 4
A compensated neutron log that shows 20% apparent po-
rosity on a sandstone scale would be estimated as 16% po-
rosity if the rock were limestone, and 10% if the rock were
dolomite. NOTE: The important points to recognize from
this and the previous exercise are that apparent neutron
porosity increases if converted from a limestone to a sand-
stone matrix, and decreases if converted from sandstone
to limestone, limestone to dolomite, or from sandstone to
dolomite. lt is not recommended that logs be recorded in
dolomite porosity units because (1 ) pure dolomite is rare
in nature and (2) the dolomite line on log interpretation
charts is empirically derived. lt is important to recognize
that neutron logs are no/ only sensitive to pare space, but
they are also very sensitive to lithology and gas.
Problem 5
There is more than one approach to solvi ng this problem,
so the answers given should not be considered absolute;
however, your answers should be approximately the
same as those given below.
Considering a sandstone to have an average of 10% shale
volume, the following results were determined consider-
ing 2435 Compensated Neutron Log data recorded in
porosity units calculated using a limestone matrix param-
eter. Shale porosity was estimated to be 30% for the
purpose of arriving at solutions. The following values
represent the porosity estmate for sandstone, if the above
conditions were reasonable.
$Nis $Nss
(corrected for 10% V5 1,)
(a) 5% 5.5%
(b) 10% 11.5%
(e) 15% 17%
(d) 20% 22.5%
(e) 25% 28%
(f) 30% 32.5%
This exercise was meant to serve three purposes:
(1) Recognize that it is important to accumulate ali the
necessary info rmation for input including too] type.
(2) Recognize the effects of both shale volume and
conversion from limestone to sandstone units.
(3) Demonstrate that the conversion amount is not
linear over normally encountered porosity ranges.
Problem 6
Assuming other effects such as salinity and borehole size
to be compromised, the temperature correction raises the
22% Cf!N!s value to 24.5% Cf!N!s A 2435 series neutron
device and an apparent shale porosity of 30% (after cor-
recting for 20% Vsh and converting to sandstone units of
porosity) would be 23.5% Cf!Nss
CHAPTER 4 WORK SESSION (page 174)
lated using a !:.tm of 50.0 ( 18.7). Recognize the significant
errors in porosity calculations.
The purpose in discussing this is that acoustic data are
roulinely computed using compaction corrections
derivedfrom adjacent shale data, although the sandstone
formation itself may be well consolidated. Do not blindly
execute equations, especially computer programs, with-
out thoroughly analyzing the raw data beforehand. When
possible, porosity calculations from density or density-
neutron crossplots should be compared to acoustic-
derived porosities to determine the accuracy of the acous-
tic calculation. Density and neutron devices are not sub-
ject to compaction corrections.

Problem 1 Problem 3

The fol lowing suggested answers were calculated using a The appropriate matrix transit times to calculate porosity,
Vm = 18,000 ft/sec (t:.tm = 55.6 sec/ft) and the Wyllie consideri ng the given shale values, are
time average equation. Fluid transit time of 189 sec/ft
was assumed and used. No value of Vsh was provided; Afsh (s/ft) Af,n (s/ft)
therefore, the formation must be assumed as clean. As al!
the given !:.t values are 100 or less, the formation can be 95 55.6
accepted as consolidated sandstone.
80 52.5
Af(s/ft) Cf!Ac(o/o)
120 55 .6 with c/J = 1.20
100 33.3
94 28.8
82 19.8
76 15.3
67 8.5

Problem 2 CHAPTER 4 WORK SESSION (page 181)

Given a !:.tsh value of 125 sec/ft , and assuming Problem 1

189 sec/ft for salt-based fluid transit time, the following
Wyllie time average calculations were made using a com-
paction correction (Cp) of 1.25 (see Fig. 4-4 1).
Af (s/ft) Cf!AC (%)
Assuming a fluid density of 1.0 g/cm3 for fresh drilling
fluid and a fluid density of 1.1 g/cm3 for salt-based fluid,
the given Pb values were calculated for the three rock
types and both fluid cases as follows,

104 29 Fresh mud - 1.0 g/cm 3

98 26 Pb Cf!ss Cf!Ls Cf!dol
94 23.5
82 16 2.50 0.09 0.123 0.198
76 12 .5 2.63 0.012 0.046 0 .128
2.28 0.224 0.251 0.316
As menti oned in the text, !:.tm and CP should be applied
following sorne empirically derived rules. Accepting Salt mud - 1.1 g/cm3
that, CP should not be applied to four of the five values Pb Cf!ss Cf!ts Cf!dol
given, and the values of 94 and 98 should be calculated
using a 55.6 !:.tm (yielding porosity values of 31.8 and 2.50 0.095 0.13 0.201
28.8 respectively), the value of 82 should be calcul ated 2.63 0.013 0.05 0.136
using a 52.5 !:.tm ( 19.3), and the value 76 should be calcu- 2.28 0.238 ' 0.267 0.333

- 292 -
.
Problem 2 Porosity Lithology Mixture

Given as fresh mud, the following porosity values were Pb = 2.40, <l>Na = 0.10 15% Sandstone
calculated from the given input data of Pe and pb:
Pb = 2.30, <l>Na =0.20 22% 90% sand, 10% shale
Pe Pb <I> Pb = 2.20, <l>Na = 0.25 28% 90% sand, l 0% shale
1.8 2.25 0.24 Pb = 2.20, <l>Na = 0.10 24% Corrected gas-affected
4.3 2.50 0.145 data (using 15 slope
3.1 2.60 0.14 from the horizontal)
4.8 2.54 0.10
Pb= 2.15, <l>Na = 0.30 31 % 85% sand, 15% shale
Problem 3
1 9 ~ -- - - ~ - - ~ - ~ - - 4~5- - ~
Given as salt mud, the following Pe values apparently p = 1.0g/cm3
relate to the lithology indicated:

Apparent Lithology

1.8 Sandstone
3.1 Dolomite
5.0 Limestone

CHAPTER 5 WORK SESSION (page 197)

Problem 1

The charted graph is filled in below. Shaly limestones are

generally laminated shales that are sandwiched between
the cleaner carbonate rock; therefore, a laminated model
was sketched.

1.00

1.20

1.40 2.9 1------1-----1---- -+-------,f----+-- ~

1.60
3.0 .___ __,__ __..__ _..,___ ___._ __,___ _____,
1.80 -10 o 10 30 40 50
pb
2.00
l
2.20

2.40
Problem 3
2.60

2.80 The plotted points (pagel99) should result in the follow-

3.000
ing approximations of the given data:
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
~N (%)
<l>eff vsh <l>1am
Pb = 2.50, t.t =73 8% 15% 10%
Problem 2 Pb = 2.52, t.t =93 6% 70% 17%
Pb = 2.41, t.t = 80 14% 15% 16%
Using the established Vsh lines on the next chart, the fol-
lowing porosity and lithology mixtures were estimated Pb = 2.54, t.t =74 5.5% 25% 7.5%
from the chart: Pb = 2.57, t.t =72 4% 25 % 5%

- 293-
.
Problem 4 CHAPTER 5 WORK SESSION (page 210)

The following values of porosity and lithology mix were Problem 1

determined from the neutron-de nsity crossplot:
Using the salt mud lithology points on the M-N crossplot
Apparent (2435 series neutron tool), the following lithologies
Log Values Lithology Porosity should be anticipated:

(1) Pb =2.52, <l>Nls = 0.11 Limestone 11 % Apparent Lithology

(2) Pb =2.70, <l>N!s =0.05 50-50 Limestone 3.5% M = 0.83, N = 0.57 50-50 mix of dolomite and
and Dolomite limestone

(3) Pb =2.15, <l>Nls =0.35 Dolomitic lime 33.5% M =0.75, N = 0.54 Dolomitic anhydrite mixture

M = 0.81, N = 0.57 Sandy dolomite or dolomite

(4) Pb =2.20, <l>Nls =0.24 Limey sand 22.5% with gas affect or rugose hole
affecting log response
(5) Pb =2.60, <l>N!s = 0.22 Dolomite 14%
M = 0.72, N = 0.55 anhydrite
The lithology mixture could be different from that sug-
gested. For example, (3) could easily be a dolomitic sand, M =0.86, N =0.60 Limestone or slightly
but <I> would still be about 34 %, only slightly different dolomitic limestone
than the result. This points out the attributes of the neu-
tron-density crossplot value; i.e. , porosity sol utions The above answers should support earlier statements that
remain reasonably accurate, despite gross error in lithol- lithology is an approximation, and that other evidence
ogy estimate. must be included to determine the correct answer.

Problem 5 Problem 2

The predictions made below are based on probabilities of Using the given data, the following litho logy estimates
certain minerals and clay types clustering in certain areas could be made:
of the chart.
Apparent Lithology
Data clustered near the ( 1) are probably dispersed
clays that reduced porosity and permeability (illite Pmaa = 2.80, /j,fmaa = 48 A mixture of limestone and
or mi xed !ayer clays are the probable clay types). anhydrite, or gas affected
dolomite, borehole rugosity
Data clustered near the (2) fall below the shale line
effect on dolomite, or sandy
at very low apparent porosity, a subtle hint that
dolomite are ali possibilities.
these data are most likely representative of a tight
lime or anhydri tic streak.
Pmaa = 2.77, /j,fmaa = 46 50-50 mix of limestone and
Data clustered near the (3) are very porous and dolomite
slightl y shaly; the shales are perhaps representative
of laminae or structural clay mixture. Clay type is Pmaa = 2.62, /j,fmaa =59 Gas affect in a sandstone or
most li kely montmorillonite. perhaps rugose borehole
effect
The data represented by (4) demonstrate a slight
gas affect or perhaps clean sand. Remember, statis- P maa = 2.94, /j,tmaa = 48 Mostly anhydrite, possibly
tical fluctuations occur with nuclear tools. mixed with sorne dolomite

Statistical variation could affect data near (5) also.
The arbitrary shale line might be constructed a
little high for the overall data. The data would
be classified as 100% shale and could consist of
illite, mixed layers, chlorite, kaolinite, or any
combination.
Pmaa = 2. 16, /j,fmaa = 65 Mostly salt
It should be obvious that MID plot data have better reso-
lution than the M-N crossplot, but the results still remain
ambiguous in many circumstances. Other information is
needed to determine which answer is most probable.

- 294 -
.
Problem 3 Problem 6

Using the Z-density data below, the followrng results Using the given chart, and considering no shale volume,
were determined: the following lithology was estimated using the results of
Problems 4 and 5:
Lithology Porosity
Apparent Lithology
Zone 1: Pe = 3.0, Pb =2.40 Dolomite 24.5%
Zone 1: Umaa = 8.0, Pmaa = 2.77 Slightly sandy, very
Zone 2: Pe= 1.8, Pb = 2.36 Sandstone 18%
limey dolomite
Zone 3: Pe= 4.6, Pb =2.48 Limestone 14%
Zone 2: Umaa = 5.0, Pmaa = 2.67 Sandstone or quartz-
Zone 4: Pe= 5.0, Pb =2.65 Limestone 3.5% dorninated rock type

Zone 5: Pe = 1.8, Pb =2.17 Sandstone 29% Zone 3: Umaa = 13.0, Pmaa = 2.79 Dolomitic limestone,
possibly anhydritic
Problem 4
Zone 4: Umaa = 14.0, Pmaa = 2.74 Limestone
Using the Problem 3 density data along with neutron
porosity (lime), the following apparent porosity (<l>app) Zone 5: Umaa =4.5, Pmaa =2.59 Sandstone or quartz-
and Pmaa were determined: dominated rock type
with sorne possible
<l>app Pmaa gas effect

Zone 1 Pb =2.40, <l>N = 0.23 20.5% 2.77 lt should be apparent that lithology accuracy increases
Dolomitic limestone with more data; however, with the abundance of informa-
tion acquired, questions still arise in regard to lithology
Zone 2: Pb =2.36, <l>N =0.15 18.5% 2.67 accuracy.
Slightly shaly sand

Zone 3: Pb = 2.48, <l>N = 0.19 16% 2.79

50-50 Dolomite and
limestone
CHAPTER 5 WORK SESSION (page 231)
Zone 4: Pb =2.65, <l>N = 0.06 5% 2.74
Dolomitic limestone Problem 1

28%** 2.59 Given a known lithology mixture of limestone, dolomite,

Sandstone with gas sand, silt, clay, and sorne anhydrite (probably from
effects sample description), and log data that includes DLL,
MLL, GR, ZDL, CN, and acoustic data, the following
Problem 5 interpretation models would probably be selected.

Using the Pmaa values determined in Problem 4 and the
<l>a values determined in Problem 3, along with the given
Pb values in both those problems, an approximate matrix
volumetric (Umaa) was determined from the chart as fol-
lows:
Umaa
Calcite-Dolomite Quartz Model and anhydrite-Calcite-
Dolomite
The presence of anhydrite may be mini mal, but to verify
it, the second model should be entertained to determine
its effect on log responses. With gamma ray only, clay
typing is made more difficult.

Zone 1 9.5 A natural gamma spectroscopy log would enhance the

Zone 2 6.0 determination of shale volume and clay typing.
Zone 3 13.0
Zone4 13.5 Acoustic data can help determine sorne petrology-miner-
Zone 5 6.4 alogy content by using it to perform a MID plot analysis

- 295 -
(w ith density and neutron data included), and also to
create a shaly sand plot. Comparisons of the MID plot
li thology and the complex lithology plot should improve
the lithology description.
Problem 2
Most crossplots are more easily utili zed with computer
facilities. The complex M-N, MIO plot, Umaa vs. Pmaa
along with Spectralog KUTh data are almost unmanage-
able by manual interpretation methods. The crossplots
used to verify the accuracy of log computation results are
also more adaptable to computer faci lities.

From the Pe vs. Th/K chart provided, the following min-

eral estimates were made.
CHAPTER 6 WORK SESSION (page 260)
Pe Th/K ratio Estimate of Minerals
Problem 1
6.2 0.86 Glauconite
3.5 2.0 lllite
Given values of 0.05 for Rw @ formation temperature,
2.5 >12.0 Mixed layer clays
6.2 m = 2 , n = 2, and a = 1, the following Sw values were
10.0 Chlorite
calculated:
2.0 12.5 Kaolinite

Problem 3 Ri $(%) Sw(%)

Crossplots have severa} attributes, including ZoneA 55 22 14

Zone B 20 12 42
lmproved porosity values from log measurements ZoneC 220 8 19
Zone D 8 18 44
Improved concept of lithology mi x, including sha- Zone E 5 10 100
liness
Problem 2
Methods to judge log quality from well to well
during development drilling Given R..,= 0.12 @ formation temperature, the following
Sw values were calcul ated from the g iven data for each
De termination of a, m, Rw, !:i.t,m Pm, Sw, Sxo etc. zone; first with the Ridgefield relation and second with
with the proper crossplot and circumstances the Humble relation:

The most useful crossplots for quick-look, well -site eval- Ridgefield Humble
uations are R, $(%) Sw(%) Sw(o/o)

Density vs. neutron for porosity, gas detection, and ZoneA 20 28 25 24

lithology mix
Zone B 30 103 LOO
ZoneC 15 15 54 54
Acoustic vs. densi ty for shale volume determina-
Zone D 12 12 75 77
tion and effective porosity in shal y sand e nviron-
me nts
Problem 3
Acoustic vs. neutron for porosity, gas detection,
and lithology mix especially in radioactive dolo- Given values of a = 0.8 1, m = 2, n = 2, Rw = 0.05 @ for-
mites mation temperature, q> = 25%, R 1 = l O ohm-m, B = 16,
and Qv = 1.27, the fo llowing Sw values were determined
Hing le or Pickett plots for well-to-well quality con- using a conventional Archie relation and the Wax ma n-
trol, quick estimates of Sw, matrix type, q>, Rw, etc. Smits equation:

M-N and/or MID plots can be used to spot-check Archie Sw Waxman-Smits Sw

lithology mix when acoustic, neutron, and density
are all available 25% 9%

Pe vs. Pb for more acc urate matrix determination to The above exercise should also demonstrate the conve-
calculate porosity from density data nie nce of using computers to process complex data.

- 296 -
,.
Problem 4
Given a 200 MHz Dielectric too!, <I> = 30%, tpma =
7.5 ns/m, tpw = 85 ns/m, tpl = 17.5 ns/m, and tph = 5 ns/m,
the following values were determined from the chart,
(1) Porosity was determined from density only; the
2.79 matrix value being equivalent to a 50-50 mix-
ture of limestone and dolomite. Porosity values
could be pessimistic in depth intervals where the
lithology is mostly dolornite.

(2) The Archie relation F = llf is a reasonable starting

point for log calculations in carbonates, but most
dolomites, and zones with sucrosic, oomoldic,
Problem 5
and/or vuggy porosity are often found to have m
values > 2, and the saturation exponent n is often
Given Pma = 41 , Pw = 466, P = 96, and Ph = 0.3, the fol- > 2 if oil-wet conditions exist in the pore throats.
lowing value was calculated,
(3) Connate water resistivity (Rw) could also be erro-
Ptf = 224 neous. Ali other parameters being acceptable, an
Rw value near 0.08 ohm-m would be needed to
Problem 6 raise Sw to 100%.

The induction resistivity is more likely pessimistic than

Given Ph = 0.3, Pw = 466, and the 224 value calculated optimistic; i.e., its measurements are affected by very
for Pf in Problem 5, the following saturation resulted, conductive borehole fluids. A laterolog device would be
more suitable for the fluid parameters given, and would
Sw=48% lead to more accurate Sws in the pay zone.

Problem 7

Depth (m) <I> (%) Sw (%)

CHAPTER 7 WORK SESSION (page 272)
3000 23 43
3001 22 42 Problem 1
3002 24 38 Should produce water-
3003 22 41 free oil More information is needed before a realistic answer can
3004 24 38 be provided, but if the porosity values vary somewhat,
3005 22 52 and grain size/lithology is fairly homogeneous, the Sw vs.
3006 20 58 <I> plot will usually provide good information.
3007 18 74
3008 19 83 Transition zone Problem 2
3009 21 80
3010 If grain size or lithology vary within the reservoir, the
22 78
plot of Sw vs. <I> can still provide valid information, but
3011 24 83
different grain sizes or differing lithologies will have dif-
3012 23 93
ferent hyperbol as that represent Sw for that particular
3013 22 98
segment of the reservoir.
3014 23 101 Ali water
3015 21 102 Problem 3
3016 23 100
The following permeability values were determined by
Sorne of the transitional interval may produce essentially chart, but should also represent the approximate value of
water-free for sorne period of time before water influx those calculated by the equations:
begins.
Morris-Biggs Timor
k (md) k (md)
Problem 8
ZoneA 45 80
Assuming that the ol-water contact is actually at the ZoneB 400 550
9,820 ft depth, Sws from that point downward should be ZoneC 1.2 4.2
100%. The reasons for not calculating as high a value are ZoneD 3000 4000
probably one or more of the following: ZoneE 18 38

- 297 -
.
Problem 4

From the chart, a 180,000 ppm solution @ 200F should

equate to
0.46 cp viscosity

Problem 5

In a zone with Sw =60% and Sw = 20%, the relative per-

meability to oil should be approximately
0.18

Problem 6

A zone containing 35 API oil, and having a Sw = 50%

and S;w = 20%, should have a
WATER CUT "" 45%

Problem 7

Given saturation and density-neutron porosity val ues for

each of the following zones, the fo llowi ng hydrocarbon
densities and predictions of production could be made:

P11 Predicted Production

ZoneA 0.70 Medium-gravity oil

Zone B 0.53 Liquid condensate or high-gravity

oil with a high GOR

ZoneC 0.49 Liquid condensate or high-gravity

oil with a high GOR

ZoneD 0.64 Medium gravity oil with a high

GOR or low-gravity oil

Zone E 0.73 Medium-gravity oil

Obviously, the above answers need sorne added informa-

tion to interpret the relationship of Ph more precisely.

Problem 8

A well l 0,000 ft deep could be estimated to have about

5,000 psi , and coupled with 200F temperature, gas den-
sity would be estimated at

Pg= 0.19 g/cm3

Problem 9

With an estimated 3,000 psi pressure and l 60F forma-

tion temperature, gas density would be estimated at

Pg = 0.15 g/cm 3

-298 -
,,.
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- 307 -
219. Worthington, P. F.: "The Evolution of Shaly-Sand
Concepts in Reservoir Evaluation," The Log Ana-
lysl (January-February 1985).
220. Worthington, P. F., Toussaint-Jackson, J. E., and
Pallat, N.: "Effect of Sample Preparation U pon Sat-
uration Exponent in the Magnus Field, UK North
Sea," Trans., 10th European Formation Evaluation
Symposium, Aberdeen, Scotland ( 1986).
221. Wyllie, M. R. J.: "A Quantitative Analysis of the
Electrochemical Component of the SP Curve,"
Trans., SPE (l 948).
222. Wyllie, M. R. J.: "A Statistical Study of the Accu-
racy of Sorne Connate Water Resistivity Determi-
nations Made from S.P. Log Data," AAPG Bulletin
(November 1949).
223. Wyllie, M. R. J.: "An Investigation of the Electro-
kinetic Component of the S.P. Curve," JPT (Janu-
ary 1951).
224. Wyllie, M. R. J.: "Clay Technology in Well Log
lnterpretation," paper presented at the National
Conference of Clays and Clay Technology, Univ.
of California ( 1952).
225. Wyllie, M. R. J.: "Procedure for the Direct
Employment of Neutron Log Data in Electric Log
Interpretation," Geophysics (October 1952).
226. Wyllie, M. R. J. and Gregory, A. R.: "Formation
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227. Wyllie, M. R. J. and Southwick, P. F.: "An Experi-
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228. Wyllie, M. R. J., Gregory, A. R., and Gardner, L.
W.: "Elastic Wave Velocities in Heterogeneous and
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229. Wyllie, M. R. J., Gregory, A. R., and Gardner, G.
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230. Wyllie, M. R. J. and Rose, W. D.: "Sorne Theoreti-
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1950).
231. Zernanek, J.: "The Borehole Televiewer - A New
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232. Zernanek, J., Strozeski, B. , and Wang, Z.: "The

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Index

A conductivity correction charts 60-68

absolute permeability 6 confirmation wells 24
acoustic Iogs, connate water resistivity 108-119
clay effects 185 coring 38-41
long-spaced 169-17 l core data 31, 38-41
measurements 78-79, 81, 101 , 103-104, 164-171 critica! water saturation 265-266
porosity 171-175 crossplots,
compaction correction 172-173 construction 186-196, 21
aerial surveys 23-24 gas detection 187, 189-190
air-drilled holes 19 lithology estimates 187-209, 216-231
API test facility 140-142, 149-150 porosity determination 187-196
appraisal wells 24 saturation determination 189-194
Archie, shale/clay determination 187-196
formation factor relationship 117, 124, 184 special (mica) 229-230
saturationequation 123, 125,135,184 cycle skipping, acoustics 167-168

B D
bacteria, drilling fluid 19-20 d'A rcy Law 5
bed boundaiies 92-98 delta t (!:.t) stretch, acoustics 168
bed thickness 92-98 density,
borehole compensation, acoustic d evices 165-167 clay effects 185
bulk density (Pb) 176-181 measurements 78, 81, 101-102, 105-107, 175-183
porosity 180-183
depth control 7, 43-44, 275-283
e depth measurement 7, 43-44, 275-283
cable too! rigs 1O development wells 26
caliper measurements 52-56 dielectric
carbonate rocks 36-38 measurements 80, 82, 99
cation exchange coefficient (CEC) 246-247 saturation methods 248-256
cementation exponent 184 dip measurements 81, 83
checking the results 263-267 dispersed clay model 193-194
chemical weathering 3 dispersed shale correction, acoustic logs 174-175
chert 36 disposal wells 27
clastics 31-36 directional drilling 20
Clavier-Coates saturation (dual water model) drillers measurements 44-46
equation 234 drilling,
clay analysis 217-226 engineer 8-9
compaction correction, acoustic logs 172-173 fluids 9, 15-21
compensated objectives 8-9
acoustic (see acoustic) rigs 8-15
density (see density) superintendent 8-9
neutron (see neutron) dual induction 57-59
Compton scattering 176-177 dual laterolog 58-60
conductivity 52, 57-59 dual-phase induction 95-96

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 E hydrocarbon type 271-273
effective porosity 4 hydrogen sulfide (H2S) 19-20
effective perrneability 6
electrofacies 43-44
Electrolog 53 I
electron density 176, 178, 180 irnaging 81-83
elevations 44-45 induction rneasurements 57-59
evaporites 36 induction electric resistivity ratio method 129
exploration wells 23-24 injection wells 26-27
interpretation of resul ts 264-273
irreducible water saturation 265-266
F
filtercake 17,33,35
fluid loss 18 J
fluid sampling 80, 82 Juhasz saturation equation 234
flushed zone saturation method 125, 128-129
formaldehyde 20
Formation Multi-Tester (FMT) 80, 82 K
formation resistivity factor (F) 123-124. 184 KCI drilling fluid 19
Free Fluid Index 257
freshwater-based drilling fluids 18
frontier wildcats 23 L
laminar sand-shale model 193
laminated shale correction, acoustic logs 174
G laterolog 58-60
gamma ray, lithology analysis 102, 106-107, 185, 217-230
measurements 76-77, 99- IO l long-spaced acoustic logs 169-171
calibration pit (U. of Houston) 140- 142
shale volu me determination 137-146
spectroscopy 76, 78, 100- 103, 217-226 M
spectroscopy, shale volurne determination 137- 143 magnetic resonance,
gas detection methods I O1, 105 measurements 257
gas-drilled holes 19 analysis 257
gas storage wells 28 magnetics surveys 23-25
geological traps 29 marker beds 36
geology 21 measured thickness 7-8
geophysics 21, 23-26 measurement-while-drilling (MWD) 20-2 1
geothermal energy wells 29 mechanical weathering 3
global tectonics 3 microlog 96-97
gravity surveys 23-25 microlaterolog 96-97, 99
Micro Laterolog 96-97, 99
Mineral Identification Plot (MIO Plot) 203-204
H Minilog 96-97
header information 44-46 mining exploration wells 28
Hingle plot 237-240 M-N Crossplot 202-203
Horner plot 53 Morris-Biggs perrneability equation 267
Humble relationship 117 movable hydrocarbons 236, 245, 256, 264

- 3 10-
mud, porosity, neutron l 49
additives 9, l 6-19 potassium chloride drilling fluid 19
measure ments 49-52 pore shape 4
scavengers 19-20 pore size 4
weight 9, 16-17 porosity 3-5
weighting agents 19-20 Poupon and Leveaux saturation equation 234
mud cup princ ipie 47-52 pressure maintenance 26-27
mud logging 20-22 pressure measurements 80, 82
mud return logs 20-22 proximity log 96, 98-99

N R
natural gamma ray (see gamma ray) radar imagery 24
natural gamma ray spectroscopy re lative permeability 6
(see gamma ray spectroscopy) relief wells 26
neutron , remarks section , header 26
calibration 153 reserve estimates 8
calibration pit (U. of Houston) 149-150 reservoir,
clay effects 185 geometry 7
correction charts 153- 163 rock properties 3-7
measurements 79-82, 1O1, 105-106, 149-163 thickness 7
porosity determination 149 residua l ol saturation 236, 245,257,264
sha le volume determination 163 resistivity
noise, acoustic 167 defined 52, 58-60
concept 46-47
correction c harts 60-68
o fo rmation water 108- 1 19
oil-based drilling fluids 18 invasion profiles 65, 67, 69-75
oil-wet grains 258-259 measurements 52-53
overbalanced, drilling 9 tornado charts 7 1-74, 130- 135
Resistivity Index 123- 124
Ridgefield relationship 1 17
p rig time 9
pair production 176 Rocky Mt. saturation method 125- 127
permeab i li ty 4-7, 25 7 rotary drilling ri gs 9, 11-16
permeability concept, Wyllie-Rose 265 rotary rig components 9, 11 - 12, 14-16
permeability estimates 257, 267-268 roughnecks 8-9
permeable bed identification 87-9 l , 257
petrophysical parameters 184
pH 18 s
phosphates 36 salt-based drilling fluids 18- 19
photoelectric absorption 176, 178, 180 salt formations 36
Pickett plot 240-244 satellite reconnaissance 23
pore geometry exponent 184 saturation,
porosityanalysis 102, 105 , 107, 149, 171 - 175, defi ned 6-7, 233-260,
180- 183, 185, 257 critica] 265-266
porosity, acoustic 171-175 dual water model 234 , 247
porosity, density 180- 183 exponent(n) 123,257-259

-3 11 -
 F overlay method 246 w
flushed zone 236, 256 waste disposal wells 27
Hingle plot 237-240 water-wet grains 258-259
Indonesian (Poupon-Leveaux) 234, 248 waterflood 27
irreducible 265-266 water loss 18
low salinity reservoirs 248-256 water supply wells 28
magnetic resonance 257 Wentworth's Grain Size Scales 138
Pickett plot 240-244 Waxman and Smits saturation equation 234
Rwa method 243, 245-246 wettability 258-259
resistivity ratio methods 124-129 wildcat wells 23-24
Waxman-Smits 246-247 wireline depth control 7, 275-283
sedimentary rocks 3 Wyllie-Rose permeability concept 265
sedimentation 31 Wyllie Time Average Equation 17 l
seismic 23-24, 26
Self Potential 75-76
shale correction, acoustic logs 174-175 z
shale volume calculation 137-163, 174-175, Z-Densilog (see density)
sidewall neutron (see neutron)
Simandoux saturation equation 234
spherically focused logs 94-95
spine and ribs correction, density 177
Spontaneous Potential 75-76
SP curve 75-76
SP shale volume determination 147- 149
static formation temperature 50, 53
stratigraphy 31
structural geology 29-30

T
temperature effects 47-53
TBRT (thin bed resistivity too!) 96, 98
Timur permeability equation 267-268
toolpushers 8-9
true formation resistivity (R 1) 121-123, 130- 135
true stratigraphic thickness 7 -8
true vertical thickness 7-8

u
underground storage wells 28

V
velocity inversion, acoustic 168
viscosity 17-18
vugs 36-37

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