PELAGIO, MARIA MIKAELA V.

ASSIGNMENT 1 MIDTERM
CASTING

Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow
cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is
ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials are usually metals or various cold
setting materials that cure after mixing two or more components together; examples
are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be
otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.

Casting is a 6000-year-old process. The oldest surviving casting is a copper frog from 3200 BC.

Resin casting is a method of plastic casting where a mold is filled with a liquid synthetic resin, which then hardens.
It is primarily used for small-scale production like industrial prototypes and dentistry. It can be done by
amateur hobbyists with little initial investment, and is used in the production of collectible toys, models and figures, as
well as small-scale jewelry production.

The synthetic resin for such processes is a monomer for making a plastic thermosetting polymer. During the setting
process, the liquid monomer polymerizes into the polymer, thereby hardening into a solid.

Single-monomer resins may be used in the process, which form homopolymers (polymers containing only one type of
polymer). In such uses, the "curing agent" mixed with the resin contains what is loosely referred to as a "catalyst," but
which is more technically an initial source of free radicals (such as MEKP) to act as an initiator in a free-radical
chemical chain reaction polymerization. Alternately, resin casting may be accomplished with a resin plus a nearly
equal amount of a "hardener" liquid (as in many epoxy resin or polyester resin systems), which functionally contains
a second polymer, for use in forming a final product plastic which is a copolymer. Copolymers contain two different
alternating chemical entities in the final polymer molecule.

Most commonly a thermosetting resin is used that polymerizes by mixing with a curing agent (polymerization catalyst)
at room temperature and normal pressure. The resins are named by analogy with plant resins, but are synthetic
monomers for making polymer plastics. The so-called synthetic resins used
include polystyrene resin, polyurethane resin, epoxy resin, unsaturated polyester resin, acrylic resin and silicone
resin.
Epoxy resin has a lower viscosity than polyurethane resin; polyester resin also shrinks markedly while curing. Acrylic
resin, in particular the methyl methacrylate type of synthetic resin, produces acrylic glass (also called PMMA, Lucite,
Plexiglass), which is not a glass but a plastic polymer that is transparent, and very hard. It is suitable for embedding
objects (such as, for example, acrylic trophies), for display purposes. Styrene is a similar liquid monomer at room
temperature, which will also polymerize into clear glass-like polystyrene plastic, with addition of a suitable catalyst.

A flexible mold can be made of latex rubber, room temperature vulcanized silicone rubber or other similar materials at
relatively low cost, but can only be used for a limited number of castings.
The simplest method is gravity casting where the resin is poured into the mold and pulled down into all the parts by
gravity. When the two part resin is mixed air bubbles tend to be introduced into the liquid which can be removed in
a vacuum chamber. The casting can also be done in a vacuum chamber (when using open molds) to either extract
these bubbles, or in a pressure pot, to reduce their size to the point where they aren't visible. Pressure and/or
centrifugal force can be used to help push the liquid resin into all details of the mold. The mold can also be vibrated
to expel bubbles.
Each unit requires some amount of hands-on labor, making the final cost per unit produced fairly high. This is in
contrast to injection molding where the initial cost of creating the metal mold is higher, but the mold can be used to
produce a much higher number of units, resulting in a lower cost per unit.

Types

Metal
In metalworking, metal is heated until it becomes liquid and is then poured into a mold. The mold is a hollow cavity
that includes the desired shape, but the mold also includes runners and risers that enable the metal to fill the mold.
The mold and the metal are then cooled until the metal solidifies. The solidified part (the casting) is then recovered
from the mold. Subsequent operations remove excess material caused by the casting process (such as the runners
and risers).

Plaster, concrete, or plastic resin

Plaster and other chemical curing materials such as concrete and plastic resin may be cast using single-
use waste molds as noted above, multiple-use 'piece' molds, or molds made of small rigid pieces or of flexible
material such as latex rubber (which is in turn supported by an exterior mold). When casting plaster or concrete, the
material surface is flat and lacks transparency. Often topical treatments are applied to the surface. For example,
painting and etching can be used in a way that give the appearance of metal or stone. Alternatively, the material is
altered in its initial casting process and may contain colored sand so as to give an appearance of stone. By casting
concrete, rather than plaster, it is possible to create sculptures, fountains, or seating for outdoor use. A simulation of
high-quality marble may be made using certain chemically-set plastic resins (for example epoxy or polyesterwhich
are thermosetting polymers) with powdered stone added for coloration, often with multiple colors worked in. The latter
is a common means of making washstands, washstand tops and shower stalls, with the skilled working of multiple
colors resulting in simulated staining patterns as is often found in natural marble or travertine.

Fettling

Raw castings often contain irregularities caused by seams and imperfections in the molds, as well as access ports for
pouring material into the molds. The process of cutting, grinding, shaving or sanding away these unwanted bits is
called "fettling". In modern times robotic processes have been developed to perform some of the more repetitive
parts of the fettling process. but historically fettlers carried out this arduous work manually, and often in conditions
dangerous to their health.
Fettling can add significantly to the cost of the resulting product, and designers of molds seek to minimize it through
the shape of the mold, the material being cast, and sometimes by including decorative elements.

Casting process simulation

Casting process simulation uses numerical methods to calculate cast component quality considering mold filling,
solidification and cooling, and provides a quantitative prediction of casting mechanical properties, thermal stresses
and distortion. Simulation accurately describes a cast components quality up-front before production starts. The
casting rigging can be designed with respect to the required component properties. This has benefits beyond a
reduction in pre-production sampling, as the precise layout of the complete casting system also leads to energy,
material, and tooling savings.

The software supports the user in component design, the determination of melting practice and casting methoding
through to pattern and mold making, heat treatment, and finishing. This saves costs along the entire casting
manufacturing route.
Casting process simulation was initially developed at universities starting from the early '70s, mainly in Europe and in
the U.S., and is regarded as the most important innovation in casting technology over the last 50 years. Since the
late '80s, commercial programs (such as AutoCAST and MAGMA) are available which make it possible for foundries
to gain new insight into what is happening inside the mold or die during the casting process.
PELAGIO, MARIA MIKAELA V.
ASSIGNMENT #2 MIDTERM

EXTRUSION
Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A material is pushed through a die of
the desired cross-section. The two main advantages of this process over other manufacturing processes are its
ability to create very complex cross-sections, and to work materials that are brittle, because the material only
encounters compressive and shear stresses. It also forms parts with an excellent surface finish.
Drawing is a similar process, which uses the tensile strength of the material to pull it through the die. This limits the
amount of change which can be performed in one step, so it is limited to simpler shapes, and multiple stages are
usually needed. Drawing is the main way to produce wire. Metal bars and tubes are also often drawn.
Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indefinitely long material) or semi-continuous (producing many
pieces). The extrusion process can be done with the material hot or cold. Commonly extruded materials
include metals, polymers, ceramics, concrete, modelling clay, and foodstuffs. The products of extrusion are generally
called "extrudates".
Hollow cavities within extruded material cannot be produced using a simple flat extrusion die, because there would
be no way to support the centre barrier of the die. Instead, the die assumes the shape of a block with depth,
beginning first with a shape profile that supports the center section. The die shape then internally changes along its
length into the final shape, with the suspended center pieces supported from the back of the die. The material flows
around the supports and fuses together to create the desired closed shape.
The extrusion process in metals may also increase the strength of the material.

TYPES
Hot extrusion
Hot extrusion is a hot working process, which means it is done above the material's recrystallization temperature to
keep the material from work hardening and to make it easier to push the material through the die. Most hot extrusions
are done on horizontal hydraulic presses that range from 230 to 11,000 metric tons (250 to 12,130 short tons).
Pressures range from 30 to 700 MPa (4,400 to 101,500 psi), therefore lubrication is required, which can be oil or
graphite for lower temperature extrusions, or glass powder for higher temperature extrusions. The biggest
disadvantage of this process is its cost for machinery and its upkeep.[1]
The extrusion process is generally economical when producing between several kilograms (pounds) and many tons,
depending on the material being extruded. There is a crossover point where roll forming becomes more economical.
For instance, some steels become more economical to roll if producing more than 20,000 kg (50,000 lb).[2]
Cold extrusion
Cold extrusion is done at room temperature or near room temperature. The advantages of this over hot extrusion are
the lack of oxidation, higher strength due to cold working, closer tolerances, better surface finish, and fast extrusion
speeds if the material is subject to hot shortness.[1]
Materials that are commonly cold extruded
include: lead, tin, aluminum, copper, zirconium, titanium, molybdenum, beryllium, vanadium, niobium, and steel.
Examples of products produced by this process are: collapsible tubes, fire extinguisher cases, shock
absorber cylinders and gear blanks.
Warm extrusion
Warm extrusion is done above room temperature, but below the recrystallization temperature of the material the
temperatures ranges from 800 to 1800 F (424 to 975 C). It is usually used to achieve the proper balance of
required forces, ductility and final extrusion properties.[3]
Microextrusion
Microextrusion is a microforming extrusion process performed at the submillimeter range. Like extrusion, metal is
pushed through a die orifice, but the resulting product's cross section can fit through a 1mm square. Several
microextrusion processes have been developed since microforming was envisioned in 1990. Forward (ram
and billet move in the same direction) and backward (ram and billet move in the opposite direction) microextrusion
were first introduced, with forward rod-backward cup and double cup extrusion methods developing later. Regardless
of method, one of the greatest challenges of creating a successful microextrusion machine is the manufacture of the
die and ram. "The small size of the die and ram, along with the stringent accuracy requirement, needs suitable
manufacturing processes." Additionally, as Fu and Chan pointed out in a 2013 state-of-the-art technology review,
several issues must still be resolved before microextrusion and other microforming technologies can be implemented
more widely, including deformation load and defects, forming system stability, mechanical properties, and other size-
related effects on the crystallite (grain) structure and boundaries.
PELAGIO, MARIA MIKAELA V.
ASSIGNMENT# 6

FOAMING

In the production of polymer foams, liquid carbon dioxide is used as a blowing agent instead of environmentally
hazardous substances. Carbon dioxide is a physical blowing agent with properties desired for ideal foaming, while
simultaneously fulfilling many requirements related to quality, efficiency and ecology.

The technology uses far less blowing agent than existing alternatives and the product retains its properties for a
longer period. Successful use of CO2 blowing agent technology in manufacturing of polymer foams depends on
several key parameters, of which the most important is to supply CO2 to the process in liquid form and at a desired
pressure. At the same time, the fluctuation in carbon dioxide flow should be minimized.

Closed-cell foams are generally more rigid, while open-cell foams are usually flexible. The gas that is used in
the foam is termed a blowing agent, and can be either chemical or physical. Chemical blowing agents are chemicals
that take part in a reaction or decompose, giving off chemicals in the process.

Conventional injection molding is a process whereby a molten polymer is injected into a mold to shape it into a final
product. This process allows manufacturers to create the intricate molded parts we see today.

Foamazol chemical foaming agents (CFAs) are generally used to reduce weight and prevent the formation of sink
marks, and are added to the traditional injection molding process like any other additive master batch.

By reducing the shot size and adding Foamazol, these CFAs help fill the mold resulting in part weight reduction.
Common weight reductions for foam molded parts are around 10%. However, it is not unheard of for part weight
reductions of 20-25% to be obtained with proper design.

Foamazol CFAs allow for molders to increase shot speeds, reduce pack and hold pressures and times, as well as
reduce clamp tonnage. These benefits combined result in reduced cycle times, which have been demonstrated as
high as 30% with Bergens foaming agents.

Sink mark removal is another benefit provided by Foamazol. One grade in particular, Foamazol 62, has been
proven in certain cases to eliminate sink with a Class A surface.
Structural Foam Molding with CFAs
Structural foam molding is an injection molding process that uses low pressure plastic injection to form large parts.
A gas is introduced into the melt by Direct Injection or by a Chemical Foaming Agent. The gas remains dissolved in
the melt while the melt is under pressure. As the melt is injected into the mold the pressure is reduced allowing the
gas to expand the polymer.
Foamazol chemical foaming agents control the size and distribution of the cells or bubbles in the expanding melt.
Bergen has developed a special line of CFAs for nucleation of physical blowing agent gases, such as Nitrogen, used
in structural foam molding.
One product in particular, Foamazol 61, is used to control the size, shape, and distribution of gas bubbles or cells
in structural foam parts made from olefins like HDPE and PP.