INTEGER QUANTUM HALL EFFECT

a concise study by

Pinaki Q Roy

Classical Hall Effect

What is now known as the Hall effect, was

discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879. It is the
Bapplied Eapplied, I A = wd
development of a transverse voltage in a current
carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field. It
EHall Vd
is simply the consequence of motion of charged z
d y
particles in a magnetic field which exerts a ++++ ++ ++++++
x
transverse force on the charge carriers and
causes them to build up at the sides of the conductor. Refer the above figure. Consider the charge carriers
to be positive so that the direction of their movement represents the conventional current, I = nevdA
where n = carrier density (number per unit volume), vd = average drift velocity of the carriers, and A = area
of cross-section perpendicular to the flow of current. Force on the charge carriers due to the magnetic
field is Fm = evdB or Fm = evdB along negative y-direction so that electric field (transverse) due to
the accumulation of charges is along positive y-direction. At steady state, this force will equal the
force due to the transverse electric field, Fe = eEH or Fe = eEH = eVH/w along positive y-direction, where EH
and EH are the induced electric field and Hall voltage respectively.

=
For 3D, x = d and x = x . has the unit A/m2 . } x = = d
t = d t
= A
For 2D, x = A d and x = x . has the unit A/m. } x = = A d
t = d t
m = d z x z
H } H = d z [ m = e ] H = [ d = ] H =
e = A A A

y y y
xy = = =
z z x x x
Comparing with = , we find xy = xy = 1
A A
= [ x = yx y ] = yx = xy
[ yx ]
xy is called magnetoresistivity or Hall resistivity. In 2D, resistivity and resistance are same.
x x x x 1 eff
xx = = = = xx = = [ d = x ] xx = 2 [ = ]
x x x A d A A eff

Hall coefficient RH is the ratio of induced Electric field to the product of the current density and the applied
magnetic field. It depends only on the charge and density of the conducting particles, and is independent
of the scattering time, .
y xy 1
H = = =
x z z A
Relation between mobility and scattering time

The charge carriers do not follow a straight path along the E=0 E0
electric field lines. Instead they bounce around frequently
change direction and velocity due to scattering (collisions with
stationary ions). This occurs even when no electric field is
applied and is due to the thermal energy of the carriers. The
carrier motion in the absence and in the presence of an electric motion of a positive charge carrier
field is illustrated in the adjacent figure.

Applied force on a carrier of effective mass eff , x = eff

eff x
Scattering force due to loss of momentum during scattering, s =

eff x eff x
x = x s eff = x eff + = x

which is a non-homogeneous first order linear differential equation.
eff d d
At steady state, x = d and = 0 . So, = x = =
eff x

Motion of a (positive) charge in the presence of a magnetic field

Hall effect arises because the magnetic field causes the moving (thermal and/or electrical motion)
charge carriers to move in circles.
= z This is a coupled differential equation describing a
eff = { eff [ ]
eff = z circular motion of a fixed frequency, c = z eff

Motion of (positive charge) carriers in the presence of both electric and magnetic fields (Drude Model)
eff
= + s eff = +

eff A 2
At steady state, = 0 . So, = c =
eff
= A ; = z A 2
[ ] (x + y ) = (x + y ) c (x + y )
and z = eff c eff
A 2
= (x + y ) + c (x y ) x ( + c ) + y (c + ) = (x + y )
eff
1 c A 2 A 2 1 c 1
( ) = = ( )
c 1 eff eff c 1
A 2
A 2 1 c 1 DC 1 c where DC =
= = ( ) = ( ) [ eff ]
eff c 1 1 + c c
2 2 1
is the DC conductivity.
xx xy 1
1 1 c
Thus, conductivity tensor, = ( xx ) . Also, resistivity tensor, = = (c 1 )
xy DC
Applications of Hall Effect

1. Hall effect, being a conduction phenomenon that is different for different charge carriers, is used to
determine the kind of conduction (electrons or holes) taking place in the conductor/semiconductor as
in many substances conduction does not result merely from the motion of free electrons.
2. Hall effect is made use of to measure large magnetic fields by measuring the Hall voltage (order of
microvolts) across a thin metal film (Hall probe) introduced perpendicular to the magnetic field.

Integer Quantum Hall Effect

The quantum regime of the Hall effect was explored through experiments (using Si MOSFET) by Klaus von
Klitzing in 1980 (a century after the discovery of Hall effect) for which he was awarded the 1985 Nobel
Prize in Physics. At low temperature and high magnetic field, it was observed that the transverse (Hall)
resistivity xy remains on a plateau for a range of magnetic field where the longitudinal resistivity xx goes
to zero, before jumping suddenly to the next plateau. On these plateau, the resistivities take the value as:

1 1 = 1, 2, 3, = Landau level
xy = 2 = K where {
K = 2 = von Klitzing constant K z
xy = z xy =
A A A = areal electron density
A 0 A
z = = where {
0 0 = = magnetic flux quantum }

1 eff = scattering time (mean time between collisions) 1 1
xx = 2 where { xx =
A eff = carrier effective mass (in the direction of field) A

[ carrier mobility, = derived above.]
eff

The longitudinal resistivity xx spikes when xy jumps to the next plateau. This happens when kBT ~ C
xx
xx =
xx xy xx xy 1 xx + xy 2
2
= 1 ( ) = ( ) xy
xy xx xy xx
xy =
{ xx + xy 2
2

If xy = 0, we obtain the familiar relation xx = 1xx . But if xy = 0, interestingly, xx = xx = 0 !

This is actually the no scattering scenario ( ) in the Drude model where the current is flowing
perpendicular to the applied electric field so that we have a steady current without doing any work, and
hence without any dissipation. So, xx = 0 implies that no current is flowing longitudinally (perfect
insulator) while xx = 0 implies that there is no dissipation of energy (perfect conductor).

For 2DEG in AlGaAs/GaAs heterostructure at ~ 4 K, A = 7 1015 m2 and = 36.5 m2 /Vs,

so that our simplified theoretical model yields xy = (891.644 m2 /C) z and xx = 24.43
At high temperatures and/or low magnetic fields, quantization will be negligible and hence, the usual
Classical Hall effect will be observed.
Magneto-
Landau Magnetic
resistivity,
Level, Field, Bz (T)
xy (k)
1 28.950 25.813
2 14.475 12.906
3 9.650 8.604
4 7.237 6.453
5 5.790 5.163
6 4.825 4.302
7 4.136 3.688
8 3.619 3.227
9 3.217 2.868
10 2.895 2.581
11 2.632 2.347
12 2.412 2.151
13 2.227 1.986
14 2.068 1.844
15 1.930 1.721

Applications of Quantum Hall Effect

1. The quantization of Hall conductance (integral or fractional multiples of 2 ) has allowed for the
definition of a new practical standard for electrical resistance. The resistance quantum is given by the
von Klitzing constant RK and equals 25812.8 (approximately).
2. Quantum Hall effect provides a precise independent determination of the fine structure constant as
= (140 ) 2 = (140 ) 2 2 = (120 ) 1K = (0 2) K

References:

1. David Tong, The Quantum Hall Effect (relevant sections)

2. Robin J Nicholas, Band Theory and Electronic Properties of Solids (relevant sections)
3. Bertrand I Halperin, From Landau Levels to Quantum Hall Effects (relevant sections)
4. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drift_velocity
5. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_mobility
6. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hall_effect
7. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Hall_effect
8. hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/Hall.html
9. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/miccur.html
10. Bart Van Zeghbroeck, Principles of Semiconductor Devices (relevant sections)
11. H. L. Strmer, A. C. Gossard, W. Wiegmann, and K. Baldwin, Dependence of electron mobility in
modulationdoped GaAs(AlGa)As heterojunction interfaces on electron density and Al concentration