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Schaum's Theory and Problems o - Murray R. Spiegel - 3759 PDF
Schaum's Theory and Problems o - Murray R. Spiegel - 3759 PDF
Schaum's Theory and Problems o - Murray R. Spiegel - 3759 PDF
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8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 SH SH 7 5
Preface
In the 17th century, Sir Isaac
Newton formulated his now famous
laws of mechanics. These
remarkably simple laws served to
describe and predict the motions of
observable objects in the universe,
including those of the planets of
our solar system.
M. R. Spiegel
Page
AND MOMENTUM 33
Chapter 6 MOTION IN A
UNIFORM FIELD. FALLING
BODIES
AND PROJECTILES
62
CONTENTS
Page
Chapter 7 SYSTEMS OF
PARTICLES 165
Discrete and continuous systems.
Density. Rigid and elastic bodies.
Degrees of freedom. Center of
mass. Center of gravity. Momentum
of a system of particles. Motion of
the center of mass. Conservation of
momentum. Angular momentum of
a system of particles. Total external
torque acting on a system. Relation
between angular momentum and
total external torque. Conservation
of angular momentum. Kinetic
energy of a system of particles.
Work. Potential energy.
Conservation of energy. Motion
relative to the center of mass.
Impulse. Constraints. Holonomic
and non-holonomic constraints.
Virtual displacements. Statics of a
system of particles. Principle of
virtual work. Equilibrium in
conservative fields. Stability of
equilibrium. D'Alembert's principle.
Chapter 8 APPLICATIONS TO
VIBRATING SYSTEMS,
CONTENTS
Page
Chapter // LAGRANGE'S
EQUATIONS 282
Chapter 12 HAMILTONIAN
THEORY 311
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B
ASTRONOMICAL DATA 342
appendix c SOLUTIONS OF
SPECIAL DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS .... 344
and ACCELERATION
MECHANICS, KINEMATICS,
DYNAMICS AND STATICS
AXIOMATIC FOUNDATIONS OF
MECHANICS
An axiomatic development of
mechanics, as for any science,
should contain the following basic
ingredients:
1. Undefined terms or concepts.
This is clearly necessary since
ultimately any definition must be
based on something which remains
undefined.
MATHEMATICAL MODELS
A mathematical description of
physical phenomena is often
simplified by replacing actual
physical objects by suitable
mathematical models. For example
in describing the rotation of the
earth about the sun we can for
many practical purposes treat the
earth and sun as points.
VECTOR ALGEBRA
CHAP. 11
5.
rrfB+c+D
Fig. 1-5
The difference of vectors A and B,
represented by A B, is that vector
C which when added to B gives A.
Equivalently, A-B may be denned as
A + (-B). If A = B, then A B is
defined as the null or zero vector
represented by 0. This has a
magnitude of zero but its direction
is not defined.
1. A + B = B + A
2. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
4. (p + q)A = pA + qA
5. p{A + B) = pA + pB
UNIT VECTORS
[CHAP. 1
\/o.
wv
Fig. 1-6
(4i,A2,As)
Fig. 1-7
Fig. 1-8
COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR
A = Aii + A 2 j + A 3 k
(1)
The magnitude of A is
A = |A| = v^f+AfTAf
written . , . , .
r = xi + yj + zk
(2)
is
(3)
and has magnitude r = |r| = y/x 2 +
y2+z2.
CHAP. 11
VECTORS, VELOCITY AND
ACCELERATION
1. A B = B A Commutative Law
for Dot Products
2. A-(B + C) = AB + AC
Distributive Law
A X B = AB sin 6 u, 0 ^ 6 ^ tt (5)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
A x B = B x A (Commutative Law
for Cross Products Fails)
Ax(B + C) = AxB + AxC Distributive
Law
AxB =
At Bx
1
A2
B2
then k A 3 B 3
6.
7.
|A x B| = the area of a
parallelogram with sides A and B.
TRIPLE PRODUCTS
(')
C-(AXB).
Since (A x B) x C = (A C)B - (B
C)A, it is clear that A x (B x C) (A
x B) x C.
DERIVATIVES OF VECTORS
dU Au~0 AW V '
du ~~ du du du
if it exists is given by
du 2 ~ du* 1 + du 2 3 + K I 1 "*
t(*-*) = * + <">
INTEGRALS OF VECTORS
VELOCITY
CHAP. 11
dr .. Ar
v = - = hm -at At-*o At
At-*o AC
(17)
dt dx. dy. dz . .
v = dt = dt 1 + ^ 3 + Tt k ( 18)
Fig. 1-9
dr dt
- V(t y+ (f r (t) 2 =
dt
(19)
ACCELERATION
a = dv = Hm v(t + At)-v(t)
dt At-0 At
In terms of r = xi + yj + zk the
acceleration is
_ d^r _ d?x. d?y. * ~ dt* ~ dt 21 + dt
2~
i + 5^J + ^5k
dV
dt 2 '
a=
= V(S)' + (SWS
(21) (22)
Fig. 1-10
[CHAP. 1
T=
B = TxN
(U)
* N = RM ds' * K ds'
(25)
CIRCULAR MOTION
ft = fi ( e >
at
and
dv _ d?s _ p d 2 0 dt dt 2 K dt 2
= Ra
(27)
Fig.1-11
= ( 1 a^ + J ^ + k ^
+ 3 dy + K dz
(28)
(29)
2. Divergence
V'A =
l Jx + z dy dz
Mi + Mi + M a a?/ dz
(Ad + A 2 j + AOt)
(SO)
CHAP. 1]
VxA=
(31)
fdAs \dy
BA dz
l+(g
dA s \. , fdA 2
dX
j + [iF-f ]k
This is a vector called the curl of A
and is also written curl A. Two
important identities are
(32)
LINE INTEGRALS
(84)
Jp 2 xp 2
(36)
[CHAP. 1
Solved Problems
VECTOR ALGEBRA
OP + PQ. = OQ or A + B = C
and OR + RQ = OQ or B + A = C
Then A + B = B + A.
1.2. Show that the addition of
vectors is associative, i.e. A + (B +
C) = (A 4- B) + C. See Fig. 1-14
above.
OP + PQ = OQ = (A + B) and PQ +
QR = PR = (B + C)
Since OP + PR = OR = D, i.e. A + (B
+ C) = D
OQ + QR = OR = D, i.e. (A + B) + C
=D
we have A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C.
CHAP. 1]
VECTORS, VELOCITY AND
ACCELERATION
11
(a)
-B
Pig. 1-15
-|(2A-B)
1.5. Determine the vector having
the initial point P(xi,yi,zi) and the
terminal point Q(* 2 ,3/2, z 2 ) and
find its magnitude. See Fig. 1-17.
r x + PQ = r 2 or
Magnitude of PQ = PQ
= V(*2 - *l) 2 + (^2 ~ Vl) 2 + (*2 ~
*l) 2
Fig. 1-17
[CHAP. 1
1.6. Find (a) graphically and (b)
analytically the sum or resultant of
the following displacements:
A, 10 ft northwest; B, 20 ft 30
north of east; C, 35 ft due south.
See Fig. 1-18.
Graphically.
Analytically.
A = - 10 cos 45 i + 10 sin 45 j
B = 20 cos 30 i + 20 sin 30 j
C = 35j
Unit = 5 ft
Projection of A on B = GH = EF = A
cos 6 = A b
GHB
Fig. 1-19
Projection of (B + C) on A =
projection of B on A
+ projection of C on A
Multiplying by A,
and (B + C) A = B A + C A
A (B + C) = A B + A C and the
distributive law is valid.
Fig. 1-20
CHAP. 1]
13
(d) j (2i - 8j + k) = 2j i - 3j j + j
k = 0-3 + 0 = -3
= 6 + 0-0-0 = 6
AsBa.
= A x \ (BJ + Baj + B 3 k) + A 2 j
( x i + B 2 j + B 3 k) + A 3 k (BJ +
B 2 j + B 3 k)
= A x B x i i + A^i j + A X B Z \
k + A 2 Btf i + A 2 2 j j + A 2
3jk
+ A^k i + A 3 2 k j + A 3 3 k
k
= A X B X + A 2 B % + A 3 fi 3
Also, AA = (Aji + A 2 j + A 3 k) (A
1 i + A 2 j + A 3 k)
CA = OA-OC = 2i j
5(4,6,0)
(0,0,0)
Fig. 1-21
BXA = D
(&)
Since A is perpendicular to B, A X B
is a vector perpendicular to the
plane of A and B and having
magnitude AB sin 90 = AB or
magnitude of AB. This is equivalent
to multiplying vector B by A and
rotating the resultant vector
through 90 to the position shown
in Fig. 1-23.
Fig. 1-23
1.15. Prove that A x (B + C) = AxB +
AxC in the general case where A, B
and C are non-coplanar. See Fig. 1-
24.
Also, since B + C = B + B n + C
+ C M = (Bj_ + C ) + (B, ( + C M )
it follows that
AX(B + C 1 ) = AX(B + C)
Now Bjl and Cj_ are vectors
perpendicular to A and so by
Problem 1.14,
i3k
1.16. If A = Ad + A 2 j + Ask and B =
Bii + B 2 j + Bak, prove that A x B
Ai
A2B2
As Bs
CHAP. 1]
15
= (A 2 B 3 - A 3 B 2 )i + (A s B t - A
X B Z )\ + (A t B 2 - A^k =
jk
At B,
AXB =
-1 2 3 -1
= -5i + 7j + Ilk
= |AXB|
Fig. 1-25
= |19i-4j + 7k|
i j k = il 2 -1 -6 1 3-1 = iV(19) 2 + (-
4)2 + (7)2 = Jv'426
TRIPLE PRODUCTS
= (A.n)(|BXC|)
= A{|BXC|n} = A'(BXC)
Ai A 2 Az
A-(BxC) = Bi B 2 B 3
C\ C 2 Ci
[CHAP. 1
ijk
(a) A'(BXC) = A* B t B 2 B 3
Cj C 2 C 3
= (A i i + A 2 j + A 3 k) [(B 2 C 3 -
3 C 2 )i + {B 3 C X - B X C 3 )\ +
(B X C 2 - B 2 C t )k]
A x A 2 A3 = A 1 (B 2 C 3 -B 3 C 2
)+A 2 (B 3 C 1 -B 1 C 3 ) + A 3 {B X
C 2 -B 2 C t ) = B x B 2 B 3
CxC2c3
0 12 15 4
= 1-201 = 20.
1.23. If A = i + j, B = 2i-3j + k, C =
4j-3k, find (a)(AxB)xC, (b)Ax(BxC).
ijk
110 2-3 1
(a) A X B =
= i - j - 5k. Then (A X B) X C =
ijk
1 -1 -5 0 4-3
= 23i + 3j + 4k.
(6) B X C =
iJk
2-3 1 0 4-3
= 5i + 6j + 8k. Then A X (B X C)
= 8i-8j + k.
d2r
dt 2
at t = 0.
At t =t 0, d?r/dtf = 12j.
tions of u.
du
du tint,
L , , d ,. , .. (A + AA) (B + AB) -
A'B
du v am-*o Am
= lim t
Au-0 AM
/ AB AA AA \ . dB dA
Method 2. Let A = A x i + A 2 j + A 3
k, B = Bji + B^ + 3 k. Then
. dB , dA dt* du
$A = {x 2 yz){Sx 2 yi + yz 2 \ - xzk)
= 3x*y 2 zi + x 2 y 2 z 3 j - x 3 2/s 2
k
T-(*A) = ^-(SajVrf + aV*^-*) =
Sx*y 2 i + 3x 2 y 2 z 2 j - 2x3yzk
02 OZ
3 2 _, 3
(*A) = ^- (3a^i/ 2 i + Sx 2 y 2 z 2 j -
2x 3 wzk) = 6as 4 ]/i + 6; 2 i/3 2 j -
2a; 3 *k
dydz
u=l
r = xi + yj + zk = 3e~ 2t i + 4 sin St j
+ 5 cos Bt k
Then the velocity is
[CHAP. 1
/ v dPr dv
4i - 3j + 2k = -2i + 3k + c t or c t = 6i
- 3j - k Then v = -2-*i + 5 sin t j + 3
cos t k + 6i - 3j - k
(1)
(a) Graphically.
v 6 = v a -w = V + (-W).
(6) Analytically.
Vl = r t = 2i-2tj + (6t-4)k v 2 = f 2 =
(lOt - 12)i + St 2 } - 3k
= 2i - 4j + 8k
t=2
= 8i + 12j - 3k
t=2
a i v i = *i = ~2j + 6k
a 2 = v 2 = r 2 = lOi + 6tj
= -2j + 6k
t=2
= 10i + 12j
t=2
T=
dx/dt ds/dt ds 10
= -1 sin 2t i + f cos 2t j + $k
T .f + *. T = 2T M = o or T.= 0 d8
da d8 da
dT/ds = kS
and we call N the unit principal
normal to C. The scalar k = \dT/ds\
is called the curvature, while R =
1/k is called the radius of curvature.
= Jj cos 2t i ^ sin It j
Thus the curvature is c =
= V(-^cos 2 *) 2 + (-^sin2)2 =
ds
., 1 dT n dT _ x . . .
Velocity v = magnitude of v
multiplied by unit tangent vector T,
or
v = vT
Differentiating, a = % = * {vT) = ^ T
+^
dt dt dt dt
But -^ = ?I ds_ ds = tjN
dt ds dt KXN dt KVS * R
Then a - * T + *(-; = d* T + b n
CIRCULAR MOTION
1.36. A particle moves so that its
position vector is given by r = cos
o>t i + sin U j where o> is a
constant. Show that (a) the velocity
v of the particle is perpendicular to
r, (b) the acceleration a is directed
toward the origin and has
magnitude proportional to the
distance from the origin, (c) r x v =
a constant vector.
/ \ dr
CHAP. 1]
21
cos at sin at 0
a sin at a COS at 0
= -^(x2yz3)i + -(x*yz3)j +
|^(asy*)k = 2<ci/z 3 i + ****j +
3x*y**k
(6) VA = (l + j + k)-<^-lrt+
**>
(c)
2x 2 yk)
ijk
ijk
2xy + 3 a 2 + 2y 3s 2 - 2
= 0.
ox dy dz
Integrating, we find
= H dx + % dy + fz dz = d * an exact
differential. For this case,
(a) x = t, y = t 2 , z-i^.
(a) If x = t, y = t 2 , z = *, points
(0,0,0) and (1,1,1) correspond to t =
0 and t = 1 respectively. Then
Another method.
J A'dr = J (3*2-
CHAP. 1]
23
lr1
x=0
Adding, I
Jr.
A dr = 1 + 1-5 = -3.
dx = dy = dz = dt,
By Problem 1.38, V X A = 0 or A dr
= d<p = d(x 2 y + xz* + y 2 - 2z).
Then the integral is independent of
the path aijd its value is
J (2,1,2) /(2.1.2)
A'dr = I d(x*y + xz 3 + y 2 - 2c)
ii.-i.i) *^(i,-i.D
= x 2 y + xz* + |/2-22
(2.1,2)
(1,-1.1)
= 18
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
Since BD + a = b, BD = b - a. Then
BP = x(b - a).
(a) We have A = A t i + A 2 j + A 3 k.
Then
Ai = (A x i +A 2 j + A 3 k) i = A x
Aj = (Aji + Aaj + Agk)'! = A 2 A'k =
(Aii + AaJ + AgkJ-k = A 3
Thus
(b)
* = ^ dx + ^ dy+ ^ dz
0 or i.e. V# dr = 0 so that V^ is
perpendicular to dr and therefore to
the surface
0
1.45. Find a unit normal to the
surface 2# 2 + 4yz - 5z 2 = -10 at the
point P(3,-l,2). By Problem 1.44, a
vector normal to the surface is
12i + 8j - 24k 3i + 2j - 6k
OB = a cos e i, OA = a sin e j AB =
OB OA = a cos 0 i a sin 0 j
Then
r = OA + AM = OA + AB
= ^a(cos 9 i + sin e j)
25
-v 0
am 8 =
Va 2 - 62
8=
-v 0
-n
a a sin* y a 2 _ b 2
Thus from (1) the required velocity
of M at this instant is
dr 1 / .
y/cP-b*
(i)
()
Since
3r . , . . \dr\
= cos* i +sin0 j, = 1
dr \dr\
so that
cos 8 i + sin 8 j
(3)
Fig.1-30
dr ... . 3r
= r sin 8i + rcosff j, = r
do * \de
a = ( r - r6 2 )ri + (r 6 + 2r9) 9 1
dr dr , ^ r i ... . .
v = Tt = Tt r * + r -dT = ^ + rr ^ = rr
i + *"i
by Problem 1.48(a).
dv d .* , x
a = Tt = de (rr ^ + r ^ l)
= rr t + rr x + r0x + rtf*! + rebi
= (r r$ 2 )r t + (r6>'+2r)0 1
Supplementary Problems
VECTOR ALGEBRA
1.59. If A = 2i + j + k, B = i - 2j + 2k
and C = 3i - 4j + 2k, find the
projection of A + C in the direction
of B. Ans. 17/3
TRIPLE PRODUCTS
1.68. If A = 2i + j - 3k, B = i - 2j + k
and C = -i + j - 4k, find (a) A (B X
C), (b) C (A X B), (c) A X (B X C),
(d) (A X B) X C. Ans. (a) 20, (6) 20,
(c) 8i - 19j - k, {d) 25i - 15j - 10k
du ' du du
1.80.
Xd?A dA
1.81. If R = x 2 yi - 2y 2 zj + xy 2
z>k, find
3 2 B fl 2 R aa; 2 3j/ 2
32
Ans. 4i + 8j
M 2( a 2 _ fr2) sm at cos at a 2 ab
CIRCULAR MOTION
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
x t A + y{B + ]C = x 2 A + y 2 B + z
2 C, prove that necessarily x x x 2
, y\ y%, z x z 2 .
- < ^ m ^ . dA . dA
1.123. If A X B = A X C, does B = C
necessarily? Explain.
JA'dr = \ A'Tds c J c
R = ^-r
|vXa|
[CHAP. 1
l-S
l/
Fig. 1-31
Fig.1-32
_ D sec 6
~ (sec e + tan e) v/v
NEWTON'S LAWS
F = 5<""> = %
dx F = m-jT = ma (#)
INERTIAL FRAMES OF
REFERENCE. ABSOLUTE MOTION
WORK
dW = F-dr
(3)
Fig. 2-1
W=
dr
(*)
POWER
r dt w
<P = Fv (6)
KINETIC ENERGY
i F-dr = 0 (13)
POTENTIAL ENERGY OR
POTENTIAL
V i= - f F-dr (16)
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
T 2 -Ti = Vi- V a or T1 + V1 = T 2 + V
2 which can also be written \mv\ +
Vi \mv\ + V 2
(17) (18)
IMPULSE
Ydt
(19)
Xt 2 F
dt = m\ 2 mvj
Pi
(20)
A = rxF
(21)
rxF = -3r{m(rXv)}
(22)
Fig. 2-2
The quantity
-=ww
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR
MOMENTUM
NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES
STATICS OR EQUILIBRIUM OF A
PARTICLE
F = 0 (27)
F = 0 . dV = dV = V =
STABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM
If a particle which is displaced
slightly from an equilibrium point P
tends to return to P, then we call P a
point of stability or stable point and
the equilibrium is said to be stable.
Otherwise we say that the point is
one of instability and the
equilibrium is unstable. The
following theorem is fundamental.
Solved Problems
NEWTON'S LAWS
dr
r = xi + y] = a cos at i + b sin at j
39
d2
dv d 2 r
F = m Tt = m w
mw 2 [a cos ut i + b sin ut j] =
mw 2 r
F = m w' F ' = m W
F ~ F = m ^ (r " r) = m l#
and this will be zero if and only if
d 2 R dt 2
=0
dR
dt
= constant
v = UH + (9 2 -8t)j - 3t 2 k + c t
Since v = v 0 = 6i + 15j - 8k at t = 0,
we have c x = 6i + 15j - 8k and so v
= (4t 3 + 6)i + (9t 2 -Bt+ 15)j - (3* 2
+ 8)k
Since r = r 0 = 3i j + 4k at t = 0,
we have c 2 = 3i j + 4k and so
dv _ dv F /<v
dt dt m y '
v = (F/m)t + c 2
At t = 0, v = v x so that c x = Vj i.e.
v = (F/m)t + vj (2)
At t = r, v = v 2 so that v 2 = (F/m)r
+vt
Another method.
vi
which yields the required result.
/v 2 v t \ /1.5 X 10 3 i cm/sec \
V * / V 3 X102 sec /
= 0.5 X 10 5 i gm cm/sec 2 = 5 X 10
4 i dynes Thus the magnitude of the
force is 50,000 dynes in the
direction of the positive x axis.
41
Then
F = wa = m
v 2 -Vl
= (10 kg)
Then
F = wa = m
v 2 -v x
'-88i ft/sec \
= (2000 lb) ( )
4 sec /
Work done
- * - X.
F*\dt
dv
= im f * d(v v) = mv 2 * = %mv\ -
-Jmv 2
= (Fcostf)(r) = Ft
= (2i-j-k)-(3i + 2j-5k)
= 6-2 + 5 = 9
r Fig. 2-5
= J F dr = \ (mu 2 r) dr =
raw 2 I r dr
JBB
d(r r) = ^mu 2 r 2 A A
Work done
Work done = I F dr J A
s>ir/2(>)
= I mw 3 (a 2 6 2 ) sin wt cos ut
dt
ir/2w
27T/W
=0
J-..S7JVCU mu z (a 2 b 2 ) sin ut
cos wt dt o
= mw 2 (a 2 - 6 2 ) sin 2 ut Method
1 can also be used to show the same
result.
cp - f-v
dW = F*dr
* = ^ ='! = -'
F = (y 2 z 8 - 6xz 2 )i + 2xyz 3 j +
{Sxy 2 z 2 - 6x 2 z)k is a
conservative force field. Method 1.
The force field F is conservative if
and only if curl F = V X F = 0. Now
VXF=
ijk
y 2 z z _ q xz z 2xyz s 3xy 2 z 2 - 6x 2
z
9a?
+ k ["^(fcsy* 8 ) - j- (y 2 z* - 6xz 2
)~\
Then the force field is conservative.
Method 2.
dx dy i dz K
V = 3x 2 z 2 - xy 2 z 3 + g x {y, z) (2)
ffi(V, *) = c, g 2 (x, z) = 3x 2 z 2 + c,
g 3 (x, y) - c (5)
V = 3x 2 z 2 xy 2 z 3 + c is the
required potential.
Method 3.
s*(x,y,z)
= -I d(xy 2 z 3 - 3x 2 z 2 ) = 3x 2 z 2 -
xy 2 z 3 + c
(x 0 ,y 0 ,z 0 )
where c = x 0 y 2 z 3 - 3x 2 z^
W
We have
= V(P X ) - V(P 2 ) Pi
JAJA
J (1,-2,-1) -dV = -V(x,y,z)
(-2,1,3)
= 3x 2 z 2 + xy 2 z 3 c
(1,-2,-1)
(-2,1,3)
(1,-2,-1)
= 155
(-2,1,3)
iJk
VXF=
d/dx d/dy d/dz
ma 2 x mu 2 y 0
+ k \h { ~ mu2y) ~ ^ { ~ ma2x) \
=0
W- dV - dV u
t2
C* dt = J 2 -^( m v) dt = J d ^
(mv)
= mv 2 mxi
Method 1.
V, = 5401-:; = = 1.5 X 10 2 1
hr 3600 sec sec
. km 720i X 1000 m nn . m
v 2 = 720i=^ = = 2.0Xl0 2 i
Method 2.
B = m(r X v) = r X (mv)
iJk
t 4 + 6* + 3 3* 3 - 4* 2 + 15* - 1 4 - t
3 - 8*
47
iJk
= 2 * 4 + 6* + 3 3* 3 - 4*2 + 15* - 1 4
- * 3 - 8* 4*3 + 6 9* 2 - 8* + 15 -3* 2
-8
= (8*4 + 36*3 _ 130*2 + 64t _ I04)i
- (2* + 48** - 56* 3 - 18* 2 - 96)j -
(6* - 16*5 + 90*4 _ 80*3 _ 6*2 +
48* - 102)k
A = rXF = rX (r 2 r) = r 2 (r X r) = 0
Then by Theorem 2.9, page 37, the
angular momentum is constant, i.e.
the angular momentum is
conserved.
NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES
We have i j k
STATICS OF A PARTICLE
Fig. 2-6
Fig. 2-7
Unit = 20 lb
Fig. 2-8 Fig. 2-9
STABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM
dV/dx = kx = 0 or x = 0
Thus there is only one equilibrium
point, at x = 0.
49
(6) Method 1.
V(x)
Method 2.
dV.
= kxi. Then
Fig. 2-10
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
= I (2x y) dx + (x + y) dy J c
,2tt
X27T Q
= lSir
r = xi + yj
= 3 cos t i + 3 sin t j
Fig.2-ll
ft pP 2
J Pl d % ty dz
(6) Let F = F x \ + F 2 j + F 3 k. By
hypothesis, I F dx is independent
of the path C joining any two
points, which we take as (x x ,y x , z
x ) and (x,y,z) respectively. Then
J % (x,y,z) p(.x,y,z)
F dt = - I (F x dx + F 2 dy + F s dz)
XX pV pz
dV C dF 3 C z 9F 2
7- = -F2(x,y,z x ) - I (x,y,z)dz = -
F 2 {x,y,z x ) - I -(x,y,z)dz
dy ^ Xl dy *s Zl dz
z
= -F 2 (x,y,z x ) - F 2 (x,y,z)
*i
= -F 2 (x,y,z x ) - F 2 (x,y,z) + F 2
(x,y,z x ) = -F 2 (x,y,z)
V_ dx
C v SF 2 f 8F a
J'* dF x C* dF x
= -F x (x,y x ,z x ) - F x (x,y,z x ) - F x
(x,y,z)\
v\ \*i
= -F x (x,y x ,z x ) - F x (x,y,z x ) +
F(x,y x ,z x ) - F x (x,y,z) + F(x,y,z x )
= -F x (x,y,z)
51
Then
F = r.l+J-.J+F.k = -fi-fi-fk = -W
to (3,1,4).
Now V X F =
iJk
2xy + z* x 2 Zxz 2
(3,1,4)
(1,-2,1)
Pi r
F*dr = J F dr = J F dr + J F dr
^^^^^^ \p
J PiAPtBP! PiAP 2 P2BP1 S^ \ 2
= J F-dr J F-dr = 0
PiAP 2 PiBPa
L^
P^PiBP! PiAP 2
, $ F-dr = / F
A Fig. 2-12
F dr = 0
P 2 BP t
P1AP2
P 1 BP 2
PiAP 2 PiBP 2
(a) Suppose F x dx + F 2 dy + F 3 dz
= d<f> = -^-dx +-^-dy +-^-dz, an
exact differential. Then since x, y
and z are independent variables,
30 jt, _ d<f> _ 30
dx dy dz
and so F = F x i + F 2 j + F s k = |*i
+ |*j + |^k = V*. Thus VXF = VXV^
= 0.
dx dy dz ^
(b) F = (y 2 z s cos a; Ax z z) i +
2z 3 j/ sin x j + (32/ 2 2 sin x
x*) k and V X F is computed to be
zero, so that by part (a) the required
result follows.
-s.
-X
p = mv = 2v = (8 3 + 12)i + (18t 2 -
16* + 30)j - (6t 2 + 16)k
J t=i
.2
=/,:
2.35. A particle of mass m moves
along the x axis under the influence
of a conservative force field having
potential V(x). If the particle is
located at positions x x and x 2 at
respective times U and U, prove
that if E is the total energy,
* - [ C H dx
dt = yfm/2(dx/\/E-V{x)) Hence by
integration,
J ti dt ~ **-** - \f f Xi Ve^vW)
(dx/dt) 2 = (K/m)(a 2 -x 2 ) or
dx/y/a 2 - x 2 = y/Umdt
If a is constant then y = e* is a
solution of ($) provided that
a? = ^ Cos 2t + \c 2 sin 2* - 3c 3 e -
3c 4 e~ 6t (5)
m mp
T = (m-mo)c 2 = m 0 c 2 {(l-/3 2
)1/2 -l}
F = -jT(mv) =
dt dt \y/
dW _ d / "W \ d f P \ 2 d / 1 \
u _* / x dW dT 2 d / 1 \
WoC 2
Integrating, T = + c x
T = z^^ m 0 c 2 = (m mo)c
2 (c) For /? < 1 we have by the
binomial theorem,
riv2ii
Then T = m 0 c 2 1 + - -^ + m
0 c 2 = -^mv 2 approximately
$ Supplementary Problems
NEWTON'S LAWS
p = 3e _t i 2 cos t j 3 sin t k
Find F. Ans. 3e~*i + 2 sin j 3
cos t k
Arts. 3 X 10 4 cm/sec
2.45. Work Problem 2.44 if the
force is 20 newtons and the mass is
10 kg. Ans. 1200 m/sec
ma 2 ma 2 ma ma
Ans. 315
Ans. (b) xy 2 x 2 yz 3 + 3y + z 4
STATICS OF A PARTICLE
Fig. 2-13
STABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
100 lb
Fig. 2-14
4rv / 3.
(i)
V = d Z=0, (ii) . ^ (SrYSUS^ > 0
and^>0
F = (xi-yj)/(x 2 + y 2 )
ft 2
J Fdt
21
V = 18r 2 e-2r.
dV ldV , dV
T7T/ dV . ! dV _l 1 3V
Vy = ^ + r Jt e + ^In7"s7 e *
F = -F 0 k {1)
urn
-Fk
Fig. 3-1
UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED
MOTION
a = -^k (*)
mv
W = mgk
(3)
GRAVITATIONAL SYSTEM OF
UNITS
W F = fa W
d 2 r , d*r
PROJECTILES
An object fired from a gun or
dropped from a moving airplane is
often called a projectile. If air
resistance is negligible, a projectile
can be considered as a freely falling
body so that its motion can be
found from equation (5) together
with appropriate initial conditions.
If air resistance is negligible the
path of a projectile is an arc of a
parabola (or a straight line which
can be considered a degenerate
parabola). See Problem 3.6.
field, is given by , v
V = Fo(z-zo) (6)
particle is
V = mg(z-z 0 ) v)
This leads to
MOTION IN A RESISTING
MEDIUM
CONSTRAINED MOTION
65
Fig. 3-3
Fig. 3-4
FRICTION
In the constrained motion of
particles, one of the most important
forces resisting motion is that due
to friction. Referring to Fig. 3-5, let
N be the magnitude of the normal
component of the reaction of the
constraint on the particle m. Then it
is found experimentally that the
magnitude of the force f due to
friction is given by
/ = /JV (P)
Fig. 3-5
where /* is called the coefficient of
friction. The direction of f is always
opposite to the direction of motion.
The coefficient of friction, which
depends on the material of both the
particle and constraint, is taken as a
constant in practice.
STATICS IN A UNIFORM
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
Solved Problems
Fi
dt dt
Thus dv = dt or J dv = J dt
v = t + v 0 or v = v 0 + t (S)
If F
vi = v 0 i H ti or v = v 0 H 1
* = * + r *=(, + )* Then on
integrating, assuming c 2 to be the
constant of integration, we have
* = * + (k)." + *
Since a; = 0 at t = 0, we find c 2 = 0.
Thus
= * + ()* w
Method 1.
Method 2.
dv _ F . dv dx _ F
dt ~ m' ' dx dt m
or since v = dx/dt,
*1 = , i. e . vdv = ?-dx
dx m' m
v 2 _ F , Integrating, y - J* + c 3
Method 3.
Fig. 3-7
d 2 r dt 2
dv .
m-r- = mgk
dv dt
= -fl*
(J)
v = -gtk + c t (2)
(S) (*)
(5)
(6) (7)
or -^ = (v 0 -gt)k
If we assume, as is physically
evident, that the object must always
be on the z axis, we may avoid
vectors by writing Newton's law
equivalently as [see equation (1)
above and place r = zk]
cPz/dt 2 = -g
z = v 0 t - %gt 2
2 _ 2
2 2 _
2gz
dt
dv dz _
dz dt ~ 9
V Tz = ~ g
= g, i.e. = g or
MOTION OF PROJECTILES
d2r,
i.e.,
dt 2
(1) = -flrk
Fig. 3-8
dv ,
(2)
Integration yields
Vq sin a
gt = 0 and t =
'v 0 sin a
-y
(8)
(9)
t=
2v 0 sin a
<i0)
2v 0 sin a cos a
vl sin 2a
69
iJk
=0
dV. dV . dV. , dV . dV dV . . . ,
i j - k. Then =0, =
0, = F 0 from which dx dy dz dx
dy dz
(b) F = -F 0 k = -VV
V = F Q z + c. If V = 0 at z = z 0 ,
then c = F 0 z 0 and so V = F 0 (z
z0)
Then v 2 = v* - 2gz.
MOTION IN A RESISTING
MEDIUM
ra-r-k = at
/3v)k
(1)
Fig. 3-9
dv mdv
Integrating, 7f ln ( mg ~ Bv ^ ~ l + c
i (*)
AM
Since v = v 0 at t = 0, c x = In
(ra^r Bv 0 ). Then from (2),
Since z = 0 at = 0, c 2 = (m/B)(v 0
mg/B) and thus
04)
Method 2.
dt ^ v 2 m
1 /3t 1 wv 0
= or v = t r
v m v 0 Bv 0 t + m
which is the speed. (6) From W, f =
.r? . Then f i. = f -*-* = = f
dt
Bv 0 t + m ' J J Bv 0 t + m Bv 0 J t +
m/Bv 0
m ^ (* , \ ,
or
Since x = 0 at t = 0, c 2 = -^ln(-^V
Thus
m /fiv 0 t + m\ mv 0 /3v 0 t + m v 0
In , and " ~
P \ m )' fiv Q t + m m v
dv Pn _ Br/m dx P v l _ 2Bx/m
dt m dt m
when x = 0, c 3 = In v 0 . Thus In
(v/v 0 ) = Bx/m or v = VQe ^/.
cPt dv
( 0/m dt
be written as
{ e fit/m y } = -gefit/m^
m 9 <* jl m <
Since r = 0 at * = 0,
fi v /?
J8 2 '
(4)
Method 1.
Method 2.
CONSTRAINED MOTION
d 2 m-j-zisei) = W + N = raflrsinae!
<J>
i.e.
(2)
Fig. 3-12
Then equation (1) of Problem 3.16
is replaced by
cP(*e t )
= W + N + f = mflr sin a x e x
y.mg cos a ej
m-
dt 2
(S)
mg
Fig.3-13
w ^i = W + N + f dt
(1)
dv dt
dv . . dv
dv dx dv
dx"di = -m or v Tx = -**
Then v dv = figdx
Integrating, using the fact that v = v
0 at x = 0, we find
(-4) (5)
x = v 0 t frgfi (7)
v 0 ngt = 0 or t v 0 //xg
Substituting this into (7) and noting
that x = x 0 , we obtain the required
result.
STATICS IN A UNIFORM
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
mgk
Fig. 3-14
Fig. 3-15
Let W denote the weight of the
particle and T t and T 2 the
respective tensions in the strings of
lengths a and b as indicated in Fig.
3-14. These forces are also indicated
in Fig. 3-15 and are assumed to lie
in the plane of unit vectors j and k.
By resolving T 1 and T 2 into
horizontal and vertical components
it is clear that
= T x sin a k T x cos a j,
T 2 = T 2 sin p k + T 2 cos ft j
W = mgk.
F=Tx+T2+W
=0
CHAP. 3] MOTION IN A UNIFORM
FIELD. FALLING BODIES AND
PROJECTILES
75
_ mg cos p j, _ my cos a
a = COS -1
a 2 + c 2 - b 2 2ac
b 2 + c 2 - a 2 26c
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
R=
g COS z a
Fig. 3-16
(b) Prove that the maximum range
up the incline is given by
Umax
g(l + sin a)
z = y tan a (3)
and
g cos a
g cos a
flf COS a
R=
vl
g cos 2 a
{sin (2/3 a) sin a}
v,
g cos z a
(1 sin a) =
2
#(1 sin 2 a)
(1 sin a)
g(l + sin a)
Method 2.
m x ak = m t gk Tk (1)
m 2 ak = m 2 gk Tk (2)
'mWWXW
Wig
m2
m2g
Fig. 3-17
m^a
m x g T,
-m 2 a
m2g
m i ~ m 2 mi + m 2
g,
T=
2m 1 m 2 m 1 + m 2 i
Method 1.
W = (W'r,)r, + (W #!)#,
Also, N = Nt x
mbe 2 = N mg sin 0, be = g
cos e (3)
d /e 2 \ d
Integrating, be 2 /2 = g sin 0 + c
1# Now when * = tt/2, 0 = 0 so that
c x = g and
e 2 = 2^/36 (7)
or v 2 = 2gb(l - sin e) ()
= = Cf.-I'-) = w+n
v 2 /b = N mg sine (5)
MOTION OF PROJECTILES
MOTION IN A RESISTING
MEDIUM
Wkv 0 W 2 ln ( 1 + KV o
K 2 g K 2 g \ W and that (6) the
time taken to reach this maximum
height is
Kg \ W)
w . /F-kv\
Fig. 3-21
STATICS IN A UNIFORM
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
Fig. 3-23
Fig. 3-24
W cos 6 2 _ W sin e x
T2
Ans. T, =
v ' 9 9 cos 2 a
g(l sin a)
Wi + m 2
I I -JJ
B
m2
Fig.3-26
Ans.
y////////////.
3.80.
3.81.
3.82.
3.83.
3.84.
A projectile is to be launched so as
to go from A to B [which are
respectively at the bases of a double
inclined plane having angles a and
/3 as shown in Fig. 3-29] and just
barely miss a pole of height H. If
the distance between A and B is D,
find the angle with the horizontal at
which the projectile should be
launched.
Fig. 3-29
83
In
(i + fig
a + V 2 - [6(1 + fi~ H 2
6(1 + n) an
W////////A
Fig. 3-31
F = g(E + vXB)
Suppose that B and E are constant
and in the directions of the negative
y and positive z axes respectively.
Prove that if the particle starts from
rest at the origin, then it will
describe a cycloid in the yz plane
whose equation is
3.99.
COS a n 2 sin a
<Fg
Ans. Wl/^/91 2 - 3s 2
85
3.108.
3.109.
(m x + m^Mi + M 2 ) + 4m x m 2
incline is
W(r + sin a)
S7\
KM
Fig. 3-35
Fig. 3-36
Chapter J,,
-nm^
(a)
l+x
F R = K xi (1)
-nmr^
0 Fig. 4-1
or mx + kx
(2)
(3)
f = P = 2^ = 2^\m (5)
ENERGY OF A SIMPLE
HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
d 2 x n dx d 2 x , n dx , A
m-T7z kx /? or m^ns +
/3~rr + kX - 0
X + 2y# + o> 2 X = 0
(12)
(13) (U)
OVER-DAMPED, CRITICALLY
DAMPED AND UNDER-DAMPED
MOTION
x = e~ yt (A + Bt) (16)
where A and B are found from
initial conditions.
A \A> 2 - y 2 \/4kWI - p 2
1 _ k_ V^ 7 ?" _ V^m - p 2 f ~ P ~
2tt ~ 2tt ~ 47rm y '
FORCED VIBRATIONS
d 2 x dx
m -rp = kX - /? -7T + Fq cos at
(23)
Or X + 2yi + oy 2 X = f Q COS at
(2U)
vV-<o 2 ) 2 + 4yV
aw
RESONANCE
VV-a> 2 ) 2 + 4 y V
a 2 = a 2 R = w 2 -2y 2 (30)
cA,
2y\A, 2 - y 2
aA =
VV-a 2 ) 2 + 4yV-y 2 )
(31)
(32)
qA
Resonant frequency
v/////////////// (
Fig. 4-4
Fig. 4-5
= -f w
t = 0, then ,
is given by ,
P = 2-xyJTig (38)
f = = ^^ fl {39)
If the angles are not necessarily
small, we can show [see Problems
4.29 and 4.30] that the period is
equal to
iir/2 dB
P=4
fir.
Fj = Kjzi
VI - W sin 2 9
F = Kl a?i - K 2 yj (U)
m dP = ~ K i x ' m d& = ~ K * y ^
F = -k x x\ - K 2 y] - K 3 zk (U)
F 2 = -/c 2 l/j
Solved Problems
-8a?i
xi
d2d2x
of P is jijjC^i) ~ ~d+2*' ^ ne ne t f
rce acting on P is
n d 2 x. . d 2 x , . ..
^i = -40sin2ti dt
W^ 2 + B 2 VA 2 + B 2 /
= VA 2 + B 2 cos (t - *) = Ccos(wt-
0)
x = 20 cos 2t + 15 sin 2t CO
x = 25{|cos2t-f sin2t}
d?x.
. KX
kxi or x H =0
m
(1) (2)
Fig. 4-8
x = x 0 , dx/dt v 0 at t = 0 From x
= x 0 at t = 0 we find, using (2), that
A = x 0 . Thus
where
(3)
(4) (5)
(8)
(7) (8)
dx .
(3)
Differentiating, we find
(1)
(3) (4)
CHAP. 4] THE SIMPLE
HARMONIC OSCILLATOR AND
THE SIMPLE PENDULUM
95
(5) (6)
4.7.
4.8.
mm^x?
E
J .5 ft
zft
F1
II
Fig. 4-9
W2 + 64, = 0
z = ^ cos 8
(2)
Fig. 4-10
(a)
(b)
(c)
2i
dt
= -8i
d2x
+^+i*
, dx di
0
x = e-(A + Bt)
dx . V = ^
-80e-i
Fig. 4-12
-40i (1)
-20(dx/dt)i
40*i
Fig. 4-13
97
f = 20 ^
(2)
d*x. b dP 1
-20% - 40*1 dt
d z x , . dx . 1M + *M + SX
(3) 04)
(5)
Since the particle starts from rest at
20 cm from O, we have
* = 20, dx/dt = 0 at * = 0
Thus by differentiation,
20V2
Fig. 4-14
Method 2.
Xn 20\/2e-2tn
= = e 27r and 8 \n(x n /x n
+ 1 ) = 2b-
x n + i 20y/2e2t n+i
8 = yP
( \( ^ irm \ = 2 ^ft
d 2 x/dt 2 + Sx = 0 or a; = A cos
2y[2t + B sin 2y/2t Then: natural
period = 2irl2y[2 sec = irly[2 sec;
natural frequency = y[2h vib/sec.
p d 2 x. n dx . .. . d 2 x , P dx _ _ A
20 d 2 z dz. d 2 z , SB dz , _. .
I^ k = 20k-40(.5 + ,)k-/ 3 |k or ^ + f
^ + 64, = 0
99
ENERGY OF A SIMPLE
HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
(a) We have V X F
iJk
~ KXl = -(jr + ^ J + *T k
m li = ~ KX r m dxlt = ~ KX >
dv dv dx
,- = K x or dt
dv
i.e. mv-=- = kx
dx
x + 2ya? + u 2 x = / 0 cos at
X = Ci cos at + c 2 sin at
(1) (*)
/o (<o 2 a 2 ) _ 2/ 0 yw
x = cos (at 0)
V( 2 ~ <o 2 ) 2 + 4y 2 a 2
(a 2 - <o 2 ) 2 + 4y 2 a 2 = a 4 - 2(<o
2 - 2y 2 )a 2 + w 4
= a 4 - 2(w 2 - 2y 2 )a 2 + (a> 2 - 2y
2 ) 2 + <o 4 - (<o 2 - 2y 2 ) 2
= [a 2 - ( 2 - 2y 2 )] 2 + 4y 2 (a> 2 -
y2)
/o/^yV^Y 2 )-
i.e. a = 0, a Vw 2 2y 2 where y 2
< ^w 2 . Now
101
x + u 2 x = 0 (*)
x = c t cos ut + c 2 sin ut w
x = t( u 2 c x cos ut u 2 c 2 sin
ut) + 2( uc t sin ut + uc 2 cos ut)
Substituting (5), (6) and (7) into
(1), we find after simplifying
(6) (7)
Fig. 4-15
6d2z
32 dt 2 d?z
= -Sz + 12 sin At
(1)
z = 0, dz/dt - 0 at t - 0 (2)
Fig. 4-16
m dP T =
-mg sin e T
(1)
<&8 _ g .
dH
dP
+ 5< =
(3)
which has solution
e = A coay/gTlt + B sinVFT^*
Taking as initial conditions $ = $ 0 ,
de/dt = 0 at t = 0, we find A =
d 2 s ds d 2 s B ds
m d^ T = -mgsmeT - B Tt T or w = -
g sin e - - ^
Using s = le and replacing sin o hy d
for small vibrations, this becomes
dt* m dt I
e = e -3t/2m(^ e \t + J5 e -xt)
where X = V)8 2 /4m 2 - g/l
F = k^xi K 2 yj
d oc ct - i/
ct ! ic d^ij
Then m = KX , m-^ = K y (2)
dx cy . , ay bx
ad be ad be
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
105
W d?z 9 d&
rrs" = Azo
=0
Solving,
Fig. 4-18
41S.
d<f>
VI ~k 2 sin 2 */,
d2ea.
(1)
-r- y cos 0 + c
(S)
U)
so that it becomes
-us
de
Vcos e cos e 0
de
[T C e
Vcos e cos e 0
(5)
P=2
vir
d*
Now let
Vsin 2 (0 o /2) - sin 2 (<?/2) sin
(e/2) = sin (<? 0 /2) sin 0
(7)
de
Vl - k 2 sin 2 <f>
Also from (7) we see that when e =
0, <f> = 0; and when e = e 0 , <j> =
jt/2. Hence (6) becomes, as
required,
_ ,7r/2 d_
\ Vl - k 2 sin 2 0
* - <VJr-=2=
p = 4 VJC^ = ^VI
(9)
/*ir/2 djp
P - AyjUg I r ,o o^
J 0 yl k 2 sin 2 tf>
X ir/2 f 1 1 3 1
-j 1 + | A; 2 sin 2 ^ + 2T4 ** sin4 * +
'"' | d(f>
r /2 a, a l*3'5---(2w-l) ff
(a)
4.32.
Thus
(ds/dt) 2 = 2gy or
ds/dt =
equation of (t),
P = Airya/g 2w-ya/g
and the period is the same as that of
a simple pendulum of length I = 4a.
For some interesting applications
see Problems 4.86-4.88.
Fig. 4-20
(ds/dt) 2 = 2g(H-z)
or ds/dt = s/2g(H z)
(1)
^7 = - y/2gc -= or
Vc 2 + 4y2
= <*+Wt)
dt
V"c2 + 4i/2
V2^c dt = , dy
yfcH - y*
we have
f T , f Vc 2 + 4y2 1 r \^H Vc 2 + % 2
I y2gc dt = I dy or r = F == I /
<fy
A) J^ ^/ c # ~ 2/ 2 v20C J 0 VcH -
2/2
P = 2w^fJc + A~H)j29
Supplementary Problems
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
-nmr-
K2
-^TOKT^-
i r* i
yrriK ^o
A2
OK
Chapter 5
(r,)
Fig. 5-2
r 2 6 = constant = h (4)
IMPORTANT EQUATIONS
DEDUCED FROM THE
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
The following equations deduced
from the fundamental equations (2)
and (3) often prove to be useful.
1 h 2 f(r)
-! T = (K\
r3m*'
d2u1
where u = 1/r.
d0 2 r\de) r mh 2 ^
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A
PARTICLE IN A CENTRAL FIELD
A central force field is a
conservative field, hence it can be
derived from a potential. This
potential which depends only on r
is, apart from an arbitrary additive
constant, given by
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
By using (8) and the fact that in
polar coordinates the kinetic energy
of a particle is im^ + r^e 2 ), the
equation for conservation of energy
can be written
or \m(r 2 + r 2 6 2 ) - f f(r) dr = E
(io)
mh 2 Vfdr\ 2 1 f , ,
and also as f ( f2 + S) ~ J ^ dr = E
W
f^V ^ . 2 _ 2(E~V)
KdeJ + u = mh 2 (I 3 )
r = r{0) ( U )
[CHAP. 5
DETERMINATION OF THE
CENTRAL FORCE FROM THE
ORBIT
,de)
f(r) =
or
f(Vu) =
de*
-mh 2 u 2
(16)
d2u
de 2
+u
(17)
r
(18)
1 + e COS 9
Fig. 5-3
Ellipse: < 1 [See Fig. 5-4 below.]
a(l-e 2 )
r i + cos e
(19)
CHAP. 5]
CENTRAL FORCES AND
PLANETARY MOTION
119
c = \Za 2 - b 2 = a c (20)
r=
1 + cos
(21)
r = a(< 2 l)
1 + e cos 9
(22)
Fig. 5-5
Fig. 5-6
SOME DEFINITIONS IN
ASTRONOMY
F = _ Gmim 2 ri ^3)
F = -^^ri (24)
is V = -Q* {25)
Solved Problems
r X F = f(r) r X r x = 0 (1)
r X dx/dt = 0 (2)
or |(rXv) = 0 (3)
Integrating, we find r X v = h (-4)
rh = 0 (5)
r X v = h where h is a constant
vector. Then multiplying by mass
m,
w(r X v) = mh (1)
m(r e + 2re)
r
(r 2 e + 2rre)
m d_ ~r di
(r 2 e)
Thus
dt
(r 2 e) 0 and so
r20
(1)
where h is a constant.
Method 2. By Problem 1.49, page 27,
the velocity in polar coordinates is
v = frj + rbei
h = r X v = f(r X r x ) + ro(r X oj = r
2 tfk (2)
since r X r t = 0 and r X $ x rk
where k is the unit vector in a
direction perpendicular to the plane
of motion [the xy plane], i.e. in the
direction r X v. Using h = fik in (2),
we see that r 2 e h.
5.5. Prove that r 2 & = 2A where A is
the time rate at which area is swept
out by the position vector r.
AA = A|rXAr|
lim
At-0 At
lim -
At-tO 2
A-*0,
Ar I At I
rX
|r X v|
Fig. 5-8
i.e., A = i|rXv| = \r 2 0
By Problem 5.4, r 2 0 = h = a
constant. Then the areal velocity is
A = r 2 6k \hk = ^h, a constant
vector
d 2 u , f(l/u)
+u-
do 2 mh 2 u 2
r 2 o = h or 0 = h/r 2 = hu 2 (1)
Method 1.
since r dr r dr.
-dV = f(r)dr
Method 2.
v = rr t + reOi s0 tnat y2 = v * v = r2
"*" r2 * 2
where is a constant.
h2 ^\ 2 + 1 *]-ff(r)dr = E
2r 4
l\dej
_ dr _ dr do _ dr We also have r ~
dt ~ Tedt ~ ~d6
since e h/r 2 .
5.11. (a) If u=l/r, prove that v 2 = f 2
+ W 2 = ^ 2 {(d%/^) 2 + u 2 }.
(du/dOf + v? = 2(E-V)/mh 2
x mv 2 = i m (f2 + r ' e 2) = e -V or
(du/de) 2 + u 2 = 2(E - V)/mh 2
DETERMINATION OF ORBIT
FROM CENTRAL FORCE, OR
CENTRAL FORCE FROM ORBIT
t = J* [G(r)]-"*dr, t = | f r 2 d6
v ' m m J JK ' 2m 2 r 2
Placing $ h/r 2 in the equation
for conservation of energy of
Problem 5.9,
%m(r 2 + h 2 /r 2 ) - f f(r) dr = E
or r 2 = + - f f(r) dr -% - G(r)
m m J JS ' r 2 '
dr/dt = y/Gir)
Method 1.
_1
K/mh 2 + Ccoss
This has the general form of the
conic [see Problem 5.16]
P=1
(6)
where c x is a constant. If we
assume that V - 0 as r -> , then
Cj = 0 and so
V = -ff/r (10)
mh 2 /dr\ 2
2r 4
dej +r2
E + (11)
r
Method 1.
(a) The potential energy is
/ K V 2E , 2K ( K . n
K 2 2E \ K 2 2lT
c2 = ^p + rf or c = V^ + ^ w
or
assuming C > 0.
{V
= ^1+^ (4)
#2
CHAP. 5]
CENTRAL FORCES AND
PLANETARY MOTION
127
Method 1.
r = 2a cos 9
Then since u = 1/r = (sec 8)/2a, we
have
du _ sec e tan e de ~ 2a
2a
Thus by Problem 5.7,
cPu
Fig. 5-9
mh 2 u 2 2a
-8mh 2 a 2 u 5
,. . 8m h 2 a 2 /(") = IS
2a
mh 2 u 2 2a
2 sec 3 e
4amh 2 SaHnh 2
mh 2 2
r 4 cos 9
But
tr
D d + r cos 9 = V r cos 9 = (1
+ e cos 8)
p = r(l + e cos 9) or r
1 + e COS 0
(5)
(4)
OV + OU = 2a or p/(l + e) + p/(l - e)
= 2a (*)
o(l - e 2 )
1 + e COS 9
U)
OV = ^- = 4^ = ( 1 " e ) (i)
1+e1+e
1 e 16
6 = QV = CZ__ = __^ or ys =
^=^ (i)
6 VE VE VE e
* X ^costf (1)
1 + e cos o r p p
_ GMm , Y v
where G is the universal
gravitational constant. Equivalently,
the law of force (3) of Problem 5.21
is the same as (1) where
K = GMm (2)
h/2 ~ h K '
GMm/R 2 = mg or GM = gR 2
ATTRACTION OF OBJECTS
[CHAP. 5
Choose the x axis along the rod and
the y axis perpendicular to the rod
and passing through its center O, as
shown in Fig. 5-10. Let a be the
mass per unit length of the rod. The
force of attraction dF between an
element of mass o dx of the rod and
m is, by Newton's universal law of
gravitation,
dF
Gmadx x 2 + b 2 Gmox dx
Fig. 5-10
~ l J ( x 2 +ft 2)3/2 3 J
=0
(x 2 + b 2 )^ 2 _. C a Gmabdx
- 2j X
(x 2 + ft 2 ) 3 ' 2
(x 2 + b 2 )*' 2
Xa
dx
(X 2 + 6 2 ) 3 /2
F=
-2Gmabj I
2Gmcra
(b 2 sec 2 <s>) 3/ 2
o - ' by/a 2 +b 2
^, GMm F = 3
by/a 2 +b 2
Method 1.
,_ _ Ga{2vr dr)m r 2 + 6 2
cos <f> n
Go 2irr dr mb
(1)
( r 2 4. ,2)3/2 "
F = 2vGomb
-r
r dr
( r 2 -j. &2)3/2
b \Vr 2 + fe 2
Fig.5-11
(2)
131
IwGomb n I
v^+b* udu
2irGom n ( 1
u \ y/a 2 +b 2 ,
Method 2.
Ga(r dr do)mb
d
and by integrating over the circular
plate
( r 2 -(- J,2)3/2
F = Gamb
/* S
r=0 ^0 = 0
r dr de (r 2 + 6 2 ) 3/2
Xa
2irr dr 0 (r 2 + 6 2 )3/ 2
2TrGom n (1 cos a)
5.28. A uniform plate has its
boundary consisting of two
concentric half circles of inner and
outer radii a and b respectively, as
shown in Fig. 5-12. Find the force of
attraction of the plate on a mass m
located at the center 0.
_ _ G{ar dr de)m
Fig.5-12
(cos e i + sin e j)
XC G{ardrde)m . . . . n ..
I - - (cos e i + sin e j)
)=0 r=a
Gam In
W X=o
[CHAP. 5
d = s cos <p n
in*
(1)
PE AP
PO - EO AP
r a cos e
(2)
ade
F = 2TrGa 2 am
Fig. 5-13
"J.
de
(4)
= 0,
2ar + r 2 = (r a) 2 so that w = r
a if r > a. Also when 6 = ir, w 2
a 2 + 2ar + r 2 = (r + a) 2 so that w
= r + a. In addition, we have
2w dw = 2ar sin 6 de
' a 2 -f- r 2 _ w 2\ )2
a COS 0
2ar
a2+r2
F=
irGaam n
x:
i+
dw
2r
&TrGa 2 om n
r2
F=
wGaom
Jo
1-
dw = 0
CHAP. 5]
133
_ G<x(4t7 P 2 d P )m d s n
(1)
AirGomn f a .
^ dp
F=
Xa > 2
G{%va s )am n
(*)
(6) Since the mass of the sphere is
M ^waPo, (2) can be written as F
= (GMm/r 2 )n, which shows that
the force of attraction is the same
as if all the mass were concentrated
at the center.
dV
2irGa 2 am
V 2 + r 2 2ar cos 9
4:irGa 2 cnn
GMm
rr
V = kwGaom
GMm \
GMm
,2 l l
F = -VV = -V(-4s-Gaam) = 0 in
agreement with Problems 5.29 and
5.30.
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
5.34. An object is projected
vertically upward from the earth's
surface with initial speed Vo.
Neglecting air resistance, (a) find
the speed at a distance H above the
earth's surface and (6) the smallest
velocity of projection needed in
order that the object never return.
GMm
(1)
Fig.5-14
tt)
2GM (i-i) + ^
ve the earth'
2GMH
(5)
R(R + H)
, 2 2GMH V = ^ V -R(R + H)
v = ^jvl
!~2 2gRH
V = \<~R+H
(6)
F _ w dv _ GMm
~ m dt ~ r 2 ri {1)
, dv GM ,-.
we have -=r = x-r t (2)
dt r 2
r X v = h (3)
dv av^ (y
f dr, (j r \ dr,
h = rX v = lX (, + -) = ^r.x-J W)
From (2),
dv GM f dr i
[f *A drA or,
= GM {("-^>-<'.-")-i = GM ^r
at at
d^ri
|(vxh) = GM-
Integrating, v X h = GM r t + c
from which
r (v X h) = GM t r 1 + r c = GMr
+ rr x c = GMr + re cos e
and so
mh 2 n 2 . / 2Emh 2 \ ...
V = -g^ = a(l-e 2 ) = a I K2~J (*)
or v 2 = -(---) (3)
m \r a I
m \r a
v 2 = 2K/mr
[CHAP. 5
mv l _ GMm _ gR*m _ R
R + H ~ (R + H)* ~ (R + H)* or v
~R+H
If H is small compared with R, this
is y/Rg approximately.
y/(R + H)g
(b)
Orbital speed
Thus
_ 2tt(R + H)
_ 2u(R + H) _ r ^ 7
0
R+HR
: )V 1 ?
G(f7r&3)<rm/&2 = (^Gam)b
center. Fig.5-15
Supplementary Problems
d2 r _ (K ma 2 v\ sin 2 a)
dt 2 mr 3
+ (1 y)u 0 where y
do 2 ' ma 2 v 2 sin 2 a
DETERMINATION OF ORBIT
FROM CENTRAL FORCE OR
CENTRAL FORCE FROM ORBIT
r 4 cos e r 2 cos 3 e
respect to r.
12
S + cos 8
24
5.70. Work Problem 5.69 for the
conic r =
3 + 5 cos 8 '
* 2 ,y 2 1 , x 2 v 2
tf + V 2 = 1 and V 2 ~V = x
ATTRACTION OF OBJECTS
6V r *
on m has magnitude ^^ c
sin Ua + (3) D/
ao ^\
/^ \ 6 \
tan VsiniS-sinay I 2a I
. ^ GMm A H \
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
J R + H J [H
^~2tUr
~ R + H _JR-H
>9
5.104. An object is thrown upward
from the earth's surface with
velocity v 0 . Assuming that it
returns to earth and that air
resistance is negligible, find its
velocity on returning.
Ans. 6 X 10 24 kg
V(r) =
2ua(b 2 -a 2 ) r < a
d2u,K,.
do 2 mh 2 '
mh 2 /K , 1 , L9
r = -; where a 1 yK/mh 2
1 + e cos aO
GMm . _j / ab
ab Sin \^(a 2 + D 2 )(b 2 + D 2 )
max ' v r
Chapter 6
NON-INERTIAL COORDINATE
SYSTEMS
In preceding chapters the
coordinate systems used to describe
the motions of particles were
assumed to be inertial [see page
33]. In many instances of practical
importance, however, this
assumption is not warranted. For
example, a coordinate system fixed
in the earth is not an inertial
system since the earth itself is
rotating in space. Consequently if
we use this coordinate system to
describe the motion of a particle
relative to the earth we obtain
results which may be in error. We
are led therefore to consider the
motion of particles relative to
moving coordinate systems.
ROTATING COORDINATE
SYSTEMS
dAi ~df
i+
dA, dt
i+
dAt dt
(1)
Fig. 6-1
dA dt
dA dt
+ o> x A
(2)
DERIVATIVE OPERATORS
D F = D M + oX (3)
+ *>Xr a)
dr _ dr
dt f ~ dt
or D F r = D M x + <o X r (5)
Let us write
v p|F = dr/dt \ F = D F r = velocity
of particle P relative to fixed system
v p(M = dr/dt \ M = D M r =
velocity of particle P relative to
moving system
ACCELERATION IN A MOVING
SYSTEM
If D 2 F = d 2 /dt 2 \ F and D^ = d 2
/dt 2 | M are second derivative
operators with respect to t in the
fixed and moving systems, then
application of (3) yields [see
Problem 6.6]
D 2 F r = D 2 M r + (Z> M <o) X r +
2 X D M r + X ( x r) (7)
Let us write
a P|F = d 2 r/dt 2 \ F = D F r =
acceleration of particle P relative to
fixed system
*P|F **P|M
X r (11)
M/
Coriolis acceleration = 2o x D M r
2<o x v M (9)
Centripetal acceleration = x ( x
r) (10)
/j
MOTION OF A PARTICLE
RELATIVE TO THE EARTH
[CHAP. 6
dt 2
m(m X r) 2m(o> x v) m[ x (
X r)]
(13)
dt 2
(U)
= R + ZXr + <oXr
=R+
dr dt
+ < xr
(15)
and
^r dt 2
(16) (17)
THE FOUCAULT PENDULUM
CHAP. 6]
147
Solved Problems
ROTATING COORDINATE
SYSTEMS
If
dA dt
j dA and rr
f dt
dA dt
dA dt
+aXA
To the fixed observer the unit
vectors i, j,k actually change with
time. Hence such an observer
would compute the time derivative
as
dA dt
i.e.,
dA x dt
dAI dt \f
dA
2.
dt
dA 3 ^ dt
i + ^i + -^k + A^ + A 2 f t + A ZTt
di dt
d\
dk
dAl dt \m
, di . d) a dk
+ ^1^7 + A 2^ + A 3
dt
dt
dt
(1) (2)
di/dt = J + a 2 k (S)
Similarly,
dj/dt = a 3 k + a 4 i dk/dt = a 5 i + a
6j
. dj ,di . _
U)
>dy
di
dt dt
dt
dt
dk , di dt dt
.rfk+dl.i, -dt dt
di/dt = aj + a 2 k, dj/dt = a 3 k a t
i, dk/dt = a 2 i atf
It follows that
. di
+ A 2 ^ + A s -^ = (-iA 2 - a 2 A 3 )i
+ (iA l -a s A s )j + (a 2 A! + a 3 A 2
)k (6)
dt
Then if we choose a 3 = lf a 2 =
<o 2 , a t = w 3 this determinant
becomes
iJk
! W 2 <0 3
= <> X A
[CHAP. 6
dA dA
dt j? dt
+wXA
By definition D F A
dA dt
DmA = ~di
D F = D M + x
D F A = D M A + XA = (D M + co
X)A
da
~dt
da ~dl
+ to X
da ~di
dr dt
dr dt
+ o, X r
(1)
dr dt
dx . dy^. dz , dt di 3 dt
dr ~di
dr . v dt + wXr
(2)
(3)
2i - 6j + 12k +
iJk
2-16 2-6 4
34i - 2j + 2k
D F (D F r) = D F (D M r + *> X r)
= (D M + X )(D M r + a. x r) = D
M {D M r + X r) + u X (D M r +
.Xr) = D^r + D M (a> X r) + o> X D
M r + * X ( X r) or since D M (<*
X r) = (D M m) X r + X (D M r),
dt 2 dt 2 * + dt 2 * dt 2 (g)
The acceleration of the particle
relative to the fixed system is given
from (1) as
d 2 r I (Pr , d , .. /dr
|f
dt 2 \ F ^ + ^ Xr + 2wX U^ +
ttX(wXr) w
d 2 r d fdr\ d
Centripetal acceleration = a. X ( X
r) = (2i - j + 6k) X (32i + 4j - 10k) =
-14i + 212j + 40k
MOTION OF A PARTICLE
RELATIVE TO THE EARTH
d2r
dt 2 \F
= F (1)
dt 2
d?r I .... . w dt
- +iXr+2.X^I +.X(.Xr) ()
dt 2 \m dt \m
dt 2 m \ dt \m j
= F - w(i X r) - 2m( X v) m[ X
(*> X r)] (4)
d2v
CHAP. 6]
151
dr\ _ dv
dt \m dt
dx. . dy . . dz . -i + "rrj + k
dt
dt
dt
(1)
Now the position vector of P
relative to O is P = R + r and thus
the velocity of P as viewed in the
XYZ system is
dp
dt ~
di (R + r) \ F " H\f + di dv
= * + dt + Xr ^
m dt 2 dt 2 ^ dt 2 ' dt 2 K1)
d?r dt 2
d 2 p dt 2
J^+'i
dm,
dt 2
d2r
F dt 2
dt 2
dt
dt
(2)
d?P dt 2
(1)
dt 2
=F
mR m(i X r) 2m(<* X v)
m[ X (o> X r)]
[CHAP. 6
m = 0 (1)
F = -2E, ,
the first equation arising from the
fact that the rotation of the earth
about its axis proceeds with
constant angular velocity, the
second arising from the fact that
the acceleration of origin Q relative
to O is the centripetal acceleration,
and the third arising from Newton's
law of gravitation. Using these in
(2) of Problem 6.12 yields the
required equation,
Fig. 6-4
dt*
GM
p a) X (* X R) 2(<* X v) - X
( X r)
(4)
assuming that other forces acting
on m [such as air resistance, etc.]
are neglected.
We can define
GM .
g-p tt X (* X R)
|^ = g - 2( X v) - X ( X r)
(5)
(6)
Near the earth's surface the last
term in (6) can be neglected, so that
to a high degree of approximation,
= g - 2( X v)
(7)
x = 2> cos A y
z = g + 2o>sinXy
ijk
xyz
x = 2w cos X y (1)
z g + 2u sin X y (3)
Method 1.
Since at t = 0, x = 0, y = 0, x = 0, y =
0, z = ft we have c x = 0, c 2 = 2u sin
X ft. Thus
'z = g + 2w sin X y g 4u 2
sin X [cos X a; + sin X (z h)]
z = -gt (2)
Using equation (2) and the first
equation of (1) in equation (2) of
Problem 6.15 we find j/ = (2(0 cos
X)(2w cos X 2/) + (2u sin X)(gt)
= 4w 2 cos 2 X 1/ + 2w sin X gt
y wg sin X t 2 + c 4
Since y = 0 at = 0, we have c 4 = 0
and y ag sin X t 2 . Integrating
again,
2/ = ^ug sin X t 3 + c 5
Then since y = 0 at = 0, c 5 = 0 so
that, as required,
Method 2.
x = 2w cos X 2/ + c x
z = gt + 2w sin \y + c z
[CHAP. 6
Using the fact that at t = 0, c 2 =
2o>h sin X, c 3 = 0. Thus
x = y z = 0 and
0; y = 0,
h, we have e x = 0,
2w cos X i/
gt + 2w sin X y
J"
2 dw
h igt 2 + 2w sin X
y du
(5) (6)
x = 0, 1/ = 2wfti sin X, z - h gt 2
^ug& sin X,
zh
&*
0,
[ugt 3 sin X,
=h
i9t 2
= -T
Ti l
j+T
(1)
Since the net force acting on B is T
+ mg, the equation of motion of B is
given by [see Problem 6.14]
Fig. 6-5
0 = T mg + 2muy sin X or T = mg
2muy sin X (1)
x = 0, x = 0, y = A, y = 0 at t = 0 (1)
y = -K 2 y - 2ax U)
x + iy = -K 2 (x + iy) + 2 a (y-ix) = -
K 2 (x + iy) - 2ia(x + iy)
u = -K 2 u - 2iau or u + 2iau + K 2 u
= 0 (5)
If u = Cey* where C and y are
constants, this becomes
y 2 + 2iay + K 2 = 0
y = ia iK (7)
u = (C^iCJe-*"- + (C 3 + tC 4
)e- + K)t (5)
X _ a \ /Vff/l- wcosX
or x = A cos Kt sm at "1
2/ = A COSK* COS at J
i (*)
is a unit vector.
CHAP. 6]
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
T cos 6 mg = 0 (2)
Fig. 6-6
6.23. A rod AOB [Fig. 6-7] rotates in
a vertical plane [the yz plane] about
a horizontal axis through O
perpendicular to this plane [the x
axis] with constant angular velocity
w. Assuming no frictional forces,
determine the motion of a particle P
of mass m which is constrained to
move along the rod. An equivalent
problem exists when the rod A OB
is replaced by a thin hollow tube
inside which the particle can move.
Fig. 6-7
or m-7r^r 1 = mg sine r t mg
cos 0 0j + mu 2 rr x + iVOj
If we assume that at t = 0, r = r 0 ,
dr/dt = v 0 , we find
r = r 0 cosht + ( --^jsinhwt + ^-
sinw* (-4)
x = v 0 cos a, y = 0, z = v 0 sin at t
= 0 (2)
= 2 cos X I x du 2u sin X I z
du
(7)
y = 0 (10)
the distance
o>vl sin 2 a
Supplementary Problems
ROTATING COORDINATE
SYSTEMS. VELOCITY AND
ACCELERATION
system.
Ans. (a) (6 cos t - 45 sin t + Ue-^i +
(40 cos * - 6 sin t - lle-^j + (10 sin t
- 23 cos t + 16e~')k (b) sin t i +
cos t j + e _t k
MOTION OF A PARTICLE
RELATIVE TO THE EARTH
[CHAP. 6
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
6.60.
6.61.
g u 2 R sin 2 X '
Fig. 6-8
CJ>
~B
Fig. 6-9
CHAP. 6]
163
PVp~9/y/v* + p 2g2.
and
Fig. 6-11
6.85.
6.86.
g ff 2
3^2
x v x t + uv 2 t 2 cos X
y v 2 t at 2 ^! cos \ + v 3 sin X)
+ ^ugt 3 sin X z v 3 t gt 2 +
uv 2 t 2 sin X neglecting terms
involving co 2 .
y g sin a
2Zco / 21 , ...
-5- \ : COS (a + X)
o \ g sin a
Chapter 7 SYSTEMS
of PARTICLES
DENSITY
For continuous systems of particles
occupying a region of space it is
often convenient to define a mass
per unit volume which is called the
volume density or briefly density.
Mathematically, if AM is the total
mass of a volume At of particles,
then the density can
be defined as ,. aM m
<t = hm v-U
at^o At
DEGREES OF FREEDOM
Example 1.
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES
[CHAP. 7
Example 2.
CENTER OP MASS
mxxx + m 2 r 2 + + m N r N _
~M
r=
1N
(2)
m1+m2++mN
N
where M = ^ m v is the total mass
of the system. We sometimes use 2
or simply J) in place of 2
..2
Fig. 7-1
Fig. 7-2
rdi
r=
J or dr
f = xi + yj + zk, r = x v i + y v j + z v
k then (3) can equivalently be
written as
and
- _ S WyXy _ 2) m v y v
X~M>$~M'
JaXdr I aydr
<V *J CD
X=
-, _ *"K
M'M
M = ^m v
= \ <rdr
z=
JaZdr
M
(5)
(6) (7)
CENTER OF GRAVITY
If a system of particles is in a
uniform gravitational field, the
center of mass is sometimes called
the center of gravity.
MOMENTUM OF A SYSTEM OF
PARTICLES
NN
p = ] rav = ^m v r v (8)
v=l v=l
We can show [see Problem 7.3] that
p = Mv = M^ = Mi (9)
This is expressed in
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
Putting F = 0 in (10), we find that
p = ^ m v \ v = constant (11)
v=l
Thus we have
ANGULAR MOMENTUM OF A
SYSTEM OF PARTICLES
The quantity N
O = 2 m v {rXv v ) (12)
A = 2 r v X F (iS)
da
A = dt W
Thus we have
CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR
MOMENTUM
O = ^ m v (r v x v) = constant (15)
Thus we have
\NjN
WORK
by 2] is
v=l *s \
POTENTIAL ENERGY.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
NN
Y, m v< = ^m v r f v = 0 (20)
v=X v=l
v=l
da'
A = -W M
IMPULSE
If F is the total external force acting
on a system of particles, then
St.
dt (U)
( A eft (25)
CONSTRAINTS. HOLONOMIC
AND NON-HOLONOMIC
CONSTRAINTS
VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENTS
STATICS OF A SYSTEM OF
PARTICLES. PRINCIPLE OF
VIRTUAL WORK
2Fv8r = 0 (27)
v=l
F = F l v a) + F< c) (28)
2 F< 0) 8r = 0 (29)
v=l
EQUILIBRIUM IN
CONSERVATIVE FIELDS.
STABILITY OF EQUILIBRIUM
The results for equilibrium of a
particle in a conservative force field
[see page 38] can be generalized to
systems of particles. The following
theorems summarize the basic
results.
dV A dW
F = p or F - p = 0 (so)
2 (F^ a) - p.) 8r = 0
Solved Problems
DEGREES OF FREEDOM
(d) Method 1.
The coordinates of the two particles
can be expressed by {x lf y{) and (x
2 ,y 2 ), i.e. a total of 4 coordinates.
However, since the distance
between these points is a constant a
[the length of the rigid rod], we
have (x 1 x 2 ) 2 + (l/i 2/2) 2 =
ft2 so that one of the coordinates
can be expressed in terms of the
others. Thus there are 4 1 = 3
degrees of freedom.
Method 2.
(a) Method 1.
(x 3 - x x ) 2 + (y 3 - y x ) 2 + (z 3 - z
t ) 2 = constant hence 3 coordinates
can be expressed in terms of the
remaining 6. Thus 6 independent
coordinates are needed to describe
the motion, i.e. there are 6 degrees
of freedom.
Method 2.
x\ + y\ + z\ = constant, x\ + yl +
z\= constant, (x x - x 2 ) 2 + (y t - y
2 ) 2 + {z t - z 2 ) 2 = constant from
which 3 coordinates can be found in
terms of the remaining 3. Thus
there are 3 degrees of freedom.
dPy J2
d&
2 F v + 2 2 t v \ = m i 2 m v r v I (2)
F = 2 F and f = ^^ m v r v (3)
V 1Y1 V
r t = i - k, r 2 = -2i + j + 3k, r 3 = 3i -
j + k Then the center of mass is
given by
3+5+2
v 1 0' 1 0 o '
3 + 5 + 2 10 1 + 10 j + 5 k
[CHAP. 7
Ar = Ax v Ay v &z v
AM V = o v At v = a v Ax v Ay v Az v
2 r AM V 2 r v a v Ar v 2 * a v Ax v
Ay v Az v
2 AM V 2 <r v At v 2 v ^ x v ^Vv ^ z
v
_%
Fig. 7-3
9.
dx dy dz
%=_
III x a dx dy dz
III adxdy dz 9
Jlf*
dx dy dz
sss-
dx dy dz
At = Ax v Ay v Az v
t=
a x /*a xi
a dz dy dx
Fig. 7-4
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES
175
3=
J xadA JJ xdydx j j
y/l^x*
xdy dx
V=
f <rdA ff dydx C C
Jtf^
=0
dydx
ydydx
/.
x = a 3/=0
ydydx
odA
ss
dy dx
J-._ J
V^?
dydx
2a 3 /3 ira 2 /2
4a
3lT
a "y=0
Fig. 7-5
Fig. 7-6
y=
yadA I \ (r sin 9) r dr de
dA
0 r=0
rdrde
2q3/3
Aa Sir
traz{a 2 z 2 ) dz
2z=0
J a va(a 2 z 2 ) dz
= la
z=0
Fig. 7-7
dPvd
r,XF v + 2 r X f x = v v X ^(m v)
(*)
dd
2r,XF, + 2 2rXf vX = j- i 2 m v (t v
X v) f (5)
r v XU + *xXf x ()
2r v XF = i\^m v (r v Xv v )\ or A =
d
(1)
(2)
(3)
w 12 = 2 ('r v 'r v dt = 2 ( 2 F v -l v dt
+ 22 ( 2 t vX -r v dt
ti i l l
= 2 f f v 'dr v (6)
12
Vxv (rw) = V v \ (r v \)
where n = r v \ = V( x * ~ x ) 2 +
(#*. Vv) 2 + (z\ - z v ) 2 is the
distance between particles A and v
of the system.
v X t v \
Wxv. Wxv. dV Xv
i vX 'dr v + i Xv 'dr x =
JdV Xv d v Kv dV Xv dV Xv dV Xv
dV Xv , -]
vX*v\
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES
[CHAP. 7
-2
2 2) t Xy dr v = - - 2 2 I
C*Vx
J22v x
2t
1/(int) -r/(int)
KlK2
U)
(5)
7.15. Prove that if both the external
and internal forces for a system of
particles are conservative, then the
principle of conservation of energy
is valid.
F - -VV
(1)
from which
2 (\-dr v - -2 fV, = v?
T/(ext) K 2
where V[ ext) and y< ext) denote
the total external potential
2V
where
Vi
V
(ext)
+ vj
(int)
and
Vo
y^ ext) + y 2
(int)
U)
T t + V x - T 2 + y 2 or T + V =
constant (5)
r = ^^m v r v (1)
from which 2 m v r v ~
(S)
*v = <+* tt)
VV
VVVV
Now by Problem 7.16,
K(<Xv) = J2^v<fXv = 0
2 m v {f Xv) = f X -j 2 rn p \'V = 0
2 m v (t X v) = < 2 H, Mr X v) =
M{i X v)
O = 2m(<Xv') + Af(fXv)
* v * V
6v
,2
IMPULSE
_, ifdH ,.dv
F = M -di? = M lt Then the total
linear impulse is
X* 2 C H dv _
Ydt = I M ~^ dt ~ M *2 - M\ 1 = p 2
- Pi
where p x = Mx t and p 2 Mv 2
represent the total momenta at
times t x and t 2 respectively.
CONSTRAINTS. HOLONOMIC
AND NON-HOLONOMIC
CONSTRAINTS
2F'8r = 0 (-0
2 F Co) dr v = 0 W
vv
sin a x _ m2 sin a 2 mi
CHAP. 7]
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES
181
Method 1.
F< a) = m xS ,
F< a) = m 2 g
or F'< 0) Sr x + F 2 a) Sr 2 = 0
00
(*)
Fig. 7-9
i Sr x + wi 2 g Sr 2 = 0 (3)
or m x g 8r t sin a x + m 2 g 8r 2 sin
a 2 = 0 (4)
Then since the string is
inextensible, i.e. 8r t + 8r 2 = 0 or
8r 2 = Sri, (4) becomes
sin ax _ m 2 h
(5)
sm a 2 w
Method 2.
(m x g + T x + Rj) 8r x + (m 2 g +
T 2 + R 2 ) Sr 2 = 0
8r 2 = -8r lt
T a 8r x + T 2 Sr 2 = -T x 8r x - T
2 8r 2
<*)
= m x g sin a x + m^g sm a 2 =
0
sinaj sin a 2
m2
D'ALEMBERTS PRINCIPLE
obtain .. ..
(m x g- m x r x )'8r x + (m 2 g - ra 2
r 2 ) Sr a = 0 (1)
8r x + 8r 2 = 0, r x + V 2 = 0 or Sr 2
= Srj, r 2 = rV Thus (2)
becomes, after dividing by 8r x # 0,
n=
mx+m2
Thus particle 1 goes down or up the
incline with constant acceleration
according as m x g sin a x > m<$ sin
a 2 or m x g sin a x < m^g sin a 2
respectively. Particle 2 in these
cases goes up or down respectively
with the same constant
acceleration.
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
m 1 T 1 + m 2 r 2 t = and * i
r m x + m 2 i + 2
or using v x = i x , v 2 = r 2 , v = f, _
m x \ x + m 2 \ 2 = (m x + m 2 )v K
1)
v = ^(r!-r 2 ) = h - f 2 = v x - v 2 so
that v i - v 2 = v
m2v___miv
v i = V + , + ,' v 2 - v Wi + m2
T = l^ivf + 2 m 2V 2
m 2 v \ 2 l /_ m i v
1 / w 2 v \ , 1 /_ '"''
(*)
= !<-+*+1^- = i w + i
-/iV 2
CHAP. 7]
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES
183
J ads r
2a?
n-a
f-
de
2a
Fig. 7-12
is a t
Mif l + M 2 i 2 + + M n r n
Mi + M 2 +
+Mn
*2
i + in n2 +
(m n r u + m 12 r 12 +) + (m 21 r
21 + m 22 r 22 +
Mm
) + + (m nl r Ml + m n2 r n2 +
)
(w u + m 12 + ) + (w 21 + m 22
+ ) + + (m nl + m n2 H )
Mjt x + M 2 r 2 + + M n r n
M x + M 2 + + Af
- 32 + 8aH + 6m ~ 8a + 12H
Af,
Fig. 7-13
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES
[CHAP. 7
y %ira 2 o
xa
Fig. 7-14
Fig. 7-15
M l x l + M 2 x 2 (Tra 2 a)(a) + (-
%ira 2 a)(%a) _ 5
Mi + M 2
ira 2 a \ira % o
V4L 2 - I 2
sin a
lV&
sm/3
There is only one actual force, i.e.
the weight rag of the rod. Other
forces acting are the force of the
wall on the rod and the tension in
the string. However, these are
constraint forces and can do no
work. This can be seen since if P
were to slide down the wall no work
would be done, because the wall is
frictionless and thus the force due
to the wall on the rod is
perpendicular to the wall. Also if Q
were to drop, it could only move
perpendicular to the string at Q.
OQ = OP + PQ OQ = OC + CQ
V4L 2 - I 2
OQ'i = PQ'i
or I sin a = L sin /?
Fig.7-16
(1) (2)
CHAP. 7]
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES
185
Similarly on taking the dot product
of both sides of (2) with j,
mg Sr = 0 (6)
so that
iin a 1 Z sin a
sin/? =
Ly/Z
(10)
()
(12)
(IS)
(U) (IS)
8a + 12H
cos 0 + a
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES
[CHAP. 7
V
n* i 6ff 2 - 3a 2
'3a 2 - 6# 2
aW do 2
= M^
,=o v 8a + 12H
0=0
M#
3a 2 - 6ff 2 \ 8a + 12H
>
=0
(1)
(2)
Tcos9 = T n {3)
From (2) we find on dividing by A9,
T sin9
As
9 A~9
d9
(T sin 9) = ag
ds d9
je (T 0 tan 9) T n
ds 9 T9
or
dy de
do
dx de
dx ds ds d9
dy ds ds d9
ag
= COS 9,
sec 2 9
b sec 2 9
dy n
-f- = sm9 ds
= (cos 9)(b sec 2 9) = (sin 9){b sec 2
9)
= b sec 9
= b sec 9 tan 9
tt)
(5)
(9) (10)
y = b sec ff (14)
Supplementary Problems
DEGREES OF FREEDOM
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES
[CHAP. 7
Fig. 7-19
Fig.7-20
ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND
TORQUE
CHAP. 7]
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES
189
CONSTRAINTS, STATICS,
VIRTUAL WORK, STABILITY AND
D'ALEMBERT'S PRINCIPLE
W*
IE
Og
Fig. 7-21
W*
Fig. 7-22
Fig. 7-
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES
[CHAP. 7
7.77.
7.78.
7.79.
7.80.
7.81.
7.82.
7.83.
7.84.
7.85.
Fig.7-26
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES
191
Fig. 7-29
Fig. 7-30
7.90. A uniform chain of 45kgwt is
suspended from two fixed supports
15 meters apart. If the sag in the
middle is 20 cm, find the tension at
the supports. Ans. 450 kg wt
SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES
[CHAP. 7
,2
m x m 2 v\ 2 + m 2 m 3 V23 + m 1
m i v'x Z m x + m 2 + m 3
Fig. 7-31
Fig. 7-32
Chapter 8 APPLICATIONS to
VIBRATING SYSTEMS OF
PARTICLES
PROBLEMS INVOLVING
CHANGING MASS. ROCKETS
COLLISIONS OF PARTICLES
V 12 ~ ~~ eV 12
CHAP. 8] APPLICATIONS TO
VIBRATING SYSTEMS, ROCKETS
AND COLLISIONS
195
CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS OF
PARTICLES
x=0
x=I
x=l
Fig. 8-1
Pig. 8-2
d2Ynd2Y
dt 2
= c<
dx 2
= Tfa
(2)
APPLICATIONS TO VIBRATING
SYSTEMS, ROCKETS AND
COLLISIONS [CHAP. 8
FOURIER SERIES
,y + 2l
-j s*y + 2l
n-irX .
cos r aa?
# sm
7-
dx
(3) (5)
If y = I, certain simplifications
can occur in the coefficients (4) and
(5) as indicated below:
1. If f(-x) = f(x),
bn = 0
(6)
2. If f(-x) = -f(x),
a n = 0,
6n
fX'^>
sin = ax
{7)
fix)
Fig. 8-3
Fig. 8-4
Fig. 8-5
CHAP. 8] APPLICATIONS TO
VIBRATING SYSTEMS, ROCKETS
AND COLLISIONS
197
CONVERGENCE OF FOURIER
SERIES
/(*i + 0)
Fig. 8-6
f(X2~0)}.
4. f(x) has period 21, i.e. f(x + 21) =
f(x).
VIBRATING SYSTEMS OF
PARTICLES
" nit
-OH5ffir>
Fig. 8-7
C ni
^1 *ii u \ x 2 i
-nmu^-
P Fig. 8-8
Q
k(x x x 2 )i kx 2 i
d2
m x 2 = k(x 1 2x 2 ) (2)
2k ffllO 2 K
2 = <*>
jc 2k Ww 2
1 / k . 1 / 3/c
/ = 7T \\~ and / = \\
2v \ m 2tt \ m
(5)
At=A2
A x A 2
x 2 = D x coswx* + D 2 sinwjt + D 3
cos u 2 * + D sin a 2 t (2)
Dj = C lf D 2 = C 2 , D 3 = -C 3 , D 4
= -C 4
x 2 = Cxcosuit + C 2 sin u x t C 3
cosu 2 t ~ C 4 sina 2 t (4)
C 1 + C 3 = 0, C x C 3 = a, C 2 W! +
C 4 <o 2 = 0, C 2 o^ - C 4 w 2 = 0
o1,o
Aw m + Am
APPLICATIONS TO VIBRATING
SYSTEMS, ROCKETS AND
COLLISIONS [CHAP. 8
Av Am Av
m M ~ V ^ + AT Am = F
dv dm
m di ~ v -dT = F W
dv . dm _
m Tt + v It = F W
/ s\ dv . dv aV o
(m 0 -at) a v 0 = -(m 0 a t)g or ^
= 9 +^ {1)
0 = 0 - v 0 In m 0 + c x or c x = v 0
In m 0
\m 0 - at J
COLLISIONS OF PARTICLES
m x \[ + m 2 V2 = m 1 \ 1 + m 2 v 2
(2)
CHAP. 8] APPLICATIONS TO
VIBRATING SYSTEMS, ROCKETS
AND COLLISIONS
201
V2 =
(m x - em 2 )v 1 + m 2 (l + e)v 2
fltj + W&2
m 1 (l + e)vj + (m 2 w 1 )v 2 m t
+m2
(S)
vi
m^Vi + m 2 v 2 Wj + ra 2 '
v2=
m^ + m2V 2
mj + m 2
(ra x m 2 )v 1 + 2m 2 v 2 , 2m l \ l
+ (mj m^v 2
v i = ^ j,^ v 2 = -
m, + w 2
= 2 mi
(m x
m 2 )v! + 2w 2 v 2 l 2
12,1z
mx+m2
+ 2%
C2m l v 1 + (w 2 m!)v 2 ] 2
8.9.
m 1 v 1 + m 2 v 2 = w^vi + wi 2 v 2
From Fig. 8-13 we see that
(1)
Fig. 8-13
v i = ^iCcos *i i sin e x j) v 2 = v 2
(cos *2 * sin e % j) v i ^i(cos
<Pi i sin <f> t j) v 2 = v 2 (cos 0 2
i sin <f> 2 j) Substituting
equations (2)-(5) in (1) and
equating coefficients of i and j, we
have
(3) U) (5)
APPLICATIONS TO VIBRATING
SYSTEMS, ROCKETS AND
COLLISIONS [CHAP. 8
V x COS 0! = V 2 COS 0 2 =
Then using (12) and (15) we find
m1+m2
v i = ^i(cos 0i i sin 0 X j)
(m l m 2 e)v 1 cos 0 X i + ra 2 (l +
e)v 2 cos 0 2 i ~~ m t + m 2
v 2 = v 2 (cos 02 i _ sin $2 J)
wij + m 2
t>i sin e x j
t> 2 sin e 2 j
(7)
(*) ()
(10)
(J*)
(18)
CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS OF
PARTICLES
x + Ax
Fig. 8-14
or, dividing by Ax j,
' "d 2 Y d
U)
>Rs)
Since sin 9 =
tan e dY/dx
Vl + tan2 e Vl + (dY/dx) 2
equation (5) can be written
(6)
d2Y22Y
dt 2 ~ C dx 2
mg = a As gj
d 2 Y _ 2 &Y _ dt 2 C dx 2 9
FOURIER SERIES
APPLICATIONS TO VIBRATING
SYSTEMS, ROCKETS AND
COLLISIONS [CHAP. 8
/(*)
Fig. 8-15
(b) f{x)
sin x 0 ^ x ^ -nr 0 77 < x < 2tt
Period = 2tt
/<*)
Fig. 8-16
dx
r
cos j- dx
. kirX j sin j ax
kirX , cos j dx
I kirX
j- cosj-kir I
I . kvx kir I
= 0 if fc= 1,2,3,
=0
8.14. Prove
. r l m-n
(a) 1 cos j
(b) f' si
m-rrX fltrX , C
cosjdx \
0 m= n
1m=n
m-rrX TlirX , n
sin 5 cos j- dx = 0
Similarly if m = n,
If m = n, we have
j^ COSCOS dx = -J^l+COSjd*
=I
J. mirx . nwx , 1 C /.. 2mrx\ .
-i * - '-i \ * /
8.15. If , , N
(a) Multiplying
= a m l if m= 0
Thus
~ 7 J '^ cos| da; if m = 1,2, 3, ...
+ Si {* sin^cos^fd, + 6
sin^sin^f,
6mZ
If 1 _ o
I Period -
-10
r
10
Fig. 8-17
a n = \f + 2l f(x)cos^dx = |J 5
/(*)cos^
y _5
= f^sin^f = 0 if n#0
5 V n^r o
o
'5 n .. o /-5
3 r 5 ovx , 3 r 5 , _
7 5
-I cos > l
5 \ nir 5 /
(b) The corresponding Fourier
series is
'3/2 x = -5
0 -5 < x < 0
30<x<5
.3/2 x = 5
Letting x = u,
* = y//()coB^d +|J ,
/(*)eos^te - fff(x)cos^dx
W *n = 7 /(^)sin^f d* = |J
/(*)sin^<*s + \f f(x)sm?fLdx (1)
If we make the transformation x = -
u in the first integral on the right of
(I), we obtain \ J fix) sin 2p ifa = |
J* f{-u) sin (=f^) <fc* = -] f f(u ) sin
^ <* M
= -j f f(u)Bin^du = -\ f l f(x)sin^dx
(2)
1 j , M . n-n-x . 1 f l ,. . . mtx ,
~lj f( x > sm j dx + l I /(*) sin
z-dx = 0
APPLICATIONS TO VIBRATING
SYSTEMS, ROCKETS AND
COLLISIONS [CHAP. 8
/
/(*)
-1 71 1 7
-6 /-4 -2 y
/'
if
/
/
Fig. 8-18
Thus a n ~ 0 and b
n = 1 J /() sin j dx
. nirx . . x sm-y- dx
~0
{w(^-)-(k
4 , nirx \ 5 sin-g- )
cosjt
Then
,, v v< 4 . %7ra;
Fig. 8-19
Thus b n = 0,
,. N nirx , 2 ("
a; cosy- dx
. . / 2 . rura \ M v / 4
(*) sm-j- ) (1) -5-
\71tt 2 / \n 2 ir
4 HrC
r2
If n = 0, a 0 = I
M/V
asda; = 2.
r (cos 1177 1) if n ^ 0
Then
5irx
wx , 1 SwX 1 ,
SOLUTIONS OF VIBRATING
STRING PROBLEMS
&X. - o d2Y
a<2 ~ c dx* w
X T" = c 2 X" T
X" _ T" X ~ c 2 T
(3)
*? - II - _ x2 X ~ c 2 T ~
on writing B t A 2 b, B X B 2 a.
Y t (x,0) = S in^(p) =
n=l I I
00
n=l I
But this is simply the expansion of
f(x) in a Fourier sine series and the
coefficients are given by
b n = T I f( x ) sin^ dx 1 Jo l
(2Hx/l 0<x^l/2
NOW n fl
0
b n = j I f(x) sin -j dx
< I j sm -j dx + I j- (t sc)
sm r~ dx
- %K sin ( w "-/ 2 ) v 2 n 2
we find
0 sm =- cos , r 4 l <>
2Wi = T or A = ~ \7
CHAP. 8] APPLICATIONS TO
VIBRATING SYSTEMS, ROCKETS
AND COLLISIONS
211
Fig. 8-22
2W 3 _ or fs = Yl = 2^-The mode
is indicated in Fig. 8-22.
a 2 r _ 2 <py
3<2 ~ C 5*2
CO
w~ *\ _ nvX . nvct
n=X l I I
w=l * l
I J 0 I nirc J 0 I
<*)
sin -. (o)
v/ i\ S I 2 f , . . mrx . 1 . nvx .
I WB I
nirX . nrrct
+ 2 1 I g(x)-sm-^-dx> sinr- sm
n=l J/ W I I
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
H + 2e 2 H +2e*H + 2e6#+ = H
+ 2*ff(l + e 2 + e* + ) = H + ^^
= #(fz")
CHAP. 8] APPLICATIONS TO
VIBRATING SYSTEMS, ROCKETS
AND COLLISIONS
213
8.26. Two particles having masses
m and M are traveling on the x axis
(assumed frictionless) with
velocities vd and V\i respectively.
Suppose that they collide and that
after the collision (impact) their
velocities are v 2 i and V 2 i
respectively. Prove that the
velocities of the center of mass
before and after collision are equal.
mt^i + MVxi
or mVl + MV t
O
Fig. 8-23
8.27.
J 2L(M + m si n 2 a)
(M + m)g sin a
mg (1)
m-jp (R+A + s) =
dt* + dt 2
(2)
Fig. 8-24
Writing R- Xi+Yj, g - -^-j and s = ss
lt where Sl is a unit vector down the
incline in the direction of s, (2)
becomes
d 2 X . d%
dt 2 * + dt 2 Sl ~
d 2 X cPs
dt 2 Sl ' * + dt 2 Sl ' Sl
-91
ffSi' J
d2Xd2s
COSa +__
9 sin a
()
d 2 X _ m cos a cPs dt 2 ~ M + m dt
2
dt 2 ~~ M + m m cos 2 a ~ M + m
sin 2 a
(5)
(6)
s=
t2
d 2 Z d 2 Z , m
dt 2 c dx 2 Kn
. nirx nirct
sin cos
II
and thus
Si = -*(*^=0i-r(*^)i
m d*
d?Y v T
m -W = -(Y*-i-2Y v + Y v + 1 )
le Y = (^-i-2^+^ + i) (1)
(2 - ma?IT)A x - A 2 = 0, ~A N _ 1
+ (2 - ma^/T)A N = 0 (2)
cA 1 -A 2 = 0, -A 1 + cA 2 -A 3 = 0, ...,
-A N _ 1 + cA N = 0
APPLICATIONS TO VIBRATING
SYSTEMS, ROCKETS AND
COLLISIONS [CHAP. 8
AW=
=0
2T
<D
ma
cos
N+l
a= 1, ...,N
By expanding the determinant A N
of Problem 8.30 in terms of the
elements in the first row, we have
A N = cA N -i - A N _ 2 (I)
Also,
A x = c, A 2 = c 2 - 1
A 0 = 1, A! = c (3)
p 2 cp + 1 If we call c = 2 cos 0,
then
V=
c Vc 2 -4
,i0
= cos Ne +
sins
sine
2 2T fl *
o 2 = 1 COS t. 7 i .,
ma\ N + l
(5)
(6)
8.32. Solve for A v in Problem 8.30
and thus find the transverse
displacement Y v of particle v.
K = 0, A^l, = 0 (2)
I (a) - av *
A^ = Csin
N+l
avir
>() _
D sin
N+l N+l
a = l iV + 1
Supplementary Problems
VIBRATING SYSTEMS OF
PARTICLES
a. ( A = 3^ JI /, = 41 JI Fi * 8
26
Air \ m' z 4v y m
8.35. Work Problem 8.34 if the
spring constants and masses are
different.
APPLICATIONS TO VIBRATING
SYSTEMS, ROCKETS AND
COLLISIONS [CHAP. 8
Fig. 8-27
JL /3T 2w \ ml
1 9T
2tt V ml
A
CHANGING MASS. ROCKETS
v 0 <t +
m0
at\ /m 0 In
Vmo
- -gt 2 2 y
m0^
Ans. gt v 0 In
at J
Ans. gt 2
m 0 at t + ( ) In
m 0 at m 0
COLLISIONS OF PARTICLES
8.46. A gun fires a bullet of mass m
with horizontal velocity v into a
block of wood of mass M which
rests on a horizontal frictionless
plane. If the bullet becomes
embedded in the wood, (a)
determine the subsequent velocity
of the system and (b) find the loss
in kinetic energy.
of the collision is = , (v x - v 2 ) 2 (l
- c 2 ).
[1-6 4<<8
i 6 - J E. j_ 1. <? J^ 5 ffa; 3 2
cos 4 + 52
0 =5 C ^ 7T?
a 1 \ 8 -v ttsin2/i# / ,, ,,^ ,, ^
Ans. (a) - n 2 4n2-1 (6) /(0) = fW) =
0
fx 0 < x < 4
[8 x 4 < x < 8
. , . 32 , 1 , ir . nvx /L , 16 /2
cosn-ir/2 cosmr l\ mrx Ans. (a)
v% 2 x ^ Bm T sin (6) ^2 ( t ) cos
d2Yd2Y
1W = 4 M 0<x<,,t>0
t =i 2w - 1 2
ir n =i (2w 1)^
d2Yd2Y
Q2V d 2 Y
8.63. (a) Solve the boundary-value
problem -^ = 9 -^ subject to the
conditions Y(0, t) = 0, F(2, t) = 0,
Y(x, 0) = 0.05x(2 - x), Y t (x, 0) = 0,
where 0 < x <2,t> 0. (6) Interpret
physically.
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
CHAP. 8] APPLICATIONS TO
VIBRATING SYSTEMS, ROCKETS
AND COLLISIONS
221
table is given by
M + my sin 2 ay + m 2 sin 2 a 2
m[ + m 2
Fig.8-29
Pig. 8-30
t 2 f cos 1x
l2
i ~m "i" T^o T
22
32
l3
33
n =i w 6 ~ x n 2 12 n =i (2n l) 3 32
d*Y _ d 2 Y dt 2 dx 2
T C x /dY\ 2
ir 2 T
4f n=l
d 2 Y dY d 2 Y
d 2 Y _ fl2 F
d*Y , Q dY 2 d*Y .
.. _ Gm 2 (r 1 - r 2 ) .. _ Gm 1 {r 2 - r
t)
r i ~ ~ r3 ' r 2 ~ ^3
.. _ G(m x + m 2 )r x .. G^ + m 2 )r
2
r i ~ ^3 ' r 2 ~ ^
,. .. .. G{m 1 + m 2 )r
or, on subtracting, r = ;
r3
P2 _ 4tt 2
a 3 G(m l + m 2 )
of RIGID BODIES
RIGID BODIES
EULER'S THEOREM.
INSTANTANEOUS AXIS OF
ROTATION
The following theorem, called
Euler's theorem, is fundamental in
the motion of rigid bodies.
225
MOMENT OF INERTIA
A geometric quantity which is of
great importance in discussing the
motion of rigid bodies is called the
moment of inertia.
/ = mr 2
+mNrN
(2)
/ = J r 2 dm (S)
Fig. 9-1
RADIUS OF GYRATION
2 > r l
K2==M
2m*
(*)
Jr 2 dm
J dm
(5)
[CHAP. 9
THEOREMS ON MOMENTS OF
INERTIA
/=
I c + Mb 2
en
COUPLES
A set of two equal and parallel
forces which act in opposite
directions but do not have the same
line of action [see Fig. 9-2] is called
a couple. Such a couple has a
turning effect, and the moment or
torque of the couple is given by r X
F.
-F
Fig. 9-2
CHAP. 9]
227
T = i/o> 2 (8)
O = 7o> (9)
Fig. 9-3
dt
(/) = IS, = It
(10)
T+V
i/ w 2 + V = E = constant
()
dW = AdO (12)
dW dt
cp -
= A.
(13)
Fig. 9-4
(U)
[CHAP. 9
IMPULSE. CONSERVATION OF
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
Jt 2 Adt h
(15)
I Adt
O2 Oi
(16)
H f sm0
Jo
=0
(17)
Fig. 9-5
For small oscillations the period of
vibration is
P = 2ir\/Io/Mga (18)
I = hi Ma (19)
jfi (Mr) = Mr = F
(20)
CHAP. 9]
229
Theorem 9.13. Principle of Angular
Momentum. If I c is the moment of
inertia of the rigid body about the
center of mass, o> is the angular
velocity and A c is the torque or
total moment of the external forces
about the center of mass, then
= Tt^
>)
= 7 c"
(21)
T + V = %mr 2 + i/ c o 2 + V = E =
constant (22)
INSTANTANEOUS CENTER.
SPACE AND BODY CENTRODES
Fig. 9-6
F = 0, A = 0 (23)
[CHAP. 9
PRINCIPLE OF MINIMUM
POTENTIAL ENERGY. STABILITY
F = -vV = 0 (24)
or in components,
?I = 0 dV dV_
dx U ' dy U ' dz ~
(25)
Solved Problems
RIGID BODIES
9.2.
tf
231
In Fig 9-8(a) we start with the
parallelepiped in the indicated
position and perform the rotation A
x about the x axis as indicated in
Fig. 9-8(6) and then the rotation
about the axis m indicated in Fig.
9-8(c). Thus Fig. 9-8(c) is the result
of the rotation A x + A y on Fig. 9-
8(o).
MOMENTS OF INERTIA
ix m\m<2.l{m\ + W2).
m l r 1 = m 2 (a r t ) from which r
m^a
mj + W2
Fig. 9-10
and a r t
w^a
!! + W^
m x r\ + m 2 (a r x ) 2 = m.
m2a
.+m2(:/
m x + m 2 / \ m i + m 2/
m x a \ 2 _ wii%
fllj+W^
a 2 = ndP-
J id
2war s h dr = ^waha A
(1)
Fig. 9-11
[CHAP. 9
we find / = |Ma 2 .
2worh dr
aira 2 h
r 2 dm = r 2 ahrdrdo = ahr* dr do
0=0 "r=0
ahr dr do = aira 2 h
Fig. 9-12
J ia abx 2 dx = %aba*
y
Fig. 9-13
6*
dm = a dy dx
Fig. 9-14
CHAP. 91
231
hz
or r a
h a \ h
Then the total moment of inertia
about the z axis is
dz = JL-
Also,
M=
dz
^jjTra 4 <rh
ira 2 ha
Fig. 9-15
Thus / = ^Ma 2 .
r 2 dm = or 3 dr de dz
As in Method 1,
hz
ha \ a
>h(a r)/a
Fig. 9-16
dr de dz ^iraAoh
Jiiarj/r
M=
or dr de dz
^n-aPho
Thus /
^Ma 2 .
THEOREMS ON MOMENTS OF
INERTIA
[CHAP. 9
r v = x' v + f (jg)
N
/ = 2 m^.bi)* (3) Fig.9-17
NN
K=l V=l
NNN
= 2 m^-b^ + 22 m^.b^Cf-bj) + 2
^(f-b^
V=l V = l 1>=1
/N\N
= / c + 26 ( 2 m, < ) . b x + 6 2 2 m v
= I c + Mb*
NN
r=l v=l
Fig. 9-18
r = x v i + yj
[see Fig. 9-19]. The moment of
inertia of m about the z axis is
w^|r| 2 .
Fig.9-19
CHAP. 9]
NN
h =. 2hr|r| = U(^ 2 + a
v=\v=l
= 2 m v xl + 2 m,!^ = I~ + I
v=l v =i
I x = $Mb*, I y = ^Ma2
I z = I x + I y = M(&2 + a 2) =
$M(a 2 + b 2 )
Fig. 9-20
COUPLES
In particular if we choose f t = F u
i.e. if f has the same magnitude as
Fj but is opposite in direction, we
see that the effect of F x alone is the
same as the effect of the couple
formed by F t and f i - ~ F i [which
has moment r,XF,] together with
the force fj = F 1#
Fig. 9-21
F = F 1 + F 2 + + Fn
'iXFj, r 2 XF 2 , ..., r N XF N
.Py
Fig. 9-22
[CHAP. 9
T = 2 ^rn v ^rl
-I ( 2 wr 2 )<o 2
v=l
= " 2
v=l
N/N\
a - 2 m v r 2 , o> = ( 2 iv r 2 ) =
/<*
v=l
a _ d ir \ T da
A - di (Ia) ' ! Tt
/i.
T + V = constant
CHAP. 9]
fJr
= dW/dt = A de/dt = Aw
f\dt = C-
J tl J h dt
dt = Q 2 - O x
_ i de . .
Method 2.
The force Mg = Mgj is
conservative, so that the potential
energy V is such that
_ vv = E, _ *Ej _ k = _ or =
0, f = *,, = 0
T + V - |/ o 0 2 - Mga cos 0 =
constant = E (5)
%-+**, = o a)
6 + j sin e - 0 (-0
CHAP. 9]
239
Fig.9-25
Mr = Mg + R + f But g = g sin a i - g
cos a j, R = Rj, f = -/i. Hence (1) can
be written
O = / c o, = 7 c (-*k) = -7 c *k where
I c is the moment of inertia of the
cylinder about this axis.
M x = Mg sin a ~ f, My = R - Mg cos
a
(2)
(3)
U)
(5)
[CHAP. 9
a 2 f a 2 /iMg cos a
= 2ng cos a.
Ic \M&
T = -imr 2 + |/ c <o 2
and r 2 = x 2 + y 2 = x 2 since y = 0,
\Mx 2 + ^7 c w 2 = Mgx sin a
2x x = gx sin a or x = f g sin a
INSTANTANEOUS CENTER.
SPACE AND BODY CENTRODES
v = v A + Xr = V A + o X (R R A
) (1)
where R A is the position vector of
A relative to O. If P is to be the
instantaneous center, then v = 0
so that
X(R-R A ) = -v A ()
page 5,
{(R R A )} (R R A )()
= -Xv A
XvA
(3)
CHAP. 9]
(a)
_ _ ( v a)j v A#
R = R A - X~ = R A 3
In component form,
Fig. 9-27
Xi + Yj - X A i + oj - (v A /)j x>r X
= X A , Y = a - v A /a
Thus the instantaneous center is
located vertically above the point of
contact of the cylinder with the
ground and at height a v A /u
above it.
or e = -r^smfl
6a
Fig. 9-28
STATICS OF A RIGID BODY
Wm + Wl Wm+Wr
COt a.
Let the ladder be represented by AB
in Fig. 9-29 and choose an xy
coordinate system as indicated.
Fig. 9-29
[CHAP. 9
F = 0, A = 0 (I)
where F is the total external force
on the ladder and A the total
external torque taken about a
suitable axis which we shall take as
the horizontal axis through A
perpendicular to the xy plane. We
have
F = R x + W m + W, + R 2 + f = (R 1
-f)i + (-W m -W t + R 2 )j = 0
if JBj / = 0 and -W m - W, + R 2
= 0 (2)
+ (I cos a i I sin a j) X (R 2 j) + (I
cos a i I sin a j) X (/i)
if
/ = R l = (W TO + W l )cot
and
R, = W m + W,
Then the minimum coefficient of
friction necessary to prevent
slipping of the ladder is
cot a
/ _ w m + jW t
Ra
wm+wl
(3)
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
(3) U)
mg
w-iAj = T x + m x g = TJ + m^j -
mgAj = T 2 + m 2 g = -T 2 j + m^j
Thus m x A = mxQ T lt m 2 A T
2 m 2 g or T t = m^g-A), T 2 = m
2 {g + A)
CI = I c = 7 c cok = IcOk
Fig.9-30
(5) (6) (7)
CHAP. 9]
243
A a'e
Tx ~ T 2
A=
MK 2
(wn - m 2 )g
m 1 + m 2 + MkVa?
(8) (9)
(10)
=f
\ira(a 2 - z 2 ) 2 dz
-f_
gwa 3 a
7ra(a 2 - z 2 ) dz = 2= a which
could also be seen by noting that
the volume of the sphere is ova 3 .
($)
(a)
/ = %M(s 2 + s 2 ) = Ms 2 .
I = %MsV[M(%sV2)] = fv^s
Fig. 9-32
[CHAP. 9
p2 =
4fl2 /p _ 4ir 2 / h
+a
2/Kr
+a
Mga g \Ma J g
=0
W = (WT^ + (W *!)#!
= (-mgj-rj)^ + (-mgj 9 t ) 9 X =
mg sin o r t mg cos e 9 t
Fig.9-33
=/
mg cos e
mg cos 6
(1)
d2
= -(0 + vOk
-{ -6 -~ $
a
^-* )*k
5g
6 = "7(^+6) C0S6 W
Multiplying both sides by $ and
integrating, we find after using the
fact that e = 0 at t = 0 or e = r/2,
Supplementary Problems
RIGID BODIES
9.43. Show that the motion of
region % of Fig. 9-34 can be carried
into region %' by means of a
translation plus a rotation about a
suitable point.
9.45. If A X ,A V ,A Z represent
rotations of a rigid body about the x,
y and z axes respectively, is it true
that the associative law applies, i.e.
is A x + (A y + A z ) = (A x + A y ) +
A z t Justify your answer. Fig. 9-34
MOMENTS OF INERTIA
9.46. Three particles of masses 3, 5
and 2 are located at the points (-
1,0,1), (2, -1,3) and (-2,2,1)
respectively. Find (a) the moment
of inertia and (6) the radius of
gyration about the x axis. Ans. 71
Ans. Ma 2 b 2 /(a 2 + b 2 )
9.52.
Find the moment of inertia of a
uniform parallelogram of sides a
and 6 and included angle a about an
axis perpendicular to it and passing
through its center. Ans. J*M(a 2 + b
2 ) sin 2 a
[CHAP. 9
9.53. 9.54.
9.55.
9.56. 9.57.
9.58. 9.59.
Fig. 9-35
How might you define the moment
of inertia of a solid about (a) a
point, (6) a plane? Is there any
physical significance to these
results? Explain.
9.62.
9.63. 9.64.
Ans. &Mv 2
CHAP. 9]
247
9.73. 9.74.
Ans. 2v a\
2(M + 3m)Z
9.77.
Y/////////////////////'
20 kg
10 kg | |
5 kg
Fig.9-36
INSTANTANEOUS CENTER.
SPACE AND BODY CENTRODES
9.82.
9.83.
9.84.
Fig.9-37
[CHAP. 9
w3c
Fig. 9-38
W2
Fig.9-39
Fig. 9-40
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
|M
i 2 + ab + &2
249
9.107.
Fig. 9-41
0i-
Fig. 9-42
'//////////////////'.
9.108.
Fig. 9-43
Fig. 9-44
Fig. 9-45
[CHAP. 9
w////////////////.
9.115.
9.116.
9.117.
9.120.
9.123.
Fig. 9-46
Fig. 9-47
Mg
#2 +a 2
A rectangular parallelepiped of
sides a, b, and c is suspended
vertically from the side of length a.
Find the period of small
oscillations.
9.124.
9.125.
Fig.9-49
CHAP. 9]
PLANE MOTION OF KIGID
BODIES
251
1_
2ir
9.128.
9.129.
200 kg
n = .2
1\
100 kg
Fig. 9-51
y
Fig. 9-52
Fig. 9-53
[CHAP. 9
Ans.
2Wa 2Wb
Wll-
2a + 26
sV3
Fig. 9-54
into account.
9.145. Work Problem 9.38, page
242, if friction is taken into account.
Ans. ^ tan a
~e*%%$mk
B
Fig. 9-55
Chapter 10
DEGREES OF FREEDOM
r v Xr
CO
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
0 = 2 < v {t v Xx v ) = 2 <v{rv X
( X r v )} {2)
where m v is the mass of the vth
particle and where the summation
is taken over all particles of %.
MOMENTS OF INERTIA.
PRODUCTS OF INERTIA
Q x = 7 *z w s + 7 xy<% + I xz"z 9 -y
= ty^x + hy% + hz^z Q z ~ hx^x +
hy% + hz^z
(4)
(6)
Ixy ^ Wl v X v yv ':
lyz - - 2 m " V* z - I
lxx lxy la
lyx Iyy lyz I V /
\lzx Izy lz
= i<o-0 {9)
CHAP. 10]
255
O = Jo, (10)
l zx<x + l zy (A y + Vzz - 7 )
=0
t = WA + *A + W)
T = |a>-0
(13)
(U) (15)
(16)
T = \h
(17)
[CHAP. 10
By defining a vector
p = n/yT
where p = Px i + P J + P k, (18)
becomes
7 p 2 + 7 p 2 + 7 p 2 + 27 P p+27 P
p+27 op =1
xxrx yy"y zz"z xyrxry yzryrz zx"z"x
(18) (19)
(20)
In the coordinates p x ,p y ,p z
equation (20) represents an
ellipsoid which is called the
ellipsoid of inertia or the momental
ellipsoid.
*A + h?\ +1A = 1 ( 21 )
where p v p 2 ,p 3 represent the
coordinates of the new axes.
EULER'S EQUATIONS OF
MOTION
(22)
wo = constant
(23)
Fig.10-2
CHAP. 10]
257
POINSOTS CONSTRUCTION.
SPACE AND BODY CONES
POLHODE. HERPOLHODE.
Fig. 10-3
in)
[CHAP. 10
< cos 8 + }
T = *(/,?+ V5 + W) where h, h, h
are the principal moments of
inertia.
of the angular velocity along the
(25)
(26)
Fig. 10-5
GYROSCOPES
Spin
Fig.10-6
Fig. 10-7
Solved Problems
NN
G = 2 m(r XvJ = 2 m v {r v X ( w X
r)}
v=l v=l
r X ( X r) = (r r) r(* r)
= (w x i + uj + w x k)(*2 + y% + z v
)
- {x v i + y v \ + z v k)(a x x v + Uy y
v + u> z z v )
+ {a y ($ + z\) - UxXvVv ~ u z Vv z
v}J
+ {o> z (xl + y v ) u x x v z v u y
y v z v }k
Vy = ] 2 m v X v y v > OJ x + j 2
>v(xl + *v) f y + \ ~ 2 >vVvZv
\ ">x
[CHAP. 10
= |2m,{(Xr,)-(Xr v )} = 2 w{
[r X (. X r)]} = 2 wir
X((.Xr) = i tt -0
N
T = W X A + I y y y + I Z A + 21 xM
+ 2I xz ^ z + 2I yz ^ z )
T = l> CI
using
/..
PRINCIPAL MOMENTS OF
INERTIA AND PRINCIPAL AXES
Using CI = I*
(1)
"xy^y
l yz>y
(2)
* T.V. *
*xy *yy ~ *
'xz
*yz
I,,-I
=0
CHAP. 10]
/a pa I ay 2 dx dy
|a4 = L M a 2 (1)
since the mass of the plate is M
aa 2 .
J id pa I a x 2 dxdy = i<ra 4 = Ma 2
(2)
fu- dx dy
Fig. 10-8
= /,.
pa pa I I axy dx dy j<t 4
-\Ma 2
(4)
x=0 *'a = 0
= /,
0,
and similarly
hu = 0
(5)
(1)
[P - |Ma2J + -M 2 a*][%Ma 2 - 1}
=0
[CHAP. 10
< = w x i + w y j + u z k u x i +
uj = u x (i + j)
dr = dz dy dx
V* 2 + v 2
Fig. 10-10
Fig. 10-11
,.2 ,2 ^2
=1
_|_ ^ 4-
a"
yJl- x 2 /a 2 s*c\ll - (r
rrx
2/2 , .,2,^2,
(x 2 + y 2 )a dz dy dx
x =o "y=0
pa s>b\/l - x 2 /a 2
8ac J J (* 2 + V 2 ) Vl - (aW + y 2 /b
2 ) dy dx
x=0 y=0
j (a 2 X 2 + b 2 Y 2 ) Vl - {X 2 + Y 2 )
dY dX
CHAP. 10]
263
Introducing polar coordinates R, 6
in this XY plane, this becomes
1 s*tt/2
'R = 0 *^0 = O
} (a 2 R 2 cos 2 0 + 6 2 2 sin 2 6)
Vl - R 2 R dR dQ = 2iraabc{cfi + b 2
) | R^VT^WdR = 7roabc(a 2 + b 2
)
R=0
LM(a 2 + ft 2 ).
a2+c2
(a c)(a + c) a 2 -|- c 2
But if c differs
(/ 3 - I x )/I = (a - c)(2a)/2a 2 = 1 -
c/a
ELLIPSOID OF INERTIA
by
and
iJk
rXn = x v y v z v
= J2 v(vl + 4) I co S 2 a + | 2
m^ajj! + 4) \ cos 2 /? + 1 2 m^ 2 . +
yl) I cos 2 y + 2 -j - 2 myX v V v Y
cos a cos 0 + 2 -j 2 VA f cos cos
y
or ?\ + P% + 2 P l - h x Py = 3/Ma*
EULER'S EQUATIONS OF
MOTION
CI = ^U)^ + / 2 2 e 2 + ^3"3C3
at Is dt \b
= hu^! + 7 2 2 e 2 + h^3 e 3
A = Tt\. W
A = A^ + A 2 e 2 + A 3 e 3 (2)
where A 1? A 2 , A 3 are the
components of the external torque
along the principal axes and making
use of (1) and Problem 10.15, we
find
/jwj + (I 3 / 2 )u 2 w 3 = A t 7 2 w
2 + (h ~ h)^3 u i A 2 7 3 w 3 + (/
2 /i)wi<o 2 = A 3
(3)
CHAP. 101
265
FORCE FREE MOTION OF A
RIGID BODY. ROTATION OF THE
EARTH
/i<o 2 + (Ii I 3 )w 3 ui = 0
/ 7 S - /j \
i + f j )Aw 2 = 0
h~h
0) 2 +
Aw, = 0
73-/^2
A2w2=0
where
73-^
w 2 = C sin Kt
a = wjej + w 2 e 2 + 10363
= C cos Kt e x + C sin Kt e 2 + Ae s
(11)
\h -7/
(1)
(2)
U) (5)
(6)
(7) (8)
(9) (10)
f 2,7
2tt7!
^A
(12)
[CHAP. 10
o) = w 1 e 1 + w 2 e 2 ~^~ w 3 e 3 =
C(cos Kt ej + sin Kt e 2 ) + Ae 3
CI = 7 1 1 e 1 + 7 1 w 2 e2 + ^3 w 3
e 3 = hC ( cos Kt e i + sm Kt e 2) + 7
3 Ae 3 Let a be the angle between
o> 3 = w 3 e 3 = Ae 3 and CI. Then
and
3 -0 = | 3 ||0|cosa = A V/f C 2 +
ZfA 2 cos a = 7 3 A2
73A
V/fC 2 + 7 2 A 2
and cos /?
(1)
A2
7XC
Thus
tan a
V^ + A2
sin/8 =
VC 2 + A2
ISA
tan /3
tan ft = A
hh
<*)
(5)
<l) 3 X <!>
ei e 2 e 3
00A
Thus
CI (o> 3 X )
Fig. 10-14
CHAP. 10]
267
THE EULER ANGLES
z or Z
Fig. 10-15
Z' or z'
XorX'
Fig. 10-16
Fig. 10-17
= I'
t = (/ lW ? + 1 2 4 +1 A)
CHAP. 10]
269
w wie^ + w 2 e 2 ~^~ w 3 e 3
(1)
In obtaining the angular
momentum we must use the fact
that in addition to the component w
3 due to rotation of the x'y'z' system
there is also the component s = se 3
= ^e 3 since the top is spinning
about the z' axis. Then the angular
momentum is
Fig. 10-18
(*)
dCl
dt
<ZO I
/ dt \b
(3)
+ {-^("3 + *) + (h -^l)"l"2} e 3
Since
A = mgl(e 3 X k) dCl
dt If
7 3 (<u 3 + s) = 0
U)
(5)
(6)
(7)
We find
Ul 0, u 2 = 0 sm 9, a5 3 = 0 COS 6
(1)
7 3 ( 0 cos o $e sin e + s) 0
w 3 + s = A or s = A 3 (1)
7i"i ~ 7 1 w 2 w3 + 7 3 2 A m 9l
sin e W
/ 1 6j 2 + 7 1 <o 1 3 /3W1A = 0
W
T = AJ^fl 2 + ^ 2 sin2 e) + %I 3 A*
(2)
(6) t = j
du
7m
+ constant
* ~ T^ 2 " (<?)
[CHAP. 10
Integrating,
or
+c
<&*
(7)
/( M ) = ( a - fiu)(l - m 2 ) - (y - S)2
=0
(1)
Thus 6 = 0 at the
(2)
/(I)
= -(y-S) 2 , /(-l)
that cos 0i
cos 0 2 u 2- ^ n special
U<l = Ug = 1.
Fig. 10-19
<t> =
_ y Su - u 2
(1)
CHAP. 10]
273
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
^l w l w l ~^~ ^2 (0 2 w 2 ~f~ ^3
W 3 W 3 = "l-^l ~^~ c0 2-^2 ~^~ w
3-^3 (7)
But and
t ^ t lt _l^/r2j_r2.r 2 \ dT
iiCOjWj + i 2 O) 2 0) 2 + '3 W 3 W 3
o di lWl 2< 2 3< 3 ' ~dt
dT/dt
at A
(2) (3)
* O = / x o)f + 7 2 w| + / 3 o>3 =
2T constant
so that
/jC 2 + 7 3 A2 = 2T
(1)
[CHAP. 10
O = Il03 1 e 1 + /2 w 2 e 2 + ^3 w 3
e 3 = ^l w l e l + ^l"2 e 2 + ^3 w 3 e
3
(72 - A 2 -
hda-It)' A h(h-h)
2^/i \
\(n*-2Ti 1 )(i 3 -i l )\
(2)
(3)
04)
hA
K,
I 3 A 2 - 2(E-mgl)
Also, from Problem 10.30 we have a
= 2mgl/I l , 0 = 2mgl/I v y = l 3 All x
, 8 = I 3 A/I V Thus a - ($ and y = 8,
and so
v2
1=
J|A
-1
2mgll 1
A2 ^ Amglljll
l x = ^M<fi t I 2 = ^Mb*, I z = -
^M(a 2 + b*)
We have
Thus
Substituting (1) and
Va 2 + 6 2
Va 2 + 6 2
(1)
(2)
osb
w2
V 2 + 6 2 '
/jWi + (7 3 72) W 2 W 3 = A l I 2
a 2 + (/ x 73)<3 W 1 = A 2 / 3
<J) 3 + (J 2 Ji)"i"2 = A 3
Fig.10-23
w3
CHAP. 10]
275
M(b 2 a z )abu 2 ,, , . , A , ^ ^ .
we find Aj = 0, A 2 = 0, A 3 = U( 2 +
b*) Thus the re( l uired torque
about O is
(4)
Supplementary Problems
Fig. 10-24
Ans. 180
(&) hy = ~lMab, l yz = 0, I xz = 0
calling axes through AB and AD the
x and y axes respectively.
10.46. Find the (a) moments of
inertia and (6) products of inertia of
a cube of side a taken about x,y, z
axes coinciding with three
intersecting edges of the cube.
Ans. (a) I xx = I m = I zz = Ma 2 ,
(b) I xy = I yz = I xz = -2MaV5ir
PRINCIPAL MOMENTS OF
INERTIA. PRINCIPAL AXES.
ELLIPSOID OF INERTIA
10.49. Prove that the principal
moments of inertia for a system
consisting of two particles of
masses m l and m 2 connected by a
massless rigid rod of length I are I t
= J 2 m l m 2 ^/{m l + m 2 ), I z
= 0.
EULER'S EQUATIONS OF
MOTION
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
Fig. 10-27
279
I^X + (/ 3 jT 2 )u 2 <o 3 = 0, 7 2
2 + Cl ~" -^3) W 3 W 1 = 0, Z 3 3
+ (/ 2 ^l)l"2 = 0
prove that and
^i w i ~^~ ^2 W 2 ~t" ^3 U 3 =
constant 2T /?i + /|u| + 7 3 <o|
= constant = H 2
Ans. (a) I x = 3, J 2 = 2, 7 3 = 4
[CHAP. 10
Ans. jfMa 2
given by .2 , ,2 , ,2
Wi2*i2 + m 2 m 3 l 2 3 + m^m^
mi + m 2 + m 3
10.126. Derive a "parallel axis
theorem" for products of inertia and
illustrate by means of an example.
Chapter 11 LAGRANGE'S
EQUATIONS
GENERAL METHODS OF
MECHANICS
GENERALIZED COORDINATES
NOTATION
TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS
z v = z v (qi, q 2 , . . ., qn, t)
CHAP. Ill
CLASSIFICATION OF
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
T = I 5>r2 (*)
6 v=l
dW = *i$adq a (5)
<x = l
dr v
where * = 2 Fv * T^~ ^
v=l
dq a
is called the generalized force
associated with the generalized
coordinate q a . See Problem 11.6.
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS
Problem 11.10]
dt\dq a J dq a
d(BL\ _ BL =
dt\dq a J dq a
where L = T - V (9)
*(*) - *k = *; (10)
dt\dq a J dq a
GENERALIZED MOMENTA
We define at
dq a to be the generalized
momentum associated with the
generalized coordinate q a . We
often call p a the momentum
conjugate to q a , or the conjugate
momentum.
BL
Pa
Bq a
(12)
aa
or equivalents ^A a q a + A = 0, ^B
a q a + B = 0, ... (U)
a
We must of course have m < n
where n is the number of
coordinates q a .
L = T-V as * , , _ x _ r
dt\dq a J dq a
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS
285
(19)
lim C F v dt = Sv
where
fa 2* *Jv
dq a
(20) (21)
(22)
Solved Problems
GENERALIZED COORDINATES
AND TRANSFORMATION
EQUATIONS
Fig. 11-1
Fig. 11-2
(b) The position of the cylinder
[Fig. 11-2 above] on the inclined
plane can be completely specified
by giving the distance x traveled by
the center of mass and the angle e
of rotation turned through by the
cylinder about its axis.
x 2 = h cos e i + l 2 cos 0 2 V2 ~ h
sm * l + h sin 0 2
dq<x dq a
Thus * = ()
dq a dq a
We can look upon this result as a
"cancellation of the dots".
dt\dqj 3 #
dr v d 2 r v . d 2 r . fl2r v
A (Oil) - JL {?IL)-! 4 d ( dr v\ d( ln
d (?>*v
A(jL\ = {A\
CLASSIFICATION OF
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
CHAP. Ill
(b) scleronomic
conservative
conservative
dW = 2 Fdr v = 2 1 2 F, W? =
2 * a dq a v=l v=l [a=l oq a j a =X
N dr
where * a 2t F * t
v=i oq a
5 (.-)*. =
mr = F (1)
dr v dr
dq tt dq a
d /. 3r\ .. dr v . d /$ r v
dq a dq a
_,, .. 9t v d ( to v \ &v m
dq a dt\ dq a / Bq a
d ( . dr\ . 3r dr v
-r: ( ra r - 1 m v r - = F
- dt\ v " dq a J v dq a dq a
v ' Bq a v dq a w dQa dq a
dT ^ . 9r v
- 2,m v r v ' dq a dq a
3g a " dq a dq a
dr v
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS
U)
m r '3T a ~ W {S)
Then substituting (2) and (3) in (1),
we find
d(8T_)_f_ = a W
dt\dq a J dq a
(5)
CHAP. 11]
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS
289
dt\Bq a ) dq a
_ dW = dV * 3q a Bq a
Since the potential, or potential
energy is a function of only the q's
[and possibly the time t],
L = 4-<r-v) = ^?-
Bq a dq a 3q a
d /3L\ dt\9qj
dL
=0
11.12. (a) Set up the Lagrangian for
a simple pendulum and (b) obtain
an equation describing its motion.
T = mv 2 = %m{le)2 = mP 2 (1)
by
= mgl(l cos e)
()
L=T
dL Be
dL Be
= 0 3L
Be
= ml 2 e
e + -jrsin* = 0
(4) (5)
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS
[CHAP. 11
Then by differentiating with respect
to time t, X x + X 2 = 0 or X 2 = X
x and x x + x 2 = 0 or x 2 = x x
Thus we have
Velocity of M x = X x
Velocity of M 2 = X 2 = -X x
d
Velocity of m x -j- (X x + x x ) = X
x+xx
Velocity of m 2 = (X x + x 2 ) = X
x+x2=Xxxx
T = M X X 2 X + \M 2 \ + m x
(X x + x x )2 + Lm 2 (k x -x x )* (1)
V = -M 1 gX l - M 2 gX 2 - m x g(X x
+ x x ) - m 2 g{X x + x 2 )
= -M x gX x - M 2 fif(a-Z]) - m 1 g(X
1 + x 1 ) - m 2 g(X 1 + b - x x ) (2)
L=T-V
= %M X X.\ + \M 2 k\ + %m x (X x
+ x x )2 + \m 2 {X x -xtf
+ M x gX x + M 2 g{a-X x ) + m 1
g(X x + x 1 ) + m 2 g(X x + b - x x )
(3)
U)
(M x - M 2 + m x + m 2 )g
dL #
r- M X X X + M 2 X X + m x (X
x + x x ) + m 2 (X x x x ) = (M x +
M 2 + m x + m 2 )X x + (m x m 2
)x x dX x
dL
= m x g - m 2fl r = {m x -m 2 )g
dL . .
= mi(X x + x x ) m 2 {X x x
x ) = (m x m 2 )X x + (m x + m 2
)x x dXi
(M x + M 2 + m x + m 2 )X x + (m x
m 2 ) x x = (M x M 2 + m x + m
2 )g (m x m 2 )X x + (m x + m^)
x x = (m x m 2 )g
X,
xx
(M x M 2 )(m x + m 2 ) + 4m t m
2 (M x + M 2 )(m x + m 2 ) + 4m 1
m2
2M 2 (m x m 2 ) (M x + M 2 )(m
x + m 2 ) + 4m x m 2
(M 2 M x )(m x + m 2 ) 4m x m
2
X 2 X x
(M x + Af 2 )(m 1 + m 2 ) + 4m 1 ra
2
CHAP. Ill
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS
291
T = \mx\ + \mx\ CO
Since the stretches of springs AP,PQ
and QB of Fig. 8-8 are numerically
equal to x lf x 2 -x x and x 2
respectively, the potential energy of
the system is
d /BL\ SL _ d /dL\
dt{axj dx i ' dt \dxJ
dL
dx 9
=0
Then since
dL
dL
dx-, dx l
dL
dx 2
-k{x 2 * x ) kx 2 = (! 2x 2
),
dL dX 2
mx 2
(3)
(-4)
(5)
d_ / dL dt[do
dL de
i.e.,
V + ^ sin = 0
Fig.11-6
d /8L\ dL _ . d. / . dV\ .. . dV
d /8L\ dL _ . & 2 \,dV n d , v dV
d fdL\ dL n . d..,av n .. d v
2 A a dq a + Adt = 0, 2 B a dq a + B
dt = 0, ... (1)
aa
^ dr v Sr = 2^-5g a (3)
dr SW = 2 ** 8r v = 2 2 m r
- S? a = 2 Y a 8q a (4)
v v a oq a a
SW = 2* a S 9a (5)
2(^a-*a)Sg a = 0 (6)
aa
2 (M a + X 2 B a + ) 8q a = 0 (8)
CHAP. 11]
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS
293
2 (Y a - * - M B - X 2 B a ) 8q a = 0
(9)
(10)
*a X l^a ~ X 2 B a
= o,
1,2, ...,m
m+1, ...,
()
d/3T\_|T = * a+Xl A a + X a F a +
= l,2,...,n
dT
= <f> a + X x A a + X 2 B +
(1)
dt \dq a J d <la
where L = T V.
dt\dq a J d <la
11.20. A particle of mass m moves
under the influence of gravity on
the inner surface of the paraboloid
of revolution x 2 + y 2 = az which is
assumed frictionless [see Fig. 11-7].
Obtain the equations of motion.
L = m('p 2 + P 2 0 2 + I 2 ) - mgz
{D
2p 8p a 8z
0
(2)
Fig. 11-7
A x = 2p, A 2 = 0, A 3 = -a (3)
since only one constraint is given.
Lagrange's equations [see Problem
11.19] can thus be written
d /1L\ -*k - xA
2X lP ,
a = 1,2,3
<ft^4
d^
o,
dt\ dz
dz
XjO.
m('p-p$ 2 ) = 2X lP (4)
m'z = mg \ t a (6)
2pp az = 0 (7)
p 2 = az is .
Po = Va>h (1)
Xi = mg/a {2)
p 2 0 = constant = A (5)
^ = ahu/p 2 (6)
\j = mg/a (7)
P - a 2 h 2 a 2 /p 3 = -2p/a (8)
p = po + u (9)
in (8), where u is small compared
with p 0 . Then (8) becomes
(p 0 + u) 6 a
or period 2 ~ v "\2g
It is interesting that the period of
oscillation in the circular path given
by (4) is twice the period of
oscillation about the circular path
given by (7).
dt{ dq J dq a where * = 2 F t (
g)
v *ia
(5)
so that ( 7- )
\dq a /t=T
auSL-(SL>-rs* - n*s;'-*)'Z
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS
[CHAP. 11
f) -(f) = JA^ = T. a dt = 0 since -
is finite, and lim I F v dt = tf.
i tfa 9o t-0 J
Fig. 11-8
v E = r E = (x + I sin 0 X eji + (y I
cos $i 0 x )j v F = r F = (x I sin e 2
$ 2 )i + (y I cos o 2 e 2 )j v g = *g
{x I sin $! #i)i + (y + I cos e x b
i)j v H = r H = (x + I sin 0 2 #2)* +
(if + ^ co . s *2 *2)j
T BC = %mrj. + lI BC el, T CD =
%mr% + $I CD l, T AD = %mi 2 H
+ %I AD o\
= |m(r| + r F + r% + r 2 H ) + I(e\ +
f)
= im(4^2 + 4y 2 + 2Z 2 * 2 + 2J2* 2
.) + mZ 2(^ + ^
Bx/x \ d V/i
dT\ /ST\
r ) = (Amx) 2 = Am'x ( r ) =
(Amy) 2 = 4m
3*/ 2 V%/ 2
(2)
(S) 04)
(5)
dr A dr B dr r dr n
dr A 3r B dr c dr D
3r A dr R 3r c 3r D
3r A 3r B 9r c dr D
Now from Fig. 11-8 we find the
position vectors of A,B,C,D given by
r A = (x I cos 91 I cos 0 2 )i +
(2/ ~ I sin 0 x + I sin 0 2 )j r B = (x
I cos tf! + I cos 0 2 )i + (2/ J
sin e 1 I sin fl 2 )j r c = (x + I cos
0x + I cos e 2 )i + (y + I sin 8 X I
sin $ 2 )j td = (x + I cos e x I cos e
2 )i + (y + I sm$i + I sin 0 2 )J
ca = Si do)
s %s * %s
* = ' V = 4m> * = ~8mT C0S ^' '* =
8m7 cos '*
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS
[CHAP. 11
<72 3 (12
x = r sin a cos at
y = r sin a sin at
z h r cos a
T = m(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )
(b) We have
flL
= m 2 r sin 2 a + mg cos a,
dr
L_ dr
= mr
dL dr
0 or
i.e.,
CO
fif cos a
to 2 sin z a
g cos a to 2 sin 2 a
(2)
(3)
, g cos a , n
Ci + c 2 = o o and c x c 2 = 0
1 * w 2 sin 2 a
1 2w 2 sm 2 a v '
2 2 sin 2 a
4r-^{cosh (w sm a) 1}
w4 Sir a
Z 2 sin 2 a
9 cos a
g COS 2 a / V I gr cos 2 a
x x = l x cos 9 X y x = l x sin $ x
x 2 = l x cos 0 X 4- Z 2 cos 6 2 V2
h sin *i 4- l 2 sin e 2
yield ! = -l x e x sin ^ ^ = l x e x
cos ^
2 = ~h 9 \ sin tf x Z 2 0 2 sin e 2
y 2 = Z^ cos e x 4- l 2 e 2 cos e 2
T = $m x {x\ + y 2 x ) + ^m&l + fy
V = m x g[l x 4- Z 2 - l x cos e x ] +
m 2 g[l x 4- Z 2 - (Z x cos 0! + Z 2
cos 0 2 )] Then the Lagrangian is L
=T-V
= \>xA<>\ + %>2{l 2 j\ + |*| +
2Z 1 Z 2 m 2 cos (e x - e 2 )) (i)
dL/de x m 2 l x l 2 e x e 2 sm ( e
i ~ e z) ~ m idh sin e \ ~ m 20h sin
ex
dL/de 2 = m 2 l\e 2 + m 2 l x l 2 9 x
cos {e x e 2 )
m x f x e\ + m 2 l\ e\ + m 2 l x l 2 'e
2 cos (*i ~ #2) ~ rn 2 l x l 2 e 2 (e x
e 2 ) sin (e x 0 2 ) - -m 2 l x l 2
6 x 6 2 sin (e x e 2 ) m x gl x sin
e x m 2 gl x sin e x
and w 2 ?2 * 2 + m 2 l x l 2 i cos
(<?! - e 2 ) - m 2 l x l 2 e\(e x - e 2 )
sin {e x - o 2 )
= m 2 l x l 2 0 x e 2 sin (<?! 9 2 )
m 2 gl 2 sin <9 2 which reduce
respectively to
(m x + m 2 )l\ e\ + m 2 l x l 2 e 2
cos (<?! - e 2 ) + m 2 l x l 2 e\ sin (e
x - e 2 ) = -{m x + m 2 )gl x sin e x
(3)
Letting m y = m 2 , l x = Z 2 in
equations (3) and (4) of Problem
11.28 and simplifying, they can be
written
2(g-lo> 2 )A x - 1<* 2 A 2 = 0|
-lo> 2 A x + (g-l<* 2 )A 2 = Oj CO
-hfl g ~ to 2
=0
or Z 2 co 4 - 4tow 2 + 2g 2 = 0.
Solving, we find
,.& =
2l 2 I
{2 + y/2)g 2 _ ( 2-y[2)g
A = 1 ' W2 - I
(b) Substituting a 2 = a* = (2 +-
y/2)g/l in equations (1) of Part (a)
yields
A 2 = -V2A t U)
A 2 = V2A! (5)
L = T - V = -J/^ 2 sin2 e + 2) + |/ 3
(0 cos e + J)2 _ mflr ; C os 0 (5)
(6) 3L/d0 = i^ 2 sin 8 cos 0 + / 3
(< cos 8 + ^){<t> sin 8) + mflfZ
sin *
dL/dd = J^
3L/30 = 0
3L/d^ = 0
dL/dj, 7 3 (0 cos 8 + ^)
/9L\_9L - n A/^.\_^ = n
<L/i>LL\ -Ok -
or I\0 ~ h4> 2 sin 0 cos 0 + / 3 (^
cos 0 + \p)$ sin 0 mflrZ sin 0 = 0
(4)
[7 t 0 sin 2 6 + J 3 (0 cos 8 + $)
cos 0] = 0 (5)
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS
[CHAP. 11
d_/dT\ 9T _
7 lWl + (I 3 - i 2 ) w 2 w 3 = A l \ 2 )
J 2 2 + (h - ^3)"3l = A 2 W
Then
Lagrangian = L = T -V = ma 2 (l -
cos 0)0 2 - mga(l + cos 0)
Fig.11-10
... d fdL\ dL n .
written , 2
dt 2
4a
and thus (b) show that the bead
oscillates with period 2 7 r\ / 4a/g.
2 --'-' 4~~v,-/ 4a
6 d<p/dt a d\f//dt or b$ = af
which shows that if <p = 0 when ^
0, then
L = T - V = {m(o + 6) 2 02 + ma 2
(4> + J)2 - m g(a + b) cos <f> (2)
b 8<f> a S^ = 0 (#\
A t = b, A 2 = a (4)
d L /dL\ dL _
_d /BL\ dL _
5flf
* ~ 7(^+6) 8m *
This is the same equation as that of
(2) in Problem 9.42, page 244, with
<f> - w/2 - e. To find the required
angle at which the sphere falls off,
see Problem 11.104.
<c = constant = 0 (0
* = is'
since y 0 at t = 0.
or on integrating, In cot I ^ - J -
~g^J + c i
i.e.
tan(|-^) = c 2 eW* ml
sec 9 2 de 2 - z^jdt
e 2 \ 3Jt
or on integrating, In cot (7 J - -
^f + c 3
Supplementary Problems
GENERALIZED COORDINATES
AND TRANSFORMATION
EQUATIONS
CLASSIFICATION OF
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
nn
(a) x 2 + 2/ 2 + z 2 + xy + yz + xz (e)
x s tan -1 (y/x)
(d) (x + y + z)/x
dF , dF , dF
a + y-z h 2t- = nF
dx " by dz
equations
CHAP. Ill
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS
307
Fig. 11-11
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
Fig.11-12
no, \ m J
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS
[CHAP. 11
V//////////////////A
^(m.Kl'e 2 + m 2 K\el)
v = iMf + T^-*!) 2 ]
where t x and t 2 are torsion
constants, i.e. the torques required
to rotate the disks through one
radian.
Fig. 11-13
(m t + m 2 )(h + h) V(h + w 2 )
[!(! - y 2 + m 2 (*i + l 2 ) 2
CHAP. Ill
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS
309
E = -V* - dA/dt, B = V X A
L |m; 2 + e(A v) e*
T+V
is a constant.
v . dV dq v
11.96.
r~\
15 gm
10 gm
I 2gm d
M 7 m 3gm
5 gm
Fig. 11-14
O
IF
Fig.11-15
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS
[CHAP. 11
Fig. 11-16
Fig. 11-17
THEORY
HAMILTONIAN METHODS
In Chapter 11 we investigated a
formulation of mechanics due to
Lagrange. In this chapter we
investigate a formulation due to
Hamilton known collectively as
Hamiltonian methods or
Hamiltonian theory. Although such
theory can be used to solve specific
problems in mechanics, it develops
that it is more useful in supplying
fundamental postulates in such
fields as quantum mechanics,
statistical mechanics and celestial
mechanics.
THE HAMILTONIAN
H = 2 Vaq a - L (1)
a=l
HAMILTON'S EQUATIONS
dH
qa t
dp*
(3)
H = T + V (4)
IGNORABLE OR CYCLIC
COORDINATES
* = = < 5 >
PHASE SPACE
LIOUVILLE'S THEOREM
CHAP. 12]
>b
f F(x,y,y')dx (8)
*J a
d_/dF\_ dF = (g)
dx\dy'J by v '
HAMILTON'S PRINCIPLE
J-t 2 Ldt h
dt\dq a J dq a
C*Ldt (12)
CANONICAL OR CONTACT
TRANSFORMATIONS
denoted briefly by
We restrict ourselves to
transformations called canonical or
contact transformations for which
there exists a function Jl called the
Hamiltonian in the new coordinates
such that
P --Wa> Qa ~^Pa {W)
CONDITION THAT A
TRANSFORMATION BE
CANONICAL
is canonical if ^p a dq a ^PadQa
(I 9 )
is an exact differential.
GENERATING FUNCTIONS
4? = L - JZ ()
dt
where P. = -M q. = M (w)
THE HAMILTON-JACOBI
EQUATION
If we can find a canonical
transformation leading to Jl = 0,
then we see from (24) that P a and
Q a will be constants [i.e., P a and Q
a will be ignorable coordinates].
Thus by means of the
transformation we are able to find p
a and q a and thereby determine the
motion of the system. The
procedure hinges on finding the
right generating function. From the
third equation of (23) we see by
putting Jl = 0 that this generating
function must satisfy the partial
differential equation
def
M
dfia
of = Si(qi) + -S 2 (g 2 ) + + Sn{q
n ) + F(t) (30)
5 = Si(qi) + S2M + + S n {q n )
(31)
Pa = |S , Q a = j-, JH = H = E (33)
dq a OJTa
J a = <f> Padq a ( 35 )
Jca
where p. = Jg, = |J ^
pIacedby as bs (m
dW a dJ a
V } Wa = fat + Ca (*)
dJa
CHAP. 12]
Solved Problems
THE HAMILTONIAN AND
HAMILTON'S EQUATIONS
dH - *2,q a dp a - 2p a dq a {2)
dp a dq a
q <* - dp a > Pa dq a
dH = 2q a dp a - *2>p a dq a - dt
(5)
m = 2 dp + 2 f|-^ + ff ,*
9 ~ dp a ' Pa ~ dq tt ' dt dt
-jfe = 2 ka Pa ~ 2 Pa Qa = 0
dq a
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
[CHAP. 12
H = 2,PaQa~L = 2T-(T-V) = T + V =
E
12.3. A particle moves in the xy
plane under the influence of a
central force depending only on its
distance from the origin, (a) Set up
the Hamiltonian for the system. (6)
Write Hamilton's equations of
motion.
Lagrangian is .,,-,,
Pr
H = p a q - L = P r r + PeO -
{$m(r* + r&) - V(r)>
= Pr S +" 3 - 4*
Pe
2m 2mr 2 '
Note that this is the total energy
expressed in terms of coordinates
and momenta.
(4)
(5) (6)
pq dp (1)
.. I
Mq,v)
Fig. 12-2
P q + j- (pq) dq f dp
D(q + dq, p)
^(pq)dpdq (3)
- (pp)dpdq (-4)
{*#+^V**
dp + [ Kpq) + d(pfr ) dt 1 dq dp
dp , dq , dp , dp . op . .
dt dq dq * dp dp v
dp _ dm dq _ dm
dp dpdq' dq dq dp
dV = dq y dq n dp t dp n
{ dq t dq n 3p! dp n J
dt dq x dq n dp t dp n
dp , a <Pg) . x d ^) dt a =l dq a
=i dp a
dp a _ d 2 H dq a _ d 2 H
&+ 2 (- +s^O = o ()
at a=l \^a "Pa /
or p = constant.
dp 4j / dp dq a dp dp a \ dp _
fdp_. ,dp_- \ , dp
y = Y(x), a^x^b CO
where e is independent of x, is a
neighboring curve through x = a
and x = b if we choose
via) = v(b) = 0 W
jr I
de | =o J a \dy v ^ dy' v J
dF _d_/dF\ _ n nr {L\-.W = o
~dy dx\dy'J ~ u dx\dy'J dy
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
321
dx\by' a J dy a
a = 1,2, ...,n
/( e ) _ j(o) = e j f jv + T)')dx +
higher order terms in e 2 , e 3 , etc.
(5)
f.
8 f F(x, y, y') dx = 0
Ldt
(1)
to be an extremum [maximum or
minimum] is given by
l(f)-f = < 2)
L = L(t, q v q lt q 2 , q 2 , .. . , q n , q
n)
dt\dq a J dq a
=0
a = 1,2, . . .,
A( 0 Vo)
Fig.12-3
T = I dt = I
^0 ^=0
'2gy
But (cte) 2 = (do;) 2 + (dy) 2 or cte
= ^1 + y> 2 dx. Thus the required
time is
1 r v 0 Vi + y' 2
r = I j=- dx (2)
V2gJ y=0 vv
(d_F_\_8F =
dx\dy'J dy U K1)
_ du _ dw dy_ _ du , _ du dx dy dx
dy dy
Integration yields
In (1 + u 2 ) + In y = In 6 or (1 + u 2
)y = b
-=*=t-J^
\y
CHAP. 121
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
323
7< / \
CANONICAL TRANSFORMATIONS
AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS
12.11. Prove that a transformation is
canonical if there exists a function q
such that dq/dt = L-Ji.
The integrals I Ldt and I dt must
simultaneously be extrema so that
their varia-
Thus by subtraction,
t.
! \ Ldt - 0 and SJ -C dt = 0
(L - ) dt
L - -C = d/ctt
dt
By Problem 12.11,
dT dt
= L-j = 2, Pa q a - H - V2P a Q a - Si
= Spg ~ 2PQ a + Si - H
dT = 2p a dq a - 2P a dQ a +
(Si~H)dt
dT
dT = 2*Ia+ 2^dQ a + dt
3Q
dt
Pa -
dq a '
P = -
3t
*c#
- _ djj Qa ~ 8P
(1)
dT = ^p a dq a - ^,P a dQ a + (J(-
H)dt
Or ^T + ^PaQa) = 2Pa^a + 2 Q
<*P + (Jl~H)dt (1)
where gf = T + ^P a Q a (3)
^ = 2^^+ SJ^p. + J^ )
dH 3jF/ /^x
P = ~r-, Q - 7 (*)
dq dp
; = i^H4, i = *> + *
dq dP dq dQ dq' dp dP dp dQ dp
dp __ P dq. - 9. *L - a M. = v U)
dq ~ Q dP P 2 + q 2 dQ ' dp P dP p 2
+ q 2 dQ K '
sji p ajl
p 2 + q 2* H 8P p 2 + q 2 dQ
q JL . A 9Jl Q dj(
; P + pQ = p
p 2 + g 2* r ** ~ * d p p 2 + q2 dQ
Solving these simultaneously we
find
. _ _ej( . _ 3_M
(7)
Method 2.
1p a dq a - J,P a dQ a (8)
\P+9
THE HAMILTON-JACOBI
EQUATION
12.15. (a) Write the Hamiltonian for
the one dimensional harmonic
oscillator of mass m. (b) Write the
corresponding Hamilton-Jacobi
equation, (c) Use the Hamilton-
Jacobi method to obtain the motion
of the oscillator.
(a) Method 1.
L = T - V = \mq 2 - \ K q 2 (1)
The momentum is p = dL/dq = mq
(2)
H = *2,p a q a - L = pq - (%mq 2 - %
Kq2)
= p 2 /m + % K q 2 U)
Method 2.
ef = SM + S 2 (t) (6)
1 /dS x \ 2 dS 2
(8)
(9)
_ B< _ __ Q ~ dp dp
C dq
J -v/rt
ViJm /" dq
-t
s
y/p - &Q 2
-t=y
The Hamiltonian is H = ^ \ p ? +
~^ J ~ ~r
It + 2m \V Br J ^ r 2 V Be J J Let J
= S 1 (r) + S 2 (e) + S 3 (t) W
*=0
1 f/dSA 2 , 1 f dS A\ K _ dS s
^{(^) 2 ^(f)} - f - *
S 3 = -/? 3 *
Multiply both sides of (5) by 2mr 2
and write it in the form
-dv) = r2 \ 2m ^ + -r-{-dir
dS 2 /de = p 2 or S 2 = P 2 0 (0)
r \ dr dS t
(8) (9)
Qr = Wz = W~2 S ^ 2m ^3 + 2mK/r
- /? 2 /r 2 dr + e = Yi
/ 7"'
Pidr
- 7i (JO)
, = = * + 7 2 (**)
V2m/? 3 + 2mK/r - /3 2 /r 2
r = 2 = ()
We have ^ = S 1 (q l , 0 lt . . ., 0 n ) +
+ S n (q n , fi lt . . . , (3 n ) - p x t
(1)
3<2f dS a
dq a dq a v ;
J a = -dM/dWa, W a = dJl/dJ a
J a = 0, w a = constant = f a (3)
where f a = djK/dJ a - From (3) we
find, as required,
J a = constant, w a f a t + c a (-4)
J Padq a = J a (5)
1 if a = r Aw a = i
0 if a ^r
9 C dS , dJ r fl if a = r
'- Ma yw r dqr = =
(a) Aw a
5 J a [ 0 if a # r
where we have used the fact that w
a = aS/d7 a [see Problems 12.17
and 12.18] and have assumed that
the order of differentiation and
integration is immaterial.
-V2/3/K 0
= 27T/?VW/C
Thus
J 6 = Ve de = d ^-ds = ^de = f*
fi%d , = u Pt (f)
J e + J r = 2TrimKly]2m/3 3 m
J6 dJ 9 (./, +J r )3' fr dJ r ~ (J e
+7 r )3
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
T = \m(r 2 + r 2 e 2 + r 2 sin 2 9 0 2
) (1)
L = T -V = \m(r 2 + r 2 e 2 + r 2 s i n
2 tf 2) _ y( r , ^ ^ ^
We have
, Pr Pe P<*>
and r = , 0 = -, 0 = 2 . 2 (4)
m mr mr sin 2 0 v '
H = ^tP a q a L
= p r r + p e e + pqQ ^m(r 2 + r 2
e 2 + r 2 sin 2 e 0 2 ) + V(r, e, 0)
n2m22
_ Pr_ , Pe , P<& v , ,
2m 2mr 2 2mr 2 sin 2 <? + v &>'>*)
i5)
dp a dq a
dH Pe . dH P4
. _ dH_ _ Pr _ dH_ _ _Po_ . _
dH_ _
* = _^ = -EL + p * _ Z
r dr mr 3 mr 3 sin 2 e dr
. _ _dH_ _ P% cos 0 dV P ~ do ~
mr 2 sin 3 e do
' = -^R - __
P * ~~ 30 30
N - 1 ( a * I P I P * ) Kc0Sff (1)
n ~ 2m V r r 2 r 2 sin 2 0/ r 2 K '
(1)
/dS 2 \ 2 1 /dSo\2
/dS 3 y /dS a \*
\f G] = y (**L!*L - dF dG )
o \dp*dq a dq a dpaj
(d)
[ ,Pr] ~ a\dp a dq a dq a dp a J dq r
dH _ dH (*\
dp a dq a
dt dt H \dq a dp a dp a dqj dt
Supplementary Problems
CHAP. 12]
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
333
Q(x 2 , y 2 )
Fig. 12-5
CANONICAL TRANSFORMATIONS
AND GENERATING FUNCTIONS
THE HAMILTON-JACOBI
EQUATION
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
CHAP. 121
HAMILTONIAN THEORY
335
12.63.
12.64.
12.65.
Bx dt \dx J + dV\dx) ~
12.66. 12.67.
2m P 2
P<ft
rap 3
mg cot a
12.68.
12.70.
12.71. 12.72.
12.73.
Verify the integration result (3) of
Problem 12.21.
.n^E., , &F
dW
dF
12.74.
12.75.
sm 0j _ Vj
sin e 2 v 2
[CHAP. 12
12.76.
minimum.
-J
r 2 V 1 + r 2 (de/dr) 2 dr
<> f t [F,G) =
(c)
dt
[F,G] =
dF
_dt
dF_ dt
,G ,G
w dG
F,
dG dt
12.80.
12.81. 12.82.
12.83. 12.84.
12.85.
12.86. 12.87.
fl if a = fi where t afl = Q tf
{F lt [F 2 ,F 8 ]-] + \F 2 , [F a ,F^ +
[F3,[F lf F 2 ]] = 0
12.88.
12.89.
11 a 12 *ln
a 21 a 22
a 2n
a n\ a n2
CHAP. 121
H = vVc 2 + m 2 c 4 + V where c is
the speed of light. Obtain the
equations of motion for this
particle.
TO
% 2 c a h a ~ L where c a = dL/dq
a a=l
dt \ dq a J dq a
rlT rlT
=1
F=
r3
<j) p r dr = n^h. d) p e de n 2 h
2?r 2 mZ 2 e 4
UNITS
DIMENSIONS
[APPENDIX A
APPENDIX A]
341
CONVERSION FACTORS
Length
Area
Volume
Mass
Speed
Density
Force
Energy
Power
Pressure
1 kilometer (km)
1 meter (m)
1 centimeter (cm)
1 millimeter (mm)
1 micron (/t)
1 millimicron (m/t)
1 angstrom (A)
1 foot (ft)
1 mile (mi)
lmil
1 centimeter
1 meter
1 kilometer
Angle
Appendix B
Astronomical Data
Mass
Radius
Mean density-
THE SUN
4.4 X 10 30 lb or 2.0 X 10 30 kg
4.32 X 10 5 mi or 6.96 X 10 5 km
or 6.673 X 10 ~ 8 cm 3 /gm-sec 2
Mass
Mean density
Escape velocity
Orbital speed
Orbital eccentricity
THE MOON
239 X 10 3 mi or 3.84 X 10 5 km
1080 mi or 1738 km
1.63 X 10 23 lb or 7.38 X 10 22 kg
27.3 days
.055
or 2.36 X 10 6 sec
.64 mi/sec or 1.02 km/sec
APPENDIX Bl
ASTRONOMICAL DATA
343
XX
eo 10
a 2 a 44
00 OS
bfl
2 1-1 iH
xx
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os t-
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iH rH
Xx
\a oo
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si
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eo co
bo
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1S
4*i
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i-l CO
43
us
a)
09 .
^a
B 44
00 tP
CO Tjt
co us
as
XX
2! *h
00 f
t 00
rH (M
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bo
XX
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tH ^.
11
t* Cv, i-( CO
B 4* IM o CO 00
(4 02
co <o
O2
iH "<
xx
t-
oo ?o
if
xx
to o
CO t-
5v
m jo
Is a
B a)
eo t-
co eo
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a^
eo co
i-< tH
XX
31
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co 00
bo
XX
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BM
00 T^ CO ?o
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xx
1-1 t-
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tH CO
.58 >
B 44
TH Tj<
CO CO
bo
X
43
14
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xX
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1I f)
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0) <v
i-l CO 10
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tH CO
11
55
c3
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eo to
bo
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eo *o
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to to
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03
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el
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CO <^K
rj O P
sSw
*h - a
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a 3 I
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w s bo M
uo
09
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h a a
<B O O
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-S a O g
Appendix C
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Example 1.
The equation j*-=2y is a differential
equation of first order, or order 1. A
solution of this equation is y = ce 2x
where c is any constant, since on
substituting this into the given
differential equation we have
the identity
2ce 2x = 2ce 2x
Example 2.
The equation x 2 dx + y 3 dy = 0 is a
differential equation of first order.
A solution is x*/3 + y*l = c where c
is any constant, since taking the
differential of the solution we have
d(x s /S + y*/4) = 0 or x 2 dx + y z
dy - 0
Example 3.
The equation ^| - 3^ + 2y = 4x is a
differential equation of second
order. A solution is
CLOG 0/QCr
y = de x + c 2 e 2x + 2x + 3 since
&- S *!L + 2 y = ( Cl e x + 4c 2 e 2x
) - 3( Cl e x + 2c 2 e 2x + 2) + 2(c t e
x + c 2 e 2x + 2x + 3) - 4* dx 2 dx
H - 3^ + 2x = U dt 2 dt
a2V r) 2 V
from partial differential equations
such as -^ = c 2 -^" involving two or
more independent variables.
ARBITRARY CONSTANTS.
GENERAL AND PARTICULAR
SOLUTIONS
1. Separation of Variables
2. Linear Equations
C p dx
3. Exact Equation
The equation
M = dN By dx K '
4. Homogeneous Equation
If an equation has the form
P- = f(V-) (7)
dx \x/
dv r,/ v dx dv , s ,
v + x Tx = F{v) or ~x~ = fW 1 ^ {)
J x J F(v) - v
dx n v '
y = f f F(x)dx n + ci + c 2 x +
czx 2 + + e n x n ~ l
dv . x
d 2 y _ cLv_ _ dv&n _ dv
dx 2 ~ dx ~ dydx dy'
y = y c + y p (12)
If we assume as solution y = e ax
where a is constant in (11), we find
that a must satisfy the equation
a 2 + Aa + B = 0
c x e a ^ x + c 2 xe aiX .
PARTICULAR SOLUTIONS
1. Method of Undetermined
Coefficients.
2. Method of Variation of
Parameters.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
ARBITRARY CONSTANTS.
GENERAL AND PARTICULAR
SOLUTIONS
% ~ x+v =
^ + 2^ - 3* = 2cos* - 4 sin* dt 2 at
(b) Find the particular solution
such that x-1, dx/dt = -3 at t = 0.
Then ^ + 2 - 3a; = (c ie t + 9c 2 e-
3t _ sin t ) + 2( Cl e* - 3c 2 e" + cos
t)
= 2 cos t 4 sin t
2 = c t + c 2 fci + c 2 = 2
or i .
-3 = Cl - 3c 2 + 1 L c i _ 3c 2 = _4
SEPARATION OF VARIABLES
xdx ydy _ Q ^)
1 + a;2 ^ 1 + y2
Then we have on integrating,
J xdx , f ydy 1 + x 2 J 1 + y
1 In (1 + a; 2 ) + In (1 + ?/ 2 ) = *i
^y* = Cl
(1 + X 2 ){1 + yl) = C2 (j g)
1t3
~R = 3 +C
Substituting t = 1, R = 1 we find c =
-4/3. Thus
1t343
or it
R 3 3 4 - t3
LINEAR EQUATION
I 2.x dix 2
ax
Integrating, y e x = I (x 3 + x)e x2 dx
+c
y e* 2 = -1x20*2 + c
Thus y = x 2 + ce~ x2
Since y = 2 when x = 0, we find c =
2. Thus
y = \x 2 + 2e~ x2
dU
dt~* U = 1 W
we see that it is linear with
integrating factor e-* ~ 3dt = e~ st .
Multiplying (1) by e" 8 ', it can be
written as
4i(Ue-M) = e -*t at
dU = dt
3U + 1
Integrating, In (3t7 + 1) = t + c
EXACT EQUATIONS
Method 1.
Method 2.
ATT STJ
U = X s + y sin x + F(y)
that
U = X s + y sin x y*
HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS
dv , dv
v + %-7- = e v + v or %~j~ e
dx Ax
lnsc + e~ y,x c.
Integrating once,
dU/dt = t + sin* + c x
dU/dt = t + sin* + 3
U = \& - cos t + 3t + 3
A dx
_ dv __ dv^djt _ v dv^ V ~ dx dy
dx dy
yv ^ + v2 = or v ( v % + v ) =
/ x dv , _
(x 2 v) = x
v = dy/dx c 3 /y or ydy = c 3 dx
Integrating, y 2 /2 = c 3 x + c 4 or y
2 = Ax + B
(a 2 - 4a h)e ax = 0 or a 2 4a - 5
=0
y = c x e* x + c 2 e~ x .
C.14. Solve ^ + 4^ + 4x = 0. at 2 dt
Letting x = e at , we find a 2 + 4a +
4 = 0 or a = -2, -2. Then the general
solution is x = c^" 2 * + c 2 te~ 2t =
~ 2t (i + c 2 t).
C.15. Solve 0 + 2 g + 5v = 0.
Letting 2/ = e ax , we find a 2 + 2a +
5 = 0 or a = -1 2t. Then solutions
are e (_1 + 2i)x -e -x e 2ix = e -x(
cos 2a; + t sin2a;) and e (-1 2i)a; = e
-a: e2te = e-z(cos2ar i sin2a;).
The general solution is y = e~ x (c x
cos 2x + c 2 sin2x).
Letting y = e ax , we find a 2 + w 2 =
0 or a = ia. Then solutions are e to
* = cos wo; + i sin w and e -i6U! =
cos <*x i sin ax. The general
solution is thus y = c t cos ax + c 2
sin v>x.
METHOD OF UNDETERMINED
COEFFICIENTS C.17. Solve 0-4||-
5i/ = x 2 + 2e*
&--* =
is y c = c t e& + c 2 e~ x (1)
y p = Ax 2 + Bx + C + De* x (*)
2/p 5 X T 25 X 125 4 e
y c - Cl e5x + c 2 xe5x CO
420 n i 400 . o
'P 841
V = Vc + V P = c i e ~ Sx + We~s* +
fff cos 2x +
420 ___ o , 400
841
sin 2x
METHOD OF VARIATION OF
PARAMETERS C.19. Solve d 2 y/dx
2 + y = tana:.
y c = c_ cos x + c 2 sin a CO
C sin 2 x , f 1 - cos 2 x , C . , ,
f. = I ax = I ax = I (sec *
cos x) ax
J1 J cos* J cos x J
f 2 = \ sin x dx = cos * + c 2
Substituting in (2) we find the
required general solution,
Supplementary Problems
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
ARBITRARY CONSTANTS.
GENERAL AND PARTICULAR
SOLUTIONS
(a) ^f - 2^ + x = t ; x = (c t + c 2 t)e*
+ t + 2 at' at
dz = ty/T^z* A ^^^_^ r -
dt
Vi - * 2
dx x x z
C.27. Solve (ye x e~v) dx + (xe~y
+ e x ) dy = 0. Ans. ye x xe~ y - c
C.33. Solve
H*)"]'-()' ^-<*-^+<*-*>* = !
dt at
ac z at
Ans. U = c x e2t + c 2 e* - St - 4 + |
sin 2t - cos 2t
As. (a) y = c x e 2x + c 2 e Sx + 2
cos 4* sin 4a?
(6) ^ = Cl e x + c 2 e~ Sx \xe~ x
Appendix D
Symbols
a acceleration, 7
a P ip acceleration of particle P 2
relative to particle P v 7
A area, 122
A vector potential of
electromagnetic field, 309
B magnetic intensity, 83
B unit binormal, 7
c speed of light, 54
C curve, 6
e lt e 2 , e 3 unit vectors, 72
E total energy, 36
E electric intensity, 84
f force due to friction, 65
/ frequency, 89
f a frequencies, 316
F force, 33
F av average force, 60
F D damping force, 87
H Hamiltonian, 311
Jl Hamiltonian under a canonical
transformation, 314
I xx , I yy , I zz moments of inertia
about x, y, z axes, 254
I xy , I yz , I xz products of inertia,
254
I U I 2 ,I 3 principal moments of
inertia, 255
J) v impulses, 285
I length, 90
L Lagrangian, 284
m mass, 33
m 0 rest mass, 54
N unit normal, 7
p a generalized or conjugate
momenta, 284
p momentum, 33
P period, 89
<? power, 34
q electrical charge, 84
q a generalized coordinates, 282
r spherical coordinate, 32
R radius of curvature, 8
R range, 75
R resisting force, 64
R resultant of forces, 47
T kinetic energy, 35
T tension, 74
Vp 2 /P i velocity of particle P 2
relative to particle P lt 7
W work, 34
W weight, 62
V transverse displacement of
vibrating string, 195 z cylindrical
coordinate, 32
Greek Symbols
a angular acceleration, 29
/? damping constant, 88
8 logarithmic decrement, 89 8
variation symbol, 313
S a p Kronecker delta, 336
A determinant, 336
eccentricity, 118
e cylindrical coordinate, 32
e polar coordinate, 25
6 spherical coordinate, 32
k spring constant, 86
X colatitude, 152
A v A 2 , A 3 components of torque
along principal axes, 256
A torque or moment, 36
H coefficient of friction, 65
fi reduced mass, 182
p cylindrical coordinate, 32
a density, 114
a torsion, 31
t radius of torsion, 31
t time, 81
t volume, 166
0 spherical coordinate, 32
a angular speed, 8
lt <o 2 , 3 components of
angular velocity along principal
axes, 256
Q angular momentum, 37
Notations
|A| magnitude of A, 4
V del operator, 8
V A = div A divergence of A, 8
V X A = curl A curl of A, 9
apparent, 149
centrifugal, 145
in cylindrical coordinates, 32
in polar coordinates, 26
in spherical coordinates, 32
instantaneous, 7
linear, 145
normal, 7, 8, 19, 20
relative, 7, 18, 19
tangential, 7, 8, 19, 20
true, 149
modulation, 102
Approximations, method of
successive, 154, 159 Apsides, 143
Arbitrary constants, 344, 348
Arc length, 7
Area, of parallelogram, 15
of triangle, 31 Areas, law of, 116, 123
Associative law, 3, 10
Binormal, 7, 8
Bound vectors, 9, 10
of force, 116
of gravity, 167
117, 123-125
361
INDEX
sliding, 83 Characteristic
determinant, 198
Coefficient of friction, 65
Colatitude, 152 Collinear vectors, 23
Collisions of particles, 194, 195,
200-202 Comet, 121
transformations) Continuous
functions, piecewise, 197
Continuous systems of particles,
165, 195 Conversion factors, table
of, 341 Coordinate systems, 3, 4
inertial, 34, 39 moving, 144-164
non-inertial, 144 Coplanar vectors,
condition for, 16 Coriolis
acceleration, 145, 150
Curvature, 8, 20
acceleration in, 32
gradient in, 61
Damping coefficient, 88
Deceleration, 29
Definite integrals, 6
Definitions, 1
363
forces, 283
impulse, 285
curl of, 9, 29
INDEX
Gravity, 62
Impact, 194
Impulse, 36, 45-47, 169, 170, 180
generalized, 285
relation to momentum, 36
Impulsive forces, 285, 295-298
Inclined plane, 64, 65, 72
Invariant, 34
Isolation, of a system, 64
of rotation, 229
of translation, 229
Magnetic field, 83
Mass, 2, 33
relativistic, 34 Membrane,
vibrating, 195 Meteorite, 121 Metric
system, 339 Minor axis, of ellipse,
119
of force, 36
matrix, 254
principal (see Principal moments of
inertia)
special, 226
Optics, 335
seconds, 110
natural, 89
of damped motion, 89
of harmonic oscillator, 87
of motion in a magnetic field, 83
out of, 93
INDEX
Piano string, vibrations of, 195 (see
also Vibrating string) Piecewise
continuous functions, 197 Planck's
constant, 338 Planets, 119, 343
Poinsot's construction, 257 Point, 1,
2
gradient in, 54
coordinates, 312
relation to stability, 38
of gyration, 225
maximum, 69
Reaction (cont.)
damped, 87, 88
367
Tension, 74, 76
Theorems, 1
Time. 1, 2
principle of least, 335 Top, 258,
268-273, 274
sleeping, 274
Top (cont.)
of a couple, 226
scalar, 5
Variations, calculus of
algebra of, 2, 3
bound, 9, 10
components of, 4
definition of, 2
free, 9, 10
apparent, 148
escape, 134
generalized, 283
in cylindrical coordinates, 32
in polar coordinates, 26
in spherical coordinates, 32
INDEX
Velocity (cont.)
instantaneous, 7
limiting, 70, 72
y direction, 4