Volkswagen Scandal 1

VOLKSWAGEN EMISSION SCANDAL CASE STUDY

By: [Name]

Course

Professors Name

Institution

Location of Institution

Date
 Volkswagen Scandal 2

Table of Contents

Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................ 3

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 4

Timelines of Events ........................................................................................................................ 5

Findings and Discussion ................................................................................................................. 7

Leadership Character ................................................................................................................. 8

Change management ................................................................................................................... 9

Organizational Culture ............................................................................................................. 11

Recommendations ......................................................................................................................... 12

Reflection ...................................................................................................................................... 14

References ..................................................................................................................................... 16
 Volkswagen Scandal 3

Executive Summary

The genesis of the VW scandal is the deliberate action of some employees to install

software in the diesel model of the cars that would cheat the cheat the regulators concerning the

levels of toxic emission (Ewing, 2015, p, 22). The Environmental Protection Agency, a United

States government institution, was responsible for discovering this fraudulent plot to increase car

sales and beat the competitors while cheating the laboratories concerning the levels of toxic

gases emissions. The then CEO, Martin Winterkorn embarked on a strategy to conquer the US

market by providing high quality automobiles that would offer efficiency in energy and

environmental protection at relatively lower prices (Smith, 2016). The staffs at VW have

suggested that the standards set by the CEO were ahead of their time and could not be readily

met which is believed to have contributed to the use of a cheat system to meet the targets

(Goodman, 2015). Analysis into the type of leadership and organizational culture reveals an

authoritarian system with the employees full of fear and respect for the managers. This

leadership style, it is believed, made it almost impossible for the staff to raise their concerns

regarding the ambitious approach the company was taking (Connaughton and Hassinger, 2007,

p. 465).

Nevertheless, the company diesel engineers installed cheat software that would initiate

engine management controls that revealed lower levels of toxic emissions when observed under

laboratory conditions. This enabled the vehicles to cheat the EPA tests, while in reality the

automobiles produced up to forty times the amount of accepted dangerous gases. Upon the

discovery of the scam, the VW suffered immensely not only financially, but also its reputation

(Halfond, 2016). The scandal led to a series of events that included the resignation of the CEO

and a change of leadership style from the more autocratic to a collaborative approach.
 Volkswagen Scandal 4

Introduction

This report details the outcome of the ambitious plan of VW overtaking Toyota as the

worlds leading automobile distributor that was initiated during the announcement by the then

CEO Martin Winterkorn in 2011. The company made tremendous steps in realizing the objective

until in September 2015 when a scandal erupted that caught the world by surprise. In the report,

various topics are considered including the organizational culture of the company, leadership

character of the senior management as well as the crisis management of the scandal. The VW

Company was forced to recall millions of its TDI brand cars from Britain and the rest of the

world markets as a result of the US regulators, EPA, discovering the dishonesty of the company

concerning the quantities of toxic gas emissions from the diesel models (Blackwelder, et al.,

2016). The cause of the scandal, it is argued, stems from the ambitious strategy to rule the US

market as the provider of the energy efficient and environmentally safe cars at a cheaper price.

The organization needed to comply with the standards set by the US regulators of maintaining

the high mileage for gas consumption and not increase the price of the automotives (Ewing,

2015, p, 22). To manoeuvre this scenario, VW decided to use a cheat software that will indicate

low fuel mileage with even lower toxic gas emissions. The laboratory test results were found to

be faulty as the vehicles released 40 times the recommended levels of nitric oxide which was

harmful to both the environment and the public (Burki, 2015, p.839).

In September 2015, the EPA established with certainty that the vehicles in the US market

had a cheat device with the ability to recognize test scenarios in which case the software

initializes an engine management controls that would set the safe conditions for vehicle. It was

later discovered that the VW had distributed more of such vehicles with the device to almost all

its markets which led to a global outcry. As a result, a series of events were initiated that were
 Volkswagen Scandal 5

aimed at restoring the reputation of the company as well as establishing the root cause of the

scandal. Within the same month of the revelation, the CEO quit amid claiming no wrong doing

in his part.

The issue of ethical standards of the organization come into sharp focus as a consequence

of the scam. It is evident that failure to uphold ethical practice was a major contributing factor to

the crisis. For example, the group CEP has been described as being an autocratic leader who

imposed high standards for the employees that they in most cases failed to meet. Besides, it has

been established that there as improper communication among the various levels of management.

Neate (2016, p.56) argues that a memo was sent to the CEO up to 12 months before the incident

was reported to the public. In November of 2014, another memo meant to discuss the financial

consequences of the emissions and in June of 2015, a meeting was held to discuss the issue.

Speaking to the press, a company spokesperson revealed that in the meeting, the senior

management did not think the device would be contrary to the regulations of EPA (Smith, 2016).

However, the company would later admit to cheating the authorities regarding the emission

levels of the automotives (Halfond, 2016).

Timelines of Events

The notice by EPA was issued on 18th September after an extensive research of

Volkswagen brands sold in the US. The report by EPA also revealed that the altered

programming in Volkswagen engines created significant discrepancies between laboratory

testing and real-world testing. Some engines emitted up to forty times higher than the lab tests

recorded (Ewing, 2015, p, 22). The revelation of the scandal marked the beginning of a series of

events that have redefined VW for the past fifteen months. Two days after the report by EPA,

Volkswagen announces an external investigation to determine the nature and extent of the
 Volkswagen Scandal 6

scandal. The aim is to determine the number of vehicles affected as well as their location

(Halfond, 2016).

Three days after the scandal erupted, VWs market value shrinks by about 11 billion

underlining the shock and potential losses that the company is likely to shoulder. The German

government also publicly bashed VWs management accusing it of jeopardising the countrys

reputation as a global leader in the automobile industry. On September 22nd, VW admitted that

eleven million of its cars were fitted with the defective device (Blackwelder, et al., 2016). The

companys CEO apologizes though he refuses to resign despite his US junior revealing that the

company was in deep trouble (Smith, 2016). However, a day later, the CEO opts to resign after

negotiating for a 23.82 million pension pay off. The UK government finally makes a statement

on the scandal following a public uproar from car owners in the country (Jens n.d.). The

countrys Department for Transport reveals that it will commence an independent inquiry into

car emissions especially from VW brands. The company appointed the head of one of its brand,

Porsche to lead the company out the crisis. The move did not stop further losses and negative

publicity as Switzerland banned the sale of VW diesel cars within a day of the announcement

while the German government formally launched criminal investigations against the former CEO

(Smith, 2016).

In October, authorities in France and Italy announce the commencement of formal

investigation into the scandal. The newly elected CEO also offers some bit of positive news to

affected car owners reassuring them that their vehicles will be repaired by end of the following

year. However, the series of events reveals more worrying news for investors as the company is

forced to recall about 8.5 million cars across Europe (Blackwelder, et al., 2016). In December

2015, VW acquires a 17.03 billion loan to help it address the massive losses. In 2016, VW faces
 Volkswagen Scandal 7

numerous civil lawsuits from drivers across its major markets where resulting rulings demand

that it repairs the faulty engines or compensate the aggrieved car buyers. As of June 2016, VW

reveals that it will spend slightly over 15 billion to settle consumer claims as well contribute to

environmental conservation (Smith, 2016).

The sequences of events have been detrimental to VW especially from a financial

perspective with the company losing billions of pounds in sales as well as compensation

expenses. As evidenced by the image above, the companys stock fell from a high of $38 in

September 2015 to $30 in December 21, 2016 (Ewing, 2015, p, 22). The company has

effectively lost over 21% of its market share over the fifteen months (Terry-Armstrong, 2016, p.

9). However, all is not lost for the one of the biggest car manufacturers in the world as it still

remains a reputable brand among many car buyers. Addressing the emissionsgate requires the

companys management to embrace a models and strategies that will first stop further losses and

the consequently concentrate on growth. VWs management ought to place significant focus on

understanding the factors that led to the occurrence of the scandal as this holds the key to

unlocking the corrective measures that they should embrace.

Findings and Discussion

Our analyses reveal that the scandal was caused by a combination of factors ranging from

the poor leadership to unhealthy organizational culture. The companys leadership team failed to

inspire other employees to embrace practices that were moral and abiding to the various laws

that applied to the markets that the VW brands were sold (Ewing, 2015, p, 22). The

organizational culture at VW is also a problem as it propagated a social evil yet not a single

executive or employee opposed the same. Given the magnitude of the implications upon

discovery of the unethical act, the lack of opposition to the adoption of programming that alters
 Volkswagen Scandal 8

VWs diesel engines is a clear indication of a failed organizational culture. Data and information

used in writing the report is sourced from credible online sites. Given the global attention that the

scandal raised, reputable news media outlets as well as major business outlets have written

extensively on the same. The report recommends that measures, strategies, and models that VW

should adopt to navigate its operations out of the scandal and minimize further losses. The

recommendations would also go a long way in laying a solid foundation for a reformed VW that

will return to profitability.

Leadership Character

Embracing leadership that is strong in character and ethically conscious is one of the

main changes that VWs board need to implement so as to reassure the public of their change. A

critical evaluation of events leading to the scandal reveals a gap in quality and effective

leadership. The actions after the scandal was made public cast an even bigger aspersion on the

character of leaders at VW. Character in leadership is defined as the unique mental and moral

that distinguishes a leader Ciulla, J.B., 2000, p. 11). Scholars have often defined and examined a

leaders character based on their values, traits, and virtues. The Peterson & Seligmans six

virtues model examines a leaders character by analysing their virtuous mean with their

deficiencies and excesses across six virtues (Low and Davenport, 2009, p. 98). According to the

model, leaders with strong and enviable character exhibit a balance; devoid any excesses or

deficiencies in virtues. Character in leadership is, however, extremely individualistic and heavily

depends on a leaders understanding and appreciation of morals (Price, 2008).

There are many theories that attempt to categorize the different approaches to leadership.

The expectations among many of the leaders of global organizations include having the quality

to make use of the full range theory where the staff and employees of an institution are motivated
 Volkswagen Scandal 9

and their morale boosted to approach every matter as a project that requires their input

(Ogbonna, and Harris, 2000, p. 771). However, this cannot be said to have been the case with the

VW CEO Winterkorn. This is because Mr. Winterkorn had been instrumental in leading the

company through turbulent times before the scandal and therefore, it came as a big surprise to

many that such a scam could unravel under his watch. Nonetheless, some critics if the CEO have

suggested that the disaster was partly down to winterkorns insistence on unachievable goals.

Besides, it is argued that he had created a culture where he could not accept failure from his

subordinates (Ewing, 2015, p, 22). This leadership style is an autocratic form where power and

all important decisions are concentrated in one office. While this system can be beneficial in

some situations like where it is difficult for many people to arrive at a decision that is needed

quickly, it is detrimental to the organizations as was in this case (Knights, and OLeary, 2006, p.

127). There is some theory that the CEO might have not been aware of the presence of the cheat

device because the engineers feared what his reaction might have been (Smith, 2016).

Change management

VW urgently needs the services of a management team that can navigate its operations

out of the difficult position that the company is currently drowned in. The scandal in VW was

largely due to a lack of creativity in the organization. The companys inability to design and

assemble diesel engines that guaranteed smooth driving while conforming to emissions

requirements in the countries they operated led to the scandal (Cavico, and Mujtaba, 2016, p.

310). The company opted for an easy way out to sustain their sales. By relying on a cheat system

to beat emissions, VW effectively proved that creativity and innovation was not up to standard.

An environment that does not support creativity is characterized by strict rules and regulations

governing every aspect of the workplace. Employees are transformed to robot like individuals
 Volkswagen Scandal 10

whose role is to follow given instructions with no questions asked. However, the current business

environment is creating new and unique challenges that require employees attention (Goel,

2015). A creative workplace culture supports and appreciates employees if and when their ideas

fail. An unsupportive culture, on the other hand, leads to fear of failure owing to the rebuke from

management. Employees in such workplaces are ill prepared to address any new and unique

business challenge that must be addressed instantly (Ulmer, Seeger, and Sellnow, 2007, p. 133).

Killing creativity ultimately reduces a firms competitiveness in the market.

Organizations that embrace creativity often seek new approaches to their problems. An

environment that supports creativity enables employees to embrace different perspectives on

their work leading to new ideas (Vyas Tippabhotla, 2016). However, this cannot be said to have

been the case with VW where the management style did not allow for due process to be followed

in coming up with solutions to industry challenges. Instead, the employees were pushed to

deliver at all costs.Some of the most creative ideas in business did not originate from a persistent

urge to solve a specific challenge (Elson, Ferrere, and Goossen, 2015, p. 39). In most cases,

employees in a conducive environment with the right mind set stumble on new perspectives that

significantly change an organizations way of doing things leading to increased productivity.

Establishing a workplace environment that supports creativity is more beneficial than creating

specific departments for the same.

Besides, the current scandal provides a perfect opportunity for the company to embrace

change. It is common for organizations to be tensed and resist change. However, it is at such

situations of uncertainty that leaders stand out and give the workforce a new direction. The VW

scam, in my opinion provides the required conditions for the new team of senior managers to

implement some changes and offer hope to the employees (Baumgartner, 2009, p. 109). Some of
 Volkswagen Scandal 11

the things that need to change include the form of leadership and the organizational culture. The

new leadership should be able to instil confidence on the employees while listening to their

concerns and addressing them appropriately.

Organizational Culture

Organizational culture refers to how entities conduct their functions as well as how they

express themselves. Organizational culture creates the unique sense of identity for every business

entity (Schein, 2010). The culture is evident in an organizations values, assumptions and end-

products. Creating an organizational culture entails a series of steps that commence with an audit

to identify the new set of expectations for an individual organization. Analyzing the

organizational culture at VW strongly indicates the possibility of the employees working under

immense pressure and thereby willing to compromise even their ethics to ensure they kept their

jobs and met the targets. It can be deduced that the HR practice within the organization required

the employees to accomplish an assigned task within a certain period of time, failure of which

resulted in replacement in the project (Elson, Ferrere, and Goossen, 2015, p.39). This evidently

put the employees under so much pressure to keep their jobs at any costs. It has been suggested

by some critics that because of this pressure, the engineers decided to keep the information

regarding the cheat device to themselves for fear of unexpected reactions from the senior

management (Blackwelder, eta al, 2016).

Besides, the human resource practice of rewarding employees, which forms part of the

organizational structure, may have played a role in the decision of engineers keeping the

knowledge about the effects of the cheat device to themselves. The company uses a similar

approach to awarding bonuses to all employees regardless of their seniority levels; performance

and productivity were the main forms of measurements utilized. In addition to being an
 Volkswagen Scandal 12

autocratic system where divergent opinions were not given much attention, all employees strived

to achieve productivity and be recognized as the best performer either to obtain bonuses or

promotions (Elson, Ferrere, and Goossen, 2015, p.39). Indeed in such a case, it is hard not to

suspect that the culture may have played some role in propagating the scandal.

The company had to deal with the effects of the authoritarian type leadership in addition

to the damaged reputation resulting from the lost trust from the customers and the public. The

more autocratic form of leadership at VW tended to apply a power and control type of

organizational culture, which according to Schein (2006, p.88) is characterized by disconnect

between the central power and the leadership. The senior management was the central power and

the rest of the organization was mandated to give respect and loyalty (Goodman, 2015). The

failure to have proper communication channels between the powerful top management and the

rest of the institution enhanced this disjointed relationship even further (Low, and Davenport,

2009, p. 103).

Recommendations

Having analyzed the leadership style used during the scandal, it is important that the

organization looks at how to best change the approach and embrace a more collaborative system.

The board needs to get involved more and describe the leadership qualities desired from the

senior managers in addition to changing the organizational culture (Potts, and Matuszewski,

2004, p. 178). The modern approach to leadership requires that the leaders that consider their

actions and question if they are honest, fair and can be socially accepted. The character depicted

by the then CEO Winterkorn is not desirable. The leader of such a global organization should

exhibit the six virtues of effective leadership as proposed by Peterson and Seligman. These

include humanity, wisdom, transcendence, judgment, temperance and courage. Moreover, the
 Volkswagen Scandal 13

company would benefit from an ethical and wise judgment leadership. Transcendence is a vital

quality of leadership, but its excesses breeds dictatorship and a pompous personality which as

can be seen from the case of VW, is a dangerous trait in a highly dynamic industry.

Besides leadership change and reorganization, adherence to ethical corporate governance

practices is a significant lesson that the management of the automobile manufacturer should

learn from the scandal. An ethical leadership demands that the company upholds social

responsibility, honesty, trust and nurturance in its operations. It is, therefore, a responsibility of

the board to ensure that the successor of Winterkorn is cognisant of both the internal and external

environment of the business. The leadership must acknowledge that financial performance is not

the only significant factor that measures the success of a company, but also the satisfaction the

customers get from its products and community responsiveness are equally important (Cavico,

and Mujtaba, 2016, p.308).

The case also points out an organizational culture that aided the scandal to run for several

months without being noticed by the senior managers. This aspect clearly needs to change. A

culture of a company is defined as the beliefs, principles and practices that guide the actions of

all members associated with the institution (Goel, 2015). While it is not easy to change the

culture, it is often met with opposition and tension, it is necessary that VW drops the power

oriented culture to a more task inclined philosophy. In this form of operation, all actions of the

company are considered a project in which every member is party to in the eventual success of

the organization (Low, and Davenport, 2009, p.103). Indeed, the company is already in a tension

mode from the recent scandal which in my opinion presents the perfect opportunity to initiate the

process of culture change. I would recommend an increased scrutiny of the operations of the

senior management and regular consultations among the various cadres of management. Finally,
 Volkswagen Scandal 14

the importance of communication cannot be overemphasized. The scandal would have been

avoided had there been proper correspondence in all levels of company administration (Cavico,

and Mujtaba, 2016, p.309). The new leadership should encourage and develop mechanism

where all employees have the opportunity to air their grievances and inputs without victimization

(Cavico, and Mujtaba, 2016).

Reflection

This course has been of significant benefit to the development of my leadership qualities.

I have specifically learnt the role of an individuals character to the style of leadership such an

individual is likely to exhibit. Character is a fundamental quality in leadership as it enables

people to get along and develop an understanding among staff in an institution. A leaders

character determines if the followers will be comfortable staying around him or not (Patching,

K., 2007). Effective leadership character encompasses such qualities like creativity, compassion,

integrity, and open mindedness.

Besides character, the course has taught me the importance of upholding ethics in

business operations. Being ethical involves considering ones actions to determine if they are

honest, socially mindful and will not affect the consumers and people associated with the

company negatively (Selznick, 2011). Indeed, lessons from history will indicate that the values

attached to leaders are solely determined by the actions of the leaders. Exemplary leadership has

been attributed to those leaders that uphold ethical considerations and positive values while poor

leadership is characterized with negative virtues and actions (Potts, and Matuszewski, 2004,

p.179).

The course has enabled me realize how the concept of leadership and followership has

changed over the years. Various theorists have come up with qualities that can be attributed to
 Volkswagen Scandal 15

leaders. Indeed, the shift has occurred from the once believed concept of leaders being born and

having innate qualities that not any other ordinary person can possess (Maak and Pless, 2006). It

is no longer appropriate in the modern world to solely look at the innate traits alone in defining

effective leadership. I am more informed that the most efficient theory is the full range theory

which is a component of the transformational leadership (Crossan, et al., 2013, p. 286). This type

leadership embraces the enhancement of motivation and morale by linking the sense of identity

of the staff to a project in addition to the collective identity of the institution. Such factors as

individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, idealized influence and inspirational

motivation cover the essential components of the full range qualities of a good leader. Besides,

positive qualities of leadership marry with the most valued qualities of leaders, employees and

normal citizens (Connaughton, and Hassinger, 2007). Therefore, everybody is indeed a leader at

his own right, an idea that in my opinion should be embraced if the world is to achieve progress.

Indeed an individual has a role to lead himself first before being a leader of many. A view that I

have formed from this course is that leadership does not necessarily mean one gets it right in

every moment, rather is able to communicate effectively and having a strong personality that

allows the followers to listen and heed to your wisdom and direction.

My idea of leadership and a successful leader has changed and now I can critically

evaluate leaders and leadership challenges which is beneficial to me as a potential leader but also

for the national good.

 Volkswagen Scandal 16

References

Baumgartner, R.J., 2009. Organizational culture and leadership: Preconditions for the

development of a sustainable corporation. Sustainable Development, 17(2), pp.102-113.

Blackwelder, B., Coleman, K., Colunga-Santoyo, S., Harrison, J.S. and Wozniak, D., 2016. The

Volkswagen Scandal.

Burki, T.K., 2015. Diesel cars and health: the Volkswagen emissions scandal. The Lancet

Respiratory Medicine, 3(11), pp.838-839.

Cavico, F. J. and Mujtaba, B. G. (2016). Developing a legal, ethical, and socially responsible

mindset for sustainable leadership. ILEAD Academy: Florida.

Cavico, F.J. and Mujtaba, B.G., 2016. Volkswagen Emissions Scandal: A Global Case Study of

Legal, Ethical, and Practical Consequences and Recommendations for Sustainable

Management. Global Journal of Research in Business & Management, 4(2), pp.303-311.

Ciulla, J.B., 2000. Leadership ethics: Mapping the territory. Business Ethics Quarterly, 5(01),

pp.5-28.

Connaughton, M.J. and Hassinger, J., 2007. Leadership character: antidote to organizational

fatigue. Journal of Nursing Administration, 37(10), pp.464-470.

Crossan, M., Mazutis, D., Seijts, G. and Gandz, J., 2013. Developing leadership character in

business programs. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 12(2), pp.285-305.

Elson, C.M., Ferrere, C.K. and Goossen, N.J., 2015. The bug at Volkswagen: Lessons in

codetermination, ownership, and board structure. Journal of Applied Corporate Finance,

27(4), pp.36-43.

Ewing, J., 2015. Volkswagen Says 11 Million Cars Worldwide Are Affected in Diesel

Deception. The New York Times, 22.

 Volkswagen Scandal 17

Goel, A., 2015. Volkswagen: The Protagonist in Diesel Emission Scandal. South Asian Journal

of Marketing & Management Research, Forthcoming.

Goodman, L. (2015). Why Volkswagen cheated; intense ambition and a rigid corporate culture

created the conditions for lying at germany's biggest company, newsweek. [online]

Halfond Jay. (July 11th 2016). Speaking Ethics to Power- Lessons from Volkswagen. The

Huffington Post. [Weblog]. Available from: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jay-

halfond/speaking-ethics-to-power-_b_10880852.html [Accessed; Dec 20th 2016]

Jens Hjgaard (n.d.). An outside view of VW Culture. Maestro Business. [Online].

Knights, D. and OLeary, M., 2006. Leadership, ethics and responsibility to the other. Journal of

Business Ethics, 67(2), pp.125-137.

Low, W. and Davenport, E., 2009. Organizational leadership, ethics and the challenges of

marketing fair and ethical trade. Journal of Business Ethics, 86(1), pp.97-108.

Maak, T. and Pless, N.M. eds., 2006. Responsible leadership. Routledge.

Neate, Rupert. (2016 March 2nd). VW CEO was told about emissions crisis a year before

admitting to cheat scandal. the guardian. [Online] Available from:

https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/mar/02/vw-ceo-martin-winterkorn-told-

about-emissions-scandal [Accessed: Dec 20th 2016.]

Ogbonna, E. and Harris, L.C., 2000. Leadership style, organizational culture and performance:

empirical evidence from UK companies. International Journal of Human Resource

Management, 11(4), pp.766-788.

Patching, K., 2007. Leadership, character and strategy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
 Volkswagen Scandal 18

Potts, S.D. and Matuszewski, I.L., 2004. Ethics and corporate governance. Corporate

Governance: An International Review, 12(2), pp.177-179.

Price, T.L., 2008. Leadership ethics: An introduction. Cambridge University Press.

Sarros, J.C. and Cooper, B.K., 2006. Building character: A leadership essential. Journal of

Business and Psychology, 21(1), pp.1-22.

Schein, E.H., 2010. Organizational culture and leadership (Vol. 2). John Wiley & Sons.

Selznick, P., 2011. Leadership in administration: A sociological interpretation. Quid Pro Books.

Sherk, J. (2014). Expand employee participation in the workplace. Chicago: The Heritage
Foundation.
Smith, Geoffrey. (February 15th 2016.) VWs ex-CEO Knew About Device in Early 2014.

Fortune Magazine. Available from: http://fortune.com/2016/02/15/vw-ceo-winterkorn-

defeat-device/

Terry-Armstrong, N., 2016. The Volkswagen Scandal-The high cost of corporate deceit.

Busidate, 24(1), p.9.

Tohidi, H. and Jabbari, M.M., 2012. Organizational culture and leadership. Procedia-Social and

Behavioral Sciences, 31, pp.856-860.

Ulmer, R. R., Seeger, M. W., and Sellnow, T. L. (2007). Post-crisis communication and renewal:

Expanding the parameters of post-crisis discourse, Public Relations Review, vol. 33, no.

2, pp. 130134.

Vyas Tippabhotla, V.K., 2016. Corporate and social responsibility. The case of Volkswagen.