Developing Strain Gauges and Instruments

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Strain gauges are generally used for one of three reasons:

To ascertain the amount of deformation caused by strain Cover film Gauge backing
To ascertain the stress caused by strain and the degree of safety
of a material or of a structural element that uses that material. Specimen
To indirectly ascer tain various physical quantities by
converting them to strain.
There are a number of ways of measuring strain mechanically
and electrically, but the vast majority of stress measurement is
Etched metallic Gauge Lead
carried out using strain gauges due to their superior measurement resistance foil Adhesive
characteristics.

Strain Gauge Principles

When strain is generated in a measurement object, the strain
What is Strain? is transferred to the resistance wire or foil of the strain gauge
via the gauge base (backing). As a result, the wire or foil
External force applied to an elastic material generates stress, experiences a resistance change. This change is exactly
which subsequently generates deformation in the material. At proportional to the strain as in the equation below.
this time, the length of the material L extends to L+L if the
applied force is a tensile force. The ratio of L to L, that is L/ where
L, is called strain. On the other hand, if a compressive force is : Strain measured
applied, the length L is reduced to LL. Strain at this time is ( L R / R L : Original length of material
L/L). = =
L K L : Change in length due to force P
R : Gauge resistance
R : Resistance change due to strain
P P K : Gauge Factor as shown on
package
L L L
2 2
Normally, this resistance R1
change is very small and
L where : Strain requires a Wheatstone bridge R2
=
L L : Original length of material circuit to convert the small

Voltage
output
L : Change in length due to force P resistance change to a more
easily measured voltage
Example) when a material of 100mm long deforms by
change.
0.1mm in its length, the resulting strain is as R4 R3
follows.
L 0.1 The voltage output of the Exciting
= = = 0.001 = 1000 10-6 circuit is given as follows. Voltage
L 100

What is a Strain Gauge? R1 R3 R2 R4 where

e = R E e : Voltage output
The electric resistance of a metal changes proportionally to the ( 1 + R2 )( R3 +R4 )
mechanical deformation caused by an external force applied E : Exciting voltage
to the metal. By bonding a thin metal to a measurement R1 : Gauge resistance
object through a thin electrical insulator, the metal deforms R2~R4 : Fixed resistance
depending on deformation of the measurement object and
its electric resistance changes. The strain gauge (electric Here, if R=R 1 =R 2 =R 3 =R 4 the resistance of the strain gauge
resistance strain gauge) is a sensor to measure the strain by changes to R+R due to strain. Thus, the output voltage e
means of measuring the resistance change. (variation) due to the strain is given as follows.

Strain Gauge Configuration R

e= E
4R + 2R
A strain gauge is constructed by forming a grid made of fine
electric resistance wire or photographically etched metallic When R R,
resistance foil on an electrical insulation base (backing), R E
and attaching gauge leads. e = E= K
4R 4
End loops Gauge Length End loops
When measuring with a strain gauge, it is connected to an
instrument called a strainmeter. The strainmeter configures
Gauge a Wheatstone bridge circuit and supplies exciting voltage.
Width Measured strain is indicated on a digital display and/or
output as analog signals.
Grid Gauge Lead

7
 Developing Strain Gauges and Instruments

GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Plane Stress and Strain Measurement of principal strain and stress

The stress in a material balanced with an applied external force
can be considered a combination of more than one simple stress.
In other words, these stresses can be divided into simple stress
in the respective axial directions; however, measurement with
ordinary strain gauges is restricted to the plane strain. In case
that the stress exists in uniaxial direction like tension of a bar
illustrated below, the following equation are applicable.
using 3-element rectangular rosette gauge
When strain is generated in the surface of material and the
principal direction of the strain and its extent are unknown, the
principal strain, stress and their directions and shearing strain
and stress can be obtained by measuring the strains in three
directions over the surface. In order to simplify calculation, the
relative angle in the three directions are determined as follows.

x
x =
E P
1

y = x = E

where
: Stress y 1st axis : 1
E : Elastic modulus 3 2nd axis : 2 at 90 position
x : Strain in x direction 2 3rd axis : 3 at 45 position
y : Strain in y direction P
: Poisson's ratio Maximum principal strain
Stress and strain under uni-stress max = 1 [ 1 + 2 + 2 { (1 3 )2 + (2 3 )2 } ]
condition 2

The biaxial stresses generated by pulling the bar in both normal Minimum principal strain
and transversal directions are: 1 [ + 2 { ( )2 + ( )2 } ]
min =
2 1 2 1 3 2 3

x = x ' y' x
Maximum shearing strain
x y P
E
=
E max = 2 { (1 3 )2 + (2 3 )2 }
1
= ( x
E y )
P' P' Angle from 1 gauge to direction of principal strain
y = y ' x' y 2 3 ( 1 + 2 ) }
1 tan 1 {
=
2 1 2
y x
E
=
E If 1>2, the angle to the maximum principal strain is rotated
P by clockwise from the 1st axis, and the minimum principal
1
= ( y
E x ) Stress and strain under bi-stress strain is located at +90. If 1<2, the angle to the maximum
condition principal strain is rotated by +90 clockwise from the 1st axis,
x' : strain in the x direction and the minimum principal strain is located at .
due to x x = E ( + )
x y
1 2 Maximum principal stress
y' : strain in the y direction E ( + )
due to y y = y x max = E (
max + min)
1 2 1 2
For the stress in other than the crossed biaxial directions, it is E [ 1 + 2 + 1 2 { (1 3 )2 + (2 3 )2 } ]
1+
=
shown according to its angle as follows. 2 1
Minimum principal stress
n n = x cos2 + y sin2 +xy sin2 E
x min = (min + max)
1 2
1
= ( 1
x + y )+ (x y )cos2+xy sin2 E [ 1 + 2 1
xy 2 2 2 { (1 3 )2 + (2 3 )2 } ]
1+
=
2 1
1 x y ) sin2 xy cos
= ( Maximum shearing stress
2
yx E
y
max = max
2(1+ )
E 2 { (1 3 )2 + (2 3 )2 }
2(1+)
=
As noted from the above equations, in a certain direction, the
maximum value of the resultant stress appears in the uniaxial NOTE:
diretion. The axial direction is called a principal direction of The above rosette analysis equations are based on the
stress and the stress in that direction a principal stress. In this 3-element strain gauge shown in the diagram. When the
direction, the shearing stress is zero. The maximum value of order of the axis numbers is different or when the gauge is
shearing stress is generated in the direction of 45 against the not a 90 rosette gauge, different equations must be used.
principal direction of stress. It can also be applied to the strain. Check the axis numbers of applicable strain gauge before
The strain in such a direction is called a principal strain. performing rosette analysis.