Fire Resistance of Stmernres 5 Hoat Teanstee Heat Transfer in Structures Dr Mastin (ile 8.04 AGB, M.GillieGed.ac.uk University of Edinburgh February 20, 2008 1 Introduction ‘There are three mesus by which heat can be transferred from one location w suother redistiou, conduction and convection. These notes briefly introduve exch of Uheve mech- anisms In a Umoretical manner before showing how he tamperatures of structures in Bre can be calculated. Meat irausler is + large subject and so only the aspects most relevant to structura? engineering osu be preseuted here. Por more detail see for exauuple Devel? ot the SEPE Handbook? 2 Radiation ‘Tiermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation released by @ body solely on account of its tenmperature. ‘The range of the electrouayuetic spectrum hat tratsfers lest ie feily sinall (A — 0.1 —100 gu) but includes visible light and dhe infra-red portion of the spectrust “Tnlike other forms of heat transfer, radiation can be transmitted without a physical medium to tcavel dhrough, as may be (lt on any sunny day. Radiation emitied by a body is proportional to the fourth power ofits (absolute) temperatmre. Radiation is thns.a relatively imimportant aspect of teat (eausler at low Cemperatures (200°C) bul dotinates at higher temperatures (32-400"C). Jn frre enginooring radintion is important beeanse it provides a moans of henk transfer eteren a hent somree, sch as a Anme, gs or hot soriaer, and other objects. For example, if ire oceuts in one building, sufficient. heat moy be transferred by radiation throvgh ‘windows ppening to ignite a neighbouring bnilding.? ‘The concept of a “black body” is often used when discussing radiative heat transfer. A black body is # hypothetiesl, ideal body that has the following properties: © Tr absorbs all incoming redistion, » No body can emit more radiation at given wavelength and temperature © A black body enits radistivn iu s manner Uist is independent of direction, thst Js, the radiation is diffuse ‘The use of the term black can be misleading in this context since the Sun is very ebose to being # black body and is clesrly not black in the usual sense. The hesting elements on electric stoves are auotler example of » nese blsck body and these glow red whien bested. Black in dhe sense of # black body refers (o the fact hat all aconing radiation is absorbed: it is not being used to refer W something that is dark ‘The electromagnetic radiation emitted by black body is governed by Planck's distribution lew for an ideal emitter. For a given wavelength A, the law expresses Ey, the energy per Anu Serine tees abot ate (the ‘poise where all stone notion ceases) 3s its dere pn ed Honea ‘nived sn Kebvin (8). ak Ave Dia. DO NOT USE CELCIUS WHEN EALCULATING WAINATIVE, HEAT TRANS. PERI Dax Monee (SS 3917), German physi cis) nad develo ‘quantum thesryFire Resistance of Stmernres 5 felt ~y "SN0K (The Si "Sao weef ff fo rae / ome . / ~ sie) Bote / fen i lé E reso / 2 tee fest? - - Teor vom e05 ao00 Wavelength (n) Figure 1: Black body spectral emmitance as a function of wavelength and temperature, unit cine per unit aces, in terms of Cree fandsiiental constants Planck's constant and k, Doltzausnn’s constant (ig. 2). c, he speed of light, A, Bre™har® !a7 Gane ay a ‘To obtain the total energy emitted per nit time per mnit area the “emissive power”; from a lack body, Eqn. 1 must. he integrated over the entire speetram (or morn strictly hhetween the wavelengths at which heet is transmitted, however, for all practical purposes the results are the seme) onbates seis ‘The radiation from a heated black body is thus directly proportional to # combination of fundamental coustauts aud to the fourth power of absolute temperature, J’, Since real bodies are “grey” and do not emit vo the extent indicated by Planck's distribution law, (his relationship may be expressed by Uhe Stefan-Bolteman equation: Fae “ pate aly kauwwu as the Stefan's coustant and defined by 5.669 x 10 *Win 2 4), The tanlssivity of an object, ¢, & « measure of how lose to belug # black body a real body is A. Js dependent ou lempersture snd dhe material properties of the body. Black bodies hve ‘an embssivity of oue, while neal bodies will slways have 0< ¢ <1, as shown in Fig, 2. ‘The Aefiaition of « grey body snsuines tle euissivity is independent of wavelength, in realty (his uot Uke vase as indicated in. Hoat Teanstee = 5.000 10% * f= 626 x 20 75 B= 3381xI0 Boy * esepl Stofan (1835. den). Slovene phys ctFire Resistance of Stmernres 5 Hoat Teanstee Spectral Fmmitance Black body behaviour Grey body hehaviout ~ Idcalised grey body behaviour \ emmisiviry s black text ‘\ \ Wavelength Figure 2: Grey body behaviour 3 Conduction Conduction is the method Ly which heat is transferred within solids (conduction is also possible iu Muids but this means of heat transfer considered as part of convection). ‘Three Important facts nbosit condition known from expesiments are © Hest will flow from hotter region to # colder region » The rate at which heat flows is proportional to the temperature geadieut © The rate at which heat flows is proportional to Jk, the thermal conductivity: of a material. may be temperature dependant. Conduction probleus cau be divided into wo classes: steady-state probleins where there is no change of temperature with time, and transient. problems where temperature is depen dant on time, 3.41 Steady-state Conduction A simple 1-4 example of stendy-state condnetion is that of an insulated har with one end held at. temperatnre T and the other at T>, as shown in Fig 3. Tf the har has reached thermal equillibrium then stesdy-state conditions apply and the problem can expressed mathematically by Fourier’s Law of Conduction, ourer G76L18%0), wr Trench mathemath Fs “ an expression that captures the three aspects of conduction listed above. J’ and 2 are femperature sud distance slong the ber respectively and gis heat Bux per unit area. ‘The negalive sign indicates leat flow frou hot regions to cold regions and allows for positive 3Fire Resistance of Stmernres 5 Hoat Teanstee inca empraan graic in har ayn wit oe Figure 3: Tdeslized one dimensionsl steady-state heat flow. vatues of &. Por « bar with length &, thennal conductivity & and with one end held at a temperature of T; and the other at T3C, Fan 4 can be integrated ta give the oat: fax T-T (3) Tf the bar has a cross-sectional area of A then the total heat flow is obtained simply as Ag” ‘This means that a simple ome: dimensional analysis can be applied to problems sich as heat flow through a walls 3.2 ‘fransient Conduction Te is common in fre engincering for conductive heat: low to be transient becanse fre temper fatnres can change rapidly. To derive a mathematical model for this situation it is necessary ‘to consider the energy needed to change the temperature of the body which is being heated bby conduction, In addition to the facts about heat flow highlighted above, for a transient situation it is also necessary to know that the amount of heat (enemy) necessary to raise the temperature of » mass m of material by AT is given my emAT, where c is the specific heat capacitiy of the material. c may vary with temperature, As before we will initielly consider Ue oue dinensionsl ease as this fe Uwe simplest, A bar similar (o that iu Fig 3 13 shows it Pis. 4. However, i is aow assuucedl that the leupecsiuces at the eods of the bse are nok conslant and so Ue lemperolure of Lhe bee ilsell will chsage wilh Liaw, Consider 2 sinall slive of bar located between positions « and z +d a indicated in the faure. ‘The amount of heat flowing through Ue left hand side of Uhis slice in # short time dé will be ar ae kAdty © similsrly the snout of est Dowing Uhrough Ue right hand side of the slive will be tei a(t nee ts) a az‘ ar"Fire Resistance of Stmernres 5 Hoat Teanstee Insulation, therefore au tosses along lem Figure 4: [dealized oue dineusiousl (rousieut best low Assuming ne heat is generated or lost in the slice, the net change in heat in the section will be difference between Equs 6 and 7, that ts pehdeor— | waar 1 jae) waar 8) chant ite) is ity Torey changp—Prorgy owing > ——‘urgy Swng oat which siuplifles to the one-dimensional heat equation ae. OF ay a a a) on rr iar Bt a oF wo) where = k/pe; the thermal difusivity of the material. ‘The more genera] Uvee- dimensions! heat equation can be obtained in a similar manner end reads Lar PT eT wT ahi att at ver (ay) z+ St Note that in the oue dimensiowel case Bow 11 sbmplifies to Bgu 10 and if a problem is staedy-state (UP/dé = 0) Bya 11 simplifies further w Byu ‘The solution of teansient heat (rausfer problems is awkward sualytically. Abnost shvays mumerieal solutions sre used. However, it is possible lo solve some simple vases approximately by hand (or using a spreadsheet) 4s will be shown ia See 5.1 4 Convection Convectition transfers heat from (or to) ¢ fluid to (or from) « solid, Strictly convection is 2 maniGestation of conduction between a solid aud a Quid aud the consquent mses transfer, tout it is generally considered as a separate method of heat transfer. Two types of convertion occur: free (or nature!) and forved, Free convection resulls when » fluid adjacent to a solid elanges in density ve & result of the heat transfer and, due to bueeney forves, starts Lo How ays Cesusferiny lest frou the void. an example of this is che plunte of hot aves hat forms above # fine, The gases are heated by the fire and reduce in density. As result they are BFire Resistance of Stmernres 5 Hoat Teanstee more honyant than the surronnding atmosphere and rise. Foreed convection rests when 1 nid being driven by some other force flows past a solid, Am example is a fan cooling a ‘campnter chip. The air is forood at speed past the chip by the fan and thns cools she chip nich mare efficiently than if the procnas were feft to natural eonveetion, ‘Die rate at which heat is Uransferred by convection was first studied by Newton who studied hot objects cooling . ‘The rate at which heat. transfer accurs is governed by i AG. - Ty) (ay where, and ‘Vp sre the solid and Mid temperatures respectively and hes the convective heat transfer coefficient. his a mmber that varies with a targe mimber of different factions inchuling the conductivity, viscosity and density af the fds whether eavoetian is fror ae forced: whether the fluid is turbulent or laminar; and the geometry of the surface from ‘which convection is taking place. In practive determining h is difficult and it is usual to use approxiamte values when performing beat transfer calculations for stractaral engineering celoulstion, Sugzestion for wlues la use are available in eome design codes, 5 Heat Transfer to Stecl Structures ‘The csleulstion of temperatures in steel structures is handled differently depending on whether the vtee! ie insulated or uot, Unisulated steel is the simplest case aud this will be considered first 5.1 Uninsulated Steel Structures Most stee) sections are sulliciently Uhin for it to be possible to asstane thal the temperature ‘within the erors-section is mniform. ‘This means it is possible to use a simple energy approach to calenlating the change in tomperatnre of an uninauilated section with time. Consider a toe! section ach as that shown in Pig. 5 at temperatnre T, that is surromnded by hot gases af texaperatiee 1. Te the peicier af the scetian is A, the heat. Mowing into the seetion in ‘a small sime At will be the sum of radiative and convective heat. transfer HE (helt ~ 15) + 00 (3 = 19)] A (a3) ‘This heat entering the section will result in » temperature rise AT, which requires and amount of eneray equal to pet A fa) where A is the area of the seciton. (13) and (14) must be equal and so, after some roar rangment the temperature rise in the section is given hy — Hat, 4 oy] ar ge ele ED Veo (UE TEN) (is ‘The qnamity T/A in this expression is lmown as the section factor of the steel section and is given in many scction tables, alternatively it can be calculated dircetly. A targe soctiom factor indicates a section that. will heat relatively slawly and small scctian factor and scetion that will heat rapidly. Depending on how a member is being used its artnal perimeter may not he the mast appropriate valne ta nse for FF. For example a stec! merntie Sir Tome Newton Giri), ne lh Phyccist and MathematicianFire Resistance of Stmernres 5 Hoat Teanstee Tapsauenr 11 3502427 Pigure 6: ‘Lypieal perinetens for vection factors: acting compasitely with a concrete slab can be assumed not to be hested through the surface that contents the slab.(Fig 6) Equation 15 can be used to calculsle the wemperature of steel eeetions for given yas tet peratures (eg, Standard Fire Curve or parsuelsie lire curve) providing # sulliciently ssusll iuuestep is use, Au example of this iy given later. 5.2 Insulated Steel Siruciures Protection to steel work may have very Tone thermal capacity in comparison to steel smch fas intumescent paints, or it may have high thermal capacity such eonerete insuttation. TE the thermal capacity is small then caleulations of stocl temperatnre can be approached im similar mamnor as for mprotoeted steelwork by equating the energy stored in the stot in ‘2 small time At to the heat being transferred from the hot gases to the steel WAAL pAAT, ¢ i) {in Chis case sinew dhe steel is insulated aud it is sasunied thet uo energy is stored in the fusulstion, the external temperature of the insulation can be taken as equal to temperature Of de hot gases, Similarly che internal vemperacure of dhe insulation eau be Guien a8 equal lo the lempersture of the steel. ‘This means @” can be expressed solely in terins of conduction a a -4a,-1) aFire Resistance of Stmernres 5 Hoat Teanstee where k and d are the coefficient of conduction aud thickness of the insulation respectively Substituting Bgu 16 into Eqn. 17 leads to an [can] ws this can be solved mumerically for small timesteps in a similar manner to Eqn 16 to obtain the texuperature of protected steelwurk, In the case of insulation that has heat capacity the problem in general becomes tae com- Dlicated to solve acenrately by hand. Tawever, if it is assured that there is a Tinoae temperature gradient throngh the insulation then the problem can again be approached rising. a energy balance approach. The energy balance exquation mow reads At. ANTAL ~ p.cAT.A+ 20. aH (ay) where subscripts indicate values for steel and insulation. “Lhe seeand term on the ba aceounts for the heat aksorbed by the instilation which on the basis of a Tinear temperature gradient is taken to rise in temperature-on average by half the amount of the stock, Meer souse manipulation this ads to wok bts (Uj) At (20) 6 Heat Transfer to Conercte Structures Heat, transfer throngh eonercte is mich more complex: than throngh stot. This is partly Iheeanse eonercte sections tend ta be stocky and so itis not possible to assume that, there is constant temperature through a concrete section, At least as important however is the material beheviour of concrete. Typically concrete will contain water that vapourises when 2 section is heated, ‘This resulls in the comluctitvigy and epevific best capacity of the concrete veryias Uirouh Ue section and also with temperature, Water moviug Uiroush ‘the pores of the coucrete further complicates the situation. It is uot, therefore, possible fo calculate coucrete tempersiures accurately using sealyliost auetlods, Tusteved either experimental results or finite element anslyees are used. Sone design codes vontain graphs showing how coucrete teapertures in ineubers of typical proportions vary when exposed fo 4 Stsudard Dire aud diese van be used (or design inn simple cases ‘The temperatures in reinforcement bars are normally taken to be the seme a3 the surrounding eancreta 7 Examples QUESTION A our steel bar with cross-sectional ares of Leni fs fully insulated along iis eugth, Ioue end is held st 250°C and the other #6 25°C, what is dhe best flows slong the bar. ANSWER Toking the conductivity of steel to be Gv Wim "IC ! and using Ban 3 eae 2 = 6750Wm—* 2 a — 60xFire Resistance of Stmernres 5 Hoat Teanstee which gives a total heat flow of 8750 Maw —WAiTaT QUESTION (frou Drysdsle”) Consider a steel barrier, Sum thick, separating two com: parturents which are at Cemperatures of 100°C and 20°C respectively. Calculate the rate of hheat (rausfer Uirough the barrier under steady stale conditions if the thermal couductivity of steel is 16 Wir 2K-? aud (he convective heat (ransfer evellicient BWas~2h—! ANSWER. This fs # out-dinensional stesdy state problem as it is assumed dhat (he barrier continues iudefiuately in its plase. ‘This means (he heat. ox (g”) frou (he bo compastsnest is equal lo the leat flux through the steel whieh is in turn equal Lo the heat ux out of the ster} to the cold compartment. ‘That is = su — 7) ‘Convection into the steel 2st) _ 1) soudeti a Conduction through the steel = 87, = 20} Convection out of the steel Where Zs aud Zp are the temperatures of the hot and vold surfaves of the steel. Rearranging (these expressions gives 100-7, 0059" py ae fon, m9 Simming the thros terms oliminates 7) and 7 and after rearranging rests in Wat ‘This question comtains amly ome solid layer but the same approach can be used when mare ‘than one layer is present, for example when a brick wall has layers of plaster on each side, nee gi is known itis possible to realestate Ty, To ot. QUESTION A roou is filled with » hot sumoky gas al 2 lemperature vf 850° C. If the teupersture of the lower surface of the ceiling is 50°, calculate the wet radiative best Mux to the ceiling. Take the emmisivity of the ceiling to be 0.7. ANSWER Couservatively Waking 3 view factor of 1 snd using Eqn 3, the heal flux from ue gas to Ue ceiling is Eo — 0. 5 54509 6107S «(850-4 273)! — G3? ey and the heat flux from the ceiling to the ges Eos — 0. 5 50569 10° x (50-4 273)! — ORT /m?™ giving # net heat flux of Fee Fog — 62.7kW/m? (28)Fire Resistance of Stmernres 5 Hoat Teanstee Time at | Steel temp at] Gas Temp at Change ia half step | beginning of step | alf step steel temp (win) | °C °C 0.25 0 hat Ors 2 3 10.9 1.25 ‘Table 1: ‘Yemperature calculations for an uninsalated steel besa, Note that in this case ie Lest ux from Use ceiling to the gee is very suvall. (owever, a8 ‘he ceiling heats up Une uel heat Dux will yet rapidly sutaller. Radiative heat transfer is a two way process: QUESTION The temperature in « smokey compartment follows the Standard Temperature time curve, Calculate the temperature of au uniusulsted besan in the compartment after a perfed of 5 minutes. Assume dist initially both the bein and compartment are st 20°C, Chat ue euumisivity of stvel is 0.7, Hust the evelliclens of convective Iext Grasser is 25 ‘Wart? and that the beam hax a section factor of 150. Take the density of steel to be 7850kgm™* and he epecilic heat vapavity Lo be 600Jn—™K—1, ANSWER This problem can solved most easily using a spreadshest to solve Eqn, 13 iteratively. Results for a timestep of 30 sezonds are shown in Table 1. Tt is important to remember to convert all temperatures to Kelvin when calculating radiative heat transfer 1. is slso normal to take the gas lemperature ay the (empersture hallway darough each timestep, QUESTION Repeat the previous question but assume the beau is insulated with material of negilable heat capecity, « conductivity of 0.25Wm °C | and a thickness of 30mm, References [II P.1. Di Nenno, editor. SFPE Handhook of Fire Protocivon Enginocring, Socicty of Fira Protection Engineers, 1995, PLD. Drysdale, An Introduction to Fre Dynamics, John Wiley and Sons, 2nd edition, 198,