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Topic2 PDF
Topic2 PDF
Topic2 PDF
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you will be able to:
define the types of educational research available to practitioners
distinguish the purpose, application and value of research in educational
practice
identify the various approaches that are located in the quantitative and
qualitative research paradigms
Evaluate the purpose, strength and weakness of educational research
paradigms
FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCH
2. Write down the aspects of your professional practice are you currently
interested in developing?
Exercise 1
Work with a partner, read about ONE TYPE of educational research and present that
type to another group in class. Next, take notes while the other group explains the
purpose, strength and weakness of the educational approach.
Applied
Action research
Evaluation
research
Basic research
Pure research, basic research, or fundamental research is research carried out to
increase understanding of fundamental principles. It is not intended to yield
immediate commercial benefits; pure research can be thought of as arising out of
curiosity. However, in the long term it is the basis for many commercial products and
applied research Pure research is mainly carried out by universities (Wikipedia
2012).
Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about the human world. It focuses
on refuting or supporting theories that explain how this world operates, what makes
things happen, why social relations are a certain way, and why society changes.
Pure research is the source of most new scientific ideas and ways of thinking about
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Pure research generates new ideas, principles and theories, which may not be
immediately utilized; though are the foundations of modern progress and
development in different fields. Today's computers could not exist without the pure
research in mathematics conducted over a century ago, for which there was no
known practical application at that time. Pure research rarely helps practitioners
directly with their everyday concerns. Nevertheless, it stimulates new ways of
thinking about deviance that have the potential to revolutionize and dramatically
improve how practitioners deal with a problem.
A new idea or fundamental knowledge is not generated only by pure research, but
pure research can build new knowledge. In any case, pure research is essential for
nourishing the expansion of knowledge. Researchers at the centre of the scientific
community conduct most of what is pure research.
Basic research lays down the foundation for the applied science that follows. If basic
work is done first, then applied spin-offs often eventually result from this research. As
Dr. George Smoot of LBNL says, "People cannot foresee the future well enough to
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predict what's going to develop from basic research. If we only did applied research,
we would still be making better spears."
Applied Research
Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather
than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. One might say that the goal of the
applied scientist is to improve the human condition.
Some scientists feel that the time has come for a shift in emphasis away from purely
basic research and toward applied science. This trend, they feel, is necessitated by
the problems resulting from global overpopulation, pollution, and the overuse of the
earth's natural resources.
There are no characteristics inherent in some rather than other research paradigms
which renders their knowledge outcomes more actionable. In this respect my answer
to the question of "what is applied research" is post-paradigmatic. It is educational
practitioners or policy-makers who ultimately determine the extent to which
knowledge outcomes are actionable within their particular action contexts.
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Action research1
The aim of an action researcher is to bring about development in his or her practice
by analysing existing practice and identifying elements for change. The process is
founded on the gathering of evidence on which to make informed rather than intuitive
judgements and decisions. Perhaps the most important aspect of action research is
that the process enhances teachers professional development through the fostering
of their capability as professional knowledge makers, rather than simply as
professional knowledge users. In an age of centralisation and the proliferation of
national guidelines and strategies, action research can help teachers feel in control
of their own professional situation (Waters-Adams 2006).
Indeed, action research did not arise in education (see Lewin 1948), but was applied
to the development of teaching as its potential was identified. Of particular influence
was the work of Lawrence Stenhouse, who famously advocated that curriculum
research and development ought to belong to the teacher (Stenhouse, 1975 p. 142).
He was most adamant that it is not enough that teachers work should be studied:
they need to study it themselves (p.143).
As its name suggests, action research concerns actors those people carrying out
their professional actions from day to day - and its purpose is to understand and to
1
Originally prepared by Dr Stephen Waters-Adams, Faculty of Education, University of Plymouth, 2006.
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improve those actions. It is about trying to understand professional action from the
inside; as a result, it is research that is carried out by practitioners on their own
practice, not (as in other forms of research), done by someone on somebody elses
practice. Action research in education is grounded in the working lives of teachers,
as they experience them. Carr and Kemmis (1986) describe action research as
being about:
Evaluation Research
Weiss defines evaluation as the systematic assessment of the operation and/or the
outcomes of a program or policy, compared to a set of explicit or implicit standards,
as a means of contributing to the improvement of the program or policy (1998, p. 4).
In her previous book, Weiss (1972) defines evaluation research as an elastic word
that stretches to cover judgments of many kinds (p.1).
In terms of methodology, a consensus exists with respect to the fact that both
quantitative and qualitative methods have an important place in programme
evaluation (Clarke and Dawson, 1999). Impact evaluation uses the canonical
research procedures of social sciences. In addition, Clarke and Dawson mention that
the importance of systematic evaluative research as a phenomenon across the
Social Sciences has been evident in recent years.
Weiss (1998, pp. 20-28) identifies several purposes for evaluating programs and
policies. They include the following:
Process evaluation focuses on what the program actually does (Weiss, 1998, p. 9).
Process indicators are somewhat similar to performance measures, but they focus
more on the activities and procedures of the organization than on the products of
those activities.
Experimental methods usually, hut not always, deal with quantitative data and are
considered to be the best method for certain kinds of evaluation studies. Indeed, the
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classic design for evaluations has been the experiment. It is the design of choice in
many circumstances because it guards against the threats to validity (Weiss, 1998,
p. 215). The experiment is especially useful when it is desirable to rule out rival
explanations for outcomes. In other words, if a true experimental design is used
properly, the evaluator should be able to assume that any net effects of a program
are due to the program and not to other external factors.
As is true for basic research, qualitative methods are becoming increasingly popular.
In fact, the most striking development in evaluation in recent years is the coming of
age of qualitative methods. Where once they were viewed as aberrant and probably
the refuge of those who had never studied statistics, now they are recognized as
valuable additions to the evaluation repertoire (Weiss, 1998, p. 252).
Weiss (1998) reminds us that the evaluator should also give careful thought to the
best time to conduct the evaluation, the types of questions to ask, whether one or a
series of studies will be necessary, and any ethical issues that might be generated
by the study.
Inconsistent data collection techniques, biases of the observer, the data collection
setting, instrumentation, behaviour of human subjects, and sampling can affect the
validity and/or reliability of measures. The use of multiple measures can help to
increase the validity and reliability of the data. They are also worth using because no
single technique is up to measuring a complex concept, multiple measures tend to
complement one another, and separate measures can be combined to create one or
more composite measures (Weiss, 1998).
The basic tasks of data analysis for an evaluative study are to answer the questions
that must be answered in order to determine the success of the program or service,
and the quality of the resources. The aim of analysis is to convert a mass of raw
data into a coherent account. Whether the data are quantitative or qualitative, the
task is to sort, arrange, and process them and make sense of their configuration.
The intent is to produce a reading that accurately represents the raw data and
blends them into a meaningful account of events (Weiss, 1998, p. 271). Those
questions should, of course, be closely related to the nature of what is being
evaluated and the goals and objectives of the program or service. In addition, the
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nature of the data analysis will be significantly affected by the methods and
techniques used to conduct the evaluation.
Most data analyses, whether quantitative or qualitative in nature, will employ some of
the following strategies: describing, counting, factoring, clustering, comparing, finding
commonalities, examining deviant cases, finding co-variation, ruling out rival
explanations, modeling, and telling the story. Evaluators conducting quantitative data
analyses will need to be familiar with techniques for summarizing and describing the
data; and if they are engaged in testing relationships or hypotheses and/or
generalizing findings to other situations, they will need to utilize inferential statistics
(Weiss, 1998).
As part of the planning, the evaluator should have considered how and to whom the
findings will be communicated and how the results will be applied. A good report will
be characterized by clarity, effective format and graphics, timeliness, candour about
strengths and weaknesses of the study, and generalizability (Weiss, 1998), as well
as by adequacy of sources and documentation, appropriateness of data analysis and
interpretation, and basis for conclusions.
Quasi-experimental
Survey
In Stakes (1995: 4) suggests that one of the most important elements of undertaking
case study research is to maximize what we can understand about that case. We do
not study a case primarily to understand other cases. Our first obligation is to
understand this one case. Thus, case study researchers resist the tendency to draw
conclusions but instead, allow the case to unfold naturally without preconceptions
with respect to the investigation. Stake (1995) also points out that case study
knowledge is different from other research knowledge in four key ways:
1. Case study knowledge is more concrete; it resonates with our own
experience because it is more vivid, concrete and sensory than
abstract.
2. Case study research is more contextual. Our experiences are rooted in
context as is knowledge in case studies. This knowledge is
distinguishable from the knowledge derived from other research
designs.
3. Case study researchers are much more focused on process than
outcomes or products. How do things happen? What is the natural
history of the activity under study?
4. The researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and
analysis. Data are mediated through the human instrument.
Traditionally, case studies use thick description to provide a full, rich, literal
exploration of the incident under investigation (Burns, 2000; Merriam, 1988).
However, thick description does not necessarily mean that the educational
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researcher sets about describing every observation and nuance at the research
event, rather it is designed to enhance reflection, understanding and perceptions of
the actors involved in order to further the readers knowledge of that case (Merriam,
1998; Stake, 1995). That is to say, the actors views and actions are a source of data
in case studies that allows his or her unique voice and ownership of the environment
to come through to the reader (Elliot & Lukes, 2008).
http://www.gslis.utexas.edu/~palmquis/courses/historical.htm
The process of learning and understanding the background and growth of a chosen
field of study or profession can offer insight into organizational culture, current
trends, and future possibilities. The historical method of research applies to all fields
of study because it encompasses their: origins, growth, theories, personalities, crisis,
etc. Both quantitative and qualitative variables can be used in the collection of
historical information. Once the decision is made to conduct historical research,
there are steps that should be followed to achieve a reliable result. Charles Busha
and Stephen Harter detail six steps for conducting historical research (91):
There are a variety of places to obtain historical information. Primary Sources are the
most sought after in historical research. Primary resources are first hand accounts
of information. Finding and assessing primary historical data is an exercise in
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In any type of historical research, there are issues to consider. Harter and Busha list
three principles to consider when conducting historical research (99-100):
1. Consider the slant or biases of the information you are working with and the
ones possessed by the historians themselves.
2. This is particularly true of qualitative research.
Quantitative facts may also be biased in the types of statistical data collected or in
how that information was interpreted by the researcher.
The resources that follow this brief introduction to the historical method in
research provide resources for further in-depth explanations about this research
method in various fields of study, and abstracts of studies conducted using this
method.
1. Have the pupils choose an experience that they would like to write about. For
groups, this should be a shared experience such as a field trip or an activity that
the whole class had participated in. For individual pupils, it could be anything that
the pupil feels is important or interesting, such as a family activity, a story about
their pet or favourite toy, or even a television show or movie that they enjoyed.
The language experience approach can also be used to create fictional stories.
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2. Discuss the experience with the pupils. This helps them to clarify what they want
to write about, organize their thoughts, and come up with specific, descriptive
vocabulary.
3. Write the story down as the pupils dictate it. For groups, have pupils take turns
dictating sentences describing their experience. Record what they say on large
chart paper, repeating the words as they are written. For individual pupils, this can
be done on a single sheet of paper, or it can be made into a book. The writing
should be done in neat, large print rather than cursive, to make it easier for the
pupils to read.
Try to stick to the pupils' own words exactly as they are spoken with a minimum of
correction for grammar or sentence structure. It is important for pupils to see their
own words in print, because they have a personal connection to the words.
4. Read the text aloud. Point to each word as you read it aloud. After reading the text
to the pupils, have them reread it aloud. With a group, call on individual pupils to
read sentences, or have them read chorally as a group while pointing to each
word. Pupils can illustrate their individual texts and read them aloud to the class.
Since the words that the pupils dictate are familiar and are used in a meaningful
context, pupils will be able to read more difficult vocabulary than they might
ordinarily be able to if they simply saw it printed in a book.
References
Weiss, C. H. 1998. Evaluation: Methods for Studying Programs and Policies (2nd
ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Altricher, H., Posch, P. & Somekh, B. (1993) Teachers Investigate their Work: An
Introduction to the Methods of Action Research, London, Routledge.
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Carr, W. & Kemmis, S. (1986) Becoming Critical: education, knowledge and action
research. Lewes, Falmer.
Corey, S. (1953) Action Research to Improve School Practices. New York, Columbia
University, Teachers College Press.
Ebbutt, D. (1985) Educational Action research: some general concerns and specific
quibbles, in: Burgess, R. (ed.) Issues in Educational Research: qualitative methods.
Lewes, Falmer.
Gibson, R. (1985) Critical times for action research. Cambridge Journal of Education,
15 (1): 59-64.
Hollingsworth, S., Noffke, S.E., Walker, M. & Winter, R. (1997) Epilogue: What have
we learned from these case on action research and educational reform? in:
Hollingsworth, S. (ed.) International Action Research: a casebook for educational
reform, London, Falmer.
Hustler, D., Cassidy, A. & Cuff, E. (eds.) (1986) Action Research in Classrooms and
Schools, London, Allen and Unwin.
Kemmis, S. & McTaggart, R. (1982) The Action Research Planner. Victoria, Deakin
University Press.
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Koshy, V. (2005) Action research for improving practice. A practical guide. London:
Paul Chapman Publishing.
Somekh, B. (1988) The role of action research in collaborative inquiry and school
improvement. Paper to CARN conference, Cambridge, 25-27 March.
Taba, H. (1962) Curriculum Development: theory and practice. New York, Harcourt,
Brace and World.
Wallace, M. (1987) A historial review of action research: some implications for the
education of teachers in their managerial role. Journal of Education for Teaching, 13
(2): 97-115
Whitehead, J. (1989) Creating a living educational theory from questions of the kind
How do I improve my practice? Cambridge Journal of Education, 19 (1): 41-52
Whitehead, J. & Lomax, P. (1987) Action research and the politics of educational
knowledge. British Educational Research Journal, 13 (2): 175-190.
Winter, R. (1987) Action Research and the Nature of Social Inquiry. Aldershot,
Gower.
Woods, P. (1996) Researching the Art of Teaching: ethnography for educational use.
London, Routledge.
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Zeichner, K.M. (1993) Action research: personal renewal and social reconstruction.
Educational Action Research, 1 (2): 199-219.
Websites
Evaluation research article downloaded from the world wide web Sept 28, 2012:
http://adhi301126117.wordpress.com/.
http://www.open.ac.uk/cobe/docs/AR-Guide-final.pdf
This site presents training material for Open University Associate Lecturers. It deals
with key theoretical and practical aspects of action research and would be
particularly useful for tutors in FE or HE who were thinking of undertaking research
into their own practice. There are examples of past projects, highlighting procedural
stages and outcomes.
http://www.bath.ac.uk/~edsajw/
Jack Whitehead's website at Bath University. Contains much information regarding
the process of action research, along with a selection of extracts from theses that
have used action research as their methodology.
http://www.did.stu.mmu.ac.uk/carn/
The Collaborative Action Research Network site at Manchester Metropolitan
University. A vast amount of information about action research in
education. Follows the developmental work in the Ford Teaching Project (1976),
pioneered by Lawrence Stenhouse. Also has conference proceedings, publications,
newsletters and links to other sites.