Introduction to Naval Weapons Engineering

Radar Principles and Systems

1. Calculate the duty cycle of a radar which transmits a 1.5 ms
pulse at a PRF of 8 kHz. If the peak power of this radar is
500 kilowatts, what is the average power? What is the
resting time?
2.
3. Eqn (2-1). The duty cycle is the result of dividing the pulse
width (1.5 ms) by the pulse repetition time (1/8000 Hz) or
multiplying the pulse width by the pulse repetition
frequency. (1.5 x 10-6 seconds) x (8 x 103 second-1) = 0.012
The duty cycle is the ratio of average power to peak power.
Therefore, if the duty cycle is 0.012, and the peak power is
500 kilowatts, the average power can be obtained by
multiplying the duty cycle by the peak power. (0.012)(500 x
103 watts) = 6 kilowatts. From Figure 2-1, the resting time
is the difference be- tween the pulse repetition time (the
reciprocal of the pulse repetition frequency) and the pulse
width. Rest Time = 1/8000 Hz - 1.5 x 10-6 s = 1.24 x 10-4 s =
124 ms
 4. A pulsed radar has a duty cycle of .016. If the resting time
is 380 ms, what is the pulse width? What is the PRF? What
is the minimum range, in meters, of this radar?
5.
6. Eqn (2-1) For pulse repetition time (PRT) substitute rest
time plus pulse width (RT + PW). Solve for PW. PW = 6.18
ms
7. If a CRT is designed so that the spot traverses the indicator
face in 900 ms, what range could be indicated by a spot
deflection half way across the indicator?
8.
9. Eqn (2-3) Solve equation (2-3) for R to find the range
indicated by the full width of the screen. R = 1/2(3.0 x 108
m/s)(900 x 10-6 s ) = 135 Km A deflection halfway across
the indicator represents half of 135 km, or 67.5 km.
10. List the seven basic pulse radar components and briefly
describe the function of each.
11.
12. Synchronizer
13. The timing unit of the system. As such it determines the
PRF and coordinates the sweep on the sweep on the
indicator with the firing of the transmitter.
14. Transmitter
 15. Generates RF energy of the desired frequency and
delivers it to the antenna system.
16. Antenna System
17. Broadcasts transmitter energy in desired pattern into
space and receives return energy.
18. Duplexer
19. Consists of TR (Transmit-Receive) and a ATR
(Anti-Transmit-Receive) device. Allows the use of a single
antenna for Xmit and Receive.
20. Receiver
21. Amplifies weak return signal and transforms it into a
form useful for dispaly on the indicator.
22. Display
23. Provides a method for presenting desired target
information in a useful form for the operator.
24. Power Supply
25. Supplies power!
26. A target is closing on a radial of a radar site with a
relative velocity of 200 knots. The radar transmits
continuous wave energy at a wavelength of 5 cm. What will
the Doppler shift of the target be? What will the Doppler
shift be if the target alters its course by 45o (closure speed
reduced)?
27.
28. From appendix B: 1 knot = .508 m/s, so 200 kts = 10160
cm/s Use Eqn (2-4) Frequency shift = (2)(10160
cm/s)/(5cm) = 4.06 kHz for a course change of 45o, the
velocity component in the closure direction becomes
10160cos(45o)=7184cm/s Frequency shift = 2(7184 cm/s)/(5
cm) = 2.87 kHz
29. Will the Doppler shift for an opening target indicate an
increase or decrease in frequency? Why?
30. Decrease, from (Eqn 2-4), if S is "negative", that is,
going away, then the frequency shift is a negative value.
31. Why can't a CW radar measure range? What is the main
advantage of a CW radar?
32.
33. Range is measured by noting the round trip time for a
pulse of radar energy. Since a CW radar transmits
continuously, there is no means of measuring the round
trip time and therefore no direct means of measuring
range. The principle advantage of a CW radar is its
inherent ability to recognize moving targets. It is safe to
say that any target which represents some threat will also
be in motion.
34. Why can a better angle measurement be achieved with a
narrow beam than a wide beam? Which would be more
suitable for searching for targets? Why?
 35.
36. Since signal strength changes are more pronounced as
the target moves toward the edge of the beam, the closer to
the edge of the target is while being tracked the easier it is
to detect a change in angle. Those large changes of signal
strength occur closer to the axis in a narrow beam than in
a wide beam resulting in better tracking accuracy. Wide
beam. Because a narrow beam would cover too small an
area in space to be useful in initially locating potential
threats. A narrow beam is much better suited for target
tracking and fire control solutions where accuracy is the
main consideration. Search radars do not require any
particular degree of resolution since their main function is
to determine target presence only. Once this is
accomplished, a narrow beam would be used for tracking.
37. What is the difference between a broadside and end-fire
array? Explain how the broadside array of Figure (2-17)
could be modified to become an end-fire array.
38.
39. In a broadside array, all elements are transmitting in
phase. If each element were stimulated out of phase with
its immediate neighbor, by an amount equal to the portion
of a wavelength that separates adjacent elements, an
end-fire array would result.
 40. Explain the function of a parasitic reflector.
41.
42. The parasitic reflector is employed in some radar
antenna systems as a means of concentrating the radiated
energy in a desired direction. Without a device to serve this
purpose, an array type radar antenna would broadcast two
equal main beams in opposite directions. When a
conducting element is placed in an electric field, a voltage
will be induced in the element. When this field varies, as
around a radiating dipole, the variation in the induced
voltage in the conductor (driven element) will cause it to
radiate as well, but with a phase shift. Proper positioning
of the driven element in the vicinity of the array will
therefore set up interference which will tend to cancel the
field in one direction and rein- force it in another, thereby
allowing for a single, stronger main beam.
43. Discuss the advantages of a double lobe system over a
single lobe system in terms of azimuth determination.
44.
45. Single lobe systems are suitable for determining target
bearing as long as no requirement exists for a high degree
of accuracy. Once a strong signal is received, indicating a
roughly centered beam, the single lobe system is at the
limit of its value. This is because the teardrop shape of a
 radar beam makes it extremely difficult to fine tune; the
antenna azimuth to the point of exact maximum return. A
double lobe system does not require the determination of
maximum return, but rather the azimuth at which the
return signal is equal for each lobe. From an operator
standpoint, it is considerably less difficult to match two
signals where there is a constant reference than to
determine the maximum of one signal where there is a
variable reference. The double lobe system has an
additional advantage in that, when the azimuth setting is
close to correct, the return from each lobe is coming from
nearer the side of the lobes where variations in signal
strength are more pronounced. This makes it considerably
less difficult to fine tune the antenna azimuth.
46. List and briefly discuss three methods of determining
target elevation.
47.
1. Threshold-pickup A low-accuracy single lobe method
which makes use of signals reflected from the earth's
surface. The path length difference between the direct
radar energy and the reflected radar energy causes
cancellation at some points in space and
reinforcement at others. The net result is a "layer of
lobes" in space. This antenna would be fixed in
 elevation and an operator would have a fade chart to
use which would give an elevation based upon range
at which the first discernible signal appears.
2. Signal-comparison Similar to threshold-pickup
except that two lobes are utilized and the ratio of
signal strengths as well as target range are used to
determine altitude. This method is considerably more
accurate than the threshold-pickup method.
3. Tilted-antenna This method is similar to the single
lobe method for determining azimuth. The antenna
is elevated such that no portion of the lobe is reflected
from the surface. The elevation angle of the antenna
at target acquisition and the range can be
trigonometric- ally combined to determine target
altitude.
48. What is the primary source of radar noise? Discuss the
relationship between signal-to-noise ratio and bandwidth.
49.
50. The greatest percentage of noise is generated with the
electronic circuitry of the radar, particularly in the input to
the receiver. A common source of this noise results from
the random motion of electrons within electrical elements.
Since there will be motion at any temperature above
absolute zero, it is difficult to eliminate such noise
 (Johnson noise). The wider the bandwidth, the greater the
degree of noise that will be input to the receiver. Since
noise exists at all frequencies, the broader the frequency
range to which the receiver is tuned, then the higher the
intensity level if the noise and the lower the
signal-to-noise ratio.
51. What is the maximum unambiguous range for a radar
with a PRF of 600 Hz? What PRF is required for maximum
unambiguous range of 350 km?
52.
53. Use Eqn (2-3) For t, substitute the reciprocal of PRF, and
solve for R. R = 1/2(3.0 x 108m/sec)(600 s-1
)-1 = 250 km To
determine the required PRF to achieved a maximum
unambiguous range of 350 Km, substitute 350 km for R in
Eqn (2-3) and solve for PRT. The required PRF is the
reciprocal that results. PRF =
[(2)(350x103cm)/(3.0x108m/sec)]-1 = 428.6 Hz
54. What is the minimum range for radar with a PW of 5
ms? What is the radar's range resolution?
55.
56. Use Eqn (2-3) Substitute PW for t. R = 1/2 (3.0 x
108m/s)(5.0 x 10-6 s) = 750 meters Assume a pulse
compression ratio of 1.0. RRES = Rmin = 750 meters
57. Why is it advantageous to have a low duty cycle?
 58.
59. Duty cycle is the ratio of average power to peak power. A
low duty cycle would indicate low average power and high
peak power. The low average power is desirable from the
standpoint of equipment size and the high peak power is
important for maximum return signal strength.
60. Why is there a requirement to have at least 10 return
pulses (or echoes) to rate the target as valid?
61.
62. The probability of noise being generated in the same
time space (i.e. Range) 10 or more times in a row is
extremely low, therefore assuring returns are a target.
63. If the receiver has a receiver sensitivity of -83 dBm,
what is the value of the minimum discernible signal (Smin)?
64.
65. Use Eqn (2-5) Substitute -83 dBm for receiver
sensitivity and solve for Smin. Smin =

log-110[1/10(-83)]=5.012 x 10-9 mW = 5.012x10-12 W

66. Given an antenna beam width of 3", a scan rate of
48o/sec and a PRF of 200 Hz; how many pulses will be
returned from a point target as the antenna scans through
its beam width?
67.
68. Use Eqn (2-6) Substitute 3o for qB, 48o/sec for qS and 200
Hz for PRF. Solve for NB. NB = (3o)(200 sec-1)/(48o/sec) =
12.5 pulses
69. What is the directive gain for an antenna with a
horizontal half power beam width of 2o and a vertical half
power beam width of 4o ?
70.
71. Use Eqn (2-8) Convert the beam widths to radius by
dividing each value by 57.3o. Substitute the beam widths
into Eqn (2-8) and solve for GD. GD =
[(4)(
p)]/[(2/57.3)(4/57.3)] = 5157.4
72. Explain why the echo from an A-4 might be much
stronger than the echo from a larger aircraft at the same
range.
73.
74. The radar cross-section of any target will vary with
aspect and reflecting qualities. A plan form view of an A-4
will appear much larger than a nose-on view of an A-3, for
example.
75. Increasing the transmitter power of a radar by a factor
of 5 will increase the maximum range by what percent?
76.
77. Use Eqn (2-17) Use Eqn (2-17) to find a ratio of values
for Rmax under the two conditions. Under the new
 conditions, Pt(new) = 5Pt(old). All other factors remain the
same and cancel. Ro(new)/Ro(old)=[5Pt(old)/Pt(old)]1/4 =
1.495 Therefore increasing Pt by a factor of 5 results in a
49.5 % increase in range.
78. For a given target a radar has a maximum range of 100
km. If the sensitivity of the radar receiver deteriorates by 3
dB, what is the degraded maximum range for that target?
79.
80. Use Eqn (2-17) A 3dB loss in sensitivity equates to a
revised sensitivity that's 1/2 the original sensitivity, or the
revised Smin being twice the original Smin. As in problem
2-22, find a ratio of Rmax under the two conditions of Smin.
Under the new conditions Smin(new) = 2 Smin(old). All other
factors cancel.
Rnew/Rold=[1/(2Smin(old)/1/Smin]1/4=(1/2)1/4=0.841.
Therefore, the revised range is 84.1 Km
81. A given radar with a Smin = 10-9W can detect a target
having a radar cross-section of 3 meter2 at a range of 40
miles. At what range can this same radar detect a 1 meter2
target if its Sensitivity is improved by 6 dB? Use Eqn (2-17)
82.
83. A 6dB improvement in sensitivity is a 4-fold
improvement. Therefore, Smin(new) = 1/4 Smin(old)
 Rnew/Rold=[(lm2/1/4Smin(old)/(3m2/Smin(old)]1/4=1.074 f
Rold=40 miles, Rnew=(1.074)(40 miles)=42.98 miles
84. A frequency modulated radar sweeps from 400 MHz to
800 MHz in 10 ms. What is the maximum unambiguous
range which can be measured by this radar?
85.
86. Use Eqn (2-3) The maximum unambiguous range is 1/2
the distance that can be travelled by the radar energy
during the time of one sweep from 400 to 800 MHz.
Substitute 10 ms for t in Eqn (2-3) and solve for R. R =
1/2(3.0x108 m/sec)(10x10-6 sec) = 1.5KM.
87. What is the main feature which differentiates pulsed
Doppler or MTI radars from pulse-echo radars?
88.
89. The pulse-echo radar is capable only of measuring the
elapsed travel time of individual pulses, however, where
the Pulse-Doppler/MTI radars are capable of measuring a
shift in the frequency of the RF energy in the return pulse
and are therefore sensitive to target velocity.
90. Discuss the difference between pulse-Doppler and MTI
radars.
91.
 92. Pulse-Doppler radars use filters to selectively pass
Doppler frequencies. MTI radars use delay line and
canceller to eliminate low/no Doppler frequency shifts.
93. A pulse-Doppler radar has a carrier frequency of 9 GHz
and a PRF of 4000 Hz.
94.
1. What are its "blind" Doppler frequencies?
2.
3. f D = n PRF = n (4000 HZ) = 4000 HZ, 8000 HZ, 12000
HZ, etc.
4. What radial target velocities would be undetected by
the radar?
5.
6. Use Eqn (2-18) Find l using Eqn (1-1). l = (3.0x108
m/sec)/(9x109 sec-1)=3.33 cm Solve Eqn (2-18) for Vt =
n (4000 Hz) (3.33x10-2 m)/2 = n 66.67 m/sec. Any
integer multiple of 66.67 m/sec is undetectable by
this system.
7. What modification can be made to the radar that
would eliminate blind speeds below 2000 knots (use
PRF)?
8.
9. 2000 KTS = 1016 m/s Let n = 1 Use Eqn (2-18)
Substitute 1016 m/sec for Vt and 1 for n. Solve
 equations (2-18) for PRF. PRF=[(2)(1016
msec)]/[(1)(3.33x10-2 m)]=61.02 kHz
10. What would the maximum unambiguous range of
the modified radar be?
11.
12. Use Eqn (2-3) Substitute the reciprocal of the PRF
for t and solve for R. R=1/2(3.0x108 m/sec)(6.102 x
104sec-1)-1=2.46 km
13. What additional modification(s) would allow for an
increase in maximum unambiguous range?
14.
15. Reduce frequency so that higher PRT's are possible.
95. A fighter aircraft in level flight on a heading of 090oT
and at an airspeed of 600 m/sec is operating a
pulse-Doppler radar at a frequency of 800 MHz. A target is
detected at the same altitude, bearing 000oR, heading
030oT at a speed of 300 m/sec.
96.
1. What is the relative radial velocity between the fighter
and the target?
2.
3. Determine the angle between the fighter's course and
its line of sight (LOS) to the target. (0o). Determine
the angle between the target's course and the LOS
 from fighter to target (120o). The relative radial is
determined by summing the velocity components
along the LOS. S = Sret+Stgt = (600 m/s) cos(0o) + ( 300
m/s) cos(120o) = 450 m/s
4. What will the resulting Doppler shift be?
5.
6. Use Eqn (2-4) Substitute the relative radial velocity
just obtained into Eqn (2-4) and solve for the change
in frequency. (Use Eqn (1-1) to determine lambda).
Frequency shift = (2)(450 m/sec)/0.375 m) = 2.4 kHz
97. A pulse radar propagates the pulse train shown below.
Each pulse has its frequency increased over the duration of
the pulse width resulting in a pulse compression ratio of
100:1. What is the range resolution of this radar?
98.
99. Using Eqn (2-3, substitute PW for t, and solve for Rmin
.
Rmin = 1/2(3x108 m/sec)(3x10-6 sec) = 450m RRes = Rmax/PCR
= 300 km/100 = 4.5 m
100. Why is it possible to achieve a more narrow beamwidth
with a millimeter system than a microwave radar?
(Microwave radar frequencies cover 800-1000 MHz.)
101.
102. Millimeter systems approach "light" wavelengths and
there fore can use "lens" to create beams. Microwave
 radars require larger antennas and therefore are harder to
focus or create beams.
103. The following table lists the characteristics of the
components of a pulse-echo type surface search radar.
Using the concepts presented in this chapter, complete this
table.
104.
105.

106. frequency, f 107. 5

600
MHz

108. wave length, l 109. _

____

110. pulse width, PW 111. 1.

3m sec

112. pulse repetition 113. _

frequency, PRF ____

114. pulse repetition 115. _

time, PRT ____

116. peak power 117. _

____
 118. average power 119. _
____

120. duty cycle 121. 8.

3 x 10-4

122. Antenna rotation 123. 16

rate, q RPM

124. Horizontal 125. _

beamwidth, qB ____

126. vertical beam width, 127. 4o

fB

128. effective aperture, Ae 129. 0.

9 m2

130. power gain, G 131. 3

940

132. directive gain, GD 133. _

____

134. number of returns 135. 9.

per sweep, NB 9

136. minimum 137. -

discernible signal, MDS 83dBm
138. receiver sensitivity , 139. _
Smin ____

140. maximum 141. _

unambiguous range, ____
Runamb

142. maximum 143. 5

theoretical range, Rmax 0 km

144. minimum range, 145. _

Rmin ____

146. range resolution, Rres 147. _

____

148. radar cross-section, 149. 5

s m2

150. Wavelength

151. Use Eqn (1-1)

152. l= (3.0 x 108 m/sec)/(5600 x 106 Hz) = 5.36 cm
153. PRT

154. Use Eqn (2-1)

155. PRT = PW/DC = 1.3 msec/8.3x10-4 = 1.57x103 msec
156. PRF

157. PRF = 1/PRT = (1.57x10-3sec)-1 = 638.5 Hz

158. Peak Power
 159. Hint, skip this and continue on to the end then solve.)
160. Use Eqn (2-17)
161. Rearrange Eqn (2-17) and solve for PT. (Eqn (2-17)
requires Smin; that's why you had to skip this)
162.
163. PT = (Smin)(4p R2 )2/GAes = (5.012x10-12)[(4
p)(50x103m)2]2/(3940)(0.9)(5.0)
164.
165. PT = 279KW
166. Average Power

167. Solve Eqn (2-1) for the average power ( Pave ). Pave = Pt
168. DC = (279KW)(8.3 x 10-4) = 231.6W
169. Directive Gain

170. Use Eqn (2-6) and (2-8)

171. Rearrange Eqn (2-6) to solve for qB , the horizontal beam
width. Change the scan rate (16 RPM) to o/sec as follows:
172. scan rate =(16 revolutions/min)(360o/revolution) (60
sec/min)-1 = 96o/sec.
173. Solve Eqn (2-6) for q B:
174. q B=(NB)(scan rate)/PRF=(9.9)(96o/sec)/ (638.5 sec-1) =
1.49o
175. Solve Eqn (2-8) for GD, changing the beam widths to
radians.
176. GD=
(4p )/(4.0/57.3)(1.49/57.3) = 6929
 177. Minimum Discernible Signal

178. Use Eqn (2-5) Substitute -83 dB for receiver sensitivity

and solve for Smin = 10[1/10(-83)] = 5.012 x 10-12
W
179. Runamb

180. Use Eqn (2-3) Substitute PRT for t, solve for R. R =

1/2(3.0x108m/sec)(1.57x10-3sec) = 235.5 km
181. Rmin

182. Use Eqn (2-3) Substitute PW for t, solve for R. R =

1/2(3.0x108m/sec)(1.3x10-6sec) = 195 m
183. Rres

184. Assume no pulse compression. Rres = Rmin = 195m