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Oceanography PDF
Oceanography PDF
Oceanography PDF
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The study of sea floor by echo method of
form. The extent of the slope area is usually
sound waves reveals that the sea floor is not a
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flat area. It consists of mountains, plateaus, between 200-2000 m. But sometimes it may
plains and trenches etc. Some major submarine extend to 3660 metres from the mean sea level.
features are described below. The continental slope along many coasts of the
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world is followed by deep canyon like trenches
a) Continental Shelf
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The portion of the land which is submerged
terminating as fan shaped deposits at the base.
Continental slope covers 8.5 percent of the total
under sea water constitutes continental shelf. ocean area.
The continental shelf is shallow and its depth
is not more than 200 metres. Its slope from There are five types of slopes:
land to the sea is about 2 metres per km. The
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(i) Fairly steep with the surface dissected by
average width is 70-75 km, though it varies canyons
from a few metres to hundreds of kms. In all (ii) Gentle slopes with elongated hills and
about 7.5 percent of total area of the oceans is basins
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2. About 20 percent of oil and gas of the continental shelf to the deep-ocean floor.
world is extracted from them. Turbidity currents deliver these sediments to
the base of the continental slope, and when
3. They are large stores of sand and gravel.
these muddy currents emerge from the mouth
4. They are the sites of productive fishing of a canyon onto the flat ocean floor, they drop
grounds. their load in a form of deep-sea fan.
d) Deep Ocean Basins are more extensive in the Atlantic Ocean than
in the Pacific. That is because the Atlantic Ocean
It is the portion of sea floor that lies between has fewer trenches to trap sediments carried
the continental margin and the oceanic ridge down the continental slope.
system.
III. Seamounts:
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It contains deep-ocean trenches, abyssal
plains, and broad volcanic peaks called It is an isolated volcanic peak that rises at
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seamounts. least 1000 m (3300 ft) above the deep-ocean floor.
They are more extensive in the Pacific, where
I. Deep-Ocean Trenches:
subduction zones are common. These undersea
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These are long, narrow features that form volcanoes form near oceanic ridges (regions of
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the deepest parts of the ocean. Most trenches are
located in the Pacific Ocean. They may reach
10,000 m deep (Mariana trench is 11,000 m
seafloor spreading). Some of these volcanoes may
emerge as an island. Erosion by running water
and wave action may erode these features to sea
below sea level). level. Over a long time, the islands gradually sink.
They are the sites where lithospheric plates e) Submarine Canyons
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plunge back into the mantle, and are usually
associated with volcanic activity. These are depressions with walls of steep
slopes and have a V shape. They exist on the
II. Abyssal Plains: continental slopes and the shelves. They are
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These are the most level places on Earth. The found to have a length of 16 km at the maximum
abyssal plains may have less than 3 m of relief and have a dendritic pattern. The canyons are
over a distance that may exceed 1300 km. found to be close to river mouths such as those
Scientists determined that abyssal plains low of the Congo, the Sindh, the Hudson, the
relief is due to the fact that thick accumulations Delaware, the Columbia, etc. The depth varies
of sediment, transported by turbidity currents, from 1,800 m. to 2,800 m. Coarse deposits are
have buried rugged ocean floor. Abyssal plains found in the canyons.
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f) Bank, Shoal and Reef George's Bank off the eastern coast of U.S.A.
are famous examples.
A bank is more or less flat topped elevation
located in the continental margins. The depth A Shoal is a detached elevation with such
of water over a bank is relatively small but is shallow depth that it is a danger to surface
adequate for navigation. The Dogger Banks in navigation. The shoal is neither composed of a
the North Sea and the Grand Banks in the north rock nor coral. Sometimes it is associated with
western Atlantic off New Foundland and the a bank. In the Dogger Banks, there are shoals
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temperature of much of this deep ocean water The temperature of warm current is higher
is between 0C and 3C (32F - 37.5 F). The than that of the surrounding areas. The warm
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average annual temperature of ocean water at currents keep the coastal lands warmer. For
different latitudes is: example, the Gulf Stream does not allow the
Norway Coast to freeze even in winter and
At equator - 26C
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thus helps the development of trade and
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20 Latitude
40 Latitude
-
-
23C
14C
commerce in that country. The temperature
between Davis Strait and New Foundland drops
down because of cold Labrador Current
60 Latitude - 1C washing the coasts.
water becomes very high (pressure at 4,000 lower on the eastern than on western parts of
meters is about 400 atmospheres), but water is the oceans.
only slightly compressible, so that there is only
a minor pressure effect on density. At a depth 5. Iceberg
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SALINITY OF THE OCEAN WATER
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The salinity of water is usually expressed II. Supply of clean and fresh water through
in parts per thousand by weight (%) and is precipitation:
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due to the presence of compounds of sodium,
In humid regions where rainfall is heavier,
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potassium, magnesium, calcium and other
elements including a high proportion of
fresh water tends to dilute the sea-water and
reduce its salinity. On the other hand, in arid
sodium chloride (common salt). Rivers derive and semi-arid areas where evaporation exceeds
minerals from rocks and carry them to the precipitation, there is greater concentration of
sea. The salinity varies with the amounts of salts so that the salinity is high.
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salts contributed, addition of fresh water by
In the equatorial region despite uniformly
rainfall, rivers, and melting ice, and also with
high temperature throughout the year, heavy
the rate of evaporation: rapid evaporation can
precipitation dilutes the surface water so that
cause relatively high surface salinity in open
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Thus, in the Gulf of Bothnia, in the northern
part of the Baltic Sea the salinity is often less Warm ocean currents carry warm and more
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than 2%, and in spring the water is almost saline waters towards the Polar Regions,
fresh. whereas the cold currents drive the cold and
less saline waters from the higher to lower
IV. Prevailing winds:
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latitudes.
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Winds blowing over the sea surface play
an important role in the distribution of surface
salinity. For example, the trade winds in both
Trade winds as well as the westerlies bring
about salinity differences on the eastern and
western parts of the oceans. However, in the
the hemispheres transport warm and saline
Indian Ocean, the monsoon system of winds
water from the eastern part of the oceans
causes the seasonal variation in the distribution
towards the western part raising the degree of
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of salinity.
salinity there.
To compensate for the loss of the top layers Composition of Sea Water
of the ocean water there, the cooler and less
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Besides, blowing of winds on the sea surface Horizontal Distribution of Salinity refers
exerts stress, and each moving layer of water to latitudinal distribution of salinity in water
exerts a stress on the next underlying layer. which is represented by ischalines. Ischalines
Since it causes mixing of the different layers of are imaginary lines drawn on the map to
water, it is enough to appreciate the dominant represent the area of uniform salinity of the
role of prevailing winds as a controlling factor ocean water.
in the distribution and amount of salinity.
Pacific Oceans
V. Mixing through the movement of the ocean
water: There is a wide range of salinity difference
in the Pacific Ocean because of its shape and
The currents, stirred by wind, sweep away larger arial extent salinity remains 34.85gm/kg
saline water from the eastern coast of the high between 15 to 20 degree latitudes in the
latitudes to the western coasts, whereas cold northern hemisphere but it becomes still higher
water penetrates into the low latitudes. Thus 36/kg in the latitudes. Salinity again decreases
there is a tendency for salinity to increase from further northward in the western part the
east to west. Salinity is higher in enclosed seas pacific ocean where it became 31gm/kg in the
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Ocean located between 20 North-30 North Vertical Distribution of Salinity refers to
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and 20 West-60 West latitudes record the distribution of salinity with respect to depth
maximum salinity 37gm.kg and it gradually of ocean, salinity generally increases towards
decreases northward but with varying tender the bottom of the ocean but there is no definite
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maximum salinity 37gm/kg in the southern
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Atlantic is from in a region marked by 12S- temperature to latitudes ocean currents,
20S latitudes and 40W-15W longitudes, upwelling and down willing influence the
salinity, therefore gradually decreases
salinity of the ocean.
southward. The pattern of special distribution
of salinity in spite difference in partially The Main features are:-
enclosed sea of the Atlantic Ocean the north
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1. Upper surface has lower salinity than bottom
sea in spite of its location in high latitudes record
surface.
34gm/kg salinity due to more saline water
brought by north Atlantic Drift further 2. In equatorial region heavy rainfall reduces the
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Indian Ocean
salinity is low due to melting of icebergs and
The special distribution of salinity in the glaciers while salinity increases with the depth.
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Thermohaline circulation simply refers to the equatorial Atlantic Ocean, they are cooled
global density-driven circulation of the oceans. and flow downhill into deep water basins
Heat (thermo), and haline (density) are the two forming the North Atlantic Deep Water. These
main factors determining the density of currents resurface in the northeast Pacific Ocean
seawater. 1,200 years later. Ocean water from all of the
Temperature and density share an inverse ocean basins mixes thoroughly, carrying heat
relationship so when the surface currents (i.e. energy and matter in the form of solids and
the Gulf Stream) flow towards the poles from gases, making Earth's ocean a global system.
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Formation of the deep water masses pack, the effect of wind cooling becomes more
intense with the exclusion of the brine. The
The cold, dense water masses that sink into
result is the sinking and northward flow of the
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being left behind when the ice forms. Extremely Movement of deep water masses
dense brine is formed in ice pockets similar to
a honeycomb. The brine drips down slowly The North Atlantic Deep Water, is the result
through the honeycomb matrix and sinks to of density variation in the North Atlantic and
the sea bottom, flowing downhill through the is not a static mass of water like once thought,
bottom topography like a stream in the ocean but instead a slowly southward flowing current.
to fill up the polar sea basins. The route of the deep water flow is through
the Atlantic Basin around South Africa and
The cooling effect of the wind is a major into the Indian Ocean and on past Australia
factor in the Norwegian Sea and the North into the Pacific Ocean Basin. Flow into the
Atlantic Deep Water (NADW), where cold Pacific is blocked for both the AABW and the
dense water fills the basin and spills southwards NADW, so the NADW flows very slowly into
through crevasses that connect Greenland, the deep abyssal plains of the Atlantic always
Iceland and Britain. in a southerly direction and the AABW also
In contrast, in the Weddell Sea located flows away from the road block. In the case of
north of Antarctica near the edge of the ice the AABW, the blockage is the Drake Passage,
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be very complicated to determine where the equatorial oceans to the polar regions of
the ocean. It is also the return flow of the sea
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upwelling occurs just by using current speeds.
So instead, we have to look at the breakdown water from the surface North Atlantic Drift
of particulate matter that falls into the basins and Gulf Stream currents.
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OCEAN CURRENTS
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Ocean currents are the vertical or horizontal Finally, gravity plays a role in the movement of
movement of both surface and deep water surface currents because the top of the ocean is
throughout the world's oceans. Currents uneven. Mounds in the water form in areas
normally move in a specific direction and aid where the water meets land, where water is
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significantly in the circulation of the Earth's warmer, or where two currents converge.
moisture, the resultant weather, and water Gravity then pushes this water down slope on
pollution. the mounds and creates currents.
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Oceanic currents are found all over the Deep water currents, also called
globe and vary in size, importance, and thermohaline circulation, are found below 400
strength. Some of the more prominent currents meters and make up about 90% of the ocean.
include the California and Humboldt Currents Like surface currents, gravity plays a role in
in the Pacific, the Gulf Stream and Labrador the creation of deep water currents but these
Current in the Atlantic, and the Indian are mainly caused by density differences in the
Monsoon Current in the Indian Ocean. water.
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including:
ocean. Surface currents are mostly caused by
the wind because it creates friction as it moves a) Solar Activity
over the water. This friction then forces the
This is the single most important cause. The
water to move in a spiral pattern, creating gyres.
Sun provides the bulk of the energy which
In the northern hemisphere, gyres move
drives the circulation of water in the oceans,
clockwise and in the southern they spin
either directly or indirectly (through winds).
counterclockwise. The speed of surface currents
The uneven distribution of solar energy across
is greatest closer to the ocean's surface and
the globe (highest at the equator, decreasing
decreases at about 100 meters (328 ft) below
towards the poles) produces an uneven heating
the surface.
of water in the ocean. Like air, hot water
As surface currents travel over long expands. The differential heating is so
distances, the Coriolis force also plays a role in pronounced that sea level at the equator is about
their movement and deflects them, further 8 cm (3.15 inches) higher than at temperate
aiding in the creation of their circular pattern. latitudes.
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surface due to frictional coupling between the
wind and the surface of the oceans. Since the to produce a sustained movement of water in
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oceans are largely flat unobstructed by the wind's direction.
topography, winds can blow for long distances, d) Coriolis force and Ocean Gyres
for prolonged periods of time. Friction between
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the air and the surface of the water is This is a pseudo force resulting from the
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sufficiently high, that a wind blowing for about
10 hours can produce a surface current in the
water at about 2% of the wind velocity. So a
Earth's rotation from west to east about its axis.
Because of the Earth's rotation, any movement
away from the equator (in both the northern
steady wind blowing in a certain direction at and southern hemispheres) is deflected
20 miles per hour for about 10 hours will eastwards, while movements towards the
produce a surface water current at about 0.4 equator are deflected westwards. This effect is
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miles per hour. The direction of the water very pronounced in movements that happen
current is not the same as that of the wind within a fluid medium (atmosphere and
flow. The direction of the water current is oceans), and over long distances. Because of
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affected by a phenomenon known as Eckman the Coriolis Effect, currents tend to flow in
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Transport. Briefly, a column of water can be curves rather than in straight lines. When the
thought of as consisting of many layers. Wind space for movement is restricted (such as by
friction affects the topmost layer, pulling the land bounding the oceans), these curves can
water in the direction of wind flow. This top close in on themselves, and cause a circular
layer of water tends to pull layers of water flow of water around a center. Such circular
beneath, but because of the Coriolis force the flows are called oceanic gyres.
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Gyres are usually bounded by the shallow These gyres are responsible for much of the
waters of continental shelves. There are five world's surface currents. As you can see in the
major gyres in the world's oceans, which are map above, much of the eastern coast of Africa
delimited by the continents around them. has a current going from north to south, part
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Patch and the Great Pacific Garbage Patch are
places where a lot of trash dumped into the
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oceans has aggregated.
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Circulation of surface water is generally
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clockwise in the North Atlantic and
counterclockwise in the South Atlantic. There
are, however, many exceptions to the general
circulation, particularly along the coasts.
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In the North Atlantic, the strongest current
is the warm Gulf Stream, which forms in the
Gulf of Mexico. It flows north-eastward off the Ocean Currents in Pacific Ocean
United States coast, encounters the cold
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"bulge" of Africa as the Canaries Current, then of North and South America. Thus, the currents
turns westward as the North Equatorial Current. have distinct climatic effects on nearby lands.
This current crosses the ocean; part of its water In some areas, such as the coast of Chile and
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reaches the Gulf of Mexico. South of the North Peru, currents have cooling effects; in others,
Equatorial Current, running in the opposite such as southern Japan, they are warm. In
direction, is the Equatorial Counter-current. In regions where warm and cold currents meet,
the western North Atlantic, around Bermuda, is notably northern Japan to southern Alaska,
the Sargasso Sea, a calm area named for its dense fogs frequently occur.
masses of floating sargassum weed.
The chief currents of the North Pacific,
In the South Atlantic, the cold Benguela beginning at the equator, are the North
Current flows northward up to the coast of Equatorial Current, Kuroshio (Japan Current),
Africa, turns west near the Equator, and flows North Pacific Current, or Drift, and California
westward as the warm South Equatorial Current. Entering this circulation from the
Current. Near the South American coast, part Arctic is the cold Oyashio (Okhotsk, or
of the current swings southward to become the Kamchatka, Current). The Alaska Current
Brazil Current, which runs down the coast of starts off the coast of Oregon and flows
South America to about 40 South latitude. Here, northward along the coast of North America
it meets the cold Falkland Current. Flowing as far as Kodiak Island, bringing warmth to
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Ocean currents in Indian Ocean Current reverses and flows west to east as the
Monsoon Current. At the same time, the
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The Importance of Ocean Currents Like the movement of energy and moisture,
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TIDES
The tide is the periodic rise and fall of the sea usually experience two high tides and two low
levels caused by the combined effects of the tides each day (semidiurnal tide), but some
gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and Sun locations experience only one high and one low
and rotation of the earth. Most places in the ocean tide each day (diurnal tide). The times and
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claims responsibility for a mere 44%.
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When the moon exerts gravitational force
on the earth the tidal bulge moves out and
causes high tide. Simultaneously on the side
opposite to that place on the earth i.e. just at
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180 to it, also experiences the tidal bulge due
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to reactionary force (centrifugal) of the
gravitational (centripetal) force. Thus two tides
are experienced twice at every place on the
earth's water surface within 24 hours.
Due to the cyclic rotation of the earth and moon,
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the tidal cycle is 24 hours and 52 minutes long.
OCEAN DEPOSITS
The sediments deposited in the oceans are currents carry these sediments down into the
derived from following major sources: deep sea. These currents create sedimentary
deposits called turbidites, which are layers up
1. Terrigenous materials: to several metres thick composed of sediment
These are the deep-sea sediment transported particles that grade upward from coarser to
finer sizes. The turbidites build sedimentary
to the oceans by rivers and wind from land
deep-sea fans adjacent to the base of the
sources.
continental slope. Turbidites are also found
Terrigeneous sediments that reach the below the major river deltas of the world where
continental shelf are often stored in submarine they build features called abyssal cones. The
canyons on the continental slope. Turbidity largest of these is the Ganges Fan (also called
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presence of glauconite, the spines of
where there is a very large sediment supply. In
echini and the spicules of sponges. It
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contrast to fans and cones, abyssal plains are
occurs in such abundance in certain
flat and featureless. They are prominent near
geological formations as to give rise to
both margins of the Atlantic and in the
the name of green-sand. Green mud
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northeast Pacific.
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Some types are: of Cuba, and off the coast of California.
a) Gravels: The diameter of gravels Range 2. Volcanic materials
from 2mm to 256mm. These are
deposited near the coast on the The volcanic materials are derived from
continental shelves. These are further volcanic eruptions either in the sea or on the
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divided as boulders (256mm); cobbles land. Finer volcanic materials nearer to the
(64mm); pebbles (4mm), granules coastal areas are blown by winds and carried
(2mm), etc. to the oceans while volcanic materials of distinct
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c) Clay and Mud: These range from plant remains divided as neretic matter
1/32mm to 1/8192mm. clay and mud (skeletons of marine organisms and plant
are deposited in calm seawater. Muds remains) and pelagic matter also known as
are further classified as: Blue mud, oozes (remains of different kinds of algae).
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everywhere it occurs in the oceans. So, and most remote areas of the ocean. It covers
the only regions in which siliceous oozes 38% of the ocean floor and accumulates more
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are abundant are in regions where the slowly than any other sediment type, at only
nutrient supply is so large that diatom 0.1-0.5 cm / 1000 yr. Containing less than 30%
and radiolarian tests accumulate faster biogenic material, it consists of sediment that
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than the seawater can redissolve them remains after the dissolution of both calcareous
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CORAL REEFS
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Coral Reefs referred to as the "rainforests of Reefs usually develop in areas that have a
the oceans" are underwater structures made from lot of wave action because the waves bring in
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secreted by corals. The reef is made up of food, nutrients and oxygen to the reef. Waves
thousands of corals. When coral dies, it leaves its also prevent sediment from falling on the reef.
skeleton of calcium carbonate behind. Young Reefs need calcium from the water to grow,
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corals attach themselves to the old skeleton and
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the cycle starts again. Each new generation is waters.
built upon the remains of the previous generation.
Corals can live only in saline water, and
The sun is the source of energy for the coral for their proper growth the average salinity
reef ecosystem. Plant plankton, called should be between 27 to 40%.
phytoplankton, algae and other plants convert
Types of Coral Reefs:
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light energy into chemical energy through
photosynthesis. As animals eat the plants and Reefs are generally classified in three types:
other animals, energy is passed through the Fringing reefs are reefs that form along a
food chain. Reef building corals work together
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are a number of stresses or environmental island; then, as the volcano sinks, the reef
changes that may cause bleaching including continues to grow, and eventually only the
disease, excess shade, increased levels of reef remains.
ultraviolet radiation, sedimentation, pollution,
salinity changes, and increased temperatures.
Suitable conditions for the growth of Coral
Reef:
Coral reefs develop in shallow, warm water,
usually near land, and mostly in the tropics;
coral prefer temperatures between 70 and 85
F (21 - 30 C). Coral reefs are generally found
in clear, tropical oceans. Coral reefs form in
waters from the surface to about 150 feet (45
meters) deep because they need sunlight to FRINGING BARRIER ATOLL
survive. REEF REEF
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second longest double barrier reef, covering
acidification, all associated with greenhouse gas
1,500 kilometers.
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emissions.
The Andros, Bahamas Barrier Reef is the
Major threats to the world's coral reefs
third largest, along the east coast of Andros
include:
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Island, Bahamas.
Pollution
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Coral reefs provide habitats for a large
variety of organisms. These organisms rely on
corals as a source of food and shelter. Besides
Disease
Over-fishing
the corals themselves and their symbiotic algae,
Dynamite and cyanide fishing
other creatures that call coral reefs home
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include various sponges; molluscs such as sea Sedimentation
slugs, nudibranchs, oysters, and clams;
Bleaching caused by rising ocean
crustaceans like crabs and shrimp; many kinds
temperatures
of sea worms; echinoderms like star fish and
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MARITIME ZONES
The United Nations Convention on the Law bays and rivers) on the landward side of the
of the Sea (UNCLOS), also called the Law of baseline. Each coastal State has full sovereignty
the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea treaty, over its internal waters as if they were part of
has divided the maritime area as internal its land territory. The right of innocent passage
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waters, the territorial sea, the contiguous zone, does not apply in internal waters. The coastal
the exclusive economic zone, the continental state is free to set laws, regulate use, and use
shelf, the high seas and the Area in 1982. any resource.
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No person (including a foreign
fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and Government) shall, except under, and in
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regulations within its territory or territorial sea, accordance with, the terms of any agreement
and punish infringement of those laws and with the Central Government or of a licence or
regulations committed within its territory or a letter of authority granted by the Central
territorial sea. Additionally, in order to control Government, explore or exploit any resources
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traffic in archaeological and historical objects of the exclusive economic zone or carry out
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found at sea, a coastal State may presume that
their removal from the seabed of the contiguous
any search or excavation or conduct any
research within the exclusive economic zone
zone without its consent is unlawful. or drill therein or construct, maintain or operate
Exclusive Economic Zone: any artificial island, off-shore terminal,
installation or other structure or device therein
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An exclusive economic zone extends from for any purpose whatsoever. But it is not
the outer limit of the territorial sea to a applicable to the citizens of the nation.
maximum of 200 nautical miles (370.4 km) from Continental Shelf:
the territorial sea baseline, thus it includes the
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Submarine Canyon: A deep gorge on the ocean
that lies beyond the 200 nm limit is often called
floor.
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the extended continental shelf.
Bank: A more or less flat topped elevation
A coastal State has sovereign rights and located in the continental margins. The depth
exclusive jurisdiction over its continental shelf of water over a bank is relatively small.
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for the purpose of exploring it and exploiting
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its natural resources. The natural resources of
the continental shelf consist of the mineral and
other non-living resources of the seabed and
Reef: A line of rocks in the tidal zone of a
coast submerged as high water but partly
increased at low water.
subsoil together with living organisms belonging Shoal: It is a detached elevation with shallow
to sedentary species, that is to say, organisms depth.
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which, at the harvestable stage, either are Salinity: The degree to which water contains
immobile on or under the seabed or are unable dissolved salts.
to move except in constant physical contact
Ice floats: The drifting ice fields. Their height
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of that surface.
waters of an archipelagic State.
Currents: It is the general movement of a mass
Terminology of water in a fairly defined direction over great
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distances.
Continental Shelf: The area lying between
shoreline and the continental slope. Its seaward Drift: The motion of ocean water generally at
slope is very gentle and is covered with shallow a low velocity, as a result of surface friction
water. from the prevailing winds.
Tide: The regular rise and fall of water level in
Continental Slope: The area extending from
the world's ocean, resulting from the
the margin of the continental shelf to the deep gravitational attraction that is exerted upon the
sea floor, Its slope towards the sea floor is very earth by the moon and then sun.
steep.
Ecology: It is the study of interrelationship
Continental Rise: The gently inclined slope between the living system and the environment.
from the deep sea-floor to the foot of the Environment: It includes the outer surrounding
continental slope. atmosphere of the living system.
Abyssal Plain: The area of deep ocean floor. Physical factor: These are the non-living factors
These are deep sea plains. of the environment.
(c) Oceans provide the most important means of natural transport to the man.
(b) Source of energy: Tidal force, differences in oceanic temperatures, and geothermal energy
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are great source of energy.
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Oceans: regulators and stabilizers of earth's climate
Water not only heats up slowly than land but also cools much more slowly than land. The
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enormous absorbing and liberating capacities of the oceans do not allow extreme temperature
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on the coastal areas and over the surface of the earth. Ocean currents also help in modifying
the distribution of temperature along the coastal areas. The oceans are the main source from
which our atmosphere derives its moisture and gives rain. Thus, the oceans are great regulators
and stabilisers of climatic phenomena over the earth's surface.
The major commercial fishing grounds of the world:
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Five major commercial fishing regions have been identified:
(a) North American waters.
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(b) North West European waters.
Oceans are storehouse of large number of minerals. Mineral occur both in solution and in
suspension.
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Minerals found in solution are dissolved salts that are common in sea water such as common
salt, magnesium and bromine.
Other minerals such as petroleum, natural gas, manganese, phosphorite, sulphur, titanium,
zircon, monazite, gold, platinum, diamonds, tin, iron, sand, gravel and others, are also found
in the oceans.
Ocean and International Trade:
The oceans provide the most important means of natural transport to man. It is the easiest
and cheapest one. No road or railway line needs to be constructed. Oceans no more divide
continents but provide natural links between them. They are the natural highways for
trade.
Countries that have successfully harnessed the tidal forces: Russia, France and Japan.
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Fringing Reef: It is a coral platform attached
Diatoms: Single celled microscopic algae
Y
to the coast of a continent.
covered with silicon shell.
Terrigenous deposits: The deposits that have
been derived from land but subsequently mixed Dinoflagellates: Unicellular, microscopic algae
EM
in with marine deposits of the littoral zone. having two flagella for locomotion.
C IC
A N
S RO
A
IA H
C