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57544
ENAP
THE UKRAINIAN
ICON
Text by
Liudmila MILIAYEVA
PARKSTONE
AURORA
- o5?5 .1///
or the Eastern Slavs, as for all Chris church hierarchy, and preserved its independen
tian peoples, the cult of the icon was ce from the empire and its special political posi
synonymous with Byzantium, the tion. The river route "from the Varangians to the
mighty medieval empire with Greeks", passing through towns such as Novgo
Constantinople"The New rod and Kiev, linked the Baltic to the Black Sea.
Rome"as its capital. From the ith century on, The trade artery strengthened the power of every
Byzantium exerted a political and religious Slavonic tribe that lived in this vast territory, and
influence on the whole of Christian Europe. In Christianity assisted their unification and conso
the Byzantine Empire the veneration of icons lidation. They developed their own form of
became an integral part of the Holy Liturgy, Byzantine culture. The absence of any language
though the practice only won official approval barrier facilitated the assimilation of theological
after the dramatic events of the years of icono concepts. Kiev's Monastery of the Caves, foun
clasm (8th9th centuries). The struggle between ded in the mid l l th century, was subordinate to
the iconoclasts and the supporters of icons led to the Studios Monastery in Constantinople.
the formulation of a doctrinal justification for
the icon's role in religious ceremonies, and crea Under Prince Vladimir's son Yaroslav the
ted an aesthetic of decorative art that has come Wise, Kievan Rus experienced a cultural
to be known as the "Byzantine" sryle '. It chan boom. Stone churches were built in Kiev,
ged markedly through the centuries, but the reli Chernigov, and faraway Tmudrakhan. But
gious painting of every Orthodox country the most magnificent and impressive churches
preserved the "Byzantine tradition" for centuries were the fresco and mosaicdecorated
to come. churches of Kiev. The Kievans adapted the
Byzantine model to create their own style, a
The Eastern Slavswere introduced to Byzantine style shaped by different historical traditions
culture in the 1 Och century. Their conversion to and social irnperatives+. The metropolitan
Christianity coincided with the most brilliant St Sophia Cathedral in Kiev (101 751) and
epoch of Byzantine art, which was reflected in the abovementioned Tithe Church (98996),
the artistic culture of the young feudal state of with their many domes and combination of
Kievan Rus, in the physical appearance of Kiev, frescos and mosaics, represented a departure
and in the country's first stone church, the Tithe from Byzantine tradition. The monumental
Church (98996), so called because one tenth of painting was part of a complex theological
the principality's revenue went on its upkeep. agenda that asserted the electedness of the Kie
van prince and his dynasty. The l l thcentury
The conversion of the Great Prince of Kiev Vla Kievan writer Metropolitan Ilarion addressed
dimir (9801015) helped Kievan Rus to become the late Great Prince Vladimir in a sermon in
part of European civilisation, in which Byzan the following words: "Arise. Look at the city,
tium at that time played a leading role. Kievan radiant in its grandeur, at its flourishing
Rus attained a certain status in the Byzantine churches ... a city protected by icons of the
5
Saints ... "5 A chronicler of the time writes of unprecedented speed with which they absor
the benefits of literacy (Yaroslav the Wise bed a sophisticated foreign culture remains
founded a school) : "Books are the rivers that unsolved V.
water the universe, the source of wisdorn'v.
Icons and their miracleworking powers were
The "Lives of the Fathers of Kiev's Monastery of assigned a special place in the act of worship.
the Caves", a collection They were the object
of stories from the his of veneration and
tory of the monastery devotion and an inte
and its inhabitants, gral part of the litur
narrates how the Kie gy, and were used in
vans were taught to official ceremonies.
paint by Greek artists, They gave moral sup
how they honed their port to the warrior on
professional skills and the battlefield, where
mastered the funda tents were some
mentals of composi times converted into
tion and drawing using chapels". Byzantine
timehonoured stan theologians asserted:
dard images that pos "When we venerate
sessed a religious 2. Detail of a late1 Ochcentury fresco in the icons, we are not
Church of the Tithe, Kiev
canonicity. Their col worshipping them,
Present whereabouts unknown
laboration with the but [are worshipping]
Byzantines instilled in through them those
them a deep reverence for iconography, initiated whom they depict; the rendered image
them into the mysteries of the creative process, becomes a conduit to the prototype."?
and taught them how to paint frescos, icons, and
miniatures. In the l Oth and early11th centuries The artistic legacy that has survived is but a frac
Kiev and the other towns of Kievan Rus produ tion of what was produced in the heyday of Kie
ced reliefs, enamels, and gold, silver, and glass van Rus, and any study of that legacy has to take
jewellery. In the l l th century Kievan mosaics, into account the "destruction factor". This is
frescos, and illuminated manuscripts (for particularly true for iconpainting: in the towns
example, the Ostromir Gospels, 10567, ill., and of southern Rus, including Kiev, not one icon
Svyatoslav Miscellany, 1073, ill.) were already has survived older than the 17th century.
deservedly famous.
However, iconpainting of the l Oth and early
What is most surprising is that the art of Kie 11th centuries can be reconstructed from a num
van Rus knew no "childhood" : it arrived on ber of icons which have survived in Russia; these
the scene already fully developed. The acade include several wellknown examples that are
mician Boris Rybakov has written: "This dra either the work ofKievan artistic culture or stand
matic leap forward cannot be explained in the same tradition. Their attribution and
merely through the schooling they received dating have been the object of debate throu
from the Byzantines, though Rus undoubted ghout the 20th century, a debate that has still
ly learnt a lot from them. The mystery of the not been resolved.
6
4. The Virgin of Vladimir. l l rh - early 12th century. Detail
The Dorrnirion Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin
mir. Detail
6. Sc George the Warrior. 11 ch - l Zth centuries
Dorrnition Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin
The late-11th/early-12th-century icon "Our
Lady of the Great Panagia" is often ascribed to
the legendary Kievan artist Alimpi, a monk in
Kiev's Monastery of the Caves, who lived in the
late l l th and early 12th centuries and was sub-
sequently canonised. The superbly executed
figure of the Virgin Orans with the Saviour
Emmanuel in her lap combines poetic feminini-
ty with solemn majesty. It possesses a monu-
mental compositional unity that is peculiar to
mosaics. In its proportions and its treatment of
the golds of the stole it bears an indisputable
resemblance to the mosaics in St Michael's Gol-
den-Domed Cathedral, Kiev (1108-13; un.
11
9. The Eucharist. Mosaic from the Cathedral of St Michael with the Gold Domes, Kiev. 1108-14
St Sophiais Architectural and Historical Preserve, Kiev
13
13. St Luke the Evangelist. Miniature from the Oscromir Gospel. 1056-57
National Library of Russia, St Petersburg.
icons. These include the l Zth-century icon "The tinople-"Our Lady of Vladimir". (Because it
Archangel Gabriel" ("The Golden-Haired was installed in the residence of the Great
Angel"). Princes of Kiev in the town of Vyshgorod, it
is sometimes referred to as "Our Lady ofVysh-
Legend links Kiev with the icon "Our Lady of gorod-Vladimir" .) Once on Kievan soil, this
Svyensk", which was brought to the Monastery exceptionally fine work was covered in glory
of the Assumption in and was much vene-
Svyensk,nearBryansk, rated. In 1155, to
in 1288 from Kiev's assert his sovereignty
Monastery of the over the Principality
Caves. The Virgin is of Vladimir-Suzdal,
depicted sitting on a the son of the then
throne flanked by the Prince of Kiev Yuri
monastery's founders, Dolgorukov, Andrei
the Venerable Antho- Bogolyubski, remo-
ny and Theodosius. ved the icon to Vladi-
This type ofVirgin has mir-on-Klyazma. It
come to be known as a became an object of
"Pecherski" ("Cave") veneration in his
Madonna. A number principality, and later
of researchers have in the whole of Rus-
dated the icon to the sia. The unknown
time of Alimpi (late painter created what
11th/early 12th centu- is perhaps one of the
ry), others to the late saddest and most lyri-
13th century, on the cal images of Mary in
basis of the story of its the history of arr l>.
removal to Kiev. The period of feudal
Recent palaeographic fragmentation (the
research of the writing second half of the
on the scrolls and x-ray 14. The Synaxis of the Saint Bishops. 12th century to the
photography have pro- Miniature from the Sviatoslav Anthology (Izbornik). 1073 first half of the 13th)
ved that the icon was Historical Museum, Moscow led to the formation
indeed painted at the of large and small
turn of the l l th and 12th centuries, but that it sovereign principalities, usually with no fixed
was partly repainted in the 13th century. In borders. Kievan Rus lost its power, but Kiev
contrast to other icons, here the monumentality remained the most important religious and
of the composition is combined with the almost cultural centre of the Eastern Slavs. In North-
portrait-like detail in the depiction of Saints Eastern Russia the Great-Russian nation
Anthony and Theodosius'<. was taking shape in Novgorod and Pskov, in
spite of the sometimes complicated difficult
In the early 12th century a masterpiece of relations between the two principalities. A
late-Ll th/ early-12th-century icon-painting Ukrainian nation was taking shape in the
was brought to Kiev from Constan- Dnieper region and in such geographical-
15
ethnic territories as Volhynia (the North- lov Gospels ( 1164), which possess vividly
west, including the basin of the river Pripyac), expressed local features.
Galicia (Transcarpachia, with the basin of the
Dniester, Stryy, and Western Bug), Podolia Roman of Galicia helped Byzantium to repul-
(southern Transdniestria), and Bukovina, in se the Polovtsian invasion of 1197-8, but in
the south-west. 1203 Constantinople fell co the Crusaders,
and Roman himself
From che 1130s on
'IS,
died in 1205 in the
Galicia, and from the war with Poland, lea-
1170s Volhynia, beca- vrng behind two
me the leading princi- young sons, Daniel
palities in the Ukraine, and Basil. The Princi-
and under Prince pality of Galicia-Vol-
Roman of Galicia ( d. hynia entered a
1205) they merged to period of turmoil, as
form the Principality the local boyars, Hun-
of Galicia-Volhynia. gary, and Poland
The princes of Galicia struggled for control.
were in close contact It lasted more than 30
with Byzantium: Prin- years, until Daniel
ce Yaroslav Osmomysl and Basil came co
(d. 1187) was a close power, first in Volhy-
friend of Andronicus nia, then in Galicia,
Comnenus (1113- where Daniel was
85), the rival of the only confirmed as
Byzantine emperor ruler in 1245. Star-
Manuel I (1143-80). ting in 1239, Tartar-
In 1164 Andronicus Mongol hordes swept
visited the capital, through the whole of
Galich, where he even Russia (except for the
sac in the principality's 15. St Mark the Evangelist. Novgorod lands). The
duma along with the Miniature from the Dobrilov Gospel. 1164 brothers Daniel of
boyars!". He was an State Library of Russia, Moscow Galicia (d. 1264) and
exceptional man, a Basil (d. 1269) devo-
dazzling orator, a philosopher, and from 1183 red the rest of their days to resisting the inva-
to 1185 the Emperor of Byzantium 15. Given sion, but victory eluded them.
the almost total loss of Galician paintings
from chis era, the late-12th/ early-13th-centu- The artistic culture of these lands in the 13th
ry Galician Gospels are particularly impor- century can only be reconstructed from archi-
tant: they are illuminated with wonderful tectural remains, archaeological excavations,
miniatures of the Evangelists in the style of and contemporary chronicles, such as the detai-
Byzantine art of the Comnenian era (ill.) 16. led description of the buildings erected by
An idea of l Zth-century Volhynian art can Daniel in Cholm (now Chelm in Poland). The
gleaned from the miniatures in the Dobri- chronicler mentions the Church of St John, with
16
its Romanesque windows and portals decorated Daniel's nephew, the Volhynian Prince Vladi-
in green and white Chelm stone, a tower, the mir Vasilkovich (d. 1286), was known not so
white-stone Church of of St Cosmas and St much as a wise statesman as as a scribe, patron,
Damian, and a column near the town "topped and artist. He transcribed 48 books, and illumi-
by a carved stone eagle" 17. The chronicle also nated some of them himself. He endowed
describes the great fire of 1259 that raged churches in Vladimir-in-Volhynia, Lyuboml
through Cholm (which contained
during the Tatar icons of St George and
pogrom; unusually for the Virgin "painted on
the time, Daniel gold"), Kamyenyets-
immediately set about Lirovsk, and other
rebuilding the town places. Legend has it
(apart from the tower). that he decorated
He paid especial atten- some of them himself.
tion to holy objects: he But neither the
had gold and bead churches nor their
decoration added to icons have survived.
the icons of the
Saviour and Virgin, In the l-ith century, the
which his sister Theo- Ukrainian lands fell
dora had given him under the influence of
from Kiev's Monastery the neighbouring states
of St Theodore, and of Poland, Hungary,
brought the icon "The and Lithuania, which
Purification" to the had the capacityto resist
town from Ovruch. the Golden Horde, and
The chronicle by the end of the centu-
confirms that a "truly ry they had divided
wonderful icon" was them amongst them-
lost in the fire, but that selves: the Dnieper
an icon Of "The 16. Sc Luke the Evangelist. Miniature from the Galich
region and Volhynia
Archangel Michael" Gospel. Lare 12th - early 13th century were placed under
survived. In 1260 Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow Lithuanian rule, whilst
Daniel restored the Galiciafell to Poland. In
Marian Church, decorated it with "magical the 15th century Western Podolia went to Poland,
icons", and gave it a red-marble Hungarian cha- Eastern Podolia to Lithuania, Bukovina to Molda-
lice decorated with coiled snakes, which he pla- via, and Transcarpathia to Hungary. But the politi-
ced in front of the royal gates18. Pr1nce Daniel callydivided Ukrainian people did not lose sight of
of Galicia spent part of his life at the court of their common ethnic identity, an identity that was
the king of Poland and was a frequent visitor to expressedfirst and foremost in their language, folk
Hungary, and it is clear from the chronicle that customs, rituals, and Orthodox religion.
his artistic tastes combined a predilection for
old-Russian ideals with an appreciation of the Lithuanian rule did not lead to religious persecu-
beauty of Romanesque art. tion-the Lithuanian princes who ruled the
17
rP'
Tftlft1HtAOm--tn&tT6e~. r.JnLtn
t1J..e!'it1 Te iH . . . . .
e
20
20. The Virgin Hodigitria. Late 13th - early 14th century
Local History Museum, Rovno
21
"Our Lady of Cholrn" disappeared without tra unique icon "Our Lady of Compassion" (late
ce earlier this century, along with blocked 15th/early 16th century) from the village of
enamel riza of the same vintage. In fact there are Dorosynya.
no known surviving works by the renowned
iconpainter St Peter Ratyenski, the Father Entirely different in style is the latel 'ithcentury
Superior of the Ratsk Monastery in Galicia and "Our Lady of Volhynia'' from the Church of the
subsequently Metropolitan of Kiev (d. 1326)20. Protecting Veil in Lutsk. At that time Lutsk was
Our knowledge of early Volhynian iconpain the secondmostimportant town in Volhynia
ting is based entirely on icons discovered in the after VladimirinVolhynia, with a mighty castle,
60s, 70s and 80s. They do not fit into any single large trade markets, and an active Orthodox com
stylistic design or "school", but reflect the indi munity. The icon of the Church of the Protec
vidual styles of the artists who created them. This ting Veil was thought to possess miracleworking
"dissimilarity" may be due to the migration of powers; it inspired many legends, and was
the artists and of the icons themselves. immortalised in folk song. Mary has an ascetic,
One of the earliest Volhynian icons comes from olivecoloured face, and her large asymmetrical
the Church of the Assumption in the Saviour eyes are full of deep sadness. The shaded part of
Assumption Monastery in Dorogobuzh"The her face is illuminated by a single beam of light
Virgin Hodigitria" (late 13th/ early Iith centu that runs down her cheek. The icon has a drama
ry). It has been subjected to a "retouching" ope tic tension typical of Byzantine art of the Palaeo
ration that is rare for the genre, which accounts logian era. There is an unusual detail in the icon's
for its almost damaged appearance (ill.): for unk iconographyMary'sstole is decorated with four
nown reasons, the painting and its pavoloka stars instead of the usual three: perhaps the artist
(heavy ornamented brocade) were removed from was a member of the clergy, well versed in reli
the original board, cut out around the outline of gious symbolism, and endowed the image with
the figures of the Virgin and Child, and attached some sort of special meaning. Lutsk was then at
to a new, slightly smaller board. The same thing the centre of the struggle between the pretenders
happened to the archangels that originally ador to the office of Metropolitan of the GalicioVol
ned the icon's corners (traces of them remain). hynian metropolitan see and Byzantium, which
This was once a solemn, largescale icon. Mary was defending its ancient right to control a uni
is dressed in a darkcherry stole fringed with gold fied church hierarchy. (In 1397 one Michael of
lace, which retains traces of the rich background Bethlehem was despatched to Lutsk by the Byzan
of the original (the golden sunbeams). The unu tine patriarch Anthony as administrator of the
sual drawing of the eyes makes the Virgin's face lands of the western Ukraine.)
look distressed and uneasy. Art historians claim
to detect in the icon the hand of a local artist (in The icons give an insight into the religious life of
the l Zth century Dorogobuzh was the capital of the Volhynians in the late 13th and 14th centuries.
the Principality ofDorogobuzh, but in the 16th
century the SaviourAssumption Monastery In Galicia, which in the lith and 15th centuries
enjoyed close ties with Kiev's Monastery of the was under the Polish yoke, there developed two
Caves; several of its monks held the office of important schools of art (we are ignoring the
archimandrite in that monastery). It is hard to smaller schools, which could more accurately be
think of any icons that are remotely similar to described as studios). They were based in Lvov
the Dorogobuzh Virgin, though there are argua and Peremyshl. At that time Lvov was the most
bly distant echoes of its style in the noless prosperous town in the western Ukraine. Becau
22
, .
'~,,
, "'I!
',-,
~
21. The Virgin Hodigitria ofVolhynia. Second half of the lith century
National Art Museum, Kiev
se of its prime geographical position at the cross ly15thcentury "Dominican Virgin"22) and
roads of the NorthSouth trade route and the individual Catholic churches (the llthcenrury
route between eastern and western Europe, it "Our Lady ofLvov"). Completely different in
quickly grew rich and expanded, attracting feel is the 15thcentury "Virgin Hodigitria" from
enterprising people from both southern and nor the Church of St Dimitrios in the village ofK.ra
thern Europe. Its social composition was unique: sovo ( even though all three of these icons depict
there were no aristocra the Virgin Hodigi
tic families in the city. It tria): the figure of
was a city of craftsmen, Mary is deeply lyrical,
merchants, entrepre poetic, and feminine.
neurs, and clergymen, Her face radiates a spe
and was also a sort of cial warmth. It is diffi
Ukrainian Babylon: the cult to tell which
city was home not only church this icon was
to native Ukrainians, originally intended
but to Poles, Germans, for, though there is
Armenians, Jews, some evidence that it
Greeks and Italians. By once hung in a church
the early 16th century, in Lvov, which would
this pettybourgeois explain its popularity
milieu had already in the 16th century;
spawned a layer of edu numerous copies of it
cated, professional have survived.
people. Ukrainians
from Galicia studied in The episcopal court in
the universities of Peremyshl (now Prze
Poland and Italy. Paul mysl, Poland) had a
Rusin ofK.rosno, Geor studio that developed
ge Kotermak of Drogo a whole new school of
b y ch, Roksolan Ukrainian iconpain
Oryechovski and others ting. (The bishops'
were the first Ukrainian residence in Sambor
hurnanistsI. All this also had a studio, who
could not but have an se artists enjoyed close
effect on the style of the links with the local
Galician icon. monasteries.) These
22. SS Basil and Peter. Icon. Late l Sth early 16th century painters had carefully
Church in the village of Lisiatichi, Lvov Region
Lvov icons of the Iith studied the art of the
and early 15th centu "Golden Age" of Kie
ries echo the aesthetic ideals of both Catholi van Rus, and it showed in both their fine know
cism and Orthodoxy. Byzantine typology is ledge of iconography and the monumentalism of
combined with Gothic elements, and this is par form, rhythmic harmony of composition, preci
ticularly noticeable in those that belonged to sion of drawing, and nobility of colouring. They
Catholic orders (for example, the late14th/ear also had close links with contemporary Kiev, and
24
23. Christ Pancocrator. l Sth century
National Museum, Lvov
24. The Nativity of the Virgin. l Sth century
National Museum, Lvov
this is evident in a number of Peremyshl icons re to Gothic art, but by their close collaboration
painted in a vividly KievoByzantine style. For with Catholic artists. In the late Ilth and l Sth
example, the early15thcentury companion centuries, Ukrainian artists (we know their
icons of the archangels from the village of Dale names: Andrei, Vladyk, and Gail) oversaw the
wo (now in Poland) are close to the Kievan school creation of a series of Byzantinestyle paintings
of the era of Metropolitan Cyprian; they bear a destined for Catholic churches. They were
marked resemblance contracted by the Poli
to the miniatures in sh kings Wladislaw
the Kiev Psalter Jagielo (d. 1434) and
(1397). In its icono Casimir IV (142792).
graphy the Peremyshl Nevertheless, the wes
school preserved tra tern elements in icon
ditional Byzantine painting of the 15th
typology, which was and early 16th centu
disappearing from the ries did not affect the
Orthodox art of other Orthodox imagery of
countries. This may the Ukrainian icon,
have been due to the which was also influen
fact that until the mid ced by contacts with
16th century the Bulgaria, Serbia, Mol
Ukraine possessed no daviaWallachia, and
tall iconostases, of Russia. One of the
which such icons tra remarkable works to
ditionally formed part have survived from this
(for example, "The era is the "Adoration of
Saviour Pantocrator" the Magi" from the vil
from the village of lage of Busovysko. It is
Mylyk, and the Deesis distinguished by its
from the village of Sta impeccable composi
rychi). tional harmony, the
perfection of the
The legacy of the Per figures' proportions,
e mys h l school 25. The Virgin of Lvov. lith century and the rhythm of its
Picture Gallery, Lvov
includes a group of painting. The icon
icons from the villages recalls the frescos of the
ofVanivko and Zvyzhen whose iconographic same vintage in the Church of St Onofrius in
style betrays an obvious Gothic influence. This the village of Lavrovo near Sambor, which dis
is evident not so much in the imagery as in the plays features of Serbian painting.
detailing (the knights, stylised castle, and folds
of the cloak in the 15thcentury "The Miracle of Most Ukrainian icons are comparatively small
St George and the Dragon" from Zvyzhen). in size (with the exception of murals of the Pas
sion and Last Judgement), and were painted for
The presence of Gothic elements in these icons provincial and rural wooden churches. They
can be explained not just by the masters' exposu were commissioned by town and village com
27
26. St Nicetas and a Devil. MidLoth century
National Museum, Lvov
munes, and the artists undoubtedly made allo
wances for their tastes. Ukrainian wooden
churches were characterised by the height of their
interiors. They were built of trimmed logs, and
their walls were painted or covered with large
icons of the Passion and Last Judgement. In mas
king the timber, these icons produced unexpec
ted effects in the wooden churches, particularly
when they were painted on gold backgrounds.
They transformed the interior, and bring to
mind the goldbackground mosaics a~d frescos
of the famous churches of Kievan Rus. The large
monumental icons performed a similar function
to the monumental murals on the same themes
which normally adorned the same parts of the
church. They shared the same iconography and
compositional principles. And though the l Sth
century icon was influenced by murals (the Zvyz
hen "Passion"), from the 16th century on the
reversephenomenon can be observed: the narra
tive style of the icon and its treatment of certain
scenes were taken up by muralpainters. Strict
formulas were evolved for the positioning of such
icons and paintings. The largest tableauthe
"Crucifixion", the cycle's apotheosiswas nor
mally placed in the centre, flanked by depictions
of scenesfrom the Passion, which ranged in n um
ber from six to 35 (for example, the late
l 5th/early16thcentury "Passion" from the
village ofTrushevichi, and the midLothcentu
ry "Passion" from Drogobych).
29
believers of other nationalities and races (the monastery's school; evidence suggests that in the
latel Sth/ earlyLothcentury "Last Judgement" l Sth and l oth centuries there was a studio here.
from the village ofMshany). Information on this era is scarce, which is why
manuscript evidence of the fate of the Cathedral
One of the recently discovered Volhynian of the Assumption is so important: in 1470 it
iconsa late15th/ ear was meticulously res
lyLorhcentury Dee tored by the then ruler
sisis characterised by of Kiev, the Lithuanian
Byzantine imagery prince Simeon Olyel
unusual in both Vol kovich (d. 1471), and
hynian and Galician damaged in 1482
art of the time. The during Mengli Giray's
unadulterated Byzan invasion; in 15 5 56 the
tine style of this icon is interior was restored,
evidence that it may probably by the
have been painted in monastery s own
)
30
school in the town of Ostrog, Volhynia, that would Ostrog, where he carried on his publishing work.
be known to history as the SlavonicGrecoLatin The Ostrog circle collectively prepared, edited,
Academy. He was encouraged in his educational and in 1581 published the celebrated "Ostrog
work by the activities of the CounterReforma Bible". It is difficult to exaggerate the Academy's
tion then under way in Poland, which also affec importance in Ukrainian culture. It survived
ted Volhynia: in 1569, until the death of its
the whole territory was founder in 160823.
ceded to the Rzechpos
poli ta (Poland). The The second half of the
Ostrog circle brought l oth century saw an
together intellectuals of increase in the number
many different nationa of educated Ukrai
litiesUkrainians, Rus nians, who came from
sians, Byelorussians, all social strata of
Greeks, Moldavians, Ukrainian society.The
Serbs, and Poleswho ideas of the Reforma
had graduated from tion partly inspired the
the Universities of first attempts at trans
Cracow, Padua, and lating the Gospels into
Venice. The Academy's Ukrainian. The most
Orthodox character magnificent rnanus
turned it into an ideo criptswere produced in
logical centre: it pos Volhynia, among them
sessed not only a the magnificent "Per
school, but a printing esopnichi Gospels"
press, which churned (15 5661), decorated
out polemical tracts. with miniatures of the
Constantine was a clo Evangelists and won
se friend of Prince der f u 11 y stylised
Andrew of Kurbsk Renaissance ornamen
(circa 152883), who tation, of impeccable
had emigrated to Vol form and stylistic puri
29. St Luke the Evangelist. Miniature from the
hynia. The Ostrog Peresopnitsy Gospel. 155661 ty, These manuscripts
Academy educated Central Research Library of the Academy were usually gifts from
many prominent of Sciences of the Ukraine, Kiev Volhynian barons: the
figures of the 17th century. "Zaborovski Books of the Apostles" (1554) were
donated to the monastery by the Volhynian Mar
The Russian printing pioneer Ivan Fyodorov shal P. Zaborovski, whilst Princess M.S. Ivanits
(circa 151083), "a Muscovite and printer of kaya commissioned the Galician master
hitherto unknown books", as the people of Lvov Fyedusko of Sambor to paint the "Annuncia
described him on his 16thcentury gravestone, tion" icon (1579) for the village church of Ivani
made a great contribution to the Ostrog Acade chi; in spite of its solemnity and ostentation, it
my. In 15 80 he moved from Lvov,where in 15 74 shows signs of a new style, both in Mary's relaxed
he had printed the "Books of the Apostles", to posture and in its imitation of engraving in the
31
30. The Apostle Peter and the Virgin. 1570s
National Museum, Lvov
31. The Apostles Simon and Bartholomew. 1570s
National Museum, Lvov
drawing of the folds of the fabrics. Fyedusko of against the embossed or carved gesso back-
Sambor set up a studio (probably in Sambor) grounds which adorned the Ukrainian icon from
that was to enjoy great popularity in the second that time on.
half of the 16th century. The icons it produced
can be seen in numerous wooden churches in The stylistic changes particularly affected the
Galicia, Slovakia, icons of the feast-days:
Romania and Volhy- influenced by West-
nia. One of the studio's European engravings,
finest pieces is the Dee- their iconography fre-
sis from the village of quently changed. The
Nakonyechnoye, near Church reacted tole-
Lvov. rantly to all of this. By
the 1580s, artists
The Nakonyechnoye began to include
Deesis marks a new sta- depictions of interiors
ge in the development and household items.
of Ukrainian icon-pain- The biggest changes
ting, since it forms part occurred in icons of
of an altar screen rather the Passion and Last
than a high iconostasis. Judgement. The mas-
It contains images of the ters painted accurate
12 Apostles, as well as yet grotesque portraits
icons of the Feast-day of evil men, and intro-
Row. The prophets were duced contemporary
only added to the icono- costumes, which com-
stasis in the late 16th bine whimsically with
century. In the second the conventional
half of the l oth century, architecture of pavi-
tall iconostases were lions, the arbitrary sca-
erected in both old and le of the figures, and
newly built churches. the reverse perspecti-
Only the royal gates ve. They sometimes
were decorated with used both free drawing
carvings. A formal plan 32. Detail of an icon of The Passion of Christ. and a traditional treat-
was elaborated for the Jviid-16th century ment of the face in one
The Church of the Exaltation of the Cross
arrangement of icons and the same icon ( the
in the town of Drogobych, Lvov Region
on the iconostasis, yet mid-16th-century
no two of them are alike: each was accorded spe- "Passion" from Drogobych, the latc-Loth-cen-
cial veneration by the community and the priests. tury "Resurrection" from Rava-Russkaya).
By the 1570s, Deesis Rows like that in Nako-
nyechnoye had acquired an especially majestic Icon-painting was influenced by popular
appearance; the figures seemed to hover in space, folk stories of the time (the mid-16th-cen-
precisely drawn incorporeal silhouettes illumina- tury "Exaltation of the Holy Cross" from
ted by a mysterious light. They looked stunning Drogobych).
34
The depiction of landscape in icons started to the master Theodore of Lvov. The artist does
change from the 1580s: instead of the conven- not violate the iconography of the Virgin Hodi-
tional ledged hillocks, the masters painted sim- gi tria, yet Mary's face, poetic and attractive,
plified yet immediately recognisable versions of seems to be that of a real woman. The master
the Carpathian landscape, with its characteristic was obviously a portraitist. To give the figure a
conifers. They skilfully combined the conven- greater sense of movement, he used oil paints
tional two-dimensio- on an egg tempera.
nal treatment of The art of the new era
landscape with aerial brought about funda-
perspective, conveyed mental changes in the
through the lighting appearance of the
(the late-Leth-century Ukrainian icon of the
"Transfiguration" 17th and l Sth centu-
from the village of ries. The dawn of the
Yablunyevo). 17th century marked a
stylistic watershed in
The temptation to use Ukrainian religious
west-European art, pamtmg.
especially engravings,
as a model went hand In the late 16th and
in hand with an awa- early 17th centuries,
reness of the need not the Ukraine was wrac-
to do so indiscrimina- ked by social, econo-
tely, since the masters mic, and political
were obliged always to conflicts, which were
preserve the sense of exacerbated by reli-
sanctity that made gious strife. Poland
their works genume had embarked on its
icons. 36. St John the Baptist with Scenes from His Life. struggle with the
First half of the l Sth century. The Church of the Holy Reformation, a
Nevertheless, by the Spirit in the town of Rogatin, Ivano-Frankovsk Region struggle that involved
end of the 16th centu- the catholicisaticn of
ry tradition in the Ukrainian icon had largely adherents of different faiths, or "schismatics".
gone by the board. In the history of art of the The Union ofBeresteczko of 1596 represented
Orthodox peoples, the period following the fall a successful diplomatic step in this direction.
of Byzantium in 1453 is known as "Byzantium The Counter-Reformation was categorical and
after Byzantium". It was shortest in the Ukraine, resolute, and it offered the Ukrainians the
lasting only until the 17th century, although it Greek-Catholic Uniate confession, subordina-
survived elsewhere until the 19th century. te to the Pope of Rome. But the establishment
of this new church acted as yet another spur to
The secular portrait began to have an impact on the many-faceted national-liberation move-
the icon as early as the l Gth century (ill.). A ment, which engulfed the Ukraine from the
good example of this transitional period is the late l oth century and would be active for a fur-
"Virgin of the Akathistos Hymn" from 1599 by ther two hundred years.
39
35 Fiodor from Lvov
e Vir in of the Acathistos Hymn. 1599. Detail
One of the main forces in the struggle for Ukrai- The patriotic upsurge and the growth of Ukrai-
nian independence were the Cossacks. They had nian national consciousness in the first half of the
arisen a century earlier around the lower reaches 17th century took many forms, and drew in all
of the Dnieper, beyond its rapids (porogi), from sections of Ukrainian society. In 1620 the Cos-
which they came to be known as the "Zaporoz- sacks succeeded in having the church hierarchy
he Cossacks" ("The Cossacks from Beyond the restored, and Kiev again became the seat of the
Rapids"). Metropolitan of Kiev, thanks largely to the efforts
of the enlightened Herman of the Zaporozhe Host
In thesecondhalfofthe Peter Konashevich-
16th century the Cos- Sagaidachni (d. 1622),
sack Host was swelled the "valiant knight", as
by peasants escaping he was christened by
from serfdom, and it his contemporaries.
began to pose a serious From the late 16th
threat to the Turks and century, predomi-
Tartars who had devas- nantly petty-bour-
tated the southern geois lay brotherhoods
Ukraine. In the late attached to churches
16th and early 17th were set up throu-
centuries the insurrec- ghout the Ukraine.
tions developed into a They saw their prima-
national-liberation war ry function as-educa-
(1648-54) that spread t ion al - to found
throughout the Ukrai- schools and printing-
ne. The war with p res ses. (In 1615
Poland drew in Turkey, Sagaidachni enrolled
Russia, and the Cri- the entire Zaporozhe
mean Tartars, butitwas Host in the Kiev Bro-
the Zaporozhe Cos- therhood.)
sacks who played the
leading role. The The first half of the
struggle for indepen- 17th century saw an
dence was led by the 39. Portrait of the Kievan Metropolitan Peter Mogila. 1644 explosion in publi-
talented commander Fresco from the Deesis tier shing, and the accom-
The Church of the Transfiguration on the Berestovo, Kiev
and politician Zinovy panying development
Bogdan Khmelnitski of various literary
(1595-1657), the Hetman of the Ukraine. The genres, first and foremost the liturgical and pole-
peace proposals agreed between Russia and the mical genres (the latter highly topical during the
Ukraine at the Pereyaslav Council in 1654 were struggle against the Union), but also the so-cal-
never implemented, and the Truce of Andruso- led "school drama'' and the eulogy, often in ver-
vo of 1667 between Poland and Russia divided se. The acorn planted by the Muscovite
the Ukraine along the Dnieper-Poland took its book-publisher Ivan Fyodorov was growing into
right bank, whilst Russia took its left bank and a mighty oak tree. Book-publishing was stimu-
Kiev. lated by the development of engraving-wood-
41
cuts in the first half of the century, relief engra todo petty bourgeois, who made their presence
ving in the second. The college of the Kiev Bro felt in the city by founding their own Orthodox
therhood, founded in 1632 by the Metropolitan centre on Rus Street.
of Kiev Peter Mogila (15961647), was the direct
ancestor of the first EastSlavonic universitythe Lvov was restored after the devastating fire of
KievMogila Collegium. Peter Mogila, a cele 1527, which destroyed the Gothic city, but it
brated polemicist and was struck by another
patron, devoted a lot fire in 1571. The buil
of effort to reforming dings that have survi
and strengthening the ved allow the trained
authority of the Ukrai eye to trace the whole
man church. The complex sociopoliti
rebirth of Kiev's cultu cal environment of the
ral life was greatly Rzechpospolita, and
aided by the Lvov with it the Ukraine, on
intellectuals who took the eve of the I7th cen
up residence in the tury.
city.
Just how much the
The importance of petty bourgeoisie had
Kiev as a centre of consolidated its posi
artistic culture in the tion in the city can be
first half of the I7th seen from Lvov's
century is attested to Renaissance stone
by numerous engra mansions, which were
vings and gorgeously sometimes austere and
decorated books, and functional, sometimes
by the enthusiastic tes almost palatial. They
timony of travellers. belonged to members
They describe the of the various different
interiors and icorio 40. Unknown artist nationalities that had
stases of the city's Portrait ofJan Gerburt. Late l Gth century. Detail settled in this cosmo
churches, and give Picture Gallery, Lvov politan cityPoles,
particularly detailed Greeks, Ukrainians,
descriptions of their icons. Unfortunately, only Armenians, and Italians. The Polish petty bour
one of these has survivedthe early17thcentury geois were often so rich that they could afford to
"St Nicholas"; only recently discovered by resto build themselves family chapels. The successes of
rers, it is stylistically closest to Lvov icons and the CounterRevolution led to the Catholic
miniatures of the time. Church's assuming an increasingly important
role in the city: large plots ofland were set aside
The Lvov Brotherhood (which was independent for monasteries of the various Catholic orders,
of the Ukrainian church hierarchy) enjoyed a behind whose fortresslike walls the monks felt
particular authority among the brotherhoods=. themselves secure and sovereign. This is why it
Its members were energetic, educated, fairly well was so important for the Ukrainians to assert the
42
claims of Orthodox culture through the were undoubtedly influenced by west-European
construction of the complex of buildings on Rus painting and engraving, the Ukrainian icon, sur-
Street. The Lvov Brotherhood's complex was prisingly, observed a sober balance between chur-
composed of the Church of the Assumption ch tradition and artistic innovation.
(1591-1629), the Chapel of the Three Prelates,
and the Kornyaktos Bell-Tower (1572-1578), so The iconostasis for Lvov's Church of the
called in honour of its Assumption was
founder-the Greek contracted to the
Constantine Kornyak- most sought-after
tos, an influential mem- Ukrainian painter of
ber of the Brotherhood. the time in the city,
Theodore Syenkovich
Most of the architects (d. circa 1631). He
were Italian: Peter Ita- was paid the unprece-
lius, Paul Rimlyanin dented sum of 2000
("the Roman"), Ambro- zlotys for the work. It
se Prikhilni, Vojtech was completed in
Kapinos, and Peter Bar- time for the church's
bon. Following the tastes consecration in 1630,
and specific instructions but was badly dama-
of the Brotherhood, they ged in the fire that
combined the stylistic broke out shortly
purity of Renaissance afterwards. It was
architecture with a com- only restored in 1638,
positional scheme typi- for 1200 zlotys, by
cal of Ukrainian folk Syenkovich's bro-
architecture, which ther-in-law Mykola
made the churches and Petrakhnovich. The
bell-rower stand out contract between the
from the surrounding Brothers and Pecrakh-
Catholic churches; the novich stipulated that
Brotherhood's complex "the work must be as
was built as a response to lavishly decorated as
all the early-Baroque possible, using only
churches and chapels in the best and most resi-
the city. lient paints and pure,
41. Master Andrei Pelenichka unadulterated gold,
In the early 17th cen tu- St John the Evangelist. Miniature in the Gospel from the and must be richly
village of Grimno, Lvov Region. 1602
ry Lvov was home to a National Library of Russia, St Petersburg
executed on a good-
highly professional and quality priming and
fairly numerous community of Ukrainian pain- completed by the specified date. "25
ters. They created a distinctive style of icon-pain-
ting that is easily recognisable and can justifiably The iconostasis was dismantled in 1767 and
be called the "Lvov school". Though the artists replaced by a Uniate iconostasis; a few icons
43
42. The iconostasis. The Church of
St Cosmas and St Damian
in the village of Bolshiye Gribovichi, Lvov Region
remained in the Church of the Assumption, the changes in the artists' conception of the func-
rest were used to create a new iconostasis for the tion of the decorative arts.
church of St Cosmas and St Damian in the villa-
ge ofBolshiye Gribovichi. But the icon-painter, though armed with a know-
ledge of secular painting, was extremely circum-
Because this generously financed iconostasis has spect in his exploitation of the new opportunities
not survived in its original form, it is rather dif- at his disposal. The Ukrainian school had its own
ficult to imagine how it originally looked. rules, which demanded adherence to the sym-
Nevertheless, we know that the carved icono- bols and imagery that gave it its Orthodox, natio-
stasis followed a precise architectural plan: the nal character.
Deesis Row was composed of columned arcades
entwined with carved vines, whilst the Feast- Mykola Petrakhnovich's additions to the icono-
day Row took the form of a frieze, whose exqui- stasis of the Church of the Assumption did not
site carved cartouches held icons such as "The imitate the work of his teacher. He had the bold-
Old-Testament Trinity", "The Saviour Not ness of youth, particularly when it came to his
Made With Hands", "The Saviour Emmanuel", treatment of the "Passion", which was no longer
and "The Burning Bush". The iconostasis was a single icon but a series of individual tableaux
the ceremonial centrepiece of the church. The forming a whole tier of the iconostasis. This had
Brothers had obviously discussed with the artists the effect oflaying special emphasis on the "Pas-
the composition of its icons and the ideological sion" cycle-and not by chance: in the early 17th
framework of the ensemble, and they placed as century the Passion was a favourite theme of
much importance on the overall theological Ukrainian literature and theatre, particularly the
meaning as on the artists' skill. It can be assu- so-called "school dramas", which drew a direct
med that individual icons, particularly those in parallel between the Gospel story and what was
the Passion Row, served a polemical function: happening in the real world; suffering and stead-
to strengthen the position of Orthodoxy in its fastness in the struggle for faith was a highly topi-
struggle with Catholicism in the Ukraine. The cal theme at the time. Petrakhnovich was
church's iconostasis therefore played a role simi- perfectly aware of all this, and every one of his
lar to that of Ukrainian polemical literature of works is in some way innovative. He undoub-
the time. tedly borrowed heavily from German and
Dutch engravings, yet every tableau shows origi-
Theodore Syenkovich was an artist of the transi- nality. Petrakhnovich is important above all as a
tional period. He had a strong feeling for the gifted colourist. He had an amazing sense of
tastes and requirements of his age. Ukrainian colour, and was audacious in his juxtaposition of
and foreign books decorated with engravings different tones. He loved the combination of
introduced him and his colleagues to a new pink, grey, and gold with vermilion and dark
repertoire of religious themes and new composi- blue, and would paint vigorous shades of orange
tional devices, and contact with artists of other onto red drapings. In contrast to his teacher
nationalities who lived in Lvov introduced him Syenkovich, his painting was always spirited and
to new genres and techniques of painting. Both resolute.
the sculpture in the round that had become an
integral part of the facade and interior of Lvov Petrakhnovich's painting shows no signs of the
architecture, and the secular genre of portrait- learned techniques of the craftsman: he approa-
painting, undoubtedly brought about huge ched each work in a new way. He enjoyed pain-
47
45. Mykola Morokhovsky (?)
Christ Before Caiaphas. 1637-38
The Fraternal Church of the Dorrnition, Lvov
48
46. Mykola Morokhovsky (?)
The Judgement of the Sanhedrin. 1637-38
The Fraternal Church of the Dormition, Lvov
49
47. Mykola Morokhovsky (?)
Christ Before Herod. 1637-38
The Fraternal Church of the Dormition, Lvov
50
48. Mykola Morokhovsky (?)
Christ Before Pilate. 1637-38
The Fraternal Church of the Dormition, Lvov
51
ting different types of costume, introduced rea- easily grasped by every citizen of Lvov, by illus-
lia into his icons, and used still-life motifs ("The trating the different episodes against the familiar
Washing of the Feet"). But in spite of these rea- backdrop of Lvov's stone mansions. Early icons
list features Petrakhnovich's icons are extremely did not concern themselves with depictions of
conventional. The undoubtedly erudite master interiors, and the trained eye can see how the
sometimes disappoints with the large size of his artists, whether by mistake or by design, have
figures' heads and his disregard of anatomy. He violated the rules oflinear perspective. (The same
sometimes makes bold use of linear and "reverse" phenomenon can be observed in 16th-century
perspective, thus preserving the characteristic Dutch engraving.)
traits of the icon. His work was also undoubted-
ly influenced by provincial icons, which reflec- It is difficult to tell how many artists worked on
ted the tastes of the common man. There were the icons for this iconostasis. The author of the
many provincial studios in the Ukraine, and they Deesis was obviously an experienced portraitist.
influenced not only painting but also engraving. He displays a sound knowledge of the anatomy
of the body in movement, and had obviously
As well as the iconostasis in the Church of the mastered the art of realist drawing. In spite of
Assumption, Lvov also still boasts the magnifi- the traditional character of the Deesis, it violates
cent iconoscasis in the Church of St Parasceva the principle of representation: the interest in
(first half of the 17th century). It is tall and slen- human character and the humanise culture of
der and has six tiers, crowned by a "Crucifixion" the time allowed the artist to endow each of the
framed by delicate gilded low-relief carving. It apostles with a complex, multi-faceted indivi-
observesa Renaissance sense of proportion. The duality. The arcade that divides the apostles from
ceremonial decoration of the iconostasis is each other emphasises their state of contempla-
enhanced by the ornamental gold-relief back- tion; engrossed in their own thoughts, they are
grounds of the icons and the panels of the pre- more like portraits than stylised ciphers. This
della or, which resemble precious fabrics. emphasis on the individualisation of the icon's
figures was a new phenomenon in Ukrainian
Created slightly earlier than the iconostasis in religious painting.
the Church of the Assumption, it expresses its
own ideological agenda. The church's two It would be incorrect to imagine that iconostases
icons of "St Parasceva" underline the signifi- of this type were a rarity. Paul Alyepski, the son
cance of chis saint for the citizens of Lvov: St of Makarios III, Patriarch of Antioch, travelled
Parasceva was considered the patron saint of throughout the Ukraine in 1654 and wrote:
trade. The theme of the Passion is illustrated "The iconostases are breathtaking in their height
not just in its own row, but in the iconostasis's and gilding. The magnificent large altar doors
central axis, which displays in ascending order are carved in the round and gilded. "26 Icono-
icons of "The Last Supper", "The Laying in stases were erected in both stone and wooden
the Tomb", and the triumphal "Christ churches, both large and small; a humble woo-
Conquering Death Through Death" (a rare den exterior often hides an iconostasis of ama-
theme in Ukrainian painting), set beneath the zing beauty, which gives the ascetic interior a
"Crucifixion". certain festive feel.
In the "Passion" cycle the artists were trying to The little wooden Church of the Holy Spirit in
cell the Gospel story in a language that could be Rogatin, near Ivano-Frankovsk, is just such a
53
superficially unremarkable building. Beginning and the chubbyfaced angels are seated at a cove
in the late l orh century, the Rogatin Brothe red table laid with clear crystal goblets half filled
rhood, which like the Lvov Brotherhood had a with a rich, dark wine.
predominantly pettybourgeois membership,
played an important role in the town and fought As well as the central royal gates, most Ukrai
against clerical interference in its affairs. The nian iconostases also had a diakonikon (sou
Brotherhood took thern) door and a
an active part in the prothesis (nor
townspeople's resis thern) door. The
tance during the former often depic
nationalliberation ted Melchizedek,
war. the latter the
Archangel Michael.
In 1650 an iconosta In the 17th and ear
sis was erected in the ly l Sth centuries,
church. Extraordi the Archangel
nary care went mto Michael became a
the decoration. The favourite theme in
polychrome relief Ukrainian icon
carving of the lower painting and sculp
row is particularly ture; he was the
magnificent. The patron saint of the
columns between Cossack Host, and
the icons are entwi researchers have
ned with vines, whi rightly noted that
ch invade the icons' 51. The Church of the Holy Spirit. 1598 he embodied the
Town of Rogatin, IvanoFrankovsk Region
frames and even the ideal of the warrior
inside of the archi li berator. Artists
volt, blending har therefore dressed
moniously with the royal gates. The polychrome him in knightly armour and "armed" him with
carving, supported by the decorated panels of an avenging sword and a shield. The ''Archangel
the predella, gives the iconostasis a baroque cha Michael" on the pro thesis door of the Church of
racter. The icons themselves do not clash with the Holy Spirit appears utterly resolute, ready
their framing; they were painted by a member of either to smite or to defend. He commands our
the Lvov school, a master who obviously had a attention with his silver armour and green tunic
good understanding of the tastes and cast of covered by a scarlet cloak. The bravura baroque
mind of the predominantly pettybourgeois pathos of the figure jars somewhat with the pla
town, which are reflected in his work. The "Vir cid expression of his face, which reminds us of
gin Hodigitria" is a surprisingly kindly, lumines the angels in the "OldTestament Trinity" and
cent, benevolent matron, and in the radiates goodnessthe distinguishing feature of
"OldTestament Trinity" she is totally devoid of all the figures in the lower row.
any deep symbolical meaning. The action is
transcribed to a contemporary setting. Sarah is The rich and somewhat heavy appearance of the
wearing the dress of a Ukrainian petty bourgeois, lower part of the iconostasis is matched by the
54
59
64
62. Ivan Ruckovich (died 1703)
The Appearance of Christ to Mary Magdalene. 1680
National Museum, Lvov
65
tion of the iconostasis; though altered, it still
retains the basic cycles which give it its concep
tual unity. The iconostasis gave the Orthodox
church a national character.
66
rations of the Great Prince of Kiev Vladimir and they possess a latent movement and illumina
the Byzantine Emperor Constantine in the ico tion, and sometimes they fall in heavy folds,
nostasis. It is no coincidence that the first Ukrai sometimes they are light and limpid. His pain
nianhistory play, which was published soon ting is always inspired and spirited. There is a
afterwards by Theophanes Prokopovich, was also vibrancy in Rutkovich's work that marks him as
dedicated to Prince Vladimir. an artist of the baroque era. But the icon, as a
Rutkovich's icons, like those of most of his form of religious art, modified the "baroque
contemporaries, were heavily indebted to Dutch ness" of the painter: he is faithful to the conven
and German engravings, which were popular in tions of the genre, and uses techniques such as
the 17th century. Nevertheless, like any genuine archaic reverse perspective and certain traditio
artist he used them as the foundation for works nal "formulas" for the depiction of the human
that were truly original. He liked dramatic face. Rutkovich can be said to be the founder of
action, which in his icons takes place in the coun the "Zhovkva school", which left its mark after
tryside or an interior. Every Rutkovich tableau is his death in a whole series of ensembles, inclu
filled with poetry, with a sense of joy or sorrow, ding the iconostasis in Zhovkva's Church of the
surprise or anxiety, dignified serenity or intense Trinity (171820), attributed to Peter Petrakh
expectation. Rutkovich's carefully drawn icons novich (circa 16801759).
conceal the quivering brushstrokes, which by
emphasising the essentials seem almost uninten Another remarkable Ukrainian artist associated
tionally to animate the figure and impart an with Zhovkva was Father Job Kondzyelevich
uncommon beauty to the drapings. The master (1667circa 1740). He was born in the town,
paid a great deal of attention to the drapings: but worked for the most part in the Volhynian
67
monastery of Skit, near Manyava. Tucked away In the 17th century Kiev regained its status as a
in the Carpathian Mountains, Skit was at this centre of Ukrainian art, thanks largely to Her
time (late 17th and 18th centuries) the last bul man Sagaidachni and Metropolitan Mogila. Its
wark of Orthodoxy in a region dominated by ancient cathedrals were restored and decorated,
the Uniate Church. The monastery was a staun and new ones were built. lconostases were erec
ch defender of Ukrainian national pride under ted. Archdeacon Paul Alyepski, the son of Maka
a foreign religious yoke; it had not accepted the rios III, Patriarch of Antioch, visited Kiev in
Union which had been foisted on the Ukrai 1654 and was greatly impressed by the skill of
nian church. Skit valued its links with Kiev's the Kievan painters and their talent as portrai
Monastery of the Caves, links which were not tists. In Kiev the portrait had become one of the
severed even during the years of the Ukraine's favourite genres of painting, which explains the
political fragmentation. The monastery's widespread popularity in the Ukraine of icons
importance and authority were confirmed by containing portraits. They are particularly com
the building of the wooden Church of the mon in icons of "The Protecting Veil of Our
Ascension, which was maintained by regular Lady", but they can also be seen in icons of "The
donations from the Russian tsar Theodore Crucifixion", "The Exaltation of the Holy
Alekseyevich (166182). Between 1698 and Cross", and others. They depicted the church's
1705, Kondzyelevich, "an unworthy monk", as donors; sometimes they had a votive character,
he would sign his work, built an iconostasis for sometimes they served as epitaphs. Icons some
the church. We know more about this artist times commemorated statesmen, but most often
than we do about many of his contemporaries, Cossacks.
yet there is still a lot in his life that remains
unexplained. He was a monk who had spent The late17thcentury "Crucifixion" from the
his entire life in the Ukraine, yet his icons are village of Alekseyevka near Poltava depicts the
imbued with the spirit of the Italian school, in Cossack general Leontius Svichki (d. 1699?).
both their style and their peculiar mysticism. The icon creates a strange effect: this layman
His figures are graceful and elegant, and their with an aquiline nose and Ukrainian topknot,
faces seem to have been lifted straight from the dressed in a red zhupan jerkin and red boots,
Italian masters; we still do not know who taught seems to take up almost as much space as the
him this style. figures of Mary and St John alongside him. With
its masterful combination of representational
There is huge variation in the level of experi and stylised features, the portrait of Svichki is an
mentation and innovation in the Ukrainian icon artistic triumph. The icon has a certain imperti
of the second half of the 17th century, depen nence: the proud, sterntempered man standing
ding on the artist, the tastes of his clients, and unbowed before the Crucifixion is asserting the
the environment in which any given work was social power of the Cossacks, without a trace of
created. Galician masters were highly thought of submissiveness or humility.
throughout the westUkrainian lands ofTrans
carpathia and Volhynia; they were apprenticed The figure of Bogdan Khmelnitski in the
not just in Zhovkva and Lvov, but in small towns 17th/early18thcentury icon "The Protecting
such as Posada Rybotitskaya and Sudovaya Vish Veil of Our Lady", from the Church of the Pro
nya. The lateTZthcentury icon "The Flight into tecting Veil in the village of Dyeshki near Kiev,
Egypt" from Cholm is the work of a master from looks altogether different. The legendary het
Sudovaya Vishnya. man is shown beneath Mary's veil, shielded by
68
67. The Crucifixion, incorporating a portrait of Colonel Leonty Svechka
from the town of Lubny (?). Late 17th century
National Art Museum, Kiev
68. The Intercession of the Virgin. Second half of the 17th century
National Art Museum, Kiev
74
71. The Intercession of the Virgin. Early l Sth century
National Art Museum, Kiev
79
Idee der Ewigkeir des Menschengeschlechts, die Die Zeit der Allegorien hat ein neues Verfahren
<lurch den die Fassade uberziehenden Fries als Rei erfunden, das buchstablich die gortliche Aus
gen von stilisierten Frauen und Mannerfiguren srrahlung vermitteln konnte. Im Altertum wurden
(in der Poesie des Barack bedeuten sie auch Mars die goldenen Strahlen von oben aufgetragen. Die
und Venus) ausgedri.ickt wird. Kiewer Meister des 18. Jahrhunderrs (die Schop
Die Hauptidee des FaworskijLichtes ist jedoch in fer der Ikonostase waren mit Sicherheit Verrreter
der Ikonosrase selbst enthalten, die in der Vergol der Kiewer Schule) begannen, die Kleidung auf die
dung ihrer raffinierten goldenen und silbernen
Schnitzerei, dem reliefar Unrerlagen zu malen.
tigen Hintergrund der An den Stellen, die mit
Ikonen und mit ihren dem Griff des Pinsels
verzierten Umrahrnun ausgespachrelr wurden,
gen glanzt und flimmert. entstanden die beson
In die Motive der Schuit deren flimmernden
zerei der Ikonosrase ist Lichter. In den Bildern
vieles unmittelbar aus Christi und Marias gibe
der ukrainischen Nacur es keine Welrabgeschie
eingeflossen. Die D ppig denheit. Ihre freundli
keit der durchsichrigen c hen rundlichen
Flechten der Blumen, Gesichrer erscheinen
Blatter und der Sprossen nicht so sehr wohlge
wurde von den Kunst staltet, sondern eher
lern in der Absicht lebensfroh und voller
gestaltet, einen Lebens Mitgefohl for die Men
baum darzustellen. Aber schen und ihr irdisches
im Dberschwang der Schicksal.
Blumenvielfalt ist der 75. VerklarungChristiKirche. 1732, in dem Dorf Bolschje Auf den Ubergangeri
Weinrebe ein zu grofser Sorotschintsy (Region Poltawa) zwischen der Ikonosta
Platz zugeteilr warden, se und ihren Sei ten
so daR der Lebens abzweigungen sind die
baum unversehens die eher traurige Symbolbedeu Heiligen, die den Namen der Aufrraggeber Dani
rung des Kreuzbaumes Jesu Christi erhalt. Neben la Apostol und seiner Frau Uljana entsprechen,
dem Jubel und der Feierlichkeit zieht der Gedanke dargestellt. Es sind folgerichrig der Prophet Daniel
vom Leiden und insgeheim auch von der Sterblich und die Heilige Juliana.
keit ein hier und da sind Mohnkopfchen, Symbo Das Bild der Juliana hat portrathafte Gesichrszli
le des ewigen Schlafes, eingeflochten. Die Mehrheit ge,die denen der Frau des Hermans ahneln. Hier
der Mohnkopfchen siehr man auf den Darstellun hat der Maler geschickt das Irdische mit dem
gen der Heiligen, die den Namen von Danila Apos Cottlichen verbunden. Die Heilige Juliana hat )
tol und seiner Frau Uljana entsprechen. eine erwasphantastische Kleidung, ihr enrblofster
Die untere Reihe ist besonders reich rnit Schuit Hals ist mit einem vollig realen Kollier, die Ohren
zereien ausgestattet. Die Ikonen entsprechen mit Ohrsteckern, die Haare mit einem Diadem
ihrer Umrahmung rnit dem bravourosen Vollk geschmuckt, und Blumen liegen auf dem Barock
lang der Malerei. Die Gesichter der Gottes tisch. Gleichzeitig jedoch erfiillt die ganze Kom
mutter Hodegretia und des ChristusAllerhal position die konventionellen Bedingungen, die
ter sind besonders <lurch die reliefartig o rna for die Ikone unentbehrlich sind. Die sratrliche
mentierten goldenen Hintergri.inde hervorge Uppigkeit der Juliana und die hoffartige Halcung
hoben. Ihre Kleidung hat der Maler so ihres Kopfes stehen gleichermaRen mit der vor
dargesrellr, als ob sie ein goldenes und silbernes nehmen Dame wie mit der Heiligen in Wechsel
Glimmern ausstrahlren. beziehung.
81
84
86
80. Die Marryrerinnen Barbara und Katharina. Mirte 18. Jh.
Nacionales Kunscmuseum, Kiew
(
91
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92