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Ecology 01 PDF
Ecology 01 PDF
lntraspecific competition
lntraspecific competition is competition among members of the same
species. Generally intraspecific competition is stronger and more intense
than interspecific completion. This is because individuals of the same
species have very similar resource requirements and if these resources
are limiting, then individuals will compete for access to these resources.
Intraspecific competition can decrease the reproduction and survival of
individuals in a population as the carryrng capacity of the population is
approached.
I nterspecific competition
lnterspeci-fic competition is competition between members of different
species. Individuals of one species experience reduced fecundity,
surrivorship or growth as a result of resource exploitation or interference
bv individuals of another species.
Predator-prey i nteraction
Key points
-\ predator is any organism that gains its nourishment from killing and
Jren eating other animals. Predator species need to be efficient hunters if r Competition is an interaction
-.hey are to catch enough prey to survive. Prey, on the other hand, must between individuals that results
oe efficient at escaping from their predators if they are to survive and
from a shared requirement for a
continue the perpetuation of the species. Growth in the prey population
resource that is in [imited suppty.
n an ecosystem results in ah increase in the predator population in
response to an increase in the potential food supply. As the population r Fecundity refers to the state
:f predator increases the population of the prey population will reduce of being fertile and capabte of
:o an extent where it can no longer sustain the predator population. The producing offspring.
:redator population is therefore limited by its food supply and the prey
population is determined by the number of individuals killed by the
r Predators differ from parasites in
that they do not kitt their host to
;,redator. Figure 1.6.1 shows this dyrramic between population numbers obtain food.
-ri predator and prey.
Learning outcomes Interaction and competition for resources
On completion of this section, you In ecosystems organisms are continually interacting with each other.
shou[d be able to: Interactions are either between members of the same species or between
members of different species. Some ways in which interactions are
r distinguish between the manifested include:
different types of competition in
ecosystems
m exploitation of resources, which leads to depletion of resources
r explain pr"edator-prey
w pre-emptive and territorial interaction, which concerns space
utilisation
interactions
ffi chemical production of toxins
r discuss types of interactions
si encounter involving transient interactions directly over a specific
between brganisms in the
resource.
environment.
Interactions among organisms may be classified in terms of whether the
interaction:
w is beneficial to indiyiduals of all interacting species
s benefits individuals of one species but is harmful to those of another
species
m is harmful to individuals of both species
w benefits individuals of one species but has no significant effect on
individuals of the other interacting species.
Interactions among individuals of different species are called
relationships
Competition
Ecological interactions also manifest as different forms of competition.
Competition can be defined as the use of a resource by one individual
that reduces the availability of that resource for another individual.
Competition occurs between individuals for different resources: food,
shelteq, mates, space, nutrients.
Lithosphere
The Earth is divided into three layers: the crust, the mantle and the
core. The outermost layer is made up of the lightest material and the
innermost layers are made uf of the densest materials. The innermost
layer is the core and it makes up approximately 33 per cent of the Earth's
mass. The outermost layer is the crust and this layer is approximately
I per cent of the Earth's mass. The middle layer is the mantle and it is Figure 1.2.3 The outer and upper layers
approximately 55 pet cent o{ the Earth's mass. ofthe Earth
Conduction, convection and radiation are responsible for transferring crusts and the upper mantle.
energy between the Earth's surface and the atmosphere.
The hydrosphere is that part of the Earth that is composed of a[[ of the
water on or near the Earth.
r Att tiving organisms are components of the biosphere, which is divided into
biomes.
The Earth is divided into three layers: the crust, the mantte and the core.
Habitats and ecoto,nres
.- -c- r- -::---:-thatween that are suitable for the existence of the species without the influence of I "-I
- - . rP u\
'-- -. "-- :.' --a a':'ealrsed niche interspecific competition or predation. The reaiised niche is that part of : :II
the fundamental niche actually occupied by the species. -{
A biome is a t)?e of ecosystem characterised by distinctive climate and --t
soil conditions and a distinctive type of biological community that is a
adapted to the specific set of conditions. Biomes are characterised and -l
defined by a set of complex interactions of the plants and animals with .J:
the climate, geology soi1, water and latitude o{ a given area. ..1
Each biologrcal community has spatiallimits and sometimes the -t
boundarr-benr-een communities is sharp or gradual. An ecotone is
Module'l FundamentaI ecological principtes iffi
Figure 1.3.2 Tropical rainforest biome Figure 7.3.3 CoraL reefs biome
r.I
Learning outcomes EcologicaI terms
There are many factors that contribute to the unique characteristics of
On comptetion of this section, you
att area. These factors may be classified as either abiotic factors or biotic
shoutd be abte to:
factors. Biotic and abiotic factors combine to create the ecosystem. The
r understand the meaning of key ecosystem is a community of living and nonliving things considered as a
ecotogicaI terms and concepts unit.
r understand and differentiate The abiotic factors re{er to the nonliving component of the environment.
between abiotic and biotic Examples of abiotic factors are temperature, pH, humidity, wind speed,
components of the ecosystem air composition, amount of daylight, amount of light reaching certain
r discuss thg concept of'niche' and areas, erosion rates, visibility, average rainfal, amount of space.
distinguish between fundamental Biotic factors re{er to living things, plants, animals, fungi, bacteria,
and realised niche. protists (microorganisms) in the environment.
The biotic and abiotic factors in an environment are interrelated. The
loss of a factor in the environment can a{fect the availability of other
factors in the environment.
Abiotic and biotic factors determine structure and patterns in
ecosystems
Abiotic and biotic factors Yary temporally and spatially in ecosystems.
Because of these variations, different spatial patterns exist in an
ecosystem. Two spatial patterns that are recognised are zonation and
stratification.
Zoratior-is the spatial pattern that occurs horizontally along the ground.
Figure1.4.1 Zonation Density and distribution of species vary along a horizontal gradient.
Stratification is the type of spatial pattern that occurs vertically and which
is determined by the height of organisms. In a forest community, di{ferent
species grow to different heights and this gives rise to stratification.
Activity
* Which is greater, the Grasses
Herbs
ecological niche or the Bposed Lichens Shrubs
fundamentaI niche? rmks Moss Tree
W
Module 1 Fundamental ecoLogicaI princrples ffi
Can two species have the same ecologicaI niche? Examples of resource
partitioning
Two species cannot share the same ecological niche, but individuals
belonging to the same specles may have different niches. Resource
Seabirds, cormorants (Phalacrocorax
partitioning allows two species to coexist in a given location. Howeveq
carbo) and shags (Phalacrocorax
competition betr,veen two species probably Inealls that each species will
aristotelis) appear to have simiLar
have a more limited ecological niche than rf it was living alone. The
niches. They are often seen in the
ecological niche when restricted by the presence o{ a competitor is the
same coastaL Location searching
realised niche. The larger, potential niche that would occur without a
competitor is the fundamental niche. for food. The two species look very
simiLar and it is usually difficuLt to
Each species has a fundamental niche and a realised niche. The them apart. However, they are
tetL
fundamental niche is the set of favourable conditions that are known to have different ecoLogical
determined by abiotic and biotic variables where the species can suryive n i ches.
and successfully reproduce. The realised niche is where the species
can persist given the presence oi other species competing for the same Shags feed mainty on surface-
resources. swimming prey and choose sheltered
coastaI sites for breeding, such as
The fundamental niche therefore includes the total range of crevices in rock gulties, ledges in the
environmental factors that are suitable for the existence oi the species roofs of caves or among bouLders on
without the influence of lnterspecific competition or predation. The
steep stopes. ln contrast, cormorants
realised niche is that part of the ftindamental niche actually occupied by
feed mainly on bottom-feeding prey
the specles (Figure 1.4.4).
and prefer to breed on small rocky
islands and broad ctiff edges which
are often more exposed. Cormorants
usually need more space for their
nests when compared to the nests
of shags.
Key points
4
Learning outcomes
Atmosphere
The atmosphere is alayer of air that surrounds the planet Earth. TMo
gases make up the major part of the Earth's atmosphere: nitrogen (Nr),
which comprises 78 per cent o{ the atmosphere, and oxygen (Or), which
accounts for 21 per cent. On the basis of temperaturg the atmospheie is
divided into four layers: the trophosphere/ stratosphere,.mesosphere and
t-hermosphere.
Didyou know?
Ihe ltlflrosphere is important The hydrosphere is that part of the Earth that is composed of all of
becatrse the water on or near the Earth. The hydrosphere includes water on the
surface of the planeq underground and in the air. Water occupies almost
r water is used by humans for .
7L per cent of the surface area of the planet and includes the oceans,
differern *tivities
rivers, lakes and moisture in the air. Most of the Earth's water is present
r water's nd by living things in the oceans, with the remainder existing as fresh water. The water in
for life prorces and functions. thrc hydrosphere is divided into oceanic waters (oceans and seas) and
r water is an inryonam habitat for continerrtal waters (water bodies on land, such as rivers, lakes and ice)
and underground water.
manyorgmisnr*
A planet's hydrosphere mn be liquid, The hydrosphere is always moving. Water in rivers flows to oceans and
seas. The water in seas and oceans moves because o{ the action o{ the
vapour or ice.
whd, whnch ffeates waves, surrents and tides. In spite of this constant
ffi
Modute 1 FundamentaL ecologicaL prirci:les
other environmental {actors must be wrthin appropriate levels for the life
of organisms to persist. Each environmental factor has both maximum and
minimum levels, cal1ed tolerance limits, beyond which a partrcular species
cannot survive. Befi,veen the maximum and minimum levels is the range ot
tolerance. The point within this range where popui:rtions tend to flourish
is called the optimum range of the species. Fewer and iewer organisms are
iound beyond this optimal range. Figure 1.5.1 shows difierent zones and
population distribution at these cllfferent zones and ranges of factors.
P hosphorus ef''totpf-,otri is a'major Limiiing nutrient in freshwater elosyste*s such as [akes, rivers and reservoirs.
NaturaLty low levets of phosphorus keep poputations of algae and other organisms in check. lf
phosphorus levels increase, for examp[e by the introduction of sewage rich in phosphates, algal
popuLations may exptode and create algaI blooms.
Temperature The temperature of the water in aquatic ecosystems usualty decreases with water depth, since less
sunlight wi[[ penetrate the water at a greater depth. Most aquatic organisms have a Limited range
of tolerance to temperature changes. This is because temperatures are not tikely to undergo major
changes beneath the surface of the water. However, sudden temperature changes can affect the
performance and survivaI of aquatic organisms because they have a specific range of temperature
to which they are adapted. Temperature changes also affect enzyme activity in physiologicaL and
metabolic reactions. Temperature may also have a direct effect on organisms by affecting diurnaI or
tem perature-retated activities,
SunIight Sunlight can on[y penetrate water up to certain depths below the surface. Suntight influences
photosynthesis in primary producers and, u[timateLy, productivity of the ecosystem. Producer
organisms need suntight to produce oxygen and other required substances that wi[[ sustain
consumers. Primary production wit[ onty occur in the zone where suntight can penbtrate.
Dissolved Dissolved oxygen concentrations are influenced by water temperatures. Oxygen leve[, Iike
oxygen (DO) temperature, decreases with depth. When dissolved oxygen leve[s faI beLow a certain point many
consumer organisms, such as fish and zooplankton, witt die. Hence dissolved oxygen and water
temperature are very important [imiting factors in aquatic ecosystems. Oxygen is essentialfor
respiration in organisms and aquatic organisms obtain their supply from oxygen that is dissotved in
the water. lf DO levels decrease then organisms wi[[ experience reduced abitity to engage in aerobic
respiration. This wiLL eventua[[y affect energy output and metabotic activities. Anoxic conditions and
anaerobic conditions wi[[ then deveLop.
Key points
Y
ecosystem.
Development of a stable
species distribution and habitat
A biological community is the third level of organisation in the biosphere
and is made up of all of the populations of organisms living and Figure 1.1.3 Sequence of ecological
interacting in a particular area. succession
Range of tolerance
Each species can survive within a range of abiotic factors and every
population has an optimal range of factors in which they thrive. I[oisture
levels, nutrients, soil and water conditions, temperature, living space and
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