RESEARCH ARTICLE

Developing manufactured soils from industrial

by-products for use as growth substrates in mine
reclamation
Autumn D. Watkinson1,2 , Alan S. Lock3 , Peter J. Beckett4 , Graeme Spiers4,5

Suitable soils for reclamation can be acquired through excavation and translocation of local soils, increasing the industrial
footprint on previously undisturbed lands and causing negative environmental impacts. Manufactured soils (Technosols) could
be a viable soil source when the availability of suitable natural soils is limited. The purpose of this study was to manufacture
a Technosol from an admixture of woody residuals, primary paper sludge, and two subtypes of nonacid generating crushed
mine rock, to function as a growth substrate for revegetation of mined land. Technosols manufactured with 0, 25, 50, and 75%
organic materials (v/v) were assessed in a 10-week growth study using annual ryegrass biomass production and allocation
as a performance indicator. Technosols containing no organic materials had significantly lower plant nutrient concentrations
than Technosols containing an organic constituent and, after 5 weeks of growth, ryegrass grown on nonorganic Technosols had
greater root:shoot ratios than ryegrass grown on organic Technosols. Organics increase the water holding capacity and nutrient
concentrations of Technosols and should be included in manufacturing Technosols for revegetation. Technosols manufactured
with primary paper sludge produced lower shoot biomass than Technosols manufactured with woody residuals, which could
be in part due to the higher pH of the paper sludge. Technosols can be manufactured for revegetation purposes and individual
components should be assessed before and after mixing. Further development of Technosols should include field testing and
amendment or fertilizer use to improve soil nutrient content.
Key words: mining, paper sludge, plant nutrients, ryegrass, soil development, Technosol, vegetation, wood waste

through excavation of local or imported soils, causing distur-

Implications for Practice
Using locally sourced components to manufacture Tech-
nosols for use in reclamation could reduce the negative
environmental impacts associated with traditional sourc-
ing of reclamation soils.
Technosols, manufactured from woody residuals and
crushed mine rock, can function as a growth substrate for
annual grasses commonly used in mine reclamation, but
should be field tested before widespread application.
Mill derived woody residuals are a viable organic con-
stituent of Technosols that effectively increase water hold-
ing capacity and enhance plant nutrient supply during
periods of drought.
Screening of each potential Technosol component is a
necessary step to determine the suitability of the material
for production of a growth substrate for reclamation use.
bance in lands previously untouched by the mining process, thus
expanding the mine site industrial footprint. Transportation of
these reclamation materials over great distances also incurs neg-
ative environmental impacts. Although some mining companies
store soils stripped from the site during development for later
use in reclamation, the amount stored is frequently inadequate
to achieve satisfactory reclamation outcomes. Mining compa-
nies operating on the Boreal Shield region face this particular
problem due to naturally thin soils are that are low in nutrient
concentrations (Evans 1980, 1982; Environment Canada 2000).
Author contributions: AL, PB, GS conceived and designed the research; AW, AL
performed the experiments; AW, AL analyzed the samples; PB, GS contributed
materials, analysis, and tools and supervised experiments; AW analyzed the data and
prepared the first manuscript draft; AW, GS edited the manuscript.
1 Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, 751 General Services

Building, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H1, Canada

2 Address correspondence to A. Watkinson, email autumnly@ualberta.ca
3 Department of Biology, Vale Living with Lakes Center, Laurentian University, 935

Ramsey Lake Road, Sudbury, ON P3E 2C6, Canada

4 Elliot Lake Field Research Station, Laurentian University, 935 Ramsey Lake Road,
Introduction Sudbury, ON P3E 2C6, Canada
5 School of the Environment, Laurentian University, 935 Ramsey Lake Road, Sudbury,
Surface mining is widely regarded as environmentally destruc-
ON P3E 2C6, Canada
tive (Hilson 2001), and while reclamation of mined lands is
considered beneficial to the environment, certain aspects of this 2016 Society for Ecological Restoration
doi: 10.1111/rec.12464
practice may also produce adverse impacts on environmen- Supporting information at:
tal conditions. Suitable cover soil material is often acquired http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec.12464/suppinfo

Restoration Ecology 1
Technosols as growth substrates in reclamation
However, obtaining cover soil suitable for mine reclamation is
critical to successfully restore ecological biodiversity, as soils
provide a base for revegetation by increasing available organic
matter, nutrients, and water holding capacity, while reinstating
microorganisms that are critical for nutrient cycling (Brown &
Naeth 2014). The extraction of local, or the import of, soils may
be an inevitable resolution for many mining companies faced
with a local shortage of soil materials, and few sources from
which to obtain them.
An alternative source of cover soils could be found by man-
ufacturing soils from a composite of locally sourced materials.
The purposeful construction of a soil conceptually allows tai-
loring of soil properties to specific site requirements and would
eliminate extraction of natural soils from previously unmined
ecosystems. Previous studies have investigated manufactured
soils in urban settings and for agricultural use, but few have
studied the use of manufactured soils for land reclamation
purposes. Previous studies have shown that industrial and
community wastes and by-products have successfully been
applied as soil amendments (Munksgaard & Lottermoser 2010;
Baker et al. 2011; Beesley & Dickinson 2011; Gagnon & Ziadi
2012; Cohen-Fernndez & Naeth 2013) and more recently in
the production of manufactured Technosols (Sr et al. 2010;
Resulovic & Custovic 2011; Hafeez et al. 2012). Technosols
(FAO 2006; FAO and ITPS 2015) are anthropogenic soils
whose pedogenic trajectories have been either manufactured
or significantly modified by human activity. These soils may
contain blends of mineral materials, organic materials, soil
constituents, and other materials arising from anthropogenic
processes, including household or industrial wastes (FAO 2006;
Paradelo & Barral 2013).
Paper mill sludge and woody residuals, by-products of lum-
ber milling operations, have been used in agriculture and recla-
mation applications as soil amendments to improve soil fertility
(Nason et al. 2007). Additions of woody residuals (composed of
bark, sawdust, and offcuttings) can greatly increase the organic
matter content of a soil, making them valuable long-term fertil-
izers, as well a source of slow release nitrogen (Sheoran et al.
2010), and have been shown to significantly increase seedling
density, canopy cover, and plant biomass (Smith et al. 1985).
Paper mill sludge, pulp or biosolids, are common soil amend-
ments applied in agriculture (Bellamy et al. 1995; Phillips et al.
1997; Curnoe et al. 2006), soil remediation (Fierro et al. 1999),
and recently have been recognized in Technosol production
(Sr et al. 2010).
The objective of this study was to produce a suitable growth
medium from an admixture of woody residuals, primary paper
sludge, and two subtypes of nonacid generating finely crushed
mine rock for use in mine site reclamation initiatives in the
boreal forest ecosystem of Northern Ontario, Canada. Biomass
production and allocation of Lolium multiflorum Lam. (annual
ryegrass), nutrient accumulation in plant tissues, and total
and bioavailable concentrations of soil nutrients were mea-
sured to assess the performance of the Technosols as growth
media. Our hypotheses were (1) biomass production and allo-
cation are equal between Technosols composed of differing
rock types; (2) biomass production and allocation are not equal
2 Restoration Ecology
between Technosols composed of differing organic constituents;
and (3) biomass production and allocation are equal between
Technosols composed of differing amounts of organic con-
stituent. When plants experience limiting resources, they will
shift biomass production to those regions of the plant that will
improve acquisition of those resources (Poorter & Nagel 2000).
Thus, we predict that Technosols with limiting nutrient avail-
ability and/or soil moisture will produce ryegrass with increased
root biomass and increased root:shoot ratios. We predict Tech-
nosols manufactured with an organic constituent to have greater
nutrient availability and moisture retention than Technosols
manufactured without an organic constituent, and thus lower
root biomass and lower root:shoot ratios than Technosols man-
ufactured without an organic constituent. We also predict that
Technosols manufactured with increasing organic:rock ratio
will have increased nutrient availability and moisture reten-
tion, and thus lower root biomass and lower root:shoot ratios.
Finally, we aimed to assess the differences in nutrient avail-
ability and moisture retention of Technosols with two different
organic constituent types that differ in chemical and physical
attributes.
Methods
Technosol Materials and Construction
Woody residuals, obtained from the Domtar White River
Sawmill (White River, ON, Canada) containing sawdust, bark,
and offcuttings of dominantly boreal coniferous trees, were
screened to include only particles less than 2 mm in diameter.
Primary paper sludge, produced in the manufacture of virgin
wood fiber, was obtained from Tembec Pulp Inc. (Marathon,
ON, Canada). Intermediate volcanic and metasedimentary
mine rock was obtained from the Williams open-pit mine at the
Barrick Gold Corporations Hemlo Operation, ON, Canada.
The intermediate volcanic and metasedimentary mine rock
coexist in the open-pit mine, but can be separated manually. As
we expected differences in the elemental composition of the
two subtypes of mine rock, they were separated, and crushed
to a size less than 2 mm in diameter. The crushed mine rock
had neutral-alkaline pH, with slight differences in carbon (C)
and sulfur (S) between the two subtypes (Table 1). The organic
constituents differed greatly in pH, with woody residuals being
neutral (pH(H2O) of 6.5) and primary paper sludge basic (pH(H2O)
of 9.9). The organic constituents also varied considerably in
elemental composition, with woody residuals containing
greater amounts of both macronutrients and micronutrients
(Table 1).
Technosols were constructed by thoroughly blending 0, 25,
50, and 75% (v/v) of each organic constituent with each crushed
mine rock constituent using a rotating drum cement mixer. Each
Technosol was constructed independently, with three replicates
of each Technosol being distributed in a randomized block
design (n = 42). Technosols were placed into 4.21-L planting
pots (17.5 cm depth and 17.5 cm diameter), with holes punc-
tured in the bottom to allow for water drainage.
 Technosols as growth substrates in reclamation

Table 1. Total elemental concentrations and pH of potential Technosol Abedin et al. (2012). For the analysis of total elemental soil
components, n = 1. concentrations, 0.50 g Technosol sample and 0.2 g plant sample
Primary were treated with 3 mL nitric acid and 4 mL hydrochloric acid
Intermediate Paper Woody for 8 hours at 228 C, heated on a digestion block at 100 C for
Properties Volcanics Metasediments Sludge Residuals 1 hour, cooled, diluted to 50 mL by addition of deionized water,
filtered through Whatman 44 filter papers, and analyzed by
pH (H2 O) 8.8 8.9 9.9 6.5 plasma spectrometry. For the analysis of bioavailable elemental
Carbon (%) 1.16 0.05 21.7 36.9
Nitrogen (%) 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.37 soil concentrations, 5.0 g of mineral material (pure, crushed
Carbon:nitrogen 27.6 12.8 517 99.2 metasedimentary, or intermediate volcanic mine rock) and
Sulfur (%) 0.41 0.003 0.10 0.03 2.0 g of Technosol were shaken with 0.01 M lithium nitrate
P (mg/kg) 514 444 513 425 for 24 hours, centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes, filtered
Ca (%) 1.85 1.07 9.23 1.52 through Whatman 44 filter papers, acidified with nitric acid, and
Mg (%) 0.58 0.30 0.29 0.16 analyzed by plasma spectrometry. The quality control program
K (%) 2.22 1.76 0.13 0.20 was completed in an ISO 17025 accredited facility (Elliot Lake
Cu (mg/kg) 21.8 37.1 7.20 9.43
Fe (%) 1.56 1.61 0.07 0.53 Field Research Station, Sudbury, ON, Canada) and included
Mn (mg/kg) 365 220 309 538 analysis of duplicates, acceptance of certified reference material
Zn (mg/kg) 78.2 65.8 34.1 89.1 data within 10% of accepted values, procedural and calibration
blanks, matrix matched standards, matrix spikes, continuous
calibration verification, and the use of internal standards to com-
Plant Establishment and Growth pensate for matrix suppression and instrumental drift during the
analysis.
Germination of annual ryegrass seeds was tested on each Field capacity and permanent wilting point of the Technosols
Technosol over a period of 4 days, both to ensure seed viability were determined for each Technosol using a pressure plate
and to ascertain the suitability of the Technosols in promot- system (Topp et al. 1993) set at 0.33 and 15.0 MPa.
ing seedling establishment. Each Technosol was placed in a
Petri dish and moistened with deionized water. Twenty-five
annual ryegrass seeds were spread over each Technosol Calculations and Statistical Analysis
(n = 3) and the lid was replaced. Germination was noted after Calculations and statistical analysis were carried out using R
4 days. 3.0.2 (The R Foundation for Statistical Computing 2013). A
Biomass production was assessed on each Technosol over a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukeys
period of 10 weeks. Fifty ryegrass seeds were sown in each soil HSD (honest significant difference) test was performed to reveal
pot following the addition of 500 mL of full strength Hoagland significant differences in biomass production and allocation
solution (Hoagland & Arnon 1950). Annual ryegrass was grown across Technosols of different rock types and type and amount
for 10 weeks in an indoor growth facility, with full light spec- of organic constituents. Shoot, root, and root:shoot ratio were
trum hydroponic lights operating for 12 hours/day. Watering separately analyzed as the dependent variable against the inde-
frequency reflected spring and summer precipitation events of pendent factors rock type and organics, where rock type had two
Northern Ontario: deionized water was administered at a rate of levels (intermediate volcanics and metasediments) and organ-
500 mL, three times weekly from weeks 1 to 5, and at a rate of ics had seven levels (0% organic, 25% woody residuals, 25%
250 mL three times weekly from weeks 6 to 10. After 5 weeks of paper sludge, 50% woody residuals, 50% paper sludge, 75%
growth, the ryegrass was thinned to 15 plants per pot. Roots and woody residuals, and 75% paper sludge). A one-way ANOVA
shoots were removed with minimal soil disturbance and kept was also used to detect differences in the bioavailable concentra-
for further analysis. At the end of the 10-week growth period, tions of calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), phos-
the remaining roots and shoots were also harvested and kept for phorous (P), and iron (Fe) across all Technosols. Tukeys HSD
further analysis. test followed ANOVA if a significant difference was detected at
p 0.05. Spearman correlations of biomass production against
bioavailable soil nutrients and organic ratio were used to help
Sample Analysis explain significant differences in biomass production between
Roots and shoots of the annual ryegrass, sampled after both Technosols. ShapiroWilks test was used to assess normality,
5 and 10 weeks of growth, were separated and cleaned with and Bartletts test for homogeneity of variance of the response
deionized water to remove soil debris. Roots and shoots were variables. All data passed homogeneity of variance assump-
dried for 24 hours at 105 C to constant mass and weighed to tions, but shoot biomass did not meet the normal distribution
determine dry mass. Soil pH was measured in water and a assumptions. Log transformation mostly improved the distribu-
neutral salt solution of air dried Technosols (Carter 1993). A tion of shoot biomass data. Analysis was performed on non-
small sample of each Technosol was dried for 24 hours at 105 C transformed data of all response variables, except shoot biomass
to constant mass. Total and bioavailable element concentrations which was log transformed. Analyses of biomass production
were determined by ICP-MS (inductively coupled plasma and allocation were conducted for samples collected after 5 and
mass spectrometry) following extraction methods outlined by 10 weeks independently.

Restoration Ecology 3
Technosols as growth substrates in reclamation

Results
Ryegrass Biomass
Germination of annual ryegrass seeds was observed to be greater
than 95% over all Technosols. The lowest germination rate
was 76% and the highest was 100%, with over 95% of the
germination rates over 92%.

Weeks 1 to 5. Shoot dry mass over all treatments ranged

from 0.268 to 0.964 g, root dry mass ranged from 0.090 to
0.401 g, and the root:shoot ratio ranged from 0.179 to 0.631
(Table S1, Supporting Information). No significant effect of
rock type on shoot biomass, root biomass, or root:shoot ratios
was detected (Fig. 1). No significant effect of organic amount
and constituent on shoot biomass was detected (Fig. 1). Organic
amount and constituent had a significant effect on root biomass
(F [6,28] = 7.16, p < 0.001) and root:shoot ratio (F [6,28] = 4.34,
p < 0.005). There was no significant interaction effect between
rock type and organic amount and constituent on shoot biomass,
root biomass, and root:shoot ratio. Significant effects of organic
constituent and amount on root biomass were due to signif-
icant differences between Technosols containing no organic
constituent and Technosols that contained an organic con-
stituent, regardless of type. Technosols containing no organic
constituent produced greater root biomass than Technosols con-
taining 25% woody residuals (p < 0.01), 25% primary paper
sludge (p < 0.001), 50% woody residuals (p < 0.005), 50% pri-
mary paper sludge (p < 0.05), 75% woody residuals (p < 0.001),
and 75% primary paper sludge (p < 0.001) (Fig. 3). Significant
effects of organic constituent and amount on root:shoot ratio
were due to significant differences between Technosols con-
taining no organic constituent and Technosols that contained
low amounts of primary paper sludge and high amounts of
woody residuals. Technosols containing no organic constituent
produced greater root:shoot ratios than 25% primary paper
sludge (p < 0.01), 50% primary paper sludge (p < 0.05), and
75% woody residuals (p < 0.01) (Fig. 3).
There was no obvious trend in shoot biomass increasing with
increasing organic ratios in Technosols; however, within the
intermediate volcanic mine rock grouping, decreasing root pro-
duction and root:shoot ratio is apparent as the amount of woody
residuals within the Technosol increases (Fig. 1). The amount of
woody residuals in a Technosol was significantly correlated with
the root:shoot ratio of ryegrass produced (Spearman correlation,
p < 0.005, r = 0.577).
Weeks 6 to 10. Shoot dry mass ranged from 0.298 to 1.062 g,
root dry mass ranged from 0.029 to 0.365 g, and the root:shoot
ratio ranged from 0.053 to 1.27 (Table S2). No significant effect
of rock type on shoot biomass, root biomass, or root:shoot
ratios was detected (Fig. 2). No significant effect of organic
amount and constituent on root biomass or root:shoot ratio was
detected (Fig. 2). Organic amount and constituent had a signifi-
cant effect on shoot biomass (F [6,28] = 17.75, p < 0.001). Signifi-
cant effects of organic constituent and amount on shoot biomass
were mainly due to significant differences between Technosols
containing no organic constituent and Technosols containing
Figure 1. Shoot and root dry mass and root:shoot ratio of annual ryegrass
after 5 weeks of growth in Technosols composed of metasedimentary or
intermediate volcanic mine rock and no organic constituent (NO), woody
residuals (WR), or primary paper sludge (PPS). Error bars represent SE,
n = 3.
an organic constituent, regardless of type. Technosols con-
taining no organic constituent produced greater shoot biomass
than Technosols containing 25% woody residuals (p < 0.001),
25% primary paper sludge (p < 0.001), 50% woody residuals
(p < 0.001), 50% primary paper sludge (p < 0.001), 75% woody
residuals (p < 0.001), and 75% primary paper sludge (p < 0.001)
(Fig. 3). Technosols containing 25 and 50% woody residuals
produced significantly greater shoot biomass than Technosols
containing 75% primary paper sludge (Fig. 3).
Soil Moisture Retention, Fertility, and Plant Nutrient
Accumulation
Moisture retention was greatest in soils with the largest amount
of organic constituents and Technosols constructed from blends
containing woody residuals had the greatest field capacity and
permanent wilting point (Table 2).
Nutrient sufficiency ranges for total concentrations of plant
macronutrients and micronutrients in annual ryegrass, adapted
from Mills and Jones (1996) and Plank and Donohue (2000),
indicate that ryegrass harvested after 5 weeks of growth was able
to obtain sufficient amounts of calcium, magnesium, potassium,
phosphorus, copper, iron, manganese, and iron from all Tech-
nosols (Table S2). However, after 10 weeks of growth in Tech-
nosols containing no organic constituent or containing primary
paper sludge as the organic constituent, plant nutrient accumu-
lation data suggest that the ryegrass was potentially deficient
in phosphorus and manganese (Table S2). Significant differ-
ences were detected in soil concentrations of bioavailable Ca

4 Restoration Ecology

Figure 2. Shoot and root dry mass and root:shoot ratio of annual ryegrass
after 10 weeks of growth in Technosols composed of metasedimentary or
intermediate volcanic mine rock and no organic constituent (NO), woody
residuals (WR), or primary paper sludge (PPS). Error bars represent SE,
n = 3.
(F [13,28] = 23.29, p < 0.001), Mg (F [13,28] = 12.78, p < 0.001), K
(F [13,28] = 2.388, p < 0.05), and P (F [12,20] = 26.63, p < 0.001)
across all Technosols (Table S3). After 10 weeks of growth,
shoot biomass was significantly correlated with soil concentra-
tions of bioavailable Mg (p < 0.001, r = 0.524), Cu (p < 0.001,
r = 0.550), and Fe (p < 0.001, r = 0.656). Total soil concen-
trations of plant nutrients were significantly different between
Technosols, but were not correlated with biomass production of
annual ryegrass (Table S4).
Discussion
All Technosols supported the germination and growth of annual
ryegrass over a 5- and 10-week period. As there were no sig-
nificant differences found in biomass production and nutrient
concentration between Technosols composed of different mine
rock subtypes, further development of Technosols from this par-
ticular mine rock could use a mixture of the available mine rock,
thus preventing the added costs to separate and store the mate-
rials separately. However, elevated root biomass and root:shoot
ratios of ryegrass grown in nonorganic Technosols for 5 weeks
indicate that pure, finely crushed mine rock is not optimum for
vegetative growth. Plants experiencing limiting belowground
resources will shift their biomass production to the roots to aid in
acquiring those limiting resources (Poorter & Nagel 2000). This
response has been confirmed for ryegrass, as Vose (1963) also
observed increased root mass and increased root:shoot ratios
of ryegrass grown in low versus high nutrient treatments. quent and of longer duration as an impact of climate change.
Restoration Ecology
Technosols as growth substrates in reclamation
Figure 3. Root biomass (A) and root:shoot ratio (B) of annual ryegrass
after 5 weeks of growth and shoot biomass (C) of annual ryegrass after 10
weeks of growth in Technosols composed of metasedimentary or
intermediate volcanic mine rock and no organic constituent, woody
residuals, or primary paper sludge. Error bars represent SE. Letters
indicate significant differences, n = 6.
Therefore, the shift in biomass allocation demonstrated by rye-
grass grown in nonorganic Technosols was likely due to lim-
iting belowground resources, which caused a shift in biomass
production to the roots, to improve the acquisition of those
limiting resources. Organic soil components have been shown
to provide essential nutrients required for plant growth (Tord-
off et al. 2000), to increase organic carbon content essential
for microbial metabolic activity (Williamson & Johnson 1991;
Sheoran et al. 2010), and to improve water holding capacity
and resistance to compaction (Francou et al. 2008; Paradelo
& Barral 2013). Although reclamation practitioners favor the
use of plant species with high root biomass to stabilize soils
and mitigate soil erosion, forcing high root:shoot ratios within
a species by restricting belowground resources is not recom-
mended. The nonorganic Technosols contained a significantly
lower total concentration of nitrogen than Technosols that con-
tained 25% or greater woody residuals and lower bioavailable
concentrations of Mg than Technosols manufactured with 50%
or greater primary paper sludge and lower bioavailable concen-
trations of P than Technosols manufactured with 75% woody
residuals. Limiting water resources due to lower water hold-
ing capacity of the nonorganic Technosols and lower bioavail-
able nutrient levels were likely the limiting factors resulting
in increased root:shoot ratios of ryegrass grown on nonorganic
Technosols. These results highlight the importance of using an
organic constituent in a manufactured soil to improve soil mois-
ture retention, as drought periods are predicted to be more fre-
5
Technosols as growth substrates in reclamation

Table 2. Organic content, pH, and soil moisture retention metrics for Technosols manufactured with metasedimentary and intermediate volcanic mine rock,
woody residuals (WR), and primary paper sludge (PPS). Percentages indicate the amount of organic matter in each Technosol, n = 1 for each Technosol.

Gravimetric Water Content (%)

Field Capacity Permanent Wilting Point
Technosol Organic Matter pH (0.33 MPa) (15.0 MPa) Plant Available Water

Metasediments
0% ORG 0.1 8.6 10.34 1.04 9.29
25%WR 2.5 7.7 9.86 2.57 7.29
50% WR 6.0 7.4 22.74 5.18 17.56
75% WR 16.4 6.9 35.09 9.34 25.75
25% PPS 0.8 8.9 14.66 0.95 13.71
50% PPS 3.4 9.3 12.42 1.94 10.48
75% PPS 13.5 9.5 26.51 5.26 21.25
Intermediate volcanics
0% ORG 0.1 8.9 10.73 0.63 10.10
25%WR 1.4 7.7 9.47 2.30 7.17
50% WR 5.7 7.3 22.70 5.17 17.54
75% WR 21.5 6.8 30.70 11.10 19.60
25% PPS 0.9 9.3 5.31 0.81 4.49
50% PPS 4.6 9.3 11.24 4.04 7.20
75% PPS 8.9 9.4 28.41 10.69 17.72

During weeks 6 to 10 of the experiment, the volume of water
administered to the ryegrass was reduced to 50% of the vol-
ume administered in weeks 1 to 5 to induce water resource
limitations. As water became less available after 5 weeks of
growth, the biomass allocation of the annual ryegrass grown in
the organic Technosols also shifted to root production. As nutri-
ent supply essentially remained consistent throughout the exper-
iment, limiting soil water is likely the main cause of biomass
allocation shifts. At the end of 10 weeks of growth, all Tech-
nosols had statistically equivalent root biomass and root:shoot
ratios but greater shoot biomass production was observed in
Technosols that contained no organic constituent than in Tech-
nosols manufactured with an organic constituent. As the rye-
grass in the nonorganic Technosols had developed an extensive
root system during weeks 1 to 5 of the experiment under lim-
iting nutrient conditions, it was able to obtain sufficient water
even under limiting water conditions as an extensive root system
to acquire those resources was already in place. This allowed
ryegrass grown in nonorganic Technosols to allocate energy
resources to production of aboveground biomass, whereas rye-
grass grown in the organic Technosols shifted biomass produc-
tion belowground to ensure access to adequate water. As water is
required for the uptake of nutrients, and Technosols containing
organics could not access sufficient water, it is also likely that
the ryegrass grown in these Technosols were experiencing nutri-
ent deficiency brought on by drought conditions. Technosols
containing woody residuals at 25 and 50% produced higher
shoot biomass than Technosols composed of 75% primary paper
sludge. As Technosols composed of woody residuals and pri-
mary paper sludge also had equal root:shoot ratios (after both
5 and 10 weeks of growth), we can conclude that Technosols
manufactured with woody residuals performed better as growth
media for annual ryegrass than Technosols manufactured with
primary paper sludge. Combined with the trend of decreasing
shoot biomass and increasing root:shoot ratio as the amount of
primary paper sludge increased, we could also conclude that
including larger amounts of primary paper sludge in a manu-
factured soil does not improve growth conditions.
The pH of Technosols containing primary paper sludge
(8.59.5) was greater than both the optimal soil pH preferred
by annual ryegrass (5.57.5) and tolerable ranges (5.07.8)
(Hannaway et al. 1999). The greater pH in Technosols con-
taining primary paper sludge likely contributed to decreases
in shoot biomass production of annual ryegrass. Technosols
manufactured with primary paper sludge also had significantly
lower concentrations of bioavailable phosphorus, and signif-
icantly greater bioavailable iron, as compared to Technosols
containing woody residuals. In particular, the maintenance of
plant available P levels in Technosols containing primary paper
sludge may be difficult because as the mine rock weathers
and oxidizes, the Technosols may become rich in Fe-oxides
that adsorb plant-available phosphorus (Sheoran et al. 2010).
Greater observed plant available water and lower C:N ratios in
Technosols that contain woody residuals than in those that con-
tain primary paper sludge also suggest that primary paper sludge
may not be appropriate to manufacture Technosols being devel-
oped for use in the boreal forest where natural soils are acidic
(Larsen 1980). However, other studies examining papermill
biosolids and paper sludge as soil amendments reported a wide
range of pH values from 3.9 to 8.4 (Calace et al. 2003; Battaglia
et al. 2007; Ochoa de Alda 2008; Gagnon & Ziadi 2012).
Gagnon and Ziadi (2012) obtained papermill biosolids from two
different manufacturers over the duration of their study, and the
pH differed greatly, not only between producers (pH 7.9 from
producer 1 and pH 5.0 from producer 2), but between produc-
tion years when obtained from the same producer (pH range of
3.95.8 over a span of 6 years of production). Therefore, the
use of primary paper sludge should be assessed on a case by

6 Restoration Ecology

case basis, with the necessary analysis conducted before use as
a soil amendment or to manufacture Technosols.
Our results also demonstrate that Technosols should be
manufactured with an organic constituent to improve soil water
retention and nutrient availability; however, Technosols man-
ufactured without an organic constituent could potentially
be used for purposes not relating to revegetation. In general,
organic materials retain more moisture (in the form of capillary
water) than coarser textured, well-drained materials such as
sand and gravel. The results obtained in this study indicate that
Technosols should contain sufficient organic matter to help
increase water holding capacity, and subsequently maintain
sufficient plant available nutrients via chemical reactions in
the soil solution, to allow plants to absorb nutrients during
drought periods. To mitigate high C:N ratios as a result of
adding greater amounts of organic constituent to improve soil
moisture retention and nutrient availability, the particle size of
the crushed mine rock could potentially be further reduced and
less organic matter could be required to maintain a reasonable
moisture retention.
Technosols constructed from woody residuals and crushed
mine rock provided sufficient concentrations of bioavailable
plant macronutrient, a suitable soil pH, and had adequate water
holding capacity to support and enhance the growth of annual
ryegrass over a 10-week period. With further tailoring, Tech-
nosols containing woody residuals could be used as cover soils
in mine reclamation. Further tailoring of Technosols for use in
the reclamation of mined land in Boreal regions should include
field testing of the manufactured soils, with a focus on soil
water dynamics, coupled with investigations using select soil
amendments to improve either specific physical or chemical soil
properties.
Acknowledgments
This project would not have been possible without contributions
from the following: Barrick-Hemlo for financial support, Elliot
Lake Field Research Station for analytical support, Penguin
ASI, Laurentian University, and Vale Living with Lakes Center
for research space. The authors would especially like to thank S.
Hayes, J. Dart, and the Environmental Team at Barrick-Hemlo
for financial and field support, and T. Maki of the Elliot Lake
Field Research Station for analytical support.
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Supporting Information
The following information may be found in the online version of this article:
Table S1. Average dry mass (g) and root:shoot ratio of annual ryegrass grown on
Technosols for 5 and 10 weeks.
Table S2. Accumulation of nutrients in the shoots of ryegrass grown on Technosols
for 5 and 10 weeks.
Table S3. Average bioavailable concentrations of essential plant nutrients in Tech-
nosols.
Table S4. Average total concentrations of essential plant nutrients in Technosols.
Received: 25 May, 2016; First decision: 21 June, 2016; Revised: 10 October,
2016; Accepted: 12 October, 2016