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    THE ORIGINS OF THE WHEELLOCK: A GERMAN HYPOTHESIS An alternative to the Italian hypothesis. by Marco Morin was born in Verona of Europe's foremost arm: it the important arms than x40 articles have aj imple, bis second spected authority to the criminal and civil military weapon and correction o| ie A. Gail brat Fvoco pontatiut rratsax, republished in 978, By Bramante of Milan 7, Claude Blair's essay, Further Notes on the Origin of the DM eesti ar ot sto st, must be considered a milestone in the study of firearms evolution and a superb example of weapons-history literature, The care displayed in eradicating some of the most conspicuous inexactness and misinterpretation shows once again, if there were any such need, the high academic level reached by the English school of historiography. It is to British scholarship that T owe the best of my basic knowledge of arms, and I am persuaded that if Mr. Blair had had the source material and research facilities of the Ttalian aichives at his disposal, he would have reached, of course in a far more impeccable way, the same conclusions here reported. ‘Mr. Blair's judgment, however, ic. that the wheellock was invented in Traly by Leonardo da Vinci, leaves me perplexed, for I believe that other assessments are warranted by some indeces at my disposal here in Venice. Mr. Blait’s conclusion is essentially based on the circumstantial evidence of the dating of Folio 56-v'b. of the Codex Atlanticus, and on the presumption, never contested, of Leonardo's originality as a military engineer and inventor. Let us briefly investigate the degree of that originality (excluding, for want of space and pertinence, Leonardo’s contribution to military architecture), as well as some of the other evidence ~ that adduced by Mr. Blair, and then some suggestions of my own ~ that may help to throw light on the problem. THE DA VINCI DRAWINGS Leonardo's work in the martial arts is concentrated in the Cadex Atlanticus, in the Arundel Codex, in the Trivulzian Codex, in the Codex B of the Institut de France and in the recently refound Madrid Manuscript. For the most part, the ordnance and other weapons described in these cannot be considered original, For example, to cite just a few cases, nearly all the bombards shown, are identical to the wellknown “Dardanelles” gun,! which is dated the year of the Hegira 868 = A.D. 1464; most of the multiple-barrel organ guns, including those represented on Folio 56 v.a. of the Codex A‘lanticus (on which the wheellocks also appear), do not differ from those in general use in the fifteenth century? and even earlier; the recipe for Greek Fite in the Trivulzian Codex is described in the same words as those in Marcus Graccus’ LIBER TGNIUM AD COMBURENDOS HosTES in the National Library of Paris: the formila for the bronze alloy for artillery pieces, also in the Trivulzien Codex;? proposes percentages of tin and copper known and used at Teast since the first years of the fifteenth century; and all the catapults, trebuchets, balistas, siege crossbows and other mechanical weapons are of very ancient patterns, as are nearly all the military gadgets (a cranequin described in the Codex Adlanticus® was in general use in the frst half of the fifteenth century).? In short, Leonardo, a genius in the natural sciences and in art, was fascinated by every kind of mechanism, and it is safe to affirm that, at least 82 Fig. 1. Folio 56 o.b of the Codex Atlantcus on which appear Leonardo de Vines sketches for 2 wheelock and for atotber wohecland pritesfreomaking device. For is date tee ‘he discussion om this page’ and. the new. (Ambrosion Library, Milan) ‘Marco Morin: s0 far as weapons and artillery are concerned, he sketched many objects already existing. There is no reason to suppose that this might not have bbeen the case with the famous wheellock mechanism (Fig. 1). Now, it is clear that, for our purposes, great importance lies in the dating of Folio 56 vb., on which the whecllocks appear. Mr. Blair says fon p. 36 of his essay that the date of c. 1308 suggested (but since then modified -,see anon) by Dr. Carlo Pedretti *is based largely on a study of the changes in Leonardo's handwriting, a method that does not seem to be by any means foolproof, and can only be accepted with caution”, Mr. Blair ray of course be tight from a general point of view, but perhaps he under estimates the analytical methods brought to bear by Dr. Pedretti (now = professor of Art History at the University of California, generally considered in the academic world to be the leading authority on Leonardo). Dr. Pedretti hhas recently moved the dating of Folio 36 v.b. up to 2524. While writing these lines in February, r978, I received a letter from him confirming, this revision, together with his two latest publications dealing with the wheellock date: Spigolature nel Codice Atlantico (Gleanings in the Codex Atlanticus), in the BIBLIOTHEQUE D'HUMANISME ET RENATSSANCE, vol. XXIII (Geneva, 1960), and Eccetera: perché la minestra si fredda (Et Cetera: Because the Soup Is Getting Cold), in uerrerarura vincraNa (Florence, 1975) In the prior we find, on p. $34: T do not know how the conviction was bora that the self igniting gunlock of Folio 56 v.b. had been designed by Leonardo in the early phase of his service under Ludovieo il Moro... Folio 56 v.b., which is inserted in the middle of the Folios belonging to his fist period in Lombacdy (7483-85), is of much later date than generally though ‘The type of drawing of this page recalls che style of carved shading strokes... that Leonardo adopted atter rs00, The very fine shading, the accurate details and the light gouache shading bear similarities tthe Scientific illustrations that are found in his anatomic deawings of about x5r0. Other folios of the Codex Atlanticus, hitherto considered 10 antedate 1500, ste also in fact late, and close to Folio 56 vb. in drawing and writing Tin otder to substantiate this new chronology that I have proposed for Folio 36 wb., I suggest that one could make a comparison with Folio 2 fon - el , ee a oA “ wg oat or ) ‘Tas Onscins of THe Wazzttock: A German HyPoTHEsis 83 33 1, where a sketch of a similar wheeled gunlock is shown beside « ote on the flight of bieds dating from about 50508, and beside a Latin comment by Melzi. Other similar sketches ere on Folio 217 ta, van in the midst of gcometrcal snd mechanical noser, which estblch its" Belonging to the same period. One can place into this same chronological sphere Folio 537 fa. vb, which contains details of the spring and chain of the punlock fn Folio 56 vb as well as similar geometrical and. mechanical notes Finally, 1 wosld be inclined to recognize one. more study for. a gunlock on Folio 583 va... which I had previously dated to 1497-1500 but which {az now inclined to consider as belonging 10. 1508-r0, pactly becaare of the architectural sketch on. the back, which is similar fo. those on the back of Folio 372 showing the telits of the Gates of Civitavecchia Folio. 56 v.b. has the appearance of being a definitive version, and therefore later than the abovementioned sketches. Even without pushing the date beyond 1510, it i possible to suggest that it belongs 10. the god ose wo Leonard’ ret fo Lombardy whey inthe seve of the ing. of France, he was involved in atillery and ballstics, which seems contemed by Folio 29 a. vn of the Codex silantcus, the cannons of ‘which can be attbuted 10 such a petiod without doubt In the latter we find, in footnote 50: Preparatory suds for the unlock drawing ze to be found in the Codex Hantas, Folio 217 ta 353 ve, 337 Wand by and 382 Fa. In ey Spigolatre nel Codce Alatica owed “now. the ‘pages contiing, te preparntory auiles vitally atute the date of about ssiser4, of even F5r9 for Folio 36 vb and is whcellck deawng. To. anjoac who would ike to warn me that the writing andthe style cannot be dissociated from thowe ofthe nots and be divwings of unlocks" on Folio x8 of Madd Manuscript 1,1 aboold point cu that the Inter were added by Leonardo at the foot of the Taio quite s Tong time after ayo, even petbape at the time of the gunlack of she Coder Aantcus At this point, continued espousal of the early, traditional dating of the ‘wheellock drawing to 1482-99 would seem difficult, for indeed it is based, as Mr. Blair says, “on nothing stronger than the fact that Leonardo is known to have made military devices for the Duke". Ds. Pedretti’s conclusions appear to be based on firmer ground. Moreover, the fact that a modern stecl-and-stone realisation of the drawing, one that follows its every pro- portion and detail, runs into operating dificulties and requires small modi- fications, does not really prove, as Mr. Blair suggests, that the drawing was a “thinking-with-the-pencil” invention; it can be argued with equal validity that Leonardo probably never gave a thought to the minute exactitude of his skeich, a quick promemoria of a curious object he happened to come across and jot down. If today Mr. Hart (who made the fine working version shown in Mr. Blaic’s essay) would set out to reconstruct the giant cross- bow sketched in the Codex Atlanticus ~ assuredly not an invention — he would meet the same kind of problems that he met with the wheellock (multiplied a hundredfold), since this drawing, too, was only a free exercise, not a builder's blueprint. Let us now take into consideration the documentary evidence for the catly existence and use of the wheellock. ‘THE LOFFELHOLZ DRAWINGS In x505, a Nuremberg patrician, Martin Léffelholz, hed bound in @ quarto volume seventy-six paper folios of which the first fifty.ve bore line and ‘wash drawings of technical devices culled from various sources. It is not indicated whether the «1505» stamped on the binding refers to the compilation of the alzeady-drawn contents, or to the binding of blank sheets on which drawings were then msde, perhaps up to Liffelhole’s death 84 Bigs. 2 & 3. The welockithe, devices in {he socalled “Lageole Drawings dating t ice st ext bl (Original fat ip World War ‘iy’ photographs rom the nun of tbe Mascaro oma Fry, Bera, German Democratic Republic) ‘Maco Morin: in 1533; but internal evidence makes the prior seem certain, The volume is now lost, a victim of World War IL On Folio 27 appeared drawings of two wheellock tinderlighters. One cof these (Fig, 2) consists simply of an L-shaped box in which a narrow whee! is rotated manually by a thong wrapped round its axle, while # pair cof screw-operated jaws, pivoted at the bottom, hold the pyrites, Attached to one side is en oblong container for spare tinder. The other device (Fig. 3) consists of a fat, oblong plate with screw-holes at the corners for attaching it to a support of some kind; its function is explained in the caption. Its close relationship to the drawings in the Codex Adlanticus seems clear: the transmission chain and the linkage to the mainspring are exactly ss shown by Leonardo, while the sear could well be an adaptation of the fone on his gunlock — but most significant is the fact that the tray-shaped pan and the cock, with its curious cubical head and transverse screw, are identical to Leonardo's. On the face of things, it might seem reasonable to suggest, as Mr. Blair has done, that this device was a direct development from Leonardo's drawings or perhaps even from a Leonardo-type gunlock imported into Nuremberg from Italy. If this were correct, the drawings in the Codex Adanticus would have to date from well before x505. But this conclusion requires an outright dismissal of Dr. Pedretti’s analyses. If, con the contrary, one accepts these (and there seem to be convincing reasons for doing so), it would appear that the Laffelholz device was already in general use when, let us say sometime between x5x0 and x51, Leonardo had access to an actual specimen or to a representation of one, and drew it for his records. The Lafielholz manuscript should in that case be considered the earliest representation of a wheelloc. THE GUN PURCHASE OF CARDINAL IPPOLITO D'ESTE Mr. Blair next says that there is, in face, documentary evidence 19 show that the wheellock was in use long prior to 1517. This is contained in a book of accounts for the year 1507 of the steward of the Cardinal Ippolito d’Este I (1479-1520), Archbishop of Zagreb (Agtam), « city which was then in Hungary. He quotes this source in full: Tem fvit quidem gespar bohemus servitor castri ad sanctum farka ad Hilemaniam pro devorione col fee dare pro suis servcjs orenos quatuor cum medio et ieecum alos quatvor ut emeret pro Reverendissimo domino tea nam piscidem de iis qua incendunter cum lapide et emit et mist Reverendissime domination? sue ferariam pet petram Lardum castllanam agrensom ef in toto faciunt florenos octo cam medio f. 8 D.s0 (Also, a certain Caspar the Bohemian, castle servant, went to St, Farkas in Germany on a pilgrimage, to whom T exused to be given four and a half florins for his services, and alse another four for him to bay for my most reverend Lord « gum of that kind that is fired with a stone, and be bought ‘Tue OniciNs oF THE Wasttock: A GrRMaN Hyporiesis 8 it and sent it to Ferrara to his most reverend lordship by the hand of Petrus Lardus, eastellan of Zageeb, making in all eight and a half florins. Florins 8 Denatil 50.) Mr. Blair cautions that the passage in italics in the translation might conceivably refer to some form of snaphaunce. In view of the very early date, however, it seems ‘more likely that the gun sent t0 the cardinal was a. wheellock, though we shall never know whether it was desited because such mechanisms. were still rare or pethaps even unknown in Ferrata and in Tealy generally, or whether, being frequent and widely Known, a German specimen was interesting. for comparison, [feel strongly ~ in part intuitively, in part objectively that the weapon was desired because in 1507 in Ferrara (and in all of Northern Italy) wheellocks were not available — that much is objective, as we shall soon see. Moreover, if a German specimen had been desited for comparison with the Italian ones, it would almost certainly have been described in the Latin expense register as feutonica or germanica, for such specification cof national origins was standard practice; that much is, admittedly, intuitive, but by an intuition whetted by the close perusal of tens of thousands of ealian Renaissance documents. WILHELM REM’S “CRONACA NEWER GESCHICHTEN” Mr, Blair next presents the case of an assault upon a woman perpetrated in Constance in 1515 with a gun “which functioned in such a way that when the firing mechanism was pressed, it ignited itself and so discharged the piece”, From this Mr, Blair concludes correctly that “quite clearly, the sgun must have been fitted with either a snaphaunce or @ wheellock, pre- sumably with an automatic pan cover. The former is not out of the question but the latter is more probable at this early date”. T quite agree with this. . Since we have no evidence of snaplocks at this time, the conclusion to be drawn is that wheellocks were in use in Germany by 1515. MAXIMILIAN'S LETTERPATENT OF 1517 ‘Mr. Blair next adduces the emperor’s letter to all his subjects in his Arch- dakedom of Styria dated 3 November 1517 lssuch as cern perons in our reos of Lover Aura re in the habit of eatrying slfstiking handguns that ignite themselves [die selbschlagenden banndepachssen, die sich selbs zindten| which we arc, on ro account prepared 0 allow, for various reasons that we have artived at arselves and also in consultation with our excellent Council. And accordingly ‘we recommend most earnestly to all and sundry that none of you should carry the selfstriking hand-guns referred to, and that our nobles, stewards, administrators, chief justices, mayors and judges should under no circum: stances permit such guns to be extrie. ‘This, too, proves that in 1517 self igniting guns were in extensive use in the southern part of the Empire, including, presumably and logically, the Archdukedom of Carinthia, a region contiguous with the northern part of the Venetian Friuli. We shall see the importance of this fact. MAXIMILIAN’S MANDATE OF 1518 - This reinforced the preceding, and proves that the use of whecllock guns ‘was more widely spread in all the Empire than had been thought the year 86 Marco Mon: before. The ban may have been enforced in the hereditary lands, but probably had only scant effect in the rest of the Empire due to the declining prestige of Maximilian’ THE FERRARA ORDINANCE OF 1522 ‘The earliest recorded written evidence for the use of the wheellock in Tay is contained in an ordinance issued by the Duke of Fetzara on x4 November 1522, forbidding he carrying of arms in the streets of Ferrara Among the atms enumerated are “stone or dead/-fire guns” (scoppeti... da pietra 0 da fuoco morto}, which must have been snaphaunces or wheellocks, the latter being the most likely at so carly « date. The ordinance refers to previous edicts about the carrying of this type of gun, but the Director of the State Archives of Ferrara is unable to trace copies of these. The only earlier ordinance of this type, dated 31 July 2523, merely mentions guns (schioppeti) without qualification. Ie is unnecessary to observe that while this points to the existence of, probably, wheellocks, it says nothing of their possible Italian origins. Moreover, even if whecllocks had proliferated in Ferrara by 1322, this could have been a local phenomenon. THE VENETIAN DOCUMENTS Since Brescia and the Trompia Valley, the two main centres of weapons production in North Italy, had fallen under Venetian rule in 1426, Venetian documents have proved a useful source of information ‘Ms. Blait's observation that “because of Italy’s turbulent and disrupted history, only s few sixteenthcentury Italian fizearms have survived, in contrast to the many thousands of German specimens still to be found in their original armouries”, can only be accepted with caution. North Ttaly, and in particular the tertitories of the Venetian Republic, did not suffer ‘mote ot worse invasions than the German states ~ we must remember that the Republic included, in addition to the island city, the vase territory of what are now the modern provinces of Udine, Treviso, Belluno, Padua, Vicenza, Verona, Brescia and Bergamo. Numerous sixteenth-century German wheellock weapons dating from before 1550 cen still be found in the main Kealian armouries, while the earliest Italian wheellock weapons all stem from the last quarter of the sixteenth century. How should we explain this? A long series of, as it were, selective pillages that chose to carry off only early Italian specimens is hardly plausible. In Venice in the Armoury of The Council of Ten, one of the principal legislative bodies of the Republic with special power in internal security, there are more than a hundred sixteenth-century German pistols, while the only Italian wheellock weapon of this period is Giorgio Bergamini's well-known four-shot arquebus (Fig. 5) From 1469 onward, the Council of Ten was in absolute charge of all problems dealing with the carrying of arms. The earliest Venetian written document thus far found dealing with wheellocks is the law enacted by the Council of Ten on 25 September 1532, the first of many subsequent decrees dealing with the same subject: A kind of gun has recently been invented that makes fre by itself, and because these are small they are cattied under the clothes so that nobody sees them, Recently our faithfal Antonio Bendenuzo, of Venzone," has beet killed in Friuli, as hove been others, with this kind of weapon... Te is ‘Tue OniciNs oF THE WHEELLOCK: A Geaman HypoTHests 87 4. Venice, as projected by the Roman cartographer Giacomo Franco in, 597. Tbe ‘eats of power were the Senate and the Council of Tex ye ight of the too columns arding the seagate 0 St Marks ig a ‘engular Compound at the upper right. See also maps fend views on Pp. 23435. 257 aNd 272-73 therefore deliberated, with the authority of this Council, that said guns that make ‘ire by themselves are forever banned, and that they cannot be pred, mie o cased nelher inthis ty nor fn ay of or other owen Antonio Bendenuzo’s murderers — among whom a priest — escaped via Pontebba and crossed the border into the Empire. The law went on to cite still other killings in Friuli, from which it may be supposed that the ‘weapons used were of Imperial origin, or produced in Pontebba under German influence ™® — a supposition further supported by the following observation in 1L PRIMO LIBRO DEL TRATTATO satLiTaRE by Giovan Matteo Cicogna, Venice, 1583 (see Italian original in fn. 54) cuapran txt: Concerning arguebuses and their mounts, All kinds of frqueboses are _made in a great many parts of the world, especially in Germany; and it seems that all kinds of barrels made in Bohemia for arquebuses lange and small, both wheellock and matchlock, enjoy excellent reputations; and that good’ barrels aze made in Nuremberg, too. In Spain they make excellent guns for rough fighting. But leaving aside the discussion of these faraway foreign places, we shall discuss those made in Italy, where, If the need arises, a man ean procure arms in great variety and quantity, for arsenals, of for arming a fortress, or for armies 10 be led into combat. In the envicons of Brescia, in the Trompia Valley, these is a place ealled Ga. done, where they make all kinds of good and perfect arquebuses, large and small, even very Tong ones for fowling, and all manner of othets now in 88 ‘Marco Morw: use, and these are also mass-produced in that place, Beyond these regions, semis are produced at the Friuli frontier in a place called Pontiba [Pontebba = Fa.], where highly skilled master craftsmen exccste similar works, all excellent and perfect, and here they also make arquebuses to be fred from a caisson or chassis, and very good fowling bartels, both matchlocks and Whsslecs, and eceentperetHcle wheleck aguebues [prb. isl ‘The first written information I have been able to find on the existence but not on the manufacture — of wheellocks in Brescia is dated 5 April 1538; itis a leter of the capitanio of Brescia informing the capi of the Council of Ten of the discovery of “a gun that, ingeniously, fires without live fire” (uno schiopo, che artifciosamente, et senza fogo se discarga) in the house of one Zusnagnolo Taiet):* (In each major city, the Republic appointed two Venetian nobles as rettori, governors, of whom one was the podesta, in charge of political matters, the other the cepitanio, in charge of military and police matters. Every month the Council of Ten elected three of their own to be capi, chiefs, ro whom all correspondence was to be addressed.) From a report of podestd Catterino Zen, dated 20 September 3553, we learn that wheellock guns were in use in the Trompia Valley, notwithstanding the oftentepeated and severe prohibitions. Every Venetian representative had to submit a complete report to the Senate at the end of his term, These documents, especially the reports of the Venetian ambassadors in foreign courts, are a constant source of fascinating insights for historians. The following is a brief digest of such material pertinent to the discussion at hand: “4 April 1533: The podestd of Treviso sends to the capi of the Council the list of forbidden selgniting guns handed in fo him, as prescibed by the law of 7533." 28 September 545: ‘The Ambassador of the Duke of Urbino is granted pemustion to keep in'his house some pole arms, but is compelled to send back to. Urbino the four ‘stonelined arquebanes” (arcbibusi da pict) these being forbidden to everyone, without exception. From the text of the correspondence involved, thete is n0 doubt that they were wheellocks.” 28 January 1547 (= 2546 more veneto "); One Zuan Antonio Gramo is imprisoned because he carted loaded * isle wheellock gun’ (scbiopo Picola da rucda), Since he came from England, he fs set free at the request Of the English Ambsssador, This is one of the earliest Venetian documents fn which the term "wheellock ‘specifically mentioned.” 4 August 1547: The rettor of Bergamo send to the Council of Ten a Jeter’ informing them that a foreigner has been imprisoned because be carvied a wheeliock gua.” 6 June 1548: The Council of Ten decides that *Nicolo Dori, legitimate son of the most Reverend Cardinal Dorit, azrested because fe was found ‘with a small wheellocleatguebus in a bag, is to be released out of respect for his father, He isto be fold about our strict laws on this matter and that in the furore he must be very careful to avoid sach a mistake, His gun, bbeing conficated, shall be placed in our Armoury and the officers that aested im will receive ten ducets?" 15 Ociober 1548: The Council of Ten decides chat “to please the Imperial Ambassador, the wheellock gun found in a shop, where it was taken ir, shall be given back in order to be sent to Naples™ 8 June 2558: The Council of ‘Ten gives authorisation to release to the nobleman Paulo Tiepolo, appointed ambassador to the King of Spain® some ‘wheellock weapons he had. previously brought from Getmany--wile ane bbasador to the court of "the King of the Romans", where, be sas, such -weapons ate carried by everbody. Upon hie retsen from Spain he is 10 tum the said guns over to the Council of Ten once more From these reports we may reconstruct thatthe frst wheellock weapons in the Venetian territory were used near the border of the Empire in and ‘Te Onroms oF THE WHEELLOCK: A GeRMANn HypoTHEsts 89 Fig. 5. Thit four shot, superimposed toad egiabus by Ciorgo Bergunte, Signed ead died 1992) i the oldest wholes tn the ‘routs of te Counc of Ten of Venice tht can be conten identifed es Taian, By Contr, te Armoury consis ore Tbe fuindred German twhellocks of the ‘period 15501600, surly a fet tbat would tte 18 favour of « “Gorman hypothertss before 15325 that the manufacture, carrying and possession of such weapons ‘was strictly forbidden, at least until well into the second half of the sixteenth century, in all the territories of the Republic; and that in many other places in Europe, and in the Empire, wheellock weapons were in legal and/or ‘As time went on, the usefulness of wheellock weapons to cavalry became inescapable to the Venetian authorities, too, and the Council of Ten hed to mitigate the laws, In 1570 legitimate troops were allowed to carry and use such guns.® Brescian production, hitherto semi-clandestine, was legelised for longbarrelled weapons. Notwithstanding this limitation, pistols were doubtless also manufactured, but evidently in small quantity, and today it seems impossible to identify securely 2 single example.” ‘THE LOCKPLATE NOTCH Torsten Lenk wrote a very interesting essay in 1946 on early Italian wheellock weapons.” From the English summary ~ unfortunately I em not proficient in Swedish ~ it is clear that Dr. Lenk, sustaining that the North-Iralian wheellock originated from the SouthGerman one, dedicated attention to the round notch frequently ro be seen on the lower edge of such lockplates. Thus also J.E. Hayward in 1962: A constant feature of the Ttalian wheellock is the presence of « small notch cut in the lower edge of the lockplate just below the dog spring bridle.” ‘The dog spring itsell has arms of unequal length, a longer upper atm and 1 shorter lower arm. I was Dr. Lenk, of Stockholm, who fist pointed out this feature as being 2 peculiarity of the wheellocks made in Augsburg and also of those of Italian origin, and from this coincidence he deduced that the later wheel: locks were based on an Augsburg-made prototype.” Te would seem strange that the, Italians, having invented the wheel Jock in the early years of the sixteenth century, should in the later part of the same century start following a German model, but it is @ fact that there seems to be no continuity between Talian wheellocks of the earlier and of the later decades of the century Locks of very similar character 10 those just referred to are frequently found on military muskets with Dutch- or Flemsish-marked barrels, and i has been assumed that these locks were of Dutch origin. In fact, it is more 90 ‘Maco Morn: ely hat they ae bo of ein erg, and that they were exported fom Brecht Mian th Law Cosas ee meumag tee In some of the oldest German wheelocks, this notch found in association with dog springs with limbs of unequal length; often, though not always, it has an oblong shape (Fig. 6). So far as I know, no one has ever tried to explain the purpose or use of this notch. What follows is my theory: a wheellock dog spring — all the early ones had unequal limbs, the ‘upper one longer — is affixed to the plate by two studs that project from the spring’s inner face, a round one at about the elbow, and a rectangular one at ot near the end of the lower, shorter limb. Both pass through corresponding holes in the plate, the rectangular stud being fixed in place ‘by a transverse pin on the other side. To mount or dismount the dog, it is necessary to compress the spring to release tension on the dog spur. If the two limbs were of equal length, it would be easy to apply the hooked spring vise to both limbs near the ends and squeeze them together: the lower limb would remain still, being pinned to the lockplate, while the upper ‘one would be pulled down. But if the spring has a lower limb much shorter than the upper, the vise finds no point of attachment below save against the lower edge of the lockplate; but since that slants, the vise would have no secure purchase on it. Thus a notch was supplied, out of which the vise or the pliers could not slip, ensuring easy compression of the spring and no damage to the edge of the lockplate. Tn light of this hypothesis, the notch had a distinct function that remained valid even when its shape became round or oblong (Figs. 7 & 8); in time it was adopted by Brescian gunmakers from German models, In Brescian wheellocks of about 1600-30, it is still clearly cut; later, when its usefulness was eclipsed by the frequent use of springs with equal limbs, it survived in atrophied form as a traditional decorative element (Figs. 17 & 18), - ‘Where Mr. Haywatd suggests a definite relationship between Augs- burg and Brescia, Dr. Lenk poses a question mark." This caution seems justified, for German wheellocks with the notch were made not only in Augsburg but also in Nuremberg (Fig. 7). Inv. No, 4209, Artillery Mu: seum of Turin, is stamped with both the mark Stockel 3032 and with ‘the Nuremberg control mark, Stockel r592 (Fig. 8). In the Armoury of the Council of Ten there is a wheellock pistol with a round notch, stamped on the lockplate with the control mark of Nuremberg and with Steckel 2733 (Fig. 9). ‘At this point we may assume that the “notch” is a general feature that can be found on wheellocks coming from both Augsburg and Nuremberg. THE BRESCIAN IMPORT TRADE Military wheellocks were not, on the basis of the evidence, exported from Brescia; rather, Brescia imported thom from Germany. In support of this suggestion, I adduce a series of hitherto unpublished letters to the Venetian Senate from the rettori of Brescia for the period 1602-2737 that I recently found in the State Archive of Venice. Here follows a short digest of some of the most pertinent elements: 29, August 1606: The capitanio acknowledges the order for five hon- dred wheellock arquebuses for the Albanian toops, and informs the Senate of the difficulty in finding “suitable wheellocks in such quantity, it not ‘Tue Onicins oF THE Wurettock: A GerMAN Hypornesis st Fig. 6, Lock of a Germon ergucbus deed ‘ip (tbe entre gan shown on b 6x, Vol} of Keuerwatlen, by Arne Hof). The long tinder the dog spring sercd, in the author's Opinion, for Seting ‘one Jew of ¢ Hout pa ‘Bring Mace, Ingoadsy Figs. 7 & 8 Two looks with control marks, one alto with « ‘owing halberd Ranked By ti » (notin Steckel). The not bat becom Smal, just enough 0 anchor « mating prom of e visetype spring clamp ~ evidently wos 6 om eas bar been he Doge's Palace or Brescan made wack ation ts Talon The mumbors ander tbe poingons are those in Jobon “F. “Stocke's Haandskydeveabens Bedammelse (Copenbagen, 1943), Thit in ble catalogue seat republished in late jrmously expanded, updated ‘ition "prepared by” Eugen Heer in the Institut Suite d’ Armes Ancienner tinder’ the. title ‘Heer: Der Neue Stockel CourualVerlag Schwend, Sebwibitch Hall, Germen Fed. Rep.) 92 Fig. 10, "Der sornige Junker’, “The Wrath fall Nobleman’, woodeut by Joban Buss rmacher (whied’ means "gunmater") tr Rest. terbuechlein, Nuremberg. 1396 and 16ot. Note trieger being pulled By thumb, and compare Figs, 20.6 22. (Prints Division, New York Public Library) Manco Morin: being possible to procure this kind of material except from Bolzano" ® [Bol zano, German Bozen, is 2 city in South Tyrol, ie. at the time under dis cussion in the Empire, and ethnically and culturally German even today.) 6 and again 30 September x606: The rettori are still waiting for the ‘heellocks 10 attive from Bolzano 4 July 1613: The capitasio writes that “in Gaedone [a town in the Trompia Valley famous for the prodiction of gun barrels] they are manu: facturing the fifteen hundred barrels for the wheellock arquebuses ordered for the’ Albanian and Croatian troops. When ready I shall have them stocked, as we have now received one thousand good wheellocks from Nuremberg, strong end apt for military weapons” 16 November 1613: It is communicated chat “wheellocks for military weapons are not produced here but are imported from Germany by some of the merchants of this town". 4, January 1613 more Veneto, ie. 1 for military use are not produced in Brescia” 2 July 1625: The capitanio communicates that it is very dificult to have wheellocks because [owing to the Thisty Years War ~ ALAC] very few atzive from Germany 30 May 1628: The rettori lament the delay in assembling six hundted muskets, but itis not possible to find German wheellocks at the usual price ‘of two ducats each, The Brescian wheellocks cost six ducats each.” 17 September 1636: The capitanio writes that he is having difficulty supplying two hundred pairs of pistols, half with flindlocks™ and half with ‘wheellocks, the fintlocks being only made to order; the whcellocks, not being any more in production in Germany, must be taken from Pontebba." (The lack of German locks refers of course to military, not to sporting ones. Te is repeated that wheellocks ‘Tue Oncis oF THe WHEELOCK: A GERMAN Hyporusis 93 Pee Figs 1 & 12. Two German whellock war fs in the Armoury of the Connell of Tem, fable 10 Before 30. ean cover tt pened manu, ond th bortriger ts pin the There tr canons tafety dtoce, kor tinatly noe visible in thete pooton at ie be he mie of te erage, 4 binged a small ron bar terminating i 6 forks This may be rotated downward toed ay that the fork expen the tigger bat ind Block it from being pasted upward. The {pips orebalow, for storing bls aad pyres, THE DOGE'S PALACE CROSSBOW GUNS Let us now turn our attention to the three wheellock crossbow guns preserved in the Armoury of the Council of Ten in the Doge’s Palace of Venice (now newly on display). All the credit for the modern rediscovery of these pieces is due to Mr. Blair," but as far as their origins are concerned, one must re- examine Mr. Blair's suggestion that perhaps they were mace in Asolo, a small town in the Veneto, nineteen miles north-west of Treviso, because “..pre- served at Venice is another combined wheellock gon and crossbow (No. Q4) ~ unfortunately lacking its lock — of much more advanced design than the ones under discussion, which is signed and dated « RENALDO DE VISIN DA. ASOLO 1362 »”. Renaldo de Visin was indeed native of Asolo, the beautiful city of Caterina Comnér, Queen of Cyprus, but he moved early in his life to Venice,* where he remained until his death” His crossbow was therefore built in Venice, probably patterned on the three old crossbows which had been stored in the Armoury at least since 1548. (Since all the movements of ‘weapons into and out of the Armoury had to be approved by the Council, we have the documentation from 1328 upwards of all purchases, con: fiscations and gifts entered and/or issued, returned or in some manner relinquished.) * ‘As a result of a reasonably careful study ~ in six years I have examined some 2,500 registers and files on arms and ordnance ~ I feel safe in stating that the three crossbows were neither bought nor received a gifts; the only possibilty left is that they were war booty. Mr. Blair's dating them to 1500-10 is fully acceptable, and hence there atises the probability that they were captured in an early phase of the Wars of the League of Cambrai in the r5r0's, in particular by Bartolomeo d’Alviano in the battle of Rusecco or in the conquest of Pordenone, Gorizia or Trieste, where the Venetians fought against Maximilian.” (On the decoration of the crossbow Q.2 (new Inv. No. 2047), Me. Blair writes: "This, unlike the other two, which retsin traces of rather indeterminate scrollwork damascened in gold, is etched in a_somewhat scratchy manner with bands and panels containing trophies of pseudo-classical armour, scroll: ‘See THE ARES AND ARMOR ANGUAL, 1973, PP. 35-54) for extensive illustration of these pices, 94 Manco Morw: br by Hoff (op. p. r00) and Held (A Review of 162 Arms, p26) 10 be thet of Aleeandro Fr of Brescia. The present writer suggests, bow (ver, that it ie German export lock ~ 10 i nowledge, all Taian swheelocks ere tigned fon the intde, never on the outede, andthe rcitectur i Bere very Augsburgi Nuremberg fen if tbere is no contr mark, Although ite how of no clrely rs tbat on be unjelingly tdencied by signatures or ‘ates ob ether Tilign or German and thes Serve. 83 Yelerence standards, tbe. barrel and the fsbeal sock sould seem strongly 10 be resem; tbe pierced iron Inlays, wbich are ute decorative on te left side, underside, Bip ridge and butt fat, are almost certainly forerunners" of the. Brescon pierced lac Utter 1500, Overal length 33.5 cm talbre 13 mm.= 31 im (Prec en called, for no. documenta cover", there mall Tos, aie Or ton of whic ate tnown, ae” gerd omidered to be atchai; Hof (op. Sty Vol i im bout a350, and at they ee” probably ‘author, however, mast ai eaters th do nok seem ‘ud oory sopbinicated, ant reser fo bine rch ‘Tue Onicins oF THe WHEELOCK: A Gran Hyporiests 95 is opened automatically by on ecenric on the tuheel spindles it 18 closed ‘by separate Scorned spring, The upper limb of the ma fring ie spit inegraly into a reionglar Beiter eyed ead plnned through a sot i the lckplate, and a upper branch that serves fr do prog Te mating tits spit cla grorping » T-bar termine on the lait cbailink. Those locks maybe Talan Titbough the present autbor feet no esidence Supporting tb bat in any core they mutt be ZEEE ich cloer 10" 1600. than 550, eed fot at al inprobably after s600. Cariery ‘Maseon, Tarn) Fig. 15. This much published ook in_the Arilery Maren, Tatty [see Figs. 20 & 22 on, p. 312! ~ Eau], often considered Italian {oitout tupporting evidence, & discussed tn the text at right, last 00 parerapes,jollowing "No. q1d2". lis wheellock part difers from the procedig lock in the mare complex, 0+ clement springs (a separate feotber spring for ‘he dog te aoited into the rectangular mai Spring Dolrer), in an enteral, Borizontally Sliding, momselj-closing pan cover, and in ook-and-ring linkage Between madnspring and chain ‘See also the other views refered t0 above Fig. 16. This lock of an arguebus, alto in the Arillery Museunt, Tari, considered by Hof to be Austrian (op. cit, Vol. 1, pp. 1035, Figs, 82 & 93). The present sorter concurs. Iti linked fo the preceding lock by miler paw cover, seer end wheel bridle ‘pete work and grotesque against aground of diagonal ins, Thi typeof etching J chute ila sod como found on elim sour dating from the end of the fifteenth century so about 1520, The ssle of the etched cotati on a Milanese armour of © tyro inthe Muse de Var, Pats, {Ro G3}, for erample i petulant cove t tye on the eestor, though the etal execution veqy imc betes Unforsnaiy cing of Bo Ensim dhrecet fs recoded on fey arnours dating fom well nt the Srcond quarter of te reir century, sos geurence on the combow fy So meas consi evidence of cay Ga This, too, is in accordance with my views. Perhaps one might add that a German origin of these decorations cannot be absolutely excluded, but this observation throws no new light on the subject. ‘THE CONCLUSIONS ‘The origin of the wheellock is still a mystery, and will remain one unless some new, conclusive evidence is found. I believe that it was invented in Germany rather then in Italy, and that all available documentation points in this direction. We know that in Norther Italy (we may exclude Central and Southern Italy from this context for the moment, there having not yet come to light any evidence, to my knowledge, of production centres in those regions at these times), the manufacture of military wheellocks got under way only in the second half of the sixteenth century, long after the gunmakers of Nuremberg and Augsburg had organised a nearindustral- scale output, on which the Brescian arms suppliers seem to have depended. As to the so-called “Germanstyle wheellocks”, (ruote alla tedesca), and “Flemishstyle wheellocks”, (ruote alla famminge), often cited in arms literature a8 Brescian-made for the North of Europe, it seems certain, in view of the documentation adduced here, thet these were German locks imported and assembled in Brescia with local stocks and batrels." A typical ‘example is given by an excellent small military (oficee’s?) pistol, undoubtedly Brescian (Fig, x3). The mark « ar » surmounted by a crown (Stockel 1844. called Italian with a question mark) has been ascribed to Alessandro Franci- no,” but in fact the Francini (who, with the single exception of Bertolin F., ‘emigrated to Florence in 1597 ®) were barrelmakers, and ~ far more important = the Brescian wheellockmakers never applied marks on the extemal surface of the lockplate Tt is thus dificult to sccept the Italian origin and, especially, the carly dating of wheellocks such as No. 4172 and 4173 of the Antllery Maseum of Turin (Fig. x4). Both Mr. Blair and Mr. James Lavin have already indicated the path to follow for a correct identification,® so I shall limit sny comments in the illustration captions to the main peculiarities shown, Some authors have linked to this type of wheellock the detached combined intlockand-wheellock No. 4182, also in Turin Artillery Museum (Fig. 15), ‘without noticing that the systems are quite different, The captions will ‘emphasise the divergences. These peculiarities are also present in at least two other locks: in'Tnv. No.IV-E-o7 in Veste Coburg,” and the one described in No. 168 in the Catalogue of Cesta Castle in San Matino, Moving our attention to the fiinlock portion, let us note that the rmainspring acts downwards on the toe of the cock. This organisation, usually associated with the Ttalian romanlock, is also found in locks of Northern Europe,” and therefore does not prove, by itself, the Tealian origin of this piece. The angle between the cock and its jaws is of about 146%, unknown in Italian flintlocks but common in Scandinavian and Russian 96 Figs 20 & 21. Two engravings by Jobann Whlieim Bour, a German artist etioe it Rome in about 162530, Irom Don Paso Giordano, published v1, Note tbat bor, soo Casto Fig 10), three pitleers ave paling the Sger Lath hein tombe tie not clr ‘whether ‘his wai a Gorman, an Tialin of a inter tational usage Marco Monin: Figs. 1719. Examples of the laticl Itai tubeclick in is to final and essentially only forms, 16003665. vbreR pIsTOL: U Aetable about 1600-20, Deir in tbe Tojburmureet, Copenbagen Hof, op. cit, Vol. I, p. x69), which base Barrels by Gerolamo Colamebo end lacks signed on tbe inside war» (Stoctel No. 2843). See Fig. ar om p. 263 Jor an inside view of this sume lock. Tali wheellocks never ad self. closing pan, covers. or safety devices. The Gon be dated 0. Tron lace is of good quality, ‘On the sideplate and Oval butt lat ‘owen pistol: Unsigned, i exemp lifes the’ French infuenced round belly stoke found cccsionally on pistols made alr 1635; the curved aconthusleaf dog, f00, 15.2 1630 Bi ‘Tue Onicis oF THE WHEELOCK: A German HyPortesis, 7 ‘weapons. The upper jaw is kept in position by a long bar that passes through a hole of the lower (fixed) jaw, just behind the screw; this arrangement, unknown in Italy, is present on numerous Russian locks.* ‘As far as I know, the dog hook has never been used in Ttaly, while it can be observed on many Central and Northern European locks. We note, 00, that the upper mainspring limb makes a ninety-degree bend and rises up af the back of the pan. This shape is often found on Russian and Baltic Jocks but never on Italian ones.” The heavy engraving, hardly Italian, is of a kind sometimes found on Russian locks. To conclude: I cannot efirm that the Turin combined lock is unquestionably Russian, but Tam quite certain that it is not Italian, and that it is not as old as usually believed. ‘The lock of arquebus No. 2716 of the Turin Artillery Museum (Fig 36), another item often cited by sustainers of the Italian hypothesis, has been identified (correctly, I believe) as Austrian by Arne Hoff. ‘At this point, little remains that is certain in the often-cited main ex hibits: the Venetian combined crossbows, the allegedly “archaic” wheellocks of “Iberian” type, the combined lock of the Artillery Museum end the earliest Known true Brescian wheellocks. Technology, like nature, abhors a vacuum, and if by way of hypothesis we take for Italian the Venetian crossbows, how can we fill the vacuum of more than half a century that exists between these and the earliest indisputably Italian wheellocks? This question will probably remain without a satisfactory answer for a long time. 1 Charles foulkes, The GumFounders of England, 2nd ed, London, 1965, pp. 245. 2 Angelo Angelucci, Notizie sugltorgent italien, Turin, 1865. SV.G. Biseawein, ‘Quellen sur Geichichle der Peuerwafen, Leipaig, x872. “The Book of Fie for Bursig the Eon, Bisitheque Nasional, Pat, Latin Me ‘7x36; reprinted in full by Hoefer in Histoire de lz Chimie, and ed, Pats, 2866, Gel, 'pp. 517-524, and discussed ibid, Vol I, p. 309. See also: Tenney L.'Davis, hee tei of Por ad plosives, Newel, 948, pe 3435. $ Folio 25¥- 6 Folio 339, 1 See: Sie Ralph PayneGallwey, The Crossbow, London, 2903, pp. 134135. See als; ‘Howard L. Blackmore, Hanting Weepont, New York, 1978, Pp. 290293, Engen Het, "Notes on the Crossbow in Switzerland", in The Arms and Armor Anrual, Novthfeld, Uy, 1974, pp. 39-82 "in ‘the hereditary Hapebutg lands (Asta, Styria, Krain, Kimthen, ev) and in the lands later sequired by unprejediced mmatzimonial polities, Maximilan was the ‘cEective master while ia the ret of the Empire he hed to tale with the consensus ‘Of the Reichstag and, between 1300 and 1302, of the Reicregiment. See: The New Combridge Moders History, Cambridge, 1964, Vol. I, “The. Renaissance", uae 8, See also: H.G. Kosnigsberger and GL. Mosse, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, London, 1968; and JR. Hale, Renaisence Europe 1480-1320, London, 1977 He's reported chat Maximilian was Used to saying that he wos the King of kings because nobody obeyed him, while the king of Spain was = king of mea as his subjets acted as men, sometimes obeying his orders and sometimes not, and that thy Eng of Hance war's hing of annals sp is soja aays Sbged. cer Stato, Venice (henceforth ASV), Archivio del Consiglio dei Dieci (hence: forward CX.) Miscellanea Codici No, 92, 6 August 1465, ® ASW, CX, Parti Gomunt, Reg. 8, Fol. Bore. 4 Antonlo Bendenuzo (or Biderntie) was very popular in Venice, See: Matino Se- ‘nudo, Dis, Val. 36, Venice, 1995, pp. 131, 238, 459, 827, 906 Daring the war of the leegue of Cambrai he wis {a charge of the important fort ‘of Chiuse (north of Vensone) and esisted with valour a long siege. See: Angelo Se Benvenut, I Castell’ Frialani, Udine, 1930, pp- 260264. ® ASW, CX, Poti Criminal, Reg. 4, Fol. 2376, 23900, 2460, 148. ® Marino Sendo, Diar, Venice, 20077 Vol. 36, pp. 990092 4 See: Giovan Matteo Cicopna, I! Primo Libro del Tratsato Militore, Venice, 1583, 'p, Gav: "Degli archibunt con 1 soi forniment, Cap. LXXI. Fannost atchibael loa sre ig aie pat det nde, & asin sella “Alene, elt Boemia pare chi habbiano buonissima fama opal sorte di canne @archbusl grand, fe piel, da Toota, & fuoco, & anco buone si fanno in Norimbergo. In Spagna Archivio 98 ‘Marco Mor: ancora se ne fanno, di, ecellemssne per scatamucca, Ma lasciando de parte il dire aquest Tug fonser, & logan, dreoo i quest delTula, dove lun bisngro allimprovyiso Thoomo ne porese fornire di simil sore dam a bran numero 4 quuntss, per monicone, forte seuna force, vero esr Gs condure alla tampagns” Nel testo Bresciano 2 un Toogo detto Gardon, nella Vn"Trompia ne qua Igo si faano asain atcha! buon! & pete dognt forte gun & pial & a ueccle long dyn lea sre, che ua aquest tempi & se'ne anno anco di dona! acl medesino Tango. Ole dl quewo ter For se ne fan anenr, sll confine del Flt in un fog chiamato

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