280 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE - ARCHAEOMETALLURGY IN EUROPE 2007 METALLOGRAPHIC STUDY OF SOME 17" AND 18" C, EUROPEAN SWORD (RAPIER) BLADES' Mare Gener Instituto de Historia (IH-CSIC) Madrid, Spain ABSTRACT: The manufacture and trade of sword blades in Renaissance and Modern Europe was a well-established activity on an international scale. Contemporary documentation includes references to the prices these goods reached on the Spanish market and how they were valued depending on their place of manufacture, with Toledo blades scoring highest. There is evidence pointing at the fact that quality, understood as its ability to perform more or less excellently as a tool for combat, was a very important factor in determining these prices. There is also evidence that the perception of quality was related to the mechanical behaviour of the blades, so it is necessary to look into the materials and manufacturing techniques used to make them in order to understand what properties were sought and how technological differences were perceived. To this end, some samples of sword (rapier) blades from the 17th and 18th c. have been gathered, and a metallographic study is currently being performed on them. In this paper, the results and preliminary conclusions for the two first blades of a batch of nine are presented. KEYWORDS: metallography, metallurgy, steel, sword, rapier, forging, renaissance, historical technology. INTRODUCTION When studying early technology we are not only trying to determine a methodological process that leads to a specific product; it is just as important to try to establish the relationship the technology has with the people that implemented the process, as well as the socio-economical context that led to its conception, development and evolution. It is often difficult to reach valid conclusions regarding the complex relationship between technology and the people that produced and used it, especially when dealing with the earlier periods when written information is scarcer. In later times, though, surviving documentation helps us greatly in trying to determine the perception that people had of their own technology. The case that concems us here, in its wider sense, deals with this perception. “The scope of this ongoing work is restricted to some aspects of the application of technology to the production of sword blades in Europe in a period roughly comprising the Late Renaissance and Early Modern Age (about 16" to 18" centuries). In this context, we find that the arms trade was strategically important for governments, with production and distribution being subjected to different types of control and monitoring. Among the documentation generated we can find some Spanish price lists for sword blades, arranged depending on their place of manufacture, with Toledo invariably at the top and significantly ahead of the following entries. Literature and documentation from this period has recurrently highlighted the quality of Toledo blades, hence it is reasonable to assign a difference in quality, or its perception thereof, to such difference in price. "A slightly longer version of this article can be found in the electronically published version of the proceedings of this 2nd International Conference “Archacometallurgy in Europe”, Aquileia, laly, June 17 - 21, 2007. ISBN 8885298613. 2822 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE - ARCHAEOMETALLURGY IN EUROPE 2007 The objective of this work is to determine, by means of the examination of sword blades from different provenances, if such a variation of quality indeed existed, and which were the manufacturing techniques that were used to achieve it. We have some fragments of sword blades belonging to this period, and in this paper the preliminary results of the study of two of these blade fragments are presented, One of the fragments is marked as being made in Solingen (Germany) and despite the other one being marked as having been made in Toledo, this probably also originated in Solingen, CONTEXT As already mentioned, apart from the analysis of the materials used, the objective of this work is to look at the perception of this technology at the time when the swords were made. This perception is linked to the concept of ‘quality’, understood here as the degree of excellence of a sword blade to perform the task for which it was designed. That such a perception of “quality” existed at the time for sword blades can be verified through documentation, where the blades known to have been made in Toledo were invariably regarded as being of the best quality. In contemporary Spanish literature we find that references to Toledo and its most famous sword makers are commonly used as synonyms for the swords themselves [1]. Normally, the details of that “quality” are not elaborated any further, as it seems to have been thought of as ‘common knowledge” at that time, In some instances, though, either explicitly or implicitly, it can be inferred that this quality refers to things, like the keenness of the edge, or the ability of the blade to withstand deformation and usage without breaking or permanently bending. In short, that quality is directly related to the mechanical properties of the blade. Other references to Toledo and Spanish swords in general can be found in contemporary European literature, as for example a similar perception of quality in Shakespeare’s “The Merry Wives of Windsor” (Act III, Scene V), where Falstaff complains about having been locked in a chest “next, to be compassed, like a good Bilbo, in the circumference of a peck, hilt to point, heel to head” Here, Bilbo refers to a Spanish sword from the Basque province of Vizcaya, Bilbao (Bilbo) being its capital and main commercial port for trade with England and other European countries [2]. This perception is also reflected in differences in cost for sword blades coming from different places, for example in two contemporary price lists. A sword blade from Toledo, marked, polished and with its scabbard, twenty-four reales each, ‘The sword blade from Seville, polished and with its scabbard, twenty-two reales. ‘A sword blade from Germany, marked, polished and with its scabbard, ten reales each. ‘A sword blade from Genoa, marked, polished and with its scabbard, eight reales each, A sword blade from Toulouse and France, eight reales each...” (Seville, 1627) [3] “Report of the prices adjusted to which the sword makers have to sell, in thi regarding their profession, in this way: A sword blade from Toledo, marked, polished and with chape and scabbard, can’t be more than thirty reales each. A sword blade from Germany, polished and fit, with scabbard, eighteen reales each. A sword blade from Genoa, polished and with scabbard, ten reales each (..) A sword blade from Toulouse of France, eleven reales each ...” (Madrid, 1680) [4] s city, the wares 28320 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE - ARCHAEOMETALLURGY IN EUROPE 2007 Here we can see how the sword blades coming from Toledo fetch the highest prices, with also a considerable difference between those coming out of Spain and those from elsewhere. There is little difference between the Toledo blades and those from Seville, which also had a good reputation for quality in Spain in the earlier 17 century [3] [4]. These differences in price can be seen as reflecting differences in quality, perceived or real, related to the mechanical properties of the blades. OBJECTIVES ‘The ideal way to ascertain the differences in quality of the sword blades would be to test some well provenanced blades for their mechanical properties, but sampling is unlikely to be permitted for well preserved swords. A possible alternative may be to produce accurate reproductions of these items and conduct the tests on them, but this depends on finding out the composition and the technological processes involved in the production of the originals. This is the aim of the research reported here Various studies approach the problem of edged weapon technology in different periods ([5]-[10)), including swords of the late Renaissance and early modern period ({11], [12]). A shared conclusion is that the bladesmiths of all periods and places [13] tried to overcome the problem of combining in the same item the distinct material properties that are essential for a sword blade to perform properly, the hardness necessary to keep a sharp edge, and the toughness required to withstand the rigours of combat. The various methods known can be divided into two groups of techniques. The first of these is to control the amount of carbon in different parts of the blade, so only certain parts ~ those with enough carbon — will harden when heat-treated, The second is to control the rate of heat- treatment for different parts of the blade, so that only some of them become hardened. Usually, a combination of both is found to have been applied to iron/steel weapons and tools, with varying success. In the geo-chronological context that concerns us here, the use of combinations of iron and steel to produce sword blades that combined the properties that both materials had to offer (iron for toughness and heat-treated steel for hardness), was quite common [I]. At the same time, some later documentation (Francisco S. de Palomares, 1772) [12] tells us that the ‘old’ Toledo masters (16th and 17th c.) made their best sword blades by means of forge-welding two strips of steel (‘tejas’) sandwiching a third strip of wrought iron, that formed the core, then forging this composite block into a blade and applying a particular heat-treating process to it. But the evidence indicates that this procedure was not exclusive to Toledo sword makers [11] and the research reported het aimed at determining what technological characteristics might have made Toledo blades sufficiently different to warrant such a premium price, apart from simply having been made there. This research project is ongoing and is based on the examination of fragments of sword-blades dating from about the early 17" ¢ to late 18" ¢. MATERIALS Two blade fragments (HE-4 and HE-S) of this period and typology have been selected for this research, Both fragments represent roughly the same part of each sword blade, the part closer to the hilt, including the tang and corresponding to between 1/4 and 1/3 of the original total length. These particular examples were chosen to enable more reliable comparisons to be made. Also, itis in this part of a blade where any marks or inscriptions identifying the origin of the blade are most likely 10 be found. In this case the two fragments are marked with different places of origin, another reason 28420° INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE - ARCHAEOMETALLURGY IN EUROPE 2007 for choosing them, although it is suspected that the blade (HE-5) marked as being from Toledo was not made there. « HE-4: This blade fragment (see Fig, 1a) is 32.1 em long. It may be divided in two parts: the tang, ‘on which the hilt was mounted, and the blade proper. The tang is 8.4 em long, of roughly triangular profile and quadrangular section, with notches cut into it in a chevron patter, the “peaks” pointing towards the narrow end, Fig 1. (a) Overview of the fragment of sword blade HE-4. (b) Positions of the samples taken for metallographic analysis. The arrows point in the direction of the actual face that has been examined. The main blade part is 23.7 cm long. The width and thickness (W * T) is 19.3 x 6.87 mm at the base and 14.57 * 4.14 mm at 0.5 em before the end, featuring a flattened hexagonal section. It has a complete fuller (or fullered channel) on each side, extending from (1 em) near the break in the blade, up to the hilt. In each fuller, at each face, there is a series of punched marks forming the legend: “xx IN * SOLINGEN %»", Solingen is a German city, famous for its cutlery, located in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, and by the 17" century Solingen was already well-known for the production of sword blades that were exported worldwide. This blade corresponds to a so-called ‘rapier’ type of sword. Rapiers were swords carried by gentlemen in Europe as a component of their daily attire from about the 16" to 18" centuries. These were swords for duelling and self-defence, intended for a style of fencing that made a predominant use of the point [14] and in a context where metal armour was not expected to be found. This example lacks between 2/3 and 3/4 of its length, judging by average [15], and it dates probably from the late 16" or 17" century. It has been modified by removing the unsharpened part between the tang and the blade, known as the ‘ricasso” and reshaping it to make a new tang, most likely to make it fit a sword-cane, a frequent operation in the 19" century. The fragment HE-4 was cut in various places to take samples for metallographic analysis. The samples were complete cross-sections, except one (HE4-3) that was cut as a longitudinal section, and the original position of the samples is also shown here (Fig. 1b). * HE-5: The second blade fragment is 33.7 cm long (Fig. 2a). The tang is 13.8 em long, of a slender triangular profile and quadrangular section, The main blade part is 19.9 cm long. Its width and thickness was 19.64 * 8.23 mm at the base of the blade and 14.29 3.79 mm at 1 em before the end, with a flattened hexagonal section and a fuller (channel) running along both sides for the whole 2852 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE - ARCHAEOMETALLURGY IN EUROPE 2007 of its length. The fullers feature the legend: “xxx TOMAS xxx AYALA »0°" in one, and xx. EN xxx TOLEDO x" in the other. This fragment also corresponds to a rapier blade, and also lacks between 2/3 and 3/4 of its length, judging by average [15], but retains enough of it to say confidently that it belongs to the same ‘general typology as HE-4, The lack of ricasso in this case either suggests it to be a converted rapier blade, or to it being a blade produced without a ricasso in order to be mounted in a small sword hilt, In this case the longer tang, and its lack of notches, indicates the latter possibility as the most probable, thus giving us a likely mid-17" to mid-18" century date for this blade. In this case there are clear doubts about the authenticity of the inscription stating the maker and the. place of manufacture of the blade. Tomas de Ayala was a famous swordsmith from Toledo, working in the mid-late 16" c., whose name is found in a great number of blades, of varied quality and of different typologies over a long period of time. It is well known that the names of famous sword makers were counterfeited in blades produced by artisans of lesser repute, and similarly with respect to the places of origin. Whether these were really malicious fakes, or simply meeting a demand for the most prestigious (and expensive) swords, is still a matter of debate. In any event this blade must be from a period long after Tomas de Ayala’s death, in 1583 [16], so itis certainly a counterfeit, made at a later date than suggested by the inscription, and made elsewhere than in Toledo, probably in Solingen itself, like the other blade (HE-4), where many of these blades were known to originate. (b) Fig 2. (a) Overview of the fragment of sword blade HE-S. (b) Position of the samples taken for ‘metallographic analysis. The arrows point in the direction of the actual face that has been examined. ‘The fragment HE-5 was also cut down in various parts, to take samples for metallographic analysis. Again, these were complete cross-sections, except for one longitudinal section (HES-3). The “original positions of the samples are shown here (Fig. 2b). At present there are 7 other fragments of sword blades waiting to be studied, and it is hoped that this will be done in the near future. METHODOLOGY ‘The specimens were cut with a low-speed saw with a diamond disk cutter and coolant system. The samples obtained were embedded in resin so the faces specified in Figs 1b and 2b were the ones to28? INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE - ARCHAEOMETALLURGY IN EUROPE 2007 be examined. After that, they were ground with silicon carbide paper (grits 240, 400, 800 and 1200), and polished with alumina powder to a mirror finish, Etching was done with 2% nital, for about 15 seconds, with some variations depending on each sample. The study has been done through optical microscopy (OM) using a LEICA DMLM microscope with a digital camera (LEICA DC300) incorporated. It is intended to subject these samples to further analysis through SEM-EDX, in order to better determine their microstructure and to gain data about their composition, and also to conduct micro-hardness tests on them. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION HE-4: a summary of the construction method and the microstructure found in each of the samples taken from HE-4 can be seen in Table 1 Starting from tang to point, the first sample (HE4-1) features a composite construction consisting of a core of steel surrounded by two strips of iron. The strips are welded to the core and to each other, at the sides of the sample, with remarkable ability given the small amount of slag trapped (Fig. 3a). Point of sampling ‘Construction Microstructure Tang, close to main blade Steel core with to strips of Ferrite with some pearlte in the iron partially carburised iron. wrapping. Pearlite and ferrite in the surrounding it. core. HE4-2 Blade, close to its base Steel core with two strips of Ferrite with some pearlte in the iron partially carburised iron. wrapping. Pearlite, ferrite and tempered bainite (2) in the core HE4-3 Blade, middle, Longitudinal cut Tempered martensite HE44 Blade, near end, With channel, Tempered martensite HE4-5 Blade, near end. Without channel. All steel Tempered martensite Table 1, Summary of the construction and microstructure in the sampled points of the blade fragment HE-4 A thin line marks the position of the welds, showing up as a slightly different colour, probably due to a variation in composition related to the nature of the flux used. The wrapping is made of varying types of iron of different composition, distributed in layers visually identifiable by differences in rain size, density of inclusions, the presence of slag trapped in what would have been the welded surfaces and variations in carbon concentration, where most abundant pearlite proportions reach 0.1-0.2% (Fig. 3.b), too low for it to be categorised as steel. The presence of pearlite in the iron layers around the core also shows enrichment in carbon, with a slight corresponding decrease in carbon in the adjacent areas of the steel core, a consequence of carbon diffusion into the iron parts. A little enrichment in carbon was also observed around the weld lines at the join with the outer iron strips at the sides (Fig. 3a), probably a consequence of slight surface carburisation before they were welded to the steel core. From the symmetry in the distribution of the layers in the outer iron strips it can be deduced that they were originally a single piece that was formed into a bar of suitable dimensions by forging or rolling, and then cut down into two shorter bits that were used one at each side of the steel core. The core shows an uneven distribution of carbon, with a roughly radial gradient with the higher concentration in the central regions of the thicker areas. The carbon content of these was about 0.6%, while the rest averaged around 0.4%, The microstructure of the steel was one of coarse Pearlite plus ferrite (Fig. 3c) The high density of inclusions points to the metal having been made by direct reduction, where it doesn’t reach the liquid state. Additionally, the regularity of the ferrite grains around the areas of 28728" INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE - ARCHAEOMETALLURGY IN EUROPE 2007 the surface corresponding to the notches in the tang indicates that these were chiselled while the metal was hot. @) (b) © 3. Metallography of HF4-1 (a) Construction detail, showing the weld area of the two external iron strips with each other and with the steel core (*50). The window corresponds to an overview of the ‘ample (b) Detail of some of the different layers that compose the outer iron strips (50) (c) Detail of the microstructure of the steel core (1000), The second sample (HE4-2) shows a similar structure to the first (HE4-1), with a heterogeneous outer ‘iron’ wrapping consisting of two pieces welded to a steel core as well as to each other at the sides, but now following the section of the sword blade at this point. In this case the lateral welds do not coincide with the blade edges, but are placed slightly aside from them in order to avoid a weak point where more stress is expected to be applied. Nonetheless, at these places the weld is less than perfect, and cracks developed in both sides between the iron strips, one much bigger than the other and with slag trapped in it (Fig. 4a). The layers in the wrapping are still visible here, as is the carbon enrichment in the area adjacent to the side welds (Fig. 4a). The layers follow the contour of the external surface, indicating that the fullers were forged to shape, not ground. The carbon distribution of the core here is more homogeneous, and also a certain banding is perceptible (Fig. 4b). At a higher magnification there seems neither to be any variation in the main microstructure, nor a higher density of inclusions in the border areas between the bands, indicating po: ferences in alloy concentrations from the original piece of iron. Fig 4. Metallography of HE4-2 (a) Detail of the edge area, showing the weld between the two external iron strips and the erack developed there (50). The window corresponds to an overview of the sample (b) Detail of the banding in the steel core («50) (¢) Detail of the microstructure of the steel core (1000) 28824° INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE - ARCHAEOMETALLURGY IN EUROPE 2007 The microstructure of the outer layer is one of ferrite, with pearlite in the carbon enriched areas, plus an abundance of inclusions. The microstructure of the core is pearlite mixed with an irresolvable structure that is probably tempered bainite (Fig. 4c). This makes it difficult to estimate the carbon content of the core, but it is likely to be close to the values for the other sample (HE4-1), The longitudinal sample (HE4-3) was cut along the central channel and through some of the letters of the inscription. The microstructure detected is very homogeneous, showing that only the steel core remains here. The inclusions appear elongated in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the blade, showing the direction of forging, and they are distributed in layers, which can be due either to a construction using various fragments of steel welded together, or to the consolidation processes that were carried out on the original bloom steel (Fig. 5a). The layers also follow the contour of the deformations produced by the letters of the inscription in the channel, without traces of cracks or other alterations around them. This suggests, taking into account that the reduction of section produced by the marks —in some cases around 25% of the total thickness ~ that these were stamped while the metal was hot and before the blade was subjected to its final heat-treatment, The microstructure is difficult to resolve, but seems to be tempered martensite (Fig. 5b). The fourth sample (HE4-4) is another cross-section, and here the blade consists only of heat-treated steel. A transverse weld was visible across the sample with some entrapped slag, plus spots around the weld possibly from a local depletion of carbon (Fig. 5c). The weld may indicate that the core was made by joining two strips of steel to make a longer one, as the weld is not detected in the core area of the samples taken from areas closer to the tang. It is possible that steel with a lower carbon content was chosen for the blade core at the hilt area, as that part is not intended to be hardened. The carbon depleted areas are located only at one side of the weld, probably from superficially carburized spots in one of the original pieces of the core, that became trapped in the inner side of the blade, and that did not even out completely through diffusion. The microstructure of this sample is the same hard to resolve tempered martensite. Fig 5, Metallography. The windows correspond to overviews of the samples (a) HE4-3 Detail of the area around a mark, showing the layered structure of the slag and how it conforms to the deformation (50). (b) HE4-3 Detail of the microstructure (1000) (c) HE4-4 Detail of the edge, showing the weld and one area of C depletion at the richt side of the picture (50) There are no major differenees between HE4-4 and HE4-5 except for the fact that the latter's profile lacks the fullers. All the other features are the same, with the central transversal weld, the areas of carbon depletion and the overall (presumed) tempered martensite microstructure.2N INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE - ARCHAEOMETALLURGY IN EURO HE-5: a summary of the construction method and the microstructure found in each of the samples taken from HE-5 can be seen in Table 2. Label Point of sampling Constructi _ jicrostructur HES-I Tang, close to main Bl ‘Composite steel core Ferrite and pearlite in the iron wrapy surrounded by two strips of iron. Pearlte and ferrite in th HES-2 Blade, close to its base. Composite steel__—_core ‘Ferrite with some pearlite in the iron surrounded by two strips of iron. wrapping. Pearlte inthe core. HES-3 Blade, middle, Longitudinal cut. All steel with some iron. Ferrite and pearlite in the iron wrapping, wrapping at one end, Tempered martensite in the core. year end. All steel Tempered martensite HES-4 Blade Table 2. Summary of the construction and microstructure in the sampled points of the blade fragment HE-S Starting with sample (HES-1) belonging to the tang area, we find again a construction of a steel core wrapped in two strips of iron welded to it and to each other at the sides (Fig. 6a). And, again, we observe a skilful job with little slag trapped in the welds, as well as some carburisation in the areas surrounding the steel core that could be attributed to carbon diffusion, and also in both sides of the lateral welds that join the outer strips together. Thus, the pieces that were to become the wrapping were also on this occasion slightly case-carburised and, given the similarity of their internal structure, both strips would have belonged initially to a single piece of low carbon iron cut in half for this purpose. The core is made of two pieces welded together, each featuring some banding, probably produced by alloying differences (see Fig. 6a). Their apparent uniformity in characteristics (banding, inclusion density and distribution, microstructure, apparent carbon content) suggests that both parts belonged to the same original piece that was cut in two then welded together again. The steel core has a lower density of trapped slag inclusions than the outer iron layers. Both seem to have been produced through direct, solid state (bloomery) reduction of iron ore (without reaching the liquid state), with the iron then consolidated by forging, There is no noticeable change of microstructure in the core neither between the bands nor between the pieces, featuring pearlite and some ferrite, the carbon content being around 0.5%. The outer layers feature ferrite near the surface and ferrite and pearlite in the areas closer to the welds, the carbon content being about 0.3% here. The pearlite in the wrapping and the core appears partially sph (a) (b) © Fig 6, Metallography. The windows correspond to overviews of the samples (a) HES-1 Construction detail, showing the weld area of the two external iron strips with each other and with the steel core (50). (b) HES-2 Detail of the edge area, showing the crack developed there (X50). (c) HES-2 Core microstructure, partially spheroidised pearlite (*1000). 2902s INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE - ARCHAEOMETALLURGY IN EUROPE 2007 One sample (HES-2) features the same construction as the next (HES-1), but adapted to the profile of the blade. At this point the external layer has been ground off at the edges of the blade, exposing the internal core in one of them. Cracks developed in both edges, following the weld between the two parts of the core (see Fig. 6b), In this sample, the layered distribution of slag in the external wrapping can be seen more clearly. The banding of the core following the profile of the original pieces is also evident. Some carbon enrichment around the weld is still detectable between both external layers (now with the crack) and between these and the core. This is partially due to original case carburization of the iron strips and partially due to the carbon diffusion from the core. Other than that, the external strips feature ferrite, and the internal core shows a pearlite and ferrite microstructure corresponding to a carbon concentration of around 0.5%, with the pearlite again partially spheroidised (see Fig. 6c). (a) (b) Fig 7. Metallography. The windows correspond to overviews of the samples (a) HES-3 Construction detail, showing the weld area between the iron extemal strip and the core (*50). (b) HES-3 Microstructure of the steel core, tempered martensite (1000) (c) HES-4 Detail, edge area (50). The longitudinal sample (HES-3) was again cut along the central channel and through some of the letters of the inscription, The microstructure detected here is very similar to that of the other longitudinal sample (HE4-3), with the same kind of banding, and slag inclusions distributed in layers and elongated along the longitudinal axis of the blade by the consolidation and forging ses. But now, at the end of the sample closer to the tang, two wedges of iron are visible, 12 the end of the iron wrapping (Fig. 7a). There the distribution and elongation of the slag inclusions is similar to that of the rest of the sample. Additionally, the gradient of carbon concentration from the core to the wrapping is clearly visible. The rest of the microstructure of the ‘outer wrapping is ferrite, while the steel part that constitutes the core ~ the majority of the here — features tempered martensite (Fig. 7b). The marks of the letters are now very superfi no distortion of the internal structure of the metal is appreciated around them, nor any cracks, so possibly they were inscribed by etching, using acid. The other sample (HES-4) was from a section closer to the end of the blade fragment. It is all steel, and an extension of the core described in the first three samples. It features the same banding, and an almost invisible transverse weld going from edge to edge (Fig. 7c). The microstructure was also tempered martensite. The reasons for the particular style of construction we find in both blade fragments are probably both economic and practical. Sword blades, in general, are constructed so they taper in thickness and width as they approach the point. This is especially true in this particular typology of rapier blades, so in many cases it is clear that roughly about half the mass of the blade is concentrated in the first third of its length. Also, this is a part of the blade that does not need to keep an edge 29128 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE - ARCHAEOMETALLURGY IN EUROPE 2007 because it would not be used to cut. The tang is intentionally left soft, so it doesn’t break inside the hilt, rendering the sword useless, and also then is more easily riveted on the pommel, to keep the hilt assembly together. For all these reasons the first part of the blade is where iron, much cheaper than steel, can safely be used without structural problems. Also, heat-treating is the point of the ‘manufacturing process where many sword blades fail [12] as the procedure is very stressful for steel; however, the iron parts will not harden, so the blade is more likely to go through it successfully than if it was all made of steel. The steel core is left in this area probably because it keeps a mechanical integrity throughout the blade instead of having to join an iron lower part and a steel upper one through a weld that could become a weak spot. ‘There is also an explanation for the variation of the steel core’s microstructure along the blade where it changes from pearlite or partially spheroidised pearlite at the tang area to martensite as we approach the point, It can be found in a process mentioned in the Palomares document of 1772, which describes the techniques (by then already considered ‘old’) of the Toledo master sword smiths of the 16" and 17" centuries. He recounts how the blades had heat applied only to the last 4/5 of their length, to be quenched afterwards. The remaining 1/5, that included the tang and ricasso areas, was to be heated after the quench to a certain temperature and for some time, so the heat would “bleed” into the rest of the blade, tempering it. It has actually been demonstrated experimentally that such a process can produce temperatures able to properly temper a successfully quenched steel containing about 0.5% carbon, and of this particular shape [12]. If the German, sword makers at Solingen used a similar process, this would explain the microstructures we have found in the blades studied here. CONCLUSIONS In this paper the relationship between the concept of quality and the mechanical properties of sword (rapier) blades in the European context in the 16"-18" centuries has been set out, as has the issue of how the sword blades were priced according to their place of origin. This leads to the possibility of identifying the origin of the sword blades by means of studying the technological processes applied to them, these being responsible for their mechanical properties. Two blade fragments marked as coming from different ph using metallographic analysis. It is concluded that the one marked as Toledo i made in Solingen instead, the analysis showing that both swords were produced folloy similar techniques. (Toledo and Solingen) were studied likely to have been ng very The swords were made by welding two iron strips around a steel core in the part of the blade next to the hilt, and covering about one fifth of the blade. The rest of the fragment, and by extension the rest of the blade, seems to be made of quenched and tempered steel. The part covered with iron has’ been left soft. The quenched blades could have been tempered using a process similar to one found in a Spanish document of 1772 describing the techniques of the Toledo sword makers of the 16" and 17" centuries. Pending more tests, and taking into account that only two blade fragments have been examined so far, the manufacturing process described in this paper seems likely to have been a trademark of the Solingen blade makers in the 17" to early 18" centuries, The results here also show the importance of being very carefiul about where in the blade a sample is taken, as the construction and microstructure can vary a lot along the length of a blade. Thus, the evidence obtained from a section can vary enormously depending on what point is chosen for sampling, potentially leading to erroneous conclusions. 292280 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE - ARCHAEOMETA ACKNOWLEGEMENTS The author wants to express his gratitude to Drs. Ignacio Montero, from the Instituto de Historia (IH-CSIC, Madrid) and Salvador Rovira from the Museo Arqueolégico Nacional (Madrid) for their help and unconditional support to this research. Also, to Mrs. Adolfo Bernalte and Juan José Rubio for their invaluable help in getting the samples. BIBLIOGRAPHY [1] HIN. Bershas, “Terms for the Sword in Spanish Golden Age Literature”, Hispanic Review, Vol. 42, No. 3 (Summer, 1974), pp. 333-340 [2] G. Duefias Beraiz, “La produccién de armas blancas en Bilbao durante el S.XVI", GLADIUS XXI, 2001, pp. 269-290. [3] E. LEGUINA, “Los Maestros Espaderos”, Es. Tip. de Enrique Bergali, Sevilla, (1897), p. 42. [4] E. LEGUINA, “La Espada. Apuntes para su historia en Espafia", Imp. de E. Rasco, Sevilla, (1885), p. 113 [5] R. F. TYLECOTE, B. J. GILMOUR, “The metallurgy of early ferrous edge tools and edged weapons”, BAR, British Series, 155, Oxford (1986) [6] R. PLEINER, “The Celtic Sword”, Clarendon Press, Oxford (1993), 7] 1. 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