Quarter Journal of Engineering Geology, 8, 207-22, ‘0481-2085/95 $07.00 € 1995 The Geological Society The description and classification of weathered rocks for engineering purposes Geological Society Engineering Group Working Party Report Contents 1. Introduction... . 207 2 Weathering processes .- 208 2.1. Chemical weathering 208 Physical weathering . 210 3. Rates of weathering ..... a AL Engineering effects of weathering . 212 4.1. Effects of weathering at the smell (material) scale 212 4.2. Engineering effects at the large (mass) scale . 24 5. Weathering classifications . 215 5.1. Introduction to classification, 215 5.2. Need for classification : : +27 5.3. A brief review of weathering classifications : 27 SBM. Pred9I eee eevee 27 53.2. Attempts to standardize, 9703977... 218 5.33, Attempts to standardize, post1977...... : 219 3.4. Current practice oe 219 5.4. Principles for classification - Lo 219 3.4.1, Introduction. . me coe 219 5.4.2, Index tests for defining weathering of rock material ceeeeeeee ees 220 5.43, Criteria for mass description . : fieeeeee nee 22 6. A proposed approach for the description and classification of weathered rocks . fittteeeeeee BB 7, References. ....2-. settee eeeeeeeeeeeee 2 Appendix 1. Photographic appendix of worked exaraples. .-. +. 230 ‘Appendix 2. Respondents to questionnaire... 2a Appendix 3. Working Party membership and correspondents. 22 1. Introduction ‘The description and classification of weathered rocks for ‘engineering purposes has been a subject of debate since ‘engineoring geologists first produced standards and ‘codes. Several previous working parties from the Engineering Group of the Geological Society have addressed the problem as part of other, fuller tasks and yet there still remains a lack of agreement and ‘eonsiderable confusion. This Working Party was established in 1989 to review the way in which weathered rocks are described and ‘lassified in engineering practice and to make recom- mendations. It was decided, as a first step, to circulate a questionnaire internationally. Correspondents were asked what weathering processes are significant in their region and how these processes are described and classified in practice. A response of 15% was received from approximately 200 questionnaires distributed. The Working Party is deeply indebted to those that responded, as their replies were both informative and encouraging. The respondents ate acknowledged in ‘Appendix 2 to this report. The Working Party Menaber- ship and correspondents are listed in Appendix 3, It was particularly interesting to note the degree of consensus in replies received on certain key points: «© different lithologies weather in very different ways in the same climatic regime « Fithological heterogeneity or penetrative ‘master’ joints and faults can give tise to complex weath- ering fronts or profiles weathered rocks are difficult to classify unless the fresh end member is seen, particularly in weak rocks «© attempts are often made to apply the same weath- ering classification in all situations, even when early not appropriate to certain rocks fe some respondents made reference to weatheringm8 Fic. 1. Processes of chemical weathering classifications in use (up to ten) that had varying approaches but often used similar terminology « weathered rocks are often classified, using a set of terms, without defining the reference source ‘the more widely used classifications tended to be based on simple observational criteria or strength no correspondents advocated the use of petro- raphical or geochemical indices tis confirmed from the responses that there is a lack of consistency in dealing with weathered rocks and some confusion over appropriate description and classification strategies, In preparing this report, the Working Party decided to ‘concentrate on recommendations rather than to attempt to deal with all aspects of weathering. The report was circulated in draft at various stages to a number of correspondents and the major contributions made by individuals are acknowledged in Appendix 3. In order to allow fuller discussion and in an attempt (0 test the nascent recommendations, a three-day meeting was held at Leeds University in April 1994 which attracted approximately 50 delegates. The draft Working Party report was discussed in plenary session, used during a day in the field and aiso employed in the description and classification of a wide variety of weathered rocks in the laboratory. The members of the Working Party were ‘encouraged by the results from that meeting and thank all those who took part. ‘The report is structured in the following way. Those aspects of weathering that are most relevant to ‘engineering works are reviewed in Section 2. A brief resume on rates of weathering is given in Section 3 and attention is drawn to processes that may act in engineering time as well as in the longer term. Section 4 of the report considers the broad effects of weathering on engineering properties, both in the rack material and DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS in the rock mass. ‘The fundamental concepts of classification and the relevant historical background are reviewed in Section 5. The erux of the report, the recommendations, are presented in Section 6. Given the existing confusion and concern of corre- spondents that any attempt to produce a better classification would merely produce another ciassifica- ‘ion, this report aims to establish a variety of approaches to description and classification based on what seems to be good, current practice; these approaches are pre- sented in Section 6. The key point is that the rock should first be described fully and accurately. Subsequently, the weathering state might be classified but only if such subdivision is meaningful and relevant; an inappropriate classification should not be forced onto rocks. Ap- roaches to cover the most common situations are suggested, but itis acknowledged that many situations will be best dealt with using a regional, lithological, or even site specific classification. The literature contains ‘many such respected classifications which have been ‘sed successfully. It is most important that the specific engineering requirements are considered as well as the local geological and weathering conditions when decid- ing on an appropriate classification; if a classification is used, its origins and terminology must be clearly defined. Photographic examples to ‘illustrate the various approaches to weathering description and classification fre presented in Appendix 1. 2. Weathering processes ‘Weathering is the process of alteration and breakdown of rock and soil materials at and near the Earth’s surface by chemical decomposition and physical disintegration.DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS Biological processes that have a significant effect on stress and chemical conditions also lead to rock weath- ering, The style of weathering and the nature of the ‘weathering products are strongly influenced by climate and lithology. Thus a particular rock type that is ‘weathered chiefly by chemical decomposition in the sropics may have compietely different characteristics from the same rock weathered under more temperate conditions. Similarly different rock types may react very ferently to the same environmental conditions. Useful ‘general reviews of weathering processes are presented by Carroll (1970), Oltier (1984), Yatsu (1988), Selby (1993) and Price (1995), Physical and chemical weathering commonly act together, the progress of chemical weathering usually selying on fractures opened or formed partly as a result of physical weathering. Similarly, fractures may develop jin response to changes in volume and weakening indveed by chemical weathering. These may be little advantage in attempting to separate the effects in classification. The dominant controls on the mode of weathering are rainfall and mean temperature (Ollier 1984). Among other important factors are the periodi ity of changes in these variables 209 2.1. Chemical weathering ‘The main processes of chemical weathering depend on the presence of water as illustrated schematically in Fig. 1. The susceptibility of rocks to chemical action is a function of mincralogical composition (Curtis 1976) and texture as well as the presence of fractures. Generally speaking, susceptibility to weathering increases with fineness of grain size, increased porosity and higher permeability. Water is a powerful solute capable of removing fons from minerals. Of the commonly occurring rock- forming minerals, only halite and other evaporite minerals, including gypsum, are significantly soluble in pure water on an engineering time scale (James Kirkpatrick 1980). However, weak acidic solutions may attack a wider range of rocks. The production of carbon dioxide by plant roots, oxidation of organic matter and microbial action ‘gives rise to & high concentration of carbon dioxide in soil gases,, 50. increasing the rate of weathering where an organic soil layer is present. Carbonates are particularly susceptible to solution weathering which can lead to almost complete removal of the weathering products in solution leaving a host rock which, in the material sense, is unweathered but, on a mass scale, contains significant voids (Fig. 2. ‘A number of minerals, for instance sulphides includ- ing pyrite, are subject to direct oxidation in the presence of oxygenated water, This leads to the production of acid solutions. In some instances the process is assisted by the activities of sulphate-reducing acidophilic bac- teria, The removal of some minerals, perhaps acting as ‘cements within the rock, by acid, leads to a weakening of the fabric and increase in porosity. ‘Anbydrite and clays are among groups of minerals that readily unvlergo hydration and dehydration leading to changes in volume. These volume changes. are responsible for breakdown by slaking observed in many rocks containing clay minerals (Badger er al. 1956). Most silicate minerals are susceptible to hydrolysis. The presence of carbonated water and other low pH solutions are liable to increase the rate of weathering. ‘The minerals found in igneous and metamorphic rocks, particularly the higher temperature and higher density forms such as olivine and augite, are particularly susceptible 10 this type of weathering action, Intense leaching of minerals under alternate wetting and drying conditions in hot climates can lead to the removal of cations. Silicate minerals may be altered into clay minerals, in particular those with a propensity for intra-crystailine swelling behaviour, with a consequent reduction in rock strength and density. The presence of high ionic strength and colloidal mineral solutions may give rise to the precipitation of oemented horizons within weathering profiles (Anon 1990). For instance silica depletion in clay minerais leads to the formation of210 DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS Lnoadingfeess let arte termes Ireprrt acts pene legranr n2 roomase ismegaten PRETETES i ‘nd auton Ghetaaton Egarser Fic. 3, Procestes of physical weathering. ', respectively enriched in iron and Such processes even in their early stages are often associated with discoloration of the rock, commoniy the development of brown, red or yellow ferric iron compounds on grain boundaries or discontinuity surfaces. Not only do these processes depend on the presence of water but also on an appropriate supply of water to ‘maintain the required chemistry. With a high supply of fresh water to the system, the solutions may become too dilute for attack on minerais to occur, whereas with too little water the activity veases because the solutions become saturated with reaction products, Similarly, unless removed by erosional processes, the solid products of chemical weathering action may form a protective barrier against further weathering action (Bell 1992) In some circumstances, weathering processes can bbe reactivated by engineering works that change the stress conditions or the composition or quantity of groundwater. Although the in situ material produced by chemical weathering may be soilike, its properties will differ significantly from a transported soil of similar composi- tion. Aspects of behaviour will be strongly infiuenced by the relict texture and fabric inherited from the parent tock, Because of this, many of the terms and classifica- tions normally applied to clastic sediments are inap- propriate to weathered materials. 2.2. Physical weathering Figure 3 indicates the more significant processes of physical weathering that lead to the disintegration of the rock mass. Unloading due to processes such as erosion or the melting of overlying ice sheets can lead to the ‘opening up of incipient fractures and to the formation of new joints additional to those caused by tectonism, cooling or other longer-term geological processes. Unloading joints tend to form parallel to the erosion surface and decrease in frequency with depth, Systems of vertical and inclined joints can also be formed in response to unloading. ‘Weathering can release stored strain energy leading to the time-dependent development of fractures indepen- dently of any external changes in stress (Bjerrum 1967; Brooker 1967), New fractures may form and cristing cones may be enlarged due to internal stresses induced by ‘changes in temperature or by changes in volume brought about by chemical decomposition, the formation of new minerals and general weakening of the material leading Fic. 4. Paralle! unloading fractures through weathered grani Hong Kong.DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS 2 FIG. 5, General physical disintegration, Nevada, USA. to collapse under self weight. Extemal stresses due to freeze-thaw action, crystallization pressures, root growth, the activites of animals and impact also cause fragmentation. Any process that leads to joint widening inoreases the stress on the adjacent rock and may lead to further fracturing. The result is comminution of the rock, sometimes down to a mass comprising coarse gravel or sand size particles. The mineral grains themselves may show no significant chemical decom- Position although they may themselves become frac- tured. Fractures formed by physical weathering may take on 1 preferred orientation reflecting the process of forma- tion (soe Fig. 4) whilst the fracture-bounded fragments are often tightly interlocking. Such disintegrated rock masses will often have higher strength than would be expected for a sedimented granular soil (see Fig. 5) yet, since undisturbed samples are difficult to obtain and to test, it may be difficult to quantify this difference. Disintegration is not always progressive and may not proceed in parallel with decomposition, In many rocks, fractures which develop in the early stages of weathering become infiled with clay and other weathering products at later stages. Severely weathered rocks can therefore be less friable or less permeable than their fresher counter- parts. 3, Rates of weathering Weathering rate is @ function primarily of rock type, climate (rainfall and temperature) and geomorphologi- cal situation, Furthermore, a closely fractured rock of hhigh mass permeability may weather much more rapidly than one with few discontinuities. Deep weathering profiles generally develop over geological rather than engineering timescales. For example, Ruxton (1980) calculates that it may have taken 17000 years to produce partial weathering to a depth of 4m in Hong Kong. Fookes e¢ a. (1988) report that rates of surface lowering vary from as little as 0.001 mm per year to in excess of 11.Smm per year depending on the rock type and environmental condi- tions. Other data on weathering rates are reviewed by Ollier (1984) and Selby (1993)22 Weathering can affect engineering materials such as aggregates ot armourstone in the short term and, in extreme cases, can cause deterioration of engineering structures within decades or even months (Christodou- lias Giannaros 1993; Emerick 1995). A more subtle but ‘common consequence of immediate concem to geotech- nical engineers is the rapid development of fractures duc to changes in moisture content or stress that occur in some cores both during drilling and subsequent to Temoval from boreholes (Martin 1994). These effects ean lead to a totally misleading impression of the in situ fracture state of the rock. It is important to appreciate that data from in situ tests conducted in boreholes are also usually affected by changes brought about by the drilling, Considecable engineering difficulties can arise from the rapid removal of evaporites, gypsum and some carbonate rocks by flowing groundwater (see, for example, Foose 1967; Cooper 1986 and Al Rafaiy 1990). Problems resulting from swelling pressures due to the hydration of anhydrite and of clay minerals over periods respectively of days and weeks were noted by Serrano et ai. (1981). Due to changes in moisture content and the presence of oxygen, mudrocks contain- ing swelling clay minerals and pyrite can be subject to rapid degradation and, in the latter case, the production of acid solutions in the course of engineering works Pye & Miller 1990). Engineering works can themselves cause changes in the operation of weathering processes. Of particular note are swelling and increased jointing of rock masses due to stress relaxation, and changes to the patterns of groundwater movement. The latter effects can lead to the removal of parts of the rock mass in solution or the wansportation of weathering products. De Mello (1972) and other authors have attributed periodicity in the incidence of instability of slopes to a ‘ripening’ brought about partly by the clogging of drainage paths by degradation products. 4. Engineering affects of weathering ‘The consequences of weathering depend on the miner- alogy, microtexture and structure of the original rock as well as the operation of the various processes of ‘weathering and erosion (Bell 1992). Some authors have addressed the subject with reference to a particular ‘limatic region, for example the Middle East by Fookes (1978), while others concentrate on particular litholo- gies, for example gneiss (Dobereiner & Porto 1993), snudrocks (Taylor & Spears 1970; Taylor & Cripps 1987; Hawkins & Pinches 1992), chalk and limestones (Wakeling 1970; Fookes & Hawkins 1988), sandstones. (deFreitas 1993), motasediments (Beggs & Tonks 1985) and granites (Irian & Dearman 19786; Onodera et af, DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS 1974; Brenner er ai. 1978). The engineering consequences of weathering are addressed by Hencher & McNicholl (1995), Weathering causes rock material to become more porous, individual mineral grains to be weakened and bonding between grains to be lost. New minerals may be deposited within pores, at grain boundaries and along fractures. The rock may become friable due to the development of fractures both between and within mineral grains, Weathering products may be removed (leached) leaving a relict, highly porous framework of original grains, Generally speaking rock will lose strength and become more deformable and its perme- ability may change depending upon the nature of the rock, the presence and type of weathering products and the stage of weathering. The degree of weathering may be reflected by changes in index properties such as dry density, void ratio, clay content and scismic velocity. ‘The in situ stress regime will undergo change (Vaughan & Kwan 1984) ‘At the larger scale of the rock mass, major new fractures may form or be extended, incipient fractures may lose tensile strength and the wall rock of discontinuities may weaken, leading to reduced shear strength and stiffness. As weathering works inwards from discontinuities so the mass may develop # marked heterogeneity with relict fragments or corestones of relatively unweathered and stronger rock surviving within a more severely weathered matrix. Fluids may redistribute weathered products within the profile. Cavities may be formed by dissolution, particularly in carbonate rocks. Features which distinguish weathered rocks are potential metastability, difficulties in obtaining, both undisturbed samples and reliable test data, the felative importance of both primary fabric and second- ary weathering products at different stages of the weathering process and their beterogencity and com- plexity, especially at the mass-scale. At all scales, ‘geotechnical characterization of weathered rocks re- quires special attention and thought beyond that normally appropriate (o most sedimentary soils or fresh rocks. For exampte a deeply weathered rock mass may behave as ‘rock’ under certain conditions, with perfor- ‘mance controlled by relict structure and fabric, whilst in other situations it may need to be treated as a ‘soil’ ‘The approach to be used therefore depends upon the nature of the problem, stress level, scale and of course the degree and extent of weathering 4.1. Effects of weathering at the small (material) scale As rocks become weathered, voids develop both within and between mineral grains, as described for weathered granites by Baynes & Dearman (1978) and for mudrocksDESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS 213 Om. orem Void ratio Net isetad fey met Effective pressure Fi. 6, Schematic sirest-void ratio plot for different weathered states, ‘Shoar stross (MPa) Cartentorus maine Sales are mtnes rane ral tte ‘Tamm a. casles Effective normal stress (MPa) Fig. 7. Shear strength envelopes for weathered mudstones. by Taylor (1988). The voids may be filled or partially filled with weathering products such as clays or these products may be removed by leaching. Throughout most stages of weathering in well ccmented sediments and crystalline rocks, relict mineral bonds are usually sufficiently numerous and strong for the texture of the ‘original rock to be little changed, albeit with the growth of many interstitial voids. In exireme cases more than half the original mass of material may be lost through decomposition and subsequent removal of weathering products whilst the relict mineral grains retain essentially their original relative positions within the weathered rock. Many saprolites display these features and such ‘materials may be metastable since, on further weath- ering or the application of load, the remnant bonds sollapse leading to the formation of a truc residual soil ‘which has lost the original rock texture, This behaviour is illustrated in Fig. 6 which shows the effects of weathering on compressibility and yield behaviour. ‘The abrupt change in yield caused by loss of bonds or grain breakage has been termed ‘virtual preconsolida- tion’ by Vargas (1953). Such rocks show a ‘stiff26 response to load at low stress levels whilst at higher stresses there is a marked increase in deformability (see Lamb 1962; Vaughan et af 1988; Coop & Atkinson 1993), Others, however, have not found such clear yielding behaviour despite careful testing (€.g. Cheung et ai, 1988) and itis unlikely that such behaviour will be significant for all weathered rocks ‘Weathering usually leads to a reduction in compres- sive, tensile and shear strength of intact rock materials although in rare cases the opposite can be true (Rawlings 1986). A reduction in seismic velocity and therefore modulus was used by Delgrado Rodrigues (1978) to quantify the weathered state of dolerite. Weathering also leads to a marked change in the stress level at which yield occurs (Vaughan 1988). Examples of strength envelopes for mudstones at various stages of weathering are given in Fig. 7, ‘One of the consequences of relict intergranular bonding is that, irespective of density, soil-like materi- als that retain the original rock texture might be expected to display a true cohesion interoept. However, relict bonds may not survive the stresses associated with sampling and setting up tests and therefore measured strengths may not be representative of material in situ Vaughan (1985) reported that for granitic and gneissic residual soils from Thailand there was little measured cchange in cohesion for materials for which the unit weights ranged between II and 20 kN/m’. Baynes & Dearman (1978) reported granitic soils to be dilatant in direct shear at low stress levels where less than about 30% of the grains had been weathered to clay. At higher clay contents the behaviour was compressive. Cheung 41 al, (1988) also refer to dilatant behaviour during tests ‘on an undisturbed granite saprolite at low confining pressures implying an apparent cohesion despite high void ratio and potential metastability. The relationship between relict and secondary bonding and shearing ‘mechanisms in weathered granites has been investigated ‘by Ebuk et al, (1993) who report on the inffuence of clay content on the brittleness of weathered granites. Sncreased weathering and clay matrix percentage, shear behaviour became more plastic and far more sensitive to moisture content. Because of high void ratios, soils derived from weathering may also exhibit significant apparent cohesion due to suction when partially saturated. Such temporary strength will be lost on saturation. Partly due to the inherent difficulties in carrying out systematic studies of natural weathered material, several authors have investigated the influence ‘of bonding and grain strength by testing artificial materials (Vaughan 1988; Coop & Atkinson 1993). Changes in permeability with weathering depend upon three main factors: the growth of voids and integrity of the framework of relict minerals, the development and possible subsequent leaching of weath- ering products and the development or healing of fractures (and lacget scale discontinuities at the mass DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS Zone €:Frosnteseaty ‘poate yoke 5) =3 +109 + 50,507 1000 ‘Shear stress (kPa) 2 Zoo 8: eather tsi yay tage + 85,5 Zora A: Sc fees 500 Normal stress (kPa) io, & Shear strength envelopes for weathered rhyolite based ‘on Hock-Browm criteria (Macreath 1993). 1000 scale). A progressive increase in mass permeability due to the development of fractures during the early stages of weathering may be reversed at later stages as Row paths become inflied by weathering products. 4. 2. Engineering effects at the large (mass) scale This never easy to derive realistic engineering properties for rock masses and this is especially truc for complex ‘weathered profiles. Weathering Icads to deterioration in the quality of the rock mass, particularly with respect Lo ‘mass strength and deformation moduli, Weathering also increases the potential for different styles of failure and deformation. Similarly the hydrogeological characteris- tics of a weathered profile are liable to be more complex than in the parent rock mass. Where the profile contains both relict fractures and weakened material the like- lihood for mechanisms such as piping are onhanced (Brand et al. 1986). The representation of weathered rock masses by simple layered geotechnical models is usually inap- propriate. Deere & Patton (1971) commented that slope stability analyses in weathered rock profiles ‘should only be made with full knowledge that slope failuce is stilDESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS possible due to some significant detail missed in the study or to our inability to anticipate the mode of failure and hence to apply the correct mode of analysis.” In a study of major landslides in weathered rocks in Hong Kong, it was found that in almost all failures of designed slopes, an important geological or weathering feature hhad been misinterpreted, missed or ignored during the assessment of stability (Hencher et af. 1984). tis dificult to provide generalized guidance on mass ‘engineering properties appropriate to all situations this, being normally a matter for local site assessment. The ‘broad behavioural characiccistics of different rock types in different geomorphological settings outlined by Deere & Patton (1971) provide a useful starting point. Many authors report data from small-scale tests as if they are representative of zonal properties. Such an interpretation is only valid for homogeneous zones and even then only after careful consideration. Otherwise, ‘these data must be considered as input to a fuller model. Large scale in situ tests such as plate loading can provide reasonable indications of properties for homogeneous zones (Matthews et ai. 1993). Several authors (Hobbs 1974; Chandier & Davis 1973) have published data relating to the engineering properties of broad weath- ring zones and these may prove of practical use ‘A. number of workers relate seismic velocity and thereby deformation moduli to the weathered state (e.g Dearman et al. 1978, 1987; Lee & dc Freitas 1990) although Lee & de Freitas note the possible influence of 1a minor feature such as a single sheeting joint through the zone which may make interpretation invalid. Bieniawski (1978) does not consider seismic velocity an adequate measure of rock mass quality or deformability although relationships between this parameter and rock mass cxcevatability exist and are employed in practice (eg. Anon 19812; 1988a), "An alternative approach for deriving design para- ‘meters for rock masses is through reference to rock mass classification systetas which have an empirical pedigree. The schemes of Bieniawski (discussed in detail in 1989) and Barton et al. (1974) were chiefly designed for assessing the behaviour of rock masses in underground excavations but have been increasingly used for asses- sing rock mass deformability (Coon & Meritt 1970; Barton 1986; Boyd 1993). The parameters generally used in such classifications include intact rock strength and fracture spacing, both of which change in response to weathering. A similar approach is taken by Tock & Brown (1984) and Hock e al. (1992) who provide ‘equations for calculating mass strength based on rock type, intact rock strength and fracture spacing. The descriptions of different rock classes make reference 10 weathered state and an example of the use of these equations is presented in Fig, 8. In some circumstances it may be appropriate to describe the weathered mass state in broad terms which can be direetly related to some aspect such as rippability 21s or slope stability (Fookes et al. 1971; Gamon & Finn 1986; Pettifer & Fookes 1994). Soluble rocks develop their own style of profile, often with voids of various sizes which may be later infilled by secondary materials. A review of limestone weathering. and its engineering significance is given by Fookes & Hawkins (1988). 5, Weathering classifications 5.1, Introduction to classification The first step in designing a useful classification should be to determine the relevant parameters or character- istics. Class names are then assigned according to some predetermined grouping of these attributes. Classifica- tion incorporates a degree of simplification and inter- pretation so detail is lost from the original description and data. Therefore classification should only be made where there is a clear advantage. Although the potential advantages of employing classifications for weathered rock are well established, the necessity for using one in 4 particular situation should be considered carefully. It should be borne in mind that classification of rock weathering will usually require input from several sources, not just a simple exposure or core. The concept of classification by recognizable process of pethaps origin has been pursued by a number of specialists including soil scientists, geomorphologists, and geochemists. The classification of tropical residual soils adopted in a working party report (Anon 1990) is, an example of a process dominated (generic), rather than purpose led (engineering), classification, Since chemical weathering of a particular rock (ype under essentially constant environmental conditions is a progressive process, stages associated with geochemical changes can be determined and, by comparison with the original material, expressed in a quantitative fashion. Although this approach is used by Some authors (see for exampie Rocha-Filho et al. 1985), the relevance to engineering. practice and description is uncertain. In addition to being complex to determine, physical changes are not taken into consideration in these classifications. A multiplicity of weathering classifications have been developed for engineering purposes often to be refined at a later date either by the original authors or others. Many of the schemes use common or similar termin- ology for soils or rocks of fundamentally different engineering character. There is @ degree of uniformity in the current standards such as those of BS5930: 1981 {Anon 1981b), the International Society for Rock Mechanics (Anon 1981d) and the Intemational Associa- tion for Engineering Geology (Anon 1981¢), but the recommended methods are regarded by many workersDESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS. 26 sesodund ShysoufBus 30} 490: 30) suonsoytesyfo BavoywaM Jo YORKIORS ay Jo uonNUaKasda) IUINNO “6 “OMDESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS as oversimplistic, and often inappropriate, and are therefore in need of revision (see Cragg & Inman 1995). 5.2. Noed for classifications Itis pertinent to ask whether, for engineering purposes, weathering classifications are useful bearing in maind the great potential for misunderstanding entailing serious physical and iitigatory consequences. If they are useful then under what circumstances should they be used, might a single classification be recommended, oF is theze aa need for scparate classifications for specific rock types, for different geomorphological and environmental con- ditions and for particular engineering requirements? ‘A questionnaire sent to correspondents across the world asking what weathering classifications were ‘commonly employed within their regions provided no uniform approach and also indicated that apparently the subject is considered relevant to a degree proportional to the thickness of the weathering profil, as well as to some extent the level of engineering development and the sophistication of geotechnical expertise locally. Many workers are of the opinion that fult engineering geological description of a rock or soil mass which includes aspects such as strength, fractures, colour, fabric and percentages of the variously weathered materials (¢.g, corestones)—their shapes, sizes and distributions—preciudes the need for weathering classi- fication. It is also true that classifications are often difficult to use because inevitably rock masses possessing characteristics that do not fit readily into the standard schemes will be encountered. Nevertheless the main advantages of classification should not be overlooked. ‘The main purpose for constructing @ mass classification Is to provide short-hand descriptions for zones of rock of particular qualities to which can be assigned engineering characteristics within a single project, This assists design and construction work and also means ‘that experience can be transferred to other projects ot locations. Without the benefit of previous collective experience it would become necessary to solve difficult ‘engineering problems each time a particular situation is faced. For example, how can the strength of hetero- geneous mixtures of weak and strong materials. be determined other than empirically? Depending on the nature of the projec even if a recommended classifica tion were not used, the engineering geologist/geotechni- cal engineer may weli still need to separate zones of apparently different engineering characteristics within the mass at some stage. Providing that a classification is set up carefully to reflect both the commonly encoun: tered geological conditions and distinct engineering characteristies then the system is likely to be of use. Similarly full descriptions of intact weathered materi- als should provide all the information required to define their engineering behaviour so that there is then no need 217 to classify the grade of weathering. Furthermore, the consequences of weathering are so different for different rock types (for example consider granite, limestone and mudstone) that a uniform classification at @ material scale is not feasible. Nevertheless, there are several good reasons for employing such classifications for cettain rock types, particularly at higher degrees of weathering: 4 In many rock types weathering results in a reoognizable profile of rock materials of progres: sively weakened state, The weathering processes involved control the development of relict and secondary fabrics and hence the detailed engineer ing behaviour (for example, under different mois lure conditions and at different levels of strain). Without an appreciation of the degree of weath- cring as a process a far poorer understanding of the engineering performance would result. # Clearly defined weathering grades allow sataples to be grouped for description and for the creation of a grolechnical model of the material. Grades. will ‘often provide a framework within which test results ‘canbe interpreted and linked to engineering performance. © Because extremely weathered rocks are often sensitive to disturbance during sampling and test 1g, good quality geotechnical test data can be difficult to obtain. The framework of understanding provided by a workable classification based on index properties can ensure the optimum use of the available information. A good classification allows simple field determined index properties to be related fo engineering properties. The requirements are that the classification must be easy to use, give repeatable and consistent resuits for different operators and ultimately be related to significant ifferences in engineering properties. 5.3. A brief review of weathering classifications A schematic and simptified representation of the evolution of weathering classifications for engineering purposes is presented in Fig. 9. Major classifications up to 1971 are discussed by Deere & Patton (1971) and those up to 1984 by Martin & Hlencher (1986). The development of the scheme used within the current BSS930; 198] is described by Dearman (1995). 5.3.1. Pre-1970 ‘Two of the earliest attempts to classify weathered rocks in a way which might prove useful to engineering were by Moye (1955) and Ruxton & Berry (1957), for granitic rocks and from Australia and Hong Kong respectively. Fortunately the classifications were complementary in218 that Moye addressed the problem of describing weath- ered core (at the material scale) whereas Ruxton & Berry ‘made recommendations for large scale zonal classifica tion of the weathered rock mass. There was little confusion when employing the schemes because Moye used a six-grade classification, introducing the names fresh, slightly weathered, moderately weathered, highly weathered, completely weathered and granitic soil, whereas Ruxton and Berry identificd four zones specified by Roman numerals. Ruxton & Berry (1957) did not set up their classification specifically with an engineering end use in mind and did not refer to Moye’s work. Foliowing the introduction of these useful classifica tions for granitic rocks, vatious authors suggested a similar approach for other rock types. In the UK attention was focused on profiles within fine grained sediments, notably by Chandler (1969) for Keuper Marl (Mercia Mudstone) and by Ward e¢ al. (1968) and ‘Wakeling (1970) for chalk. These classifications differed in a subtle way from the earlier ones in that both material weathering (weakening of rock material) and larger scale weathering features (e.g. discontinuity spacing) were incorporated in the zone descriptions. Other general and specific classifications were proposed by a number of authors at about the same time, for instance Little (1969); Fookes & Horswill (1970) and Newbery (1971). 5.3.2, Attempts to stenderdize, 1970-1977 The world-wide, but largely UK led, move towards standardization of description of soils and rocks for engineering purposes led the Working Party of the Engineering Group of the Geological Society on rock core logging (Anon 1970) to devise a scheme that was judged to be appropriate to the majority of rock types. ‘This scheme was based on Moye (1955) and used the same terminology except that Moye’s granitic soil was translated for general use as residual soil. The number of ‘categories was extended from six grades to seven classes Generic terminology not actually defined) to include 2 faintly weathered class between fresh and slightly weathered and the scheme was necessarily considerably more general. Whereas Moye had based his grades on Quite specific index tests such as whether a certain size core could be broken by hand or would disintegrate in water, the Working Party scheme, in attempting to meet all situations, relied more heavily on general description and observations, including ‘friability’. Furthermore, whilst clearly aimed at core description, the scheme was not specifically directed towards assessing the weathered state of the rock material (untike Moye) and introduced reference 1o mass characteristics making the scheme a hybrid material grade and mass zonal classification scheme. This reflected the style of classifications being established for weak rocks at that time as discussed DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS carlier. It might be argued that, in attempting to provide fa general purpose classification, the scheme lost the specific advantages of the earlier classifications, each aimed at @ particular application. Furthermore, it now seems clear that, duc to the diversity of rock types and styles of weathering, it is impossible to produce a single classification suitable for all rock types and at all scales which would still be of significant engineering geological use. In 1972 the Working Party of the Engineering Group of the Geological Society on Maps and Plans (Anon 1972) again tried to produce a single, standard scheme applicable to ali rocks. No specific reference was made to scale although the report was aimed primarily at providing guidance on mapping und logging relatively large exposures. A separate, five grade scheme was proposed for ‘soils’. No reference was made to the earlier Working Party Report on core logging. Although not stated specifically in the Report, the 1972 recom- mendations were apparently considered complementary to those of 1970 (Fookes, pers. comm.). In this classification the mass characteristics were emphasized and again the proposed scheme was made very general in an attempt to deal with rocks as diverse as granites, sandstone and chalk. Although now essentially a mass zonal scheme, the classification defined six grades whilst using the same terminology as six of the ‘classes’ of the 1970 report but with different definitions. ‘The Working Party on the Description of Rock Masses (Anon 1977) again addressed the problem of ‘weathering and its conclusions owe much to the research ‘and publications of Dearman (1974a,b) and co-workers which iargely concerned UK granite profiles. The report clearly separated the description of materials. from masses. For rock masses, a seven grade weathering classification was proposed which distinguished between highly and completely weathered rock on the basis of the percentages of rock and soil present in the mass. In this, respect the classification is similar to the zonal scheme of Ruxton & Berry (1957) but used essentially the same ‘terminology as Moye and other, more material-based classifications. Whilst aimed at most rocks it clearly was ‘most appropriate to the idealized profiles sometimes found in weathered granites in tropical and sub-tropical regions as described in detail by Ruxton & Berry (1957. Reference was made to formation-specific schemes of Chandler (1969) and others for rocks which do not develop weathering profiles that could be described according to the prescribed scheme, Little guidance was given for the description of ‘material weathering, it simply being noted that changes may be detected with reference to such parameters as strength or fracture spacing (actually a raass character- istic). It was suggested that a qualitative assessment may be made on the basis of visual estimate of the degree to which the rock material has been affected by weathering, action,DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS 5.3.3. Attempts to standardize, post-1977 ‘The publication of the classification in the 1977 Working Party Report can be seen as leading directly to the mass scheme recommended in BS5930: 1981 (Anon 1981) and also adopted by various authoritative bodies International Association of Engineering Geology and International Society for Rock Mechanics; Anon 198tc & d). The idealized profile taken as standard was again ‘based on the supposedly typical granitic profile though recommended for application to all rocks. 1a thesc later schemes the number of zones (lermed grades) was generally but not alvays reduced to six (the same as ‘Moye’s scheme for cores) and used the same terminol ogy as Moye but with a totally different meaning, The emphasis of the 1977 report that description at the ‘materials- and mass-scales required different approaches continued to be advocated. Whereas the standard mass scheme (essentially an expanded version of Ruxton & Berry) had not changed, there was little note of the inapplicability of the suggested scheme to rocks such as ‘most sediments, Recommendations for material deserip- tion were that they should be described or graded using, the four terms decomposed, disintegrated, fresh and discoloured as considered appropriate although no ‘guidance was given for determining and describing the degree of weathering. The IAEG (Anon 1981c) recom mended a scale of percentages of weathering (presum- ably factual) although no guidance was given for how such @ scale was to be applied or judged. One of the dangers in such a recommendation is that degree of weathering can be expressed quantitatively by labora- tory study (¢.e, Lumb 1962; Ramana & Gogte 1982) but it is most difficult to establish in the field or during routine logging. Such an approach is liable to lead to misunderstandings and disputes concerning description. ‘The arbitrary, but useful, simple field index approach of Moye for separation of materials into those of like engineering properties is under-emphasized in all of the ‘standards? currently in place. Tn Moye’s and similar schemes there is no pretence that the categorics have any relation to true percentages of weathering however defined, and yet many would argue that this is the most useful approach in practice. ‘As a local practical solution, in a situation where weathering dominates many aspects of geotechnics, the complementary classifications of Moye (1955) and Ruxton & Berry (1957) were essentially adopted as standards by the Hong Kong Government for engineer- ing description in 1979 (Anon 1979), Moye’s six grades were assigned shorthand roman numerals (I-VI) to ease space on borehole iogs and, to avoid confusion, Ruxton & Berry's original zones (I-IV) were assigned letters A to D. The history of the development of the schemes used in Hong Kong is reviewed by Brand (1990). ‘The Working Party on Residual Soils (Anon 1990) erected a classification based largely on pedological 219 grounds, This Working Party incorporated within the name residual soils not only residual soils (grade or zone VD) as defined in a consistent way since Anon (1970) but also weathered zones comprising up to 50% rock (grades TV to V of BS5930: 1981). It does not deal with soillike materials found at deeper levels within the ‘weathering profile, 5.3.4, Current practice In practice, partly due to confusion and partly due to inapplicability of recommended schemes, various bodies have produced their own classifications (e.g. Anon 1988). In addition many clients, consultants and contractors in the UK have reverted to the Engineering Group general schemes of 1970 and 1972 which are at least sufficiently vague to be widely applicable. Others have attempted to apply the mass scheme (the only clearly defined recommendation in BSS930: 1981 and thor standards) to masses and materials (core descrip tion) with variable degrees of success (see Crage & Tnman 1998). Waea dealing with mudstones and other weak rocks practitioners often continue to use forma- tionrspecific schemes such as that of Chandler (1969) as ‘considered appropriate. 5.4, Principles for classification 5.4.1. Introduction ‘The recommendations for description and classification presented in Section 6 are based on schemes that have a good track record. The schemes are intended to be applied during normal logging and field description at the small and large scales. It is recognized that more ‘objective assessment of degree of weathering at the materials scale is possible through geochemical analysis, ‘or detailed petrological studies but such approaches are beyond the scope of most site investigations and anyway do not have a good reputation for predicting engineering behaviour. The most effective schemes in practice have been directed specifically at either describing degree (grade) of weathering of intact rock material of large scale (zones) of mass weathering: several useful schernes. have incorporated both material and mass character istics within zonal schemes, and for some rocks (e.g. mudstones), such an approach has sometimes teen found appropriate for field use. Martin & Hencher (1986) proposed the following guidelines for classification and these principles have ‘been largely adopted here: ‘materials seat: ‘» grade descriptions should apply to materials which can be regarded as uniform for engineering purposes220 © grade boundaries should be established according to engineering relevance wherever possible « index tests should be used wherever possible to define grade boundaries and to encourage objectiv- ity # consistent grade numbering and nomenclature shoud be used a sixfold grading should be attempted in accor- dance with common practice and perception. «© a single scheme should be used wherever possible to ‘cover all types (decomposition, disintegration) and degrees of material weathering mass scale: '* zones must be recognizable in naturally occurring profiles + the complete range of expected conditions must be accounted for within the classification which must therefore be designed (o allow a degree of flexibility boundaries should be defined such that they separate zones with significantly different engineer- ing properties 5.4.2. Index tests for defining weathering of rock material Martin (1988) notes that in transported soils and weak sedimentary rocks, laboratory index tests are in general vse to determine variations in strength and other properties, In the case of weathering classification, index tests are intended to provide definitive guidance as to the grade of weathering present. Reviews by Irfan & Dearman (1978a) and Martin (1988) of experience with indexation of weathering suggest that the following are desirable features of index tests for classification purposes: rapid and simple to carry out with good repeat- ability ‘© require the minimum of sample preparation ** relevant to rock properties ‘relevant to engineering problems + capable of discriminating between grades of en- gincering significance » any equipment should be easily portable and robust A nuriber of studies linking the weathering of rocks to the values of particular tests are reviewed by Lee & de Freitas (1989) and Martin (1988) who refer particularly to experience with granite. ‘The various methods listed by these authors and Irfan & Dearman (19783), of indexing the changes during weathering may be categor- ized as follows: ‘© petrographic and chemical changes to the rock material DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS ‘+ changes in density, porosity and water absorption ‘= changes in physical behaviour, including strength, friabilty and slaking performance Various parameters such as the decomposition index (Lumb 1962), the micropetrographic index introduced by Irfan & Dearman (19785), or geochemical weathering parameters (Iiev 1966; Rocha-Filho ef al. 1985) may provide guidance to weathering conditions in terms of the accompanying mineralogical and chemical changes. However, textural changes are not taken into account, and although potentially useful for one particular rock type and weathering environment, they cannot be expected to give a full picture of the weathering. Also, they are too time consuming and difficult to perform to serve well as index tests and so are not considered appropriate for routine usc, a view supported by the ‘questionnaire respondents. Having considered the correlations between different index tests and between index and engineering design tests in granites in the south west of England, Irfan & Dearman (1978a) conciude that the Schmidt hammer, point ioad strength and quick absorption test comply most fully with the requirements of index tests for classification purposes. Martin (1988) suggests that velocity index and consistency index are also useful. Irfan & Dearman (1978a) note that since dry bulk density can be used to estimate point load strength, ‘uniaxial compressive strength and quick absorption indes, this is also useful parameter. They advise that the Schmidt hammer should be used only for relatively strong materials giving a rebound value >40. Hencher & Martin (1982a), however, advocate the use of the Schmidt hammer as an index too! over the Full range of weathering. They demonstrate that, at the weaker end, the observation of no rebound can be used as a means to help define the boundary between grades IV and V. It should be noted that this recommendation only applies to in situ materials, not cores. The quick absorption test, a measure of the accessible porosity of the rock, also’ provides am indication of slaking behaviour although Martin (1988) suggests that a weatherability test would be more appropriate for this. ‘The slaking test ernployed by Moye (1955) and others is useful for distinguishing between grades 1V and V as otherwise defined even though its applicability depends in part on degree of saturation of the sample (Hencher & Martin 1982b; Howat 1986) and other factors such as the clay content, Itshould be remembered that weathering is 3 complex matter and that single indices are therefore often unable to provide a unique classification. It is nevessary to consider a range of typical characteristics rather than single attributes. An attempt to formalize this approach using ‘grade index diagrams’ is described by Hencher (1986).‘DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS 22 TFFRGACIT FACTUAL DESCRIPTION OF WEATHERING (ZANDATOR Tanta dor pars Sn Vajs cones oo Hees ened in parr my sede ins oxen meee TH HE ‘abet cman an pri lr for eine wk ef ie har Tp ito weng ele Cage ies Change fact te ection eth {renner ad eo xara os ee Fentes sud be deine ing andar amines. appear with ura! Tg ei wet seb Revo! of mathe AL be man soe. Un tuen and proprio he very weed sual (crs mun) Dod be out oer sug ea Tiahaee oct many weak or naka TPFROATH 4) CLASSIFICATION INCORPORATING MATERIAL AND MASS FEATUMES Grae [tne] ipl ane ean [aster Type Gureotin | Fer Tinhayel fae opm ae | ewhase | Ora rege eo asa aa | State Si dhecenion sige weaker Pani Shey rose tet iy ce Weates ‘Wearaed | Bare acing sting pm Com sn | sodeasiy |» Cony eae pete 7) Drang] rhe neta che ce a Westend seca weameed | ey datos + arene nat ebay and Ww | My Wesel |= age ee cn Hehe Hy | Dow rere dee le when | memenres hey mate moles ‘nteaea bezmog meshed dnote ay single mnened we edn bed VY] Gemniaey 1 Conscny waens 7 Reitoror [Mase vit ona arog weaned She Savcttel | ape teen bing oye Cad a rota wha reg relsons sep end span 1 erg! ete pen ‘wT Raita Sal] Sot Senet rots wna ba onng mee oc vn bc Tre fink Ww "APPROACH € SPECIAL CABIS hand soacpine Far cs hae way Sve dow tow eo Fae rth hw Ka Gomi a pr of wid "RPPROACW S| CLASSIFICATION FOR HETEROGEROUS MASSES Ow] PROPORTION OF TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICE MATERIAL GRADES TS GT Beier ap eat oie Fe recess nck) wn tan nd do Tom Gra West rai done daanies i her cio Givens veg an sare T0904 Gi-a | Rea Fam lca ed in eng | oimsom GIN-vt__| snus sor pry + [maim Gr Tak Famrnch earn a sgh Sa 50 74 GI v1 | antaing pode eal ki nd Damn [ec Givin tne be epi vrai sa 10M GIN ion | Maybe vowel er tec wy [be ee Fig. 10. Approaches te weathering description and classification222 DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS FIG. 11. Approaches to description and clastiication (schematic), 5.4.3. Criteria for mass description Large-scale exposures arc often best dealt with by full description of the nature and distribution of different materials within the mass as well as of the fracture network, Formal mass weathering schemes may, how= ever, be useful for rapid assessment, for broad beha- vioural characterization and for communication in general terms. Many schemes reported in the literature are of this type, the majority being based on the concept that weathered masses comprise mixed materials (nor- mally stronger corestoncs within a weaker matrix). One of the schemes recommended below is of this type, based. fon the proportion of rock (defined here essentially a5 material that cannot be broken by hand) to proportion of soil (any material that can be broken by hand). The selection of boundary conditions is discussed by Martin & Hencher (1986). Schemes for describing weathered rocks that are relatively weak in their fresh state are generally based on the combined attributes of fracture spacing and weakness of the rock materfat and have proved useful for many projects. One of the schemes presented below follows this approach. 6, Proposed approach to description of weathered rocks Following a review of past and current practice, it is concluded that it is futile to attempt to devise a single scheme of description and/or classification that will beDESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS Taste 1, Approach 1: factual description of weathering ‘Application: in any rock description, fll details ofthe degre, extont and nature of weathering elects should be included so that readers can appreciate ther influence on engineering properties. Preseriptive classification may be inappropriate in many cass. FFactusl description of weathering: 4 isa mandatory part of the Foll description should be carried ott at material and mass seales as appropriate «is often the only possible way of dealing with weathering where the full profile is not sen ‘aids interpretation of how the rock has reached its observed condition «Js of use for subsequent classification «provides information for separating rock into zones of like engineeting character On those occasions when itis apparent that changes in engineering properties have been caused by weathering, this should be highlighted. In the event that the cause is uncertain then use terms such as ‘probably" or ‘possibly’. The features most commonty to bbe examined and reported on inchude the following. Colour and discoloration. The degrer of colour change can be described using terms such as faintly discoloured, discoloured or strougly discoloured; the extent of colour change can be desribed usina terms suchas ocaly dscolouted, penetzatively discoloured ‘or pervasively discoloured. These terms are not quantitatively defined for general se, although specific eriteia can be applied if appropriate. It is efen useful to provide additional information oa, for example, the extent of colour change by reporting measurements of inward penetration from discontinuities. Comment should include the nature of the coloue changes, and whether they are considered due to weathering, alteration, or some other process. Standard colour charts should be used where appropriate FFrneture state and changes therela should be reported using the defined terminology ineluded in BSS930; 1981; although the terms therein provide a useful shorthand, the reporting of actual measurements is encouraged us being more precise, Where itis thought ‘that changes are attributable to weathering, this information should be provided, for example ‘closely spaced becoming very closely spaced due to weathering between 15,00 and 15.75m" ‘Strength and reduction of strength should be reported using the defined terminology included in BS3930: 1981. The inclusion of any direct or indiect surengih measurements made i to be encouraged, whether the test used is ‘standard? or not, Where is thought that the change is due to weathering, this information should be provided, for example ‘very weak within weathered zones’ or, “generally strong but weak adjacent to weathered discontinuities (the extent of any such feature should also be reported as a ‘measurement wherever possible) ‘Phe mature and eaten of wexthering product should alwys be desc atng the appeopeat rock or sil eserptive terminology and measurement. ‘Notes and exampfes, The extent and character of all these aspects showld be quantified wherever possible. A typical description will include, in addition to the ‘standard’ terminology mentioned above, ‘non-standard English’ descriptors commenting on whether features are due to weathering or net, o what weathering processes or ombinalions of process may have resulted in the observed state of the rock. All ‘standard terms should be used according to their defined mennings, To avoid confusion, terms that are used in the prescriptive classifications, euch a8 slighly, highly, completely (ace Tables 2, 3 end shouke rot be used in this deseription. Examples illustrating the factual description of weathering are presenied in Appendix 1. suitable for the treatment of rocks as diverse as, for example, karstic limestones, granites and shales and which have been affected’ by different weathering processes. A variety of approaches is required for different situations and scales. It is considered fundamental that the effects of weathering should always be recorded in the description of rocks for engineering purposes. However, formal classification may often not be appropriate, and so should mot be mandatory. Classifications are often useful but should only be applied where well established, where there is sullicicnt information to classify un ambiguously and to do so would be clearly bencficial. Where any classification is used a note should be made of why the particular system has been adopted. Five different approaches are presented below to- gether with guidance as to their use. Photographic examples of rocks weathered to different degrees and at various scales are provided in Appendix 1 to illustrate the approaches advocated here. The basic approach is given in the flow chart in Fig. 10, and summarized diagrammatically in Fig. 11. Within the various classi- fications presented here, definitions of sub-classcs have been given in terms of typical characteristics which are necessarily broad. Classes may be more rigorously defined following local experience, site specific studies oo through reference to established schem ‘Approach 1 covers the general description of weath- cring features in rock and is mandatory as it forms part ‘of « full description. The use of non-technical (English) terminology to place emphasis on features resulting from weathering is recommended to supplement the standard descriptive terms. This description will not involve formal classification but might provide sufficient information for the user subsequently to classify for a particular purpose. The approach is detailed in Table 1.24 DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS. ‘TABLE 2, Approach 2: a prescriptive weathering clasiication for uniform materials Application: 10 uniform rock materials which are moderately strong or stronger in the fresh state and which show a clear gradation in engineering properties during weathering. The weathering grade will appear within the rock description, eg. grade IT gneiss. Grade Description “Typical characteristics! 1 Fresh + Unchanged from orginal state ML Slighty weathered? « Siight discoloration, slight weakening? TIE Moderately weathered?” «Considerably weakened, penctrative discoloration. ‘Large pieces cannot be broken by hand v ‘Large picoos can be broken by hand # Does not readily disaggregate (sake) when dry sample immersed in water. V Completely weathered? = Considerably weakened? © Slokes in water © Original texture apparent vw Residual soil «Soil derived by in situ weathering but having lost original texture and fabric. and examples This table is based on Moye (1955). The general term Weathered may be replaced by specific term Decomposed or Disintograt say need to be specified * Strength changes can be quantified for particular rocks using appropriate index tests such as the Schmidt hammer rebound value fr point Joad test index. if appropriate although revised erters “This form of lasifcation has been found applicable to many igneous, metamorphic ané some sedimentary rocks, Tn some rock ll trades may not be recognized and it may be appropriate lo combine grades Il and {Ll and to combine grades IV and V. In such a axe the four grades would be: (I fees, (U/l) (weakened but cannot be broken by hand), (IV/¥) broken by hand buts has rock texture), (VI) residual soil. Examples Red brown, medium grained moderately strong sandstone (Grade 1) Red brown, medium grained moderately strong granite (Grade I?) Grey, meatum very weak granite (Grade V) ‘These exazpesilsirate the importace of orignal strength to clasifcation and also that discoloration i aot always a reliable jndcator of weathering grade. Further examples are discussed in Appendix 1DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS. 28 ‘Tan.e 3. Approach 3: prescriptive weathering classification for heterogeneous masses Application: to masses which weather gradationally and which at certain stages of profile development comprise a heterogeneous asiemblage of materials at different stages of material weathering, The weathering zone will appear with thc geological formation namic rather than as part of the description, e.g. Zone 2 Pennant Sandstone. Zone Guidelive proportions “Typical characteristics of material grades 1 100% Material Grades I-11) Behaves as rock; apply rock mechanics principles ‘(not necessarily all fresh rock) to mass assessment and design 2 290% Material Grades ‘Weak materials along discontinuities, Shear strength, <10% Material Grades IV-V1 stilfness and permeability affected 3 50 10 90% Materia! Rock framework still locked and controls Grades mT strength and stifness; matrix controls permeability 10 to 50% Material Grades IV-VI 4 30-50% Material Grades I-IIT Rock framework contributes to strength; 30 10 70% Material Grades IV-V]___matnix of weathering products in discontinuities contro! stffaess and permesbility 5 < 30% Material Grades Tto TT ‘Weak grades will control behaviour, 70 to 100% Material CCorestones may be significant for investigation Grades 1V-VI ‘aad constraction| 6 100% Material Grades May behave as soil although relict fabri TV to VI (not necesserily nay sill be sigificant all residual soi) ‘Material that is too stcong to be broken by hand (weathering grades Ito Ill) Hi Morel wea enough fo be broken hy hed (weathering grades [V to Vi—potential for ‘soil’-like failure) Note a cape Sree ate Heir c58) Pasta attic aon fpeenage ite materi went de tr ii, apa dbton of Be reo corp SHEE aR to spam whe soem b tf tent inno te Meow mae wih oe prt ‘ith bay ed Mop ame st chan spe eee cx hp mem enya wea SSE VERY RAE SERGES ic aor ont tba pes cop wear an emg Example Severely weathered to depth of 10, west of faut. Large (2), sabrounded corestonts of granite (trong to moderately strong, grae W/LD ia tmatrn (60%) of clayey 224 siody decomposed granite (40% grade IV, 40% grade V). Close vertical joints within maki, corestones without fractures. (Zone 4 Dartmoor Granite) Further exemplcs are discussed in Appendix 1226 DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS Taa.e 4, Approach 4: a prescriptive weathering classification incorporating material and mass features. Application: for the description of rocks which weather in 2 gradational manner, butin which the matevial and mas characteristics, ‘an neither readily nor usefully be separated, and therefore classification is based on both aspects. Typically appicable to many ‘mudrocks and other moderately weak or weaker rocks (including some overconsolidated soils). Applis also to some sandstones, Classification descriptor would normally appear with the geological formation name rather than as part of the description, e.g. Class D Lias Clay, Ciass Descriptor ‘Typical characteristios A Unweathered Original strength, colour, fracture spacing B Partially Slightly reduced strength, slightly closer ‘weathered Fracture spacing, weathering penetrating in from fractures, brown oxidation c Distinctly Purther weakened, moch closer weathered fracture spacing, grey reduction D Destrvctured Greatly weakened, motile, lithorelicts in mateix becoming weakened and disordered, bedding disturbed E Residual or Matrix with occasional altered random reworked ‘or ‘apparent lithortits, bedding destroyed. (Clasted as reworked when foreign inclusions ate present as a result of transportation ‘may have similar strength to the matrix but are visible as part of fabric. 2, This classifcation is derived from the summary of Spink and Norbury (1993) and can be applied to maany murocks in the UK. ‘The classification is based on work on the Upper Lias Clay (Chandler 1972), Carboniferous Mudstone (Spink & Norbury 1993), London Clay (Chandler & Apted 1988), Merci Mudstone (Chandler 1969), and Oxford Clay (Russell & Parker 1979), All ofthese specific schemes use several and various subdivisions ofthe above classes. Particular subdivisions can be used as required co suit the Profile present at a site or the particular engineering problem in hand. Examples Very stiff grey clay. Brown oxidation 2 mm ia from discontinuities, Discontinuity spacing 60-100 mm. Rare pyritize trace fossil Class B London Clay Stiff brovm mottied grey clay. Discontinuity spacing 10-30 mn, occasional gypsum crystals. Lithorelicts 20-60 mm (about 70%) unaltered, ordered. Class C Lins Clay Firm green brown and light grey mottied clay. Closely spaced subvertical fractures, commonly with sand size gypsum erystals Lithorelicts up to 6 mm (ess than 30%) weakened, random. Class D Oxford Clay Firm brows and light grey mottled clay. Closely spaced vertical desiceation cracks. Lithorelicts up to 3 mm (les thaa 10%) ‘weakened, random, matrix sheared, Rare rounded quartzite gravel. Class E Carboniferous Mustene.DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS Approach 2 classifies gradation of weathering of intact rock material. Table 2 is, however, only likely to be applicable to rocks which are moderately strong or stronger in their fresh state. The classification is ‘essentially based on strength as determined by simple field tests. Grade TV material for example is disti guished from Grade Il on the basis of whether pieces can be broken by hand; Grade V from Grade LV on the basis of slaking. It should be noted that such behaviour ‘may be influenced by local conditions such as degree of saturation or material characteristics such as degree of leaching of clay. Careful consideration is therefore necessary before applying these classifiers, and class boundaries can be established more precisely for & particular rock (ype using appropriate index tests (see Section 5.4.2). Approach 3 is for rocks which develop weathering Profiles which comprise a mixture of relatively strong and weak material in the mass and for which a classification is considered useful in separating relatively. large zones of different engineering characteristics. The approach is detailed in Table 3. It should be noted that the ‘rock’ proportion, even in ZI, need not comprise solely fresh material; similarly Z6 does not necessarily consist of a structureless residual soil. ‘The following should be noted: * itis often impossible to define zones reliably from borehole cores «it is difficult to determine volumetric percentages ‘even where exposure is good + the rock: soil guideline percentages may not always be appropriate rock mass classifications may often be more applicable partly because they allow empirical relationships to be used for assigning engineering parameters (see Section 4,2) Approach 4 is for rocks in which the nature and scale of the heterogeneity developed during weathering is such that a simple classification scale incorporating both intact material and mass characteristis is appropriate. Table 4 is likely 10 be applicable to rocks which are moderately weak or weaker in their fresh slate, is based fon and conforms with existing successful formation- specific schemes. This approach is likely to be applicable to many sedimentary rocks (particularly mudstones) and overconsolidated clays. Approach 5 is for rocks whose weathering state does not follow the patterns indicated above. An example is the development of karst which can only be described by reference to other characteristics such as landform (e.g. Fookes & Hawkins 1988}. This approach would also be relevant for some evaporite deposits, carbonates and the particular effects of arid climates. ‘The requirement is to sive a full description (Approach 1), and then to apply a classification, if required, at a site specific evel. It may 27 not always be postible or appropriate to achieve a ‘weathering classification. The objective of the recommended approaches is to encourage greater thoughtfulness and understanding. about the significance and effects of weathering and so to improve the communication of these to the reader. Application of any of the approaches to classification will requize consideration of the materials presemt and the variation of features of engineering significance within the profile. The various classification subdivisions are not as rigorously defined as they might be for a project for reasons which are discussed in the preceding. Sections of this report. The recommended classifications are intended as general guidelines which can form the basis for site specific or problem specific approaches. It is essential in all cases that the origin of the classification and the precise definitions of the classification divisions being used should be presented with the logs to which they refer. 7. 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Proceedings Fist International Congress International Society of Rock Mechanics, Lisbon, 19-114. inran, T. Y. 1988, Fabric variability and index testing of a granitic saprolite, Proceedings of 2nd International Com ference on Geomechanics in Tropical Soils, Singapore, ‘alkema, 1, 25-35, & DEARMAN, W. R. 1978a. Engineering classilicetion and index propertice of a wemhered granite. Bulletin International Association of Engineering Geology, 17, 73— 2, & 1918, The engineering peszography of a ‘eeathered granite in Comal, England. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology. 11, 233-244, Jats, ALN. & Kinxearaicn, LM, 1980, Design of foundations of dams containing soluble rocks and ois Quarter Joural of Engineering Geology, 13, 189-198. Lan.'8.G. & be Farias, M, Hi 1989, A revision of the description and casscation of weathered grate and its ‘pplition w granites in Korea. Quarily Journal of Engineering Geology, 2, 31-48. Livrts, A. L 1969. The engineering classification of residual tropical sols. Proceedings of 7% international Conference ton Soll Meckanice and Fowidation Engtcerng, 1, 1-10, Luvin, P._ 1962. The properties of decomposed” eranite Géotechnique, 12, 226-243, Macneatt, D. R. 1933, Preiminacy analysis of quarry slopes ‘in a weathered rock mass profile. Jn; Huson, J. A. (ed.) Comprehenstve Rock Engineering, Vol. 5, Pergamon, New York, 177806. Masti, C. D, 1954, Quentibing dilioginduccd damage 52 ‘ample of Lac du Bonne: genie. Zn: Nason & Lavaact (Gib) Proceedings of Ist North American Rock Mechanics Symposium, Aust. Balkema, Rotterdam, 419-426 Maas, RP. 1988. Use of index tests for engineering sucasment of wenhered rocks. Proceedhgr of Sth Inter national Congress of International Association of Engineer- Ing Geologists, Buenor dives, 33-460. & Hirnciix, 8. R. 1986, Principss for description and ‘dasfcation of weathered rocks for engineering purposes, dn: Hawn, AB. (0h) Site Imesigution Proctc: Assessing BS5930, Geological Socicty, London, Engineer- ing Goology Special Publeation, 2, 258-308 Marmitews, MC. G, CLAYTON, CR. 1 RUSSELL C. S. 1993. Assessing the mass compressibility of Chalk from vial dserption. n° CRs, J.C, COULTHARD, J. MC, Catsiaw, M. G, Foustes, A, HENCHER, SR, “Moon, C.F, (eds) The Engineering Geology of Weak Rock ‘Engincering Geology Special Publication no. 8, Balkema, Rotirdam, 337-35. Movs, D. G. 1955. Engineering geolosy for the Snowy ‘Mouniain scheme, Jounal of Tnstution of Engineers ‘Australia, 27, 287-298, [Nes/azky, J. 1971, Engineering geology inthe investigation and ‘construction ofthe Batang Padang hydro-lctie scheme, Malaysia. Ouarery Jonomal of ngicerng Geology, 3, isles, Ourvien, HJ, 1979, A new engincring. geological rock durability ctasication, Engineering Geology 14, 255-279 Ousten, C.D. 1984, Wearhering. Langman, OwoeRA, T.F,, YASHINAE, R,_ODk, M, 1974, Weathering ‘and iis eistion to mechanical properties of granite Proceedings Third International Congress of Intemational Society of Rock Mechaies, Denier, 2, 1-78 Perrin, G'S. & FOOKIS, P. G. 1994 A revision of the raphical method for aswouing the excavalablity of rock Quarterly Jounal of Engineering Geology, 27, 145-164.230 Price, D. G, 1995. Weathering and weathering processes. Quarierly Journal of Engineering Geology, 28, 243-252 Pye, K. & MILLER, J. A. 1990. Chemical and Geochemical ‘weathering of pyrite medrocks in « shale embankment. Quarterly Journal of Enxineering Geolony, 23, 365-381. Rawtinos, GE, 1986, Active slide in Tertiary bentonitic claystones, Upper Hat Creek, British Columbia, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 3, 164-173. Romana, Y. V. & Gocre, B, S. 1982. Quantitative studies of ‘weathering in saprobiized charnocktes associated with & landslip zone at the Porthimund Dam, India. Bulletin of International Assoctation of Engineering Geatogy, 19, 28~ 246, Roctia-Fnto, P., ANTURIES, F.S, & FALCAG, M. FG, 1985. Quantitative influence of the weathering degree upon the mechanical propertis of a young gneiss residual sol. First Imernational Conference on Geomechanics in Tropical Lawritic and Seproitie Sols, Brastia, 1, 281-26 Russet, D. J. & PaRRer, A. 1979, Gcolccimical, mincralog ‘al and chemical interrelationships in weathering profilin ‘an overvonsolidated clay. Querierly Journal of Engineering Geology, 12, 107-116. RUXTON, B. P. 1980. Slope problems ia Hong Kong -2 ‘eological appraisal. Hong Kong Engineer, 8, no. 6,31 39. & Besery, L, 1957, Weathering of granite and associated ‘erosional feats in Hong Kong. Bulletin of Geological Society of Armerica, 68 1263-1292. Seumy, M. J, 1993. Hillslope Materials and Processes, 2nd dition, Oxford University Press, Oxford. SaRRANO, A. A. OTRO, C., DaPena, E., Vives, J. M. 1981. ‘Analysis of swelling phenomena” in a gypsum-marl Formation. Proceedings of 10th International Conference ‘om Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Stockholm, 1, 779-984, Senex, T. W. & Norsuay, D. R. 1993, The engineering description of week rocks and overconsolidated soi. In? Cures, J.C, COULTHARD, J. M,, CUuISKAW, M. Go Fonstéx, A. Hencuzr, S. R. & Moon, C. F. (eds) The Encineering Geology of Weak Rock. Unginecting Geology ‘Special Publication no. 8, Balkema, Rotterdam, 289-301 ‘Tartor, R. K. 1988, Coal Measures mudcocks composition, sassifcation and weathering processes. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 21, 85-99. <& Cries, J.C. 1987, Weathering: Slopes in mudrocks tnd overconsolidated clays. In” ANDERSON, M. G.& Ricuanos, K, S, (eds) The Georectonies ard Geomorphol- 029 of Mass Movement, Wiley. Chichester, 405-445 & StEARS, D. A. 1970, The breakdown of British Coa! ‘Measures rocks. International Journal of Rock Mechanics ad Mining Science, 7, 48)-501. ‘Vaxcns, M. 1953, Some engineering properties of residual lay seils oocurting in southern Brazil. Proceedings of 3rd International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Zurich, 1, 259-268, Vavouan, P. R. 1985. Mechanical and hydrautic properties of tropical iatestie and saprolitc soils, particularly as related to their suengib and mineral componcuis. Proceedings of 1st International Conference on Geomechanics in. Tropical Laterites and Saproltic Soils, Brasilia, , 231-262. 1988, Characterising the mechanical properties of in- sity cesidual soil. Proceedings of 2nd International Cone ference on Geomechanies in Tropica! Sots, Singapore, 2, 469-487. ‘& KWAN, C. W. 1984, Weathering, stracture and in sit stress in residual sil. Gotechnique, 34, 43-59, —) Maccena M. & Monxtan, 8. M. 1988. Indexing the DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS engineering properties of residual sol. Quarterly Journal of | Engineering Geology, 21, 68-4. WAKELING, T. R. M1970. A comparivon of the results of ‘Handard site investigation methods against the results of a Aelailed geotechnical awvestigation in Middte Chatk at ‘Mundford, Norfolk, In situ investigations in sols and rocks British Geotechnical Society, London, 17-22. Warp, W. H., BURLAND, J.B. & Gattom, R. W. 1968. ‘Geotechnical assessment of a site at Mundford, Norfolk, far a large proton accelerator. Géotechnique, 18, 399-431. Yatsu, E. 1988, The Nanwe of Weathering. An Introduction. Sozosha, Tokyo. Appendix 1. Photographic appendix of worked examples Fic. ALL. Weathered granites from Hong Kong: S.R. Hencher. (a, top) Brown weak, highly decomposed granite. (Grade IV). Weak and friable (readily broken by hhand), can be cut with pocket knife, does not slake. Occasional relict joints. (b, lower left) Pele grey, very weak, completely decomposed granite. (Grade V). Stakes completely in water, Note that the gully was created over a short period by discharge of water froma drain, Classification ‘These examples are readily classified using Approach 2. ‘The zonal classification using Approach 3 may also be cused if considered necessary; both these cases would be Zone 6 (100% soil like). Fic. A1.2. Weathered sandstone, Hawksworth Quarry, ‘near Leeds, Yorkshire; J. C. Cripps. Top of picture: ight brown strong sandstone, (Grade I). Nscreias = 50. Medium spaced (30-1000 mm) stained joints, Bottom {adjacent to hammer): dark brown, very thinly bedded ‘weak sandstone, (Grade V). Nscimide = 0, disintegrates. in water. Classification The effects of weathering are clearly evident in this quarry. However, the degree to which the variations in engineering properties are attributable to weathering rather than original lithology is uncertain; nevertheless the different grades of material can be identified using simple index tests and given shorthand descriptions usefully following Approach 2. Broad zonal descriptions might be attempted using Approach 3, Whether this would be useful or not would largely depend upon whether or not the mass developed in a hetcrogeneous manner with strong corestones ‘occurring in weaker rock. Fic. A13, Sandstone and siltstone in borehole core fromDESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS Borehole 8B, Sellafield; Nirex UK Ltd. Dark brown becoming brown from 3B, generaily moderately strong fine and medium grained sandstone. Occasional thick laminae of light green grey sillstone. Bedding generally ow angle, but cross bedding and stump bedding features present. IB +30 to 2B+ 10: not described here. 2B +10 to 2B+ 140: closely spaved (30-150mm) subhorizontal and inclined discontinuities; closely to widely spaced zones with extremely closely spaced iscontinuities with irregular light brown clay infill up to Smm. 2B + 140 to 5B +50: widely spaced (200- 701m) discontinuities with no discernible weathering effects, SB + 50 to 5B + 70: calcareous horizon includ- ing thick laminae of light grey sillstone with dissolution ‘vags up to 5 by 50mm, SB +70 to 5B+ 85: slightly calcareous zone with occasional thin laminae of light ‘grey siltstone with dissolution vugs up to 3 mm and up to 25 mm of soft clay on two discontinuities inclined at 20°. SB +85 to 6A: very widely spaced (300-600 mm) ‘generally horizontal discontinuities with up to Smm of lay infill; dissolution vogs up to 3mm. Classification ‘Weathering in this core is apparent only where the ‘original lithology renders diserete zones more vulnerable to weathering processes. This is manifest as the local presence of clay, increased fracturing and dissolution. ‘None of the classifications recommended in the Report is appropriate here. It is impossible to determine from ‘visual description aione wacther the current state of the rock (eg. variations in colour and cementation) owes more to its diagenetic or to its weathering history. Fis. Al, Carboniferous mudsione from northwest England, North West Water. 14.10-14.30, 14.60-14.70 and 15.10-15.30: grey thinly laminated moderately weak: mudstone, Occasional 20° curving to subvertical joints with up to 10mm infill of up to fine gravel size rock fragments and a little clay. Core separated on very closely spaced bedding discontinuities; red brown dis- coloration penetrating up to 2mm from inclined discontinuities and occasionally from horizontal bed- ding planes. 14,30-14,60 and 15.30-15.70: Grey and light grey (silty) thinly laminated moderately strong. mudstone, Ovcasional 20° to 45° curving to subyertical joints with up to 25mm infill of up to medium gravel size rock fragments and a litle clay. Core separated on closely spaced bedding discontinuities; yellow and red browa staining on discontinuity surfaces. Classification This box of core is a prime exarmple of the difficulties in applying a weathering classification. There is a question as to whether the separation along bedding disconti- nuities and the strength differences are due to weathering ‘or represent manifestations of original lithological features (such as silt partings or variations in ccmenta- 21 tion). It might be possible to classify using Approach 2 (weaker materials, Grade 1V; stronger material Grade IP) or Approach 4 (weaker materials, Ciass B/C; stronger materials, Class A), however, there would need to be a greater understanding of the overall weathering, profile in order, to apply either classification in a meaningful manner. The fact that the core indicates heterogeneous mass means that a zonal classification based on the distribution of rock materials of different quality might be attempted once a fuller picture is available. However, there is unlikely to be sufficient information availabie in the core alone for unambiguous. classification using Approach 3. Fig. ALS. Carboniferous sandstone, northwest Eng- land; North West Water. Light and dark orange brown strong and light grey moderately strong, strongly weathered medium grained sandstone, Closely and medium spaced (50-300mm, average 100mm) sub- horizontal bedding discontinuities and inciined (40° to 90°) joints. Light and dark orange brown discoloration penetrating up to 30mm from discontinuities along variable and sinuous fronts; discontinuities very heavily stained and coated black with traces of friable sand- stone. Little or no loss of strength except on disconti- nuity walls although light grey zones apparently weakened by leaching. From 19.05 to 19.8m core recovered non-intact around subvertical irregular heay- ily stained joint. Classification In this example weathering is indicated by changes in colour and strength. The degree to which the strength. and fracture spacing have been affected by weathering. cannot be quantified, None of the general classifications recoramended in the Report is of obvious help. To differentiate from other less weathered rock at this site, the undefined term ‘strongly weathered” has been used in the description. Fic. AL.6, Excavation in weathered schist, Dominion Building, Harare, Zimbabwe; S. R. Hencher. A 9m coep excavation behind a retained facade, which failed shortly after this photograph was (ken. The foundations that are visible go down to the base of alluvium. Upper part of rock face is in brown weak schist. (Grade V). Easily excavated by hand to give gravel size particles (see spoil piles), zcro Schmidt rebound, readily slakes in water. Lower part of rock face is in grey moderately weak schist (Grade IV). Fairiy easily excavated by hand to give coarse gravel size particies, Schmidt rebound of O— 25, does not slake in water. Occasional joints with component of dip 25° towards excavation, are clay infiled, Classification ‘The materials exposed in this face are readily and22 DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS sensibly classified by Approach 2. The upper part of the face, which is noticeably weaker and poorer quality, is in Grade V and the lower, better part is in Grade IV: the application of shorthand classifiers is here both appro- priate and meaningful, Classification according to Approach 3 would place all the exposed rocks in Zone 6, This simplification indicates the overall soi-tike character of the ground with reference to diggability and the potentiat for the mass to fail as a soil. In fact, the failure refested to took place along @ relict discontinuity, which was recorded in the description, but is not apparent from the classification. This illustrates the ‘eomaplementary relevance of description and classifica- tion, Fic. A1.7. Quarry in metasediments, South Korea: P. G. Fookes. Grey thickly bedded strong fresh to slightly weathered metasandstone (Grade 1/M1). Very widely spaced horizontal and inclined discontinuities with brown discoloration penetrating up to 250 mm; infil up to S0mm of brown stiff clay and up to gravel size comminuted strong rock fragments. Wedge failure on right of picture confined to joint faces, where reduction fof strength and presence of weathering products contributed to failure, Classification Approach 2is applicable to the materials im this quarry Approach 3 could also sensibly be used to classify the rock mass: the apparent ratio of materials would give Zone 2. This shorthand is relevant here as it highlights the presence of up to 10% weaker materials which could affect the aggregate processing and also shear strength. ‘long discontinuities. Hic. ALB. Weathered schist in slope, Eastern Highlands, Zimbabwe; S. R. Hencher. Complex weathered profile in schist, vith the compleaity exacerbated by mass move- ‘ment, and surface boulders of granodiorite (annotated G ‘on photograph) derived from an overlying sill higher up he slope. Angular near rectangular blocks up to 2m (vertical dimension) apparently occurring as discrete, matrix-supported blocks of horizontally, very thinly banded strong, slightly to moderately weathered (Grade MID) schist (A on photograph) separated by poorly exposed orange-brown weak completely weathered (Grade V) schist (B on photograph). Estimated 40% ‘of Grade I/II in exposure (Zone 4 Schist). Classification Recording details of, inter alia, the spatial distribution and size of the blocks and matrix requires a detailed description and Jog of the fave to show the relationship ‘of the variously weathered materials (Approach 1). 1tis possible to classify the materials using Approuch 2. Classifying the whole exposure in accordance with Approach 3 is also feasible; from the limited information available in this exposure, a zonal classifier has been used as a shorthand. Extrapolation of this classification beyond the exposure would obviously zeauire great care, Fic. AL9. Weathered gneiss in a road cutting, Séo Paolo, Brazil; §. R. Hencher, Rounded corestones (up to 10%) of tight brown moderately weak moderately to highly weathered gneiss. (Grade II/IV). Necks: = 20- 30, does not slake. Matrix comprises red very weak completely weathered gneiss. (Grade V). Nectcat ~ 0-12, slakes. Occasional relict joints. Classification ‘The cut slope exposes moderately weak corestones in a soil‘tike matrix. Relict structure is also evident (note hammer in joint). Classification of the heterogeneous ‘mass using Approach 3 indicates either Zone 5 or 6 depending on the weathering grade of the corestones; this difference may be significant in, say, diggability assessments. Fic. A110, Granite corestones, Municipal Quarry, Harare, Zimbabwe; S. R. Hencher. Approximately 35% sub-spheroidal 3 to 4m corestones of light grey very strong fresh to slightly weathered granite. (Grade 1) TD. Nsctaase = 62. Progressive weathering over 100 to 150 mm to matrix. Matrix is of orange brown very weak completely weathered granite. (Grade V). Nsctma ~ 0. slakes completely. Classification These materials can be classified in accordance with Approach 2 and a face map prepared showing the distribution of the various materials. Mass classification (Approach 3) may be of use in assessment of the reserves of aggregate, The large soale of the corestones relative to the size of the slope in this case would reduce the usefulness of Approach 3 in slope stability assessment. Fic. A1.L. (a, b) Irregular granodiorite corestones, Tai Po Bypass, Hong Kong; S. R. Hencher. About 10% of the mass comprises very large (2-Sm) irregular core- stones of light grey very strong fresh to slightly weathered granodiorite (Grade I/II). Corestones grade into matrix over about $00 mm (See photo b). Matrix of light brown very weak and weak completely weathered granodiorite with texture retained (Grade V); rlling in ‘matrix illustrates slakeability and extreme degree of weathering. Classification Use of Approach 2 is appropriate for the materials. Approach 3 is of limited use here for classifying the mass; it would provide a broad indication of the proportions of hard and soft materials, but the important gross heterogeneity can only be expressed by full description,Fro, Al2. Weathered sandstone, Hawksworth Quarry, near Leeds, Yorkshire; J.C. Cripps.DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS 234 » mur oN SIWVHS = mum oN Wd = = —— -YSSE9ZM oN LOVHLNOD- “PT sn YIN SpIEUERG “eB o[OKDIOG mss a100 aoyArOG st BUOIEIIS PUB oUOTSPURS “CTW “OLADESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS 235 = a cy Sree a ents Fis. ALS, Carboniferous sandstone, North West England; North West Water.236 DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS. Fic. AL7. Quarry in metasediments, South Korea; P, G, Fookes.DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS re s ar Zimnbabwe; S. R, Hencher. ss lope, Eastern Highlands, ‘AL9. Weathered gneiss in a road cutting, So Paolo, Fis. Al.10. Granite corestones, Municipal Quarry, Harare, IS. R, Henches. Zimbabwe; 8. R. Hencher.io, AL.I1. Iewegular granodiorite corestones, Tai Po Bypass, Hong Kong; 8, R. Hencher.a) DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS rT boy vou RH ae AED 09 ain SOINVHOAN Watss OL se3; WOH "ON 16-8- 11 FIWO 7seau “ON Ha Z6E/P6l .S, LOVHLNOO THN“sousuayy “gy °s ‘efanog auay ‘a hei Map) wy qyoxd panne Ol ‘samdyy ‘oyoodesouoy moxy suorsomy u1 sammyea} SUMOGIOSAL “PL'IY “Old — ERS ASD IND HOS TARE EY Dk 2 g é Z g 5 6 é § 5 4 g z § : zDESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF WEATHERED ROCKS: 2a Fic, ALI2. Borehole core in Gault Clay, Kent; Union Railways Ltd. 6.35-7.70m: Light brown mottled light grey iff extremely closely lensoidally fissured clay. Fissures smooth planar grey gleyed with orange stained faces. Fissure blocks brown with grey rims. Closely spaced subvertical rough planar grey gleyed orange stained contraction cracks with rare rootlets, (Class C Gault Clay). 7.70-8.35 m: Brown mottled grey very stilt very closely to closely fissured clay. Randomly orien- tated smooth planar grey gleyed fissures with orange and black stained faces. (Class © Gault Clay). 8.35— 9.35to: Dark grey very stiff very closely fissured cla Subvertical smooth planar to undulose fissures with orange brown stained faces and occasional

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