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Set 1 Q1. Explain Management Roles and Skills:

1. Management Roles:

According to Mintzberg, managerial roles are as follows:

A. Informational roles.
B. Decisional roles.
C. Interpersonal roles.

A. Informational Roles: This involves the role of assimilating and

disseminating information as and when required. In other words spending
time in giving & receiving information.
Following are the main sub-roles, which managers often perform:
• Monitor:
 Collecting information from organizations, both from
inside and outside of the organization.
 Continuously scan envt. for information.
 Seek data from subordinates, bosses & outside contacts.
• Disseminator:
 Communicating information to organizational members.
 Relates with key internal people
• Spokesperson:
 Representing the organization to outsiders.
 Handles Public Relations.

B. Decisional Roles: It acts upon information to make important decisions.

This role mainly involves in decision making.
This role can be sub-divided into the following:
• Entrepreneur:
 Initiating new ideas to improve organizational
performance.
 Initiates development of project
 Assembles the necessary resources.

• Disturbance handlers:
 Taking corrective actions to cope with adverse situation.
 Reactive to problems & pressures of situation
 Does crises management (e.g. handling strikes etc.)
• Resource allocation:
 Allocating human, physical, and monetary resources.
 Responsible for distribution of resources fairly.
• Negotiator:
 Negotiating with trade unions, or any other
stakeholders.
 Spending time on give & take

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 Negotiates with subordinates, superiors/boss,

outsiders

C. Interpersonal Roles: This role involves activities with people working in

the organization. This is supportive role for informational and decisional roles.
Interpersonal roles can be categorized into 3 sub-roles:
• Figurehead:
 Represents org. / symbol for organization.
 Economical duties
 Greeting Delegates/visitor
• Leadership:
 Leading organization in terms of recruiting, motivating,
etc.
 Encourage subordinates to achieve Org. goals.
• Liaison:
 Engaging in public relations activities.
 Interacting with others outside his unit.

2. Management Skills:

Kalz has identified 3 essential management skills: Technical, Human, Conceptual.

A. Technical Skills: The ability is to apply specialized knowledge or

expertise. All jobs require some specialized expertise, and many
people develop their technical skills on the job. Vocational and on the
job training programs can be used to develop this type of skill.

B. Human Skill: This is ability to work with, understand and motivate

other people both individually and as a group. This requires sensitivity
towards others issues and concerns. People, who are proficient in
technical skill, but not with interpersonal skills, may face difficulty to
manage their subordinates. To acquire the Human Skill, it is pertinent
to recognize the feelings and sentiments of others, ability to motivate
others even in adverse situation, and communicate own feelings to
others in a positive and inspiring way.

C. Conceptual Skill: This is an ability to critically analyze, diagnose a

situation and forward as feasible solution. It requires creative thinking
generating options and choosing the best available option.

There are few other skills manager require for better management. It can be described
as 6 different types of skills:

1. Leadership:
 Ability to influence top leadership
 Diplomacy in advocating change
 Energy and persistence in he face of organizational resistance

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 Ability to effect result without being a primary line manager

 Recognized and respected in the organization – engender trust
 Ability to motivate large numbers of employees to change sharing behaviour
 Translate qualitative to quantitative
 Ability to manage projects

2. Strategic Thinking:
 Having a clear vision and sticking to it
 Holistic thinking
 Knowing business imperatives
 Understanding the unique skills needed to effectively leverage knowledge.

3. Tools and Technologies:

 Knowledge of technology tools
 Ability to access and assess information

4. Personal Behaviours:
 Foster trust
 Innovator and risk taker
 Team player
 Unwavering commitment and enthusiasm for knowledge acquisition and
sharing

5. Communication:
 Ability to form organization
 Ability to present new ideas and gather support
 Ability to communicate ideas and make them real and meaningful to people
 Ability to write clearly

6. Personal Knowledge and Cognitive Capabilities:

 Understanding of the organizational culture and what transforms it
 Knowledge of and alignment with the organizational mission
 Understanding of business process
 Knowledge of concepts and strategies
 Knowledge of new organizational structures and ways of organizing.

There are few Other Skills which requires in management:

Fostering Creativity:
 To foster creativity: remove barrier and set up a culture that stimulates
creativity.
 The creative person generates new ideas and the manager can turns them into
profits.
 Creativity depends on creativity qualities, a supportive environment and
opportunity.
Motivating Skill:

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 The strongest employee motivator are: Achieving results, Being valued, Made
to feel important, Being accepted by an admired group
 The key is to find out what motivates people that you want to motivate.
 Something can motivate behaviour only if behaviour leads it to.

Set 1 Q2. Describe the Contemporary Work Cohort.

Robbins has proposed Contemporary Work Cohort, in which the unique value of
different cohorts is that the U.S. workforce has been segmented by the era they
entered the workforce. Individual’s values differ, but tend to reflect the societal values
of the period in which they grew up.

The cohorts and respective values have been listed below:

1. Veterans
2. Boomers
3. Xers
4. Nexters

1. Veterans:

Workers who entered the workforce from the early 1940s through the early 1960s are
called Veterans. They exhibited the following value orientations:

They are influenced by the great depression and World War II.
a. They are believed in hard work.
b. They are dedicated towards the work and respect for the authority
c. They tended to be loyal to their employer
d. Terminal values: Comfortable life and family security.

2. Boomers:

The people / Employees who entered the workforce between 1960s to mid 1980s are
comes under this category. Their value orientations were:
a. Influenced heavily by John F Kennedy, the civil rights and feminist
movements, the Beatles, the Vietnam War, and Baby-boom
competition.
b. Distrusted authority, but gave a high emphasis on achievement on
material success.
c. They are Optimistic, Team oriented and Service oriented
d. They are overly sensitive for feedback and judgemental of those who
see things differently
e. Organization who employed them where vehicles for their carriers.
f. Terminal values: sense of accomplishment and social recognition.

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3. Xers:

The employees who entered into workforce from the mid 1980s are coming under in
this category.
They cherish the following values:

a. Shaped by globalization, 2 carrier parents, MTV, AIDS, and Computers.

b. Value of flexibility, life options, and achievement of job satisfaction.

c. Family and relationships where important and enjoyed term oriented work.
d. They have “you owe me” attitude

e. They are not willing to work hard

f. Money was important but would trade of increased leisure time.

g. Less willing to make personal sacrifices for employers than previous

generations.

h. Terminal values: True friendship, happiness and pleasure.

4. Nexters:

These types of employees or people who entered recently into the workforce. They
cherish the following values:

a.Grew up in prosperous times, have high expectation, believe in themselves, and

confident in their abilities to succeed.

b.Never ending search for ideal job: see nothing wrong with job hopping.

c.Seek financial success.

d.Enjoy team work, but are highly self reliant.

e.Terminal Values: freedom and comfortable life.

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Set 1 Q3. Elaborate the issues related to Culture and Emotion.

Culture

Culture refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such
activities significance and importance. Culture can be also defined as all the ways of
life including arts, beliefs and institutions of a population that is passed down from
generation to generation. Culture has been called "the way of life for an entire
society." It includes codes of manners, dress, language, religion, rituals, norms of
behavior such as law and morality, and systems of belief as well as the art.

Culture is manifested in human artifacts and activities such as music, literature,

lifestyle, food, painting and sculpture, theatres and film.

Emotions

The term Emotion is used to designate “a state of consequences having to do with the
arousal of feelings”. It is distinguished from other metal states, from cognition,
volition and awareness of physical sensation.

There are few theories which describe about emotions.

1. James Lange Theory: He proposes that subjective emotional responses are the
result of physiological changes within human bodies.

2. Canon – Bard Theory: He proposes that emotion-provoking events include the

subjective emotional experiences and physiological arousal simultaneously.

3. Schachter – Singer Theory: He proposes that both feedback from peripheral

responses and cognitive appraisal of what caused those responses produced
emotions.

4. Lazarus Appraisal Theory: An individual makes an initial and sometimes

unconscious cognitive appraisal of the situation to decide, if there is a threat;
copying action is taken if necessary; and the individual takes a close look and
identifies the emotions he/she is feeling.

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5. Weiner’s Attribution Theory: He proposes that certain attribution produce

specific emotions once the initial evaluation has been made, the individual
looks at what cause the event.

There are certain issues with culture and emotions. There are few views of culture
and emotions.

1. Universality
2. Cultural Specificity
3. Alexithymia – Emotional disorder
4. Relationship of gender with emotions

1. Universality: Emotions are part of human nature and in all cultures universally
the same set of basic emotions. Based on his cross – cultural research, Ekman
(1999) has found six emotions which are universally recognised and
applicable. They are –
a) Anger
b) Fear
c) Sadness
d) Happiness
e) Disgust
f) Surprise

2. Cultural Specificity: Human beings are like a clean tablet (Tabula Rasa) on
which society writes its script. In other words, culture and traditions,
normative patters and value-orientations are responsible for not only our
personality development but also appropriate and social and emotional
development. This makes us functional entities and society. Each culture has a
unique set of emotions and emotional responses; the emotions shown in a
particular culture reflects the norms, values, practices and language of that
culture.

3. Alexithymia – Emotional disorder: Some people have difficulty in expressing

their emotions and understandings the emotions of others. Psychologists call
this alexithymia. People who suffer from alexithymia rarely cry and are often
seen by others as bland and cold. Their own feelings make uncomfortable, and
they are not able to discriminate among their different emotions. People,
suffering from alexithymia, may be effective performers in jobs where little or
no emotional labour. Alexithymia symptoms may be seen in people who
experience:
a) Post-traumatic stress disorder
b) Certain brain injuries
c) Eating disorders
d) Substance use dependence
e) Depression
f) Other metal health conditions

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4. Relationship of gender with emotions: A number of research findings support

the view that women are more emotional than men. Women are assumed to
experience more frequent and intense emotions, where as men are assumed to
be emotionally inexpressive and to have less intense emotional experiences.
However, researches have argued that the stereo type of men as unemotional is
more accurate for adult targets than for child targets because males learnt to
control their emotions as they get older. Likewise, women and men may
experience happiness in a similar way, but women have been taught that thy
can strongly express the emotions of happiness, where as men have been
taught to control it. The impact of socialisation practices accumulate overtime,
and, thus, these stereotypes are likely to apply more strongly to adults
population.

Set 1 Q4. Discuss the assumption of Douglas Mc Gregor (Theory X and Theory Y)

Theory X and Theory Y are theories of human motivation developed in the 1960s that
have been used in human resource management, organizational behaviour, and
organizational development. They describe two very different attitudes toward
workforce motivation. McGregor felt that companies followed either one or the other
approach.

Theory X:

Theory X is a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by lower

order needs. In this theory management assumes employees are inherently lazy and
will avoid work if they can. Because of this workers need to be closely supervised and
comprehensive systems of controls developed. A hierarchical structure is needed with
narrow span of control at each level. According to this theory employees will show
little ambition without an enticing incentive program and will avoid responsibility
whenever they can.

Many managers (in the 1960s) tended to subscribe to Theory X, in that they take a
rather pessimistic view of their employees. A Theory X manager believes that his or
her employees do not really want to work, that they would rather avoid responsibility
and that it is the manager's job to structure the work and energize the employee. The
result of this line of thought is that Theory X managers naturally adopt a more
authoritarian style based on the threat of punishment.

Theory Y:

Theory Y is a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by higher

order needs. In this theory management assumes employees are ambitious, self-
motivated, and anxious to accept greater responsibility, and exercise self-control and
self-direction. It is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work
activities. It is also believed that employees have the desire to be imaginative and

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creative in their jobs if they are given a chance. There is an opportunity for greater
productivity by giving employees the freedom to perform to the best of their abilities.

A Theory Y manager believes that, given the right conditions, most people will want
to do well at work and that there is a pool of unused creativity in the workforce. They
believe that the satisfaction of doing a good job is a strong motivation in and of itself.
A Theory Y manager will try to remove the barriers that prevent workers from fully
actualizing their potential.

Characteristics of the Theory X:

· Results-driven and deadline-driven, to the exclusion of everything else

· Intolerant
· Issues deadlines and ultimatums
· Distant and detached
· Aloof and arrogant
· Elitist
· Short temper
· Shouts
· Issues instructions, directions, edicts
· Issues threats to make people follow instructions
· Demands, never asks
· Does not participate
· Does not team-build
· Unconcerned about staff welfare, or morale
· Proud, sometimes to the point of self-destruction
· One-way communicator
· Poor listener
· Fundamentally insecure and possibly neurotic
· Anti-social
· Vengeful and recriminatory
· Does not thank or praise
· Withholds rewards, and suppresses pay and remunerations levels
· Scrutinises expenditure to the point of false economy
· Seeks culprits for failures or shortfalls
· Seeks to apportion blame instead of focusing on learning from the experience
and preventing recurrence
· Does not invite or welcome suggestions
· Takes criticism badly and likely to retaliate if from below or peer group
· Poor at proper delegating - but believes to be good at delegating
· Thinks giving orders is delegating
· Holds on to responsibility but shifts accountability to subordinates
· Relatively unconcerned with investing in anything to gain future improvements

Problems with Theory X:

Drawing on Maslow’s hierarchy, McGregor argues that a satisfied need no longer

motivates. Under Theory X the firm relies on money and benefits to satisfy
employees’ lower needs, and once those needs are satisfied the source of motivation is

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lost. Theory X management styles in fact hider the satisfaction of higher level needs.
Consequently, the only way that employees can attempt to satisfy their higher level
needs in their work is by seeking more compensation, so it is quite predictable that
they will focus on monetary rewards. While money may not be the most effective way
to self fulfilment, in Theory X environment it may be the only way. Under Theory X,
people use work to satisfy their lower needs, and seek to satisfy their higher needs in
their leisure time. But it is in satisfying their higher needs that employees can be more
productive.

Characteristics of the Theory Y:

· Focus on methods as well as results

· Forgiving
· Involved, interested
· Outgoing, friendly
· People-oriented
· Patient
· Asks, rewards
· Delegates
· Seeks to boost morale
· Seeks opinions of others
· Accepts responsibility
· Assigns pay levels fairly
· Looks at the big picture
· Participative, team builder

Theory Y Management Implications:

If Theory Y holds, the firm can do many things to harness the motivational energy of
its employees:
· Decentralization and Delegation – If firms decentralize control and reduce the
number of levels of management; each manager will have more subordinates and
consequently will be forced to delegate some responsibility and decision making to
them.
· Job Enlargement – Broadening the scope of an employee’s job adds variety and
opportunities to satisfy ego needs.
· Participative Management – Consulting employees in the decision making process
taps their creative capacity and provides them with some control over their work
environment.
· Performance Appraisals – Having the employee set objectives and participate in
the process of evaluating how well they were met.
If properly implemented, such an environment would result in a high level of
motivation as employees work to satisfy their higher level personal needs through
their jobs.

McGregor's work was based on Maslow's hierarchy of needs. He grouped Maslow's

hierarchy into "lower order" (Theory X) needs and "higher order" (Theory Y) needs.
He suggested that management could use either set of needs to motivate employees
but that better results could be obtained by meeting the Theory Y needs.

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Criticisms:
Today the theories are seldom used. They are thought to express extreme positions
that are not realistic. Most employees fall somewhere in between these extremes and
the theories are of little help in everyday human resource management decisions.
However Theory X and Theory Y are still important terms in the field of management
and motivation. Recent studies have questioned the rigidity of the model, but Jefferey
Dohmer's X-Y Theory remains a guiding principle of positive approaches to
management, to organizational development, and to improving organizational culture.

Set 1 Q5. What is Personal Power? Explain different bases of Personal Power.

Power is the ability to make things happen in the way an individual wants either by
self or by the subordinates. Personal power resides in the individuals and is in
depended of that individual’s positions. Managers derive power from both
organisational and individual sources. These sources are called position power or
personal power respectively. If one person acts and behaves according to the wishes
of another person, then the second person has the personal power upon the first
person.

Personal power can also be defined as the power one derives because of his or her
individual qualities or characteristics. Personal power is based on each individual’s
beliefs. People hide their power based on their limiting beliefs, and each person can
rescue his or her power by changing those beliefs.

Personal power can be categorised into two types –

A) Formal Power
B) Informal Power

A) Formal Power: It is based on the position of an individual in an organisation.

Formal Power is derived from either Ones ability to reward others or is derived
from the formal authority vested in the individual due to his or her strategic
position in the organisational hierarchy. The availability of coercive power also
varies across organisations. The presence of unions and organisational policies on
employee treatment can weaken this power base significantly. Formal power may
be categorised into below four types –

i) Coercive Power: The person who has the Coercive Power can make things
difficult for people. Below are the elements of this power -
• Based on Fear.

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• Provides an individual with the means to physically harm, bully,

humiliate, or deny something to others.
• Makes employees to strictly follow the rules, policies of the
organization.
• Fear of punishments like demotions or termination.
• Negative in nature, withdraws reward
• Feeling of hostility & resentment in employee

ii) Reward Power: The opposite of Coercive Power is Reward Power. The person
who is able to give special benefits or rewards to people will come under this
category. Example of such reward includes money, promotions, compliments or
enriched jobs.
Thus this power type of power has the following elements –

• Positive reinforcement to others.

• Includes pay increases, promotions, favourable work
assignments, recognition etc.
• Encourage repetition of positive behaviour.

• Ability to reward or elimination of negative factor.

• Reward power is dependent on recipient.
•

iii) Legitimate Power: The third base of Position power is legitimate power or
formal authority. The person has the right, considering his or her position and
your job responsibilities, to expect you to comply with legitimate requests.
Legitimate power represents a special kind of power a manager has because
subordinate believe it is legitimate for a person occupying the managerial
positions to have right to command.
This type of power has following elements –
• It represent the power a person receives as a result of his/her
position in the formal hierarchy
• Positions of authority includes Coercive and Reward powers
• Legitimate power, however is not limited to the power to Coercive and
Reward.

Legitimate power can be derived from three main sources:

 Cultural values prevailing in a society
 Accepted social culture
 Persons designation

iv) Information Power: This type of power derived from access to and control
over information. When people have needed information, others become
dependent on them. For example, mangers have access to the data that
subordinates do not have. Normally the higher the level, the more information
would be accessed by managers.

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B) Informal Power: It resides in the individual and is independent of that

individual’s position.
There are 3 bases of informal power.

i) Expert Power: It is an ability to control another person’s behaviour by virtue

possessing knowledge, experience or judgement that the person lacks, but
needs. A subordinate obeys a supervisor possessing expert power because the
boss ordinarily knows more about what is to be done or how it used to be done
that does the subordinate. Expert power is relative not absolute. However the
table in turn in case the subordinate has superior knowledge or skills than
his/her boss. In this age of technology driven environment, the second position
holds true in many occasions where the boss dependent heavily on the juniors
for the technologically oriented support.

ii) Rational Persuasion: It is the ability to control another’s behaviour, since

through the individual’s efforts, the person accepts the desirability of an
offered goal and a viable way of achieving it. Rational persuasion involves
both explaining the desirability of expected outcomes and showing how
specific actions will achieve these outcomes.

iii) Referent Power: It is the ability to control another’s behaviour, because the
person wants to identify with the power source. In this case, a subordinate
obeys the boss because he/she wants to behave, perceive or behave as the boss
does. This obedience may occur, for example, because the subordinate likes
the boss personally and therefore tries to do things the way the boss wants
them done.

iv) Charismatic Power: Is an extension of Referent Power, stemming from an

individuals personality and interpersonal style. Others follow because they can
articulate attractive vision, take personal risks, demonstrate follower
sensitivity, etc.

A person can attain power by being in right place (control, budget etc). Higher
ranking organizational members do not give sufficient importance to task. But lower
ranking members are more likely to assume additional power over that task.
Effective leaders use referent or expert power

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Set 1 6. Write a short note on Potential sources of Stress:

Stress has been defined as a physical, mental or emotional response to events which
cause mental or bodily tension. It can be also be defined as any interference that
disturbs a persons’ healthy mental and physical well being. It occurs when the body is
required to perform beyond its normal range of capabilities.

The results of stress are harmful to individuals, families, society and organizations.
While handing a stressful situation, the brain signals the release of stress hormones.
These chemical substances in turn trigger a set of responses that provides the body
with extra energy. The muscles tense for action. The blood supply is diverted away
from the gut to the extremities to help the body deal with the situation at hand.

The main symptoms of stress are:

A. Work related symptoms
B. Physical symptoms.

A. Work related symptoms:

 Lack of concentration
 Affected clarity of thinking & decision – making
 Frequent absenteeism
 Affected team work
 Aggressive behaviour

B. Physiological symptoms
 Headache / Migraine
 Insomnia
 Lack of appetite
 Digestive disorders
 Sexual disorders
 Temperamental changes.

To describe the sources of Stress we need to understand the different Types of Stress.

Types of Stress:

Stress can be divided into 3 types depends upon the suddenness of an even to be dealt
with and types of stressors to be handled by an individual.

1. Physical: This happens when the body as whole suffers due to stressful
situation. Symptoms like, headaches, pain in the neck, forehead and shoulder
muscles.
2. Emotional: This responses due to stress affecting the mind and include
anxiety, anger, depression, irritability, frustration, over-reaction to everyday
problems, memory loss and a lack of concentration for any task.
Depression can be seen during the death of loved ones.

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3. Psychological: Long-term stress can cause psychological problems in some

individuals. Symptoms like social isolation, phobias, eating disorders and
night terrors.
Stress can also be divided into 2 types: Positive stress and Negative Stress.

1. Positive Stress: Moderate and manageable levels of stress for a certain period
of time. This can be handled by allocating resources and showing emotions
such as enjoyment, satisfaction, excitement. This is defined by Selye as
Eustress.
2. Negative Stress: Overload of stress resulting from a situation of either over
arousal or under arousal for long periods of time. This includes physical
damage, extreme stress, even death of an individual. This is defined by Selve
as Distress.

Potential Sources of Stress:

While environment factors are forces outside the organization, which may act as
potential sources of stress due to uncertainties and threats that may create for any
organization and its members, factors within organization can also act as potential
sources of stress. Together or singly they may create a tense and volatile working
environment which can cause stress for organizational members because the inability
of individuals to handle the pressures arising out of these sources.

The following may be seen to be the potential sources of Stress:

1. Environmental factors:
 Environmental uncertainty influences stress levels among employees in an
organization.
 Environmental uncertainty influences the design of an organization. Changes
in business cycle create economic uncertainties
 Political uncertainties can be stress including. If the political system in a
country is implemented in an orderly manner, there would not be any type of
stress.
 Technological uncertainty can cause stress because new innovations can make
an employee’s skills and experience obsolete in a very short period of time.
Computers, robotics, automation and other forms of technological innovations
are threat to many people and cause them stress.

2. Organizational factors:
 Pressures to avoid errors or complete tasks in a limited time period, work
overload, a demanding and insensitive boss, and unpleasant co-workers are a
few examples.
 Task demands are factors related to a person’s job. They include the design of
the individual’s job, working conditions, and the physical work layout.
 Role demands relate to pressures that are a function of the role an individual
plays in an organization.
a. Roles conflicts create expectations that may be hard to reconcile or
satisfy.

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b. Role overload is experienced when the employee is expected to more

than time permits.
c. Role ambiguity is created when role expectations are not clearly
understood.
d. Interpersonal demands are pressures created by other employees.
e. Organizational structure defines the level the differentiation in the
organization, the degree of rules and regulations and where decisions
are made. Excessive rules and lack of participation in decision might
be potential sources of stress.
f. Individual Factors: Employee’s personal life, broken families, wrecked
marriages, other family issues.
g. Stressors are additive – stress builds up.

3. Individual factors:

These factors are appears in any employee’s life like family issues, personal
economical problem, broken family, unhealthy relationships, etc. Also over
suspicious anger and hostility increases a person’s stress and risk for heart disease.
Individuals with high levels of mistrust for others also cause stress for themselves.

Family problems: National surveys consistently show that people hold family
and discipline, troubles with children are examples of relationship problems that
create stress for employee and that aren’t at the front door when they arrive at
work.
Economic problems: Economic problems created by individuals overextending
their financial resources are another set of personal troubles that can create stress
for employees and distract their attention from their work.

Individual Differences:

Five individual difference variables moderate the relationship between potential

stresses and experience stress:

a) Perception: It moderates the relationship between a potential stress condition

and an employee’s reaction to it. Stress potential doesn’t lie in objective
conditions; it lies in an employee’s interpretation of those conditions.
b) Job experience: The evidence indicates that experience on the job tends to be
negatively related to work stress. Voluntary turnover is more probable among
people who experience more stress. People eventually develop copying
mechanisms to deal with stress. Collegial relationships with co-workers and
supervisors can buffer the impact of stress.
c) Locus of control: Those with an internal locus of control believe they control
their own destiny. Internal perceive their jobs to be less stressful than do
external. Those with an external locus believe their lives controlled by outside
forces.
d) Self efficacy: The confidence in one’s own abilities appears to decrease stress.

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MB0022
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e) Hostility: People who are quick to anger maintain a persistently hostel outlook
and project a cynical mistrust of others are more likely to experience stress in
situations.

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