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El Paisaje y Los Espacios Urbanos PDF
El Paisaje y Los Espacios Urbanos PDF
Revision 1
All rights reserved 2015
United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat)
P.O. Box 30030 00100 Nairobi GPO KENYA
Tel: +254-020-7623120 (Central Office)
www.unhabitat.org
HS Number: HS/003/15E
ISBN Number: 978-92-1-132639-0
DISCLAIMER
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this report do not imply the expression of any
opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,
territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries, or regarding its
economic system or degree of development. The analysis, conclusions and recommendations of this publication do not
necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Human Settlements Programme or its Governing Council.
Reference in this publication of any specific commercial products, brand names, processes, or services, or the use of any
trade, firm, or corporation name does not constitute endorsement, recommendation, or favouring by UN-Habitat or its
officers, nor does such reference constitute an endorsement of UN-Habitat.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Project supervisors: Laura Petrella
Principal author: Ana Coello de Llobet
Contributors: Oihana Kerexeta Iturritxa, Ariadna Vila Casanovas
Publication coordinator: Ndinda Mwongo
Editor: Dominic OReilly
Design and layout: Fredrick Maitaria, Ana Coello, Oihana Kerexeta, Ariadna Vila Casanovas
Printer: UNON, Publishing Services Section, Nairobi
ISO 14001:2004-certified
Planned City Extensions:
Analysis of Historical Examples
ii
Contents
Foreword................................................................................................................................................. iv
Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 1
Manhattan, USA...................................................................................................................................... 2
Barcelona, Spain.................................................................................................................................... 10
Savannah, USA...................................................................................................................................... 18
Aranya, India......................................................................................................................................... 62
Comparative analysis............................................................................................................................. 77
Conclusions........................................................................................................................................... 79
Bibliography........................................................................................................................................... 81
iii
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
Foreword
The world is fast planning provisions, the delimitation of sufficient
becoming predominantly public space and the establishment of basic
urban, and relentlessly connectivity. Only cities that are able to address
so. At the beginning the double challenge of land in good supply
of the 19th century, and orderly patterns of expansion will be able to
only 2 per cent of the establish a solid basis for future economic and
worlds population was social growth.
urban. By the beginning
of the 20th century, The urgency of the accelerated growth experienced
that percentage had by cities around the world should not be an excuse
increased to 10. By the beginning of the present to perpetuate the dominant development model
decade, the worlds population living in urban areas of the last seventy years. By 2050, cities will host
had reached 50 per cent. This rapid urbanization 70 per cent of the worlds urban population. This
is an unprecedented challenge in the history of is a fact. But there is no justification for urban
humanity. In forty years, four of every five people expansion that leads to more segregated, more
will live in towns and cities, and ours will be an unequal, more unfair and intolerant cities.
urban planet.
The urbanization process should be planned for the
It was only in 1960 that the first 1 billion people long term; it should provide an essential structure,
had urbanized. We have since then seen a runaway the spine, the matrix, the pattern of how the city
urban growth. In the 15 years between 2003 will expand. Over time, economic activities and
and 2018, 1 billion people will have been added the various social needs will change the shape and
to our cities. Most of this growth is occurring in urban land uses, but not the pattern. This essential
developing regions. In fact, it is predicted that element must be defended and protected by the
seven out of ten urban dwellers will be African local authority, the repository of political legitimacy,
or Asian in 2030. Beyond being a demographic and the rule of law.
phenomenon, urbanization is a transformative
force that is continually shaping societies, their To address the challenge of rapidly urbanizing
economies, political systems and environments. cities, UN-Habitat advocates for planned city
extensions an urban planning approach that
In a business as usual scenario, we can project that can offer sufficient, affordable and serviced urban
more than half the worlds urban population will plots in a timely fashion. This approach requires
live in sub-human conditions in the future. Already that cities plan in advance, plan at the scale of
today, almost 60 per cent of the urban population the expected growth, plan in phases, plan for
in sub-Saharan Africa resides in slums and although contiguity, apply sustainable and efficient usage of
great efforts are being made to improve many resources and ecosystems and promote a system of
slums around the world and better the lives of cities at the national level. First and foremost, cities
those that live there, solutions and new approaches must define public space and protect it. Without
are needed to prevent their formation and social and political understanding of the use
expansion. Slums are but a manifestation of rapid and productivity of public space, no capacity for
unchecked urbanization a result of allowing our planned urbanization can be developed. Planned
cities to expand without design or regulation and city extensions can help cities become more
with disregard for environment or social concerns. compact, more integrated and more connected
and thus more liveable.
Similarly, cities will also bear the brunt of years
of uncontrolled expansion and sprawl, without
iv
Foreword
Without planned city extension measures we The publication of this compilation is especially
risk compounded informal proliferation and relevant in the context of the third United
its consequences. These include economic Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable
consequences such as loss of economies of Urban Development (Habitat III) in 2016. The
urbanization, loss of agglomeration benefits and Conference offers a unique opportunity to discuss
loss of job opportunities, especially for the youth; the important challenge of how cities, towns and
social consequences such as socio-economic villages are planned and managed, in order to fulfill
segregation, mobility and transport breakdown, their role as drivers of sustainable development.
lack of access to energy and clean water and Planned city extensions will be one of the essential
lack of public health and increased safety risks; elements to take into consideration in the creation
and environmental consequences such as sprawl- of a pattern of sustainable urban development
induced stress on land and resources, geographic fostering a new model city.
vulnerability, loss of biodiversity and the vital
system functions it supports.
v
Selected city case studies
Aranya (Indore)
Bahir Dar
Ouagadogou
Argel (Argelia) Kyoto (Japan) Amsterdam (Holland) Buenos Aires (Argentina) Adelaide (Australia)
Cairo (Egypt) Saint Petersburg (Russia) Berlin (Germany) Mexico D.F (Mexico)
Cape Town (South Africa) Seoul (South Korea) Edinburgh (Scotland) Santiago (Chile)
Nairobi Sites and Service (Kenya) Taipei (Taiwan) Lisbon (Portugal) Previ Lima (Peru)
Bari (Italy)
Le Havre (France)
vi
Introduction
Developing countries are urbanizing at an incredibly For all these cities we have tried to analyze the physical
fast pace and, in many cases, with unplanned configuration, the process or phasing that led to their
settlements that pose enormous challenges. construction and the regulations that shaped them.
Growing cities need to define the urban planning
frameworks that will guide the construction of new A longer list of cities was considered, out of which the
neighbourhoods and city extensions. ten case studies were selected.
From the analysis of cities that have been built in An effort was made to include cities in different
the historic or recent past and that have evolved in continents and periods of time. Despite this, the paper
different ways, we can draw lessons that only the does not include an Asian or Australian example, not
passage of time can provide. These lessons can be because there are no interesting cases, but because
useful in guiding future urban growth, particularly in time and resources limited research in this direction.
countries where urban life is not predominant. Many good examples were found in European and
North American city plans and extensions of the 19th
This document, through the analysis of ten existing century cities built in grids, with a flexible plan and
cities, draws lessons that can be useful for future dimensions that have allowed their optimal adaptation
urbanization. The cities presented are apparently to changing times. We would have liked to include
very different: they are in developed or developing cities such as Berlin, Amsterdam, Turin, Bari, Edinburgh
countries; they were been built in the 17th or 20th or Philadelphia but many of the lessons that can be
centuries; they are neighbourhoods or complete cities; drawn from these cities are found in Barcelona and
they house the rich and the poor. However, they also New York. Furthermore, many cities that had an
have common aspects that serve to define and explain interesting and rational layout were disregarded due
an approach that can guide future urbanization so to the small dimension of the basic units (blocks and
as to generate cities that are sustainable, socially most importantly streets) which condition and limit
inclusive, and economically viable. their change and evolution. This was the case with
many South American cities designed in the time
The main criteria for the initial selection were cities of the Ley de Indias, and of some traditional Asian
with: layout in a grid or in a physically rational cities (Xian or Kyoto).
plan; mixed-use development; clear distinction
between public and private space; street life and The intention of this analysis was to examine all aspects
street frontage; endurance through time and of each case study related to physical configuration,
adaptation to changing needs; adequate proportion process, phasing and regulation. Nevertheless the
of street, open space and built up areas; and well difficulty of finding some of the information in the
dimensioned streets and blocks. available time frame, inhibited a complete analysis of
all aspects for all cities.
1
Manhattan
Location: New York, U.S.A | GDP: 14,991,300 M. USD | Area: 4.036 Ha
Population: 1,073,573 | Density: 266 p/Ha | FAR: 2.89
Flickr/Jens Karlsson
Brief history
17th.c Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam
1796 Goerck Plan of the Common Lands
1807 Establishment of the Street Commission
1811 The Commissioners Plan of 1811
1858 Greensward Plan for Central Park, designed by Frederic Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux
1871 The grid is built up to the 155th Street
1863 Plan for Upper Manhattan
2
Manhattan
The grid
Existing city
The grid of Manhattan extends through the The existing topography was abrupt, an island
peninsula in a direction that is parallel and of hills, and it was regraded to accommodate
perpendicular to the Hudson and East rivers. The the grid. Although some of the main slopes
orientation of the grid is Northwest-Southeast remain, there was an average increase in
and Northeast-Southwest. elevation of 3m and a decrease of 4m (some
areas stayed the same but others were regraded
The Commissioners Plan of 1811 follows in up to 30m).
many ways the Goerck Plan of the Common
lands of 1796. The Common Lands were the Some of the original topography can be observed
vacant areas of central Manhattan that were today in Central Park. In the Upper West Side,
granted by the Dutch Provincial Authority to some of the more extreme topographical features
the Government of New Amsterdam in 1656. were also maintained in parks (Morningside
Originally this area was ignored, but after the and St. Nicholas Parks) and streets (Convent Av,
Revolution the impoverished city government Morningside drive and St. Nicholas Av.).
decided to profit by selling the land. The Goerck
Plan divided the area into hundreds of 5-acre lots,
separated by N-S roads. The lots would evolve into
blocks and the roads into the N-S avenues.
3
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
The street A
Street hierarchy
A: Avenues 30m
B: Major cross streets 30m
C: Standard cross streets 18m
Street types
Pedestrian
Vehicular
4
Manhattan
The block
Business block
125m
FAR: 10m2/m2
Land coverage: 40%
Average plot size: 7500m2
60m
5-6m
30m
125m
Mixed residential block
FAR: 7m2/m2
Land coverage: 90%
Average plot sizes: 150-600m2 60m
5-6m
30m
125m
Residential block
FAR: 3.25m2/m2
Land coverage: 80% 60m
Average plot size: 150m2
5-6m
30m
Industrial and residential block 125m
FAR: 3m2/m2
Land coverage: 90%
Average plot sizes: 150-1500m2 60m
5
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
Phasing and management The second step was the assessment of the value
Manhattan was constructed in four different of the properties adjacent to the new streets and
phases: the calculation of how much the streets would
increase the land value of these properties. The
Phase 1: Street layout land owners of the properties were then charged
In this phase the streets were laid out. The existing proportionally to the increase in land value and this
topography was abrupt and it took a long time to surplus was dedicated to the construction of the
regrade the slopes and lay out the basic lines of the streets. Only after 1869 was the city permitted to
general plan. fund half the cost of the street with tax revenue.
Phase 2: Street construction The last step was the construction of the street,
This was a multistep process managed by the which comprised the regrading of the surface and
Street Commission: street paving.
In the first step the city would acquire or trade Phase 3: Plot division
the lands required for street openings. The 1807 The 1811 Plan did not dictate plot dimensions
state legislature act defined the street opening but the block yielded a modular system (a block
system, which enabled the city to trade land was dividable into modules 20-25ft wide and
destined for streets or other public areas and to 100ft long, which were the standard dimensions
compensate the owners financially. Proprietors of townhouse plots). The resulting standard plot
often contested this system and refused to cede dimension was 5-7.5m x 30m. In 1835 single
land to the city. This resulted in a subsequent plots dominated but many properties combined
law, passed in 1836, which reinforced the two, three, four and six plots and some even
position of the city council. retained a full block.
Phase 4: Buildings
6
Manhattan
Regulations
THE
THE BLOCK THE STREET USES
GRID
SPATIAL DEFINITION HYGIENE SPATIAL DEFINITION FORM SERVICES
LAND BUILDING PLOT TYPOLOGIES VENTILATION LIGHT COURTS ALIGNMENTS HEIGHTS FAADE STREET
COVERAGE DEPTH DIVISION EXPOSURE -3D
Commissioners Plan of 1811: Original design plan for and bulk of buildings, the area of yards, courts
the streets of Manhattan, which put in place the grid and other open spaces. Setback principle and
plan that has defined Manhattan to this day. maximum spatial envelope regulation. District use
regulations: the districts were classified into three
Tenement House Act 1901: A series of height categories: residence, business and unrestricted with
restrictions on residential buildings in response use restrictions defined for each one.
to the loss of light and air to the taller residential
buildings that had appeared. Among other Zoning Resolution 1961: It coordinated use
sanctions, the law required that new buildings and bulk regulations, incorporated parking
be built with outward-facing windows in every requirements and emphasized the creation of
room, an open courtyard, proper ventilation open space. It introduced incentive zoning by
systems, indoor toilets and fire safeguards. adding a bonus of extra floor space to encourage
developers of office buildings and apartment towers
Zoning Resolution 1916: Regulation of the height to incorporate plazas into their projects.
7
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
Flickr/Hubert K
8
Manhattan
Flickr/Paco Gaitero
9
Barcelona
Location: Spain | GDP: 1,478,206 M. USD | Area: 1,826 Ha
Population: 483,500 | Density: 265 p/Ha | FAR: 2.65
Flickr/Aldas Kirvaitis.
Brief history
1821 Passeig de Gracias construction
1854 Demolition of the city walls
1859 Municipal competition for the city extension
1860 Approval of Barcelonas masterplan by Ildefons Cerd
1865 Constitution of the Eixamples Commission
1883 Beginning of the Gran Via Avenue construction
1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition
1891 Garcia Farias Project for the implementation of sewerage network. Water, sanitation and
sewerage systems are designed
1899 First tramway in the city
1929 Barcelona Universal Exhibition. Consolidation of the East Eixample
1992 Olympic Games of Barcelona. Construction of the seafront area
2004 Universal Forum of Cultures. The Diagonal Avenue reaches the sea
10
Barcelona
The grid
The grid extends in directions that are parallel and The design takes full advantage of predominant
perpendicular to the sea. The corners of the square wind directions (sea-land breeze) to facilitate
blocks match the cardinal points and, therefore, oxygenation and cleanse the city air.
all the faades have direct sunlight throughout the
day, showing the importance that the designer
gave to solar exposure.
11
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
In the original project the proportion of streets The street width has also permitted the adaptation
space for pedestrians was crucial (with 50 per cent to the new ways of urban transportation (car,
dedicated to pedestrian use and 50 per cent to tramway) and urban infrastructure that were not
vehicular traffic). The generous width of streets common when the plan was designed.
and avenues has resulted in a flexible and evolving
B C C C C B C C Street hierarchy
A A: Avenues 50m
B: Major streets 30m
C C: Standard streets 20m
C
Main street 30m Standard street 20m
B
Passeig de Gracia
40% Pedestrian space
60% Vehicular space
height/width prop.: 1V/3H
Avenue 50m
Rambla Catalunya Enric Granados
67% Pedestrian space 65% Pedestrian space
33% Vehicular space 35% Vehicular space
Pedestrian
Diagonal Avenue
Vehicular
40% Pedestrian space
60% Vehicular space
height/width prop.: 1V/2.5H
12
Barcelona
The block
Built up/public space: Uses:
Block width: 113m
Block length: 113m Built up area Residential, single family
Maximum block height: 22m Public space - Streets Residential, multi-family
Commercial on GF
FAR: 4.3m2/m2
Land coverage: 70%
113m 20-28m Plot sizes: 160-450m2
Block A: Standard block with court
20-28m
113m 9-15m
Max. 22m
FAR: 4.7m2/m2
113m Land coverage: 98.5%
Plot sizes: 140-450m2
Block B: Standard block with passageway
13
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
Type D
1870 1888
14
Barcelona
1929 1970
Regulations
THE
THE BLOCK THE STREET USES
GRID
SPATIAL DEFINITION HYGIENE SPATIAL DEFINITION FORM SERVICES
LAND BUILDING PLOT TYPOLOGIES VENTILATION LIGHT COURTS ALIGNMENTS HEIGHTS FAADE STREET
COVERAGE DEPTH DIVISION EXPOSURE -3D
Municipal regulations
1857 /1859 building
regulations:
1959 General plan of the Eixample Eixamples Regulations of 1891. This ordinance
Municipal regulations 1857 and minimum common was specific to the Eixamples construction. It
building regulations 1859: At the beginning of regulated building alignment to the streets; a
the construction of the Eixample, Barcelona had maximum height of 22m (Ground floor+5) for
municipal regulations approved in 1857, but they standard streets, resulting in a street section of
were designed for the old city conditions. In 1859 1:1; perimetral occupation of the block, with a
a minimum building code was published regulating maximum building depth of 28m and ventilation
general land coverage, plot land coverage (50 per of courtyard surfaces. It gave the possibility of
cent), building height and plot gardens. occupying the interior of the block with buildings
one floor high.
Eixamples 1861 Regulation. Ildefonso Cerda
elaborated a regulation to be incorporated to the The subsequent regulations of 1932, 1942,
general plan of the Eixample of Barcelona. This was 1947, 1958 and 1976 resulted in a continuous
meant to control the image, hygienic conditions and modification and distortion of the ordinances of
the construction of the city extension. The document 1891 and, consequently, of the initial image of the
regulated a maximum land coverage of 50 per cent, Eixample, with the increase in building heights and
plot depth and width, building heights, courtyards and building floors, and the occupation and construction
ventilation. It defined street dimensions as well as the of the interior of the block.
proportion of the space destined to pedestrians (50
per cent). The regulation was not approved.
15
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
16
Barcelona
Flickr/Leonora Enking
Flickr/Matias Brum
17
Savannah
Location: Georgia, U.S.A | GDP: 14,991,300 M. USD | Area: 129 Ha
Population: 1,585 | Density: 12 p/Ha | FAR: 1.65
Flickr/Brian Trammell
Brief history
1733 The plan of the colonial city of Savannah is laid out by General James Edward Oglethorpe
1734 The first four grid units were laid out
1751 The city of Savannah became the colonial capital of the Province of Georgia
1851 There were 24 grid units in the city
18
Savannah
The grid
N
City area: 107 Ha.
19
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
The street C
A
B
B
The larger grid is composed of main streets that B
B
are 24-26m wide, are oriented in the E-W direction B
A
C
and carry the main vehicular traffic, and standard
streets that are 10m wide and are oriented in E
D
the N-S direction. This grid defines modular units C E
(wards) that are built around a central park or E
square. The streets within the module are 18-10m D
E
wide; they penetrate into the neighbourhood unit C
and border the central square. D E
D D
D
D E
D
D
Street hierarchy
Grid unit main street 16 m Grid unit standard street 8 m Service street 5 m
40% Pedestrian space 60% Pedestrian space 40% Pedestrian space
60% Vehicular space 40% Vehicular space 60% Vehicular space
Building height/Street width prop.: 1V/1.6H height/width prop.: 1V/0.8H height/width prop.: 1V/0.5H
Pedestrian
Vehicular
20
Savannah
The block
The neighbourhood units/modules:
180m
Uses:
Residential, single family
Residential, multi-family block
Services
Open spaces
Neighbourhood/basic blocks:
50m
80m
25m
25m
25m 25m
16m 25m
Blocks B1, tything blocks. Height: GF+2 Blocks B2, trust blocks. Height: GF+2
Residential FAR: 2.72m2/m2 Residential multi-family block FAR: 2.6m2/m2
Land coverage: 90% and facilities (intended for Land coverage: 85%
Plot size: 400m2 institutional and representative Plot size: 625m2
buildings)
21
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
www.columbia.edu
In 1733, General James Edward Oglethorpe towards the east, west, and south extending the
designed the plan of the colonial city of Savannah square system, and by 1851 there were 24 grid units
based on a system of town wards, each containing in the city. In the early 20th century, three of the
building lots surrounding a central square. original squares were demolished or altered beyond
By 1734, the first four squares were laid out. Over recognition, leaving 21 squares.
the next century, Savannah would continue to grow
22
Savannah
Flickr/David Biesack
Flickr/Graham Coreil-Allen
23
Back Bay
Location: Boston, U.S.A | GDP: 14,991,300 M. USD | Area: 175 Ha
Population: 18,088 (2010) | Density: 103 p/Ha | FAR 2.15
Flickr/Scutter
Brief history
1814 Beginning of the development. The mill company builds a dam along what is now Beacon Street to
cut off the tidal flats from the river.
1856 The Commonwealth of Massachusetts decides to fill in the Back Bay of Boston city and construct a
new neighbourhood. Back Bay master plan by Arthur Gilman.
1857 The filling of the Back Bay began.
1900 The filling of Back Bay was completed
24
Back Bay
Boston Common
The grid orientation is adapted to the natural A central green axis, Commonwealth Avenue,
features of the city. The longitudinal and main crosses the Back Bay neighbourhood. This
direction of the extension is parallel to the tidal avenue, which consists of a central green
lines of the Bay so as to align with the direction promenade and is the core of the district,
of the original dam and the filling phases of the connects the Boston Common and the Back
tidal flats. Bay Fens tying the neighbourhood to the
metropolitan green structure. Tree-lined streets,
Back Bay is characterized by its open spaces parallel to the central avenue complete the
which are a part of The Emerald Necklace, neighbourhood open spaces.
a metropolitan park system designed by the
landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted. This
was a linear system of parks at the city scale that
connected the Boston Common and Franklyn
Park through parkways and waterways.
25
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
The street D
C
E
The street grid has a clear and well organized D
D
structure characterized by its vegetal elements D
E
A
and unitarian street fronts. C D E
D D
D E C
The streets that surround the neighbourhood
and connect it to the city-wide street
grid are 26m wide. The streets within the
neighbourhood are 21m wide and distribute A
B
internal circulation. Commonwealth Avenue is
the core of the neighbourhood. This 60 m wide
Street hierarchy
avenue runs from East to West and combines the A: Commonwealth Avenue: 61m
vehicular circulation and a green pedestrian axis. B: Darmouth street. 33m
C: Limit streets. 26m
D: Standard street: 21+12 m
E: Service streets 5 m
Darmouth street 33 m
Commonwealth Avenue 61+12m
(6m building setback on each side) 45% Pedestrian space
80% Pedestrian space 55% Vehicular space
20% Vehicular space height/width prop.: 1V/2H
Building height/Street width prop.: 1V/3.75H
Limit streets 26 m Standard long. streets 21+12m (6m Standard transv. streets 21 m
45% Pedestrian space building setback) 40% Pedestrian space
55% Vehicular space 40% Pedestrian space 60% Vehicular space
height/width prop.: 1V/1.6H 60% Vehicular space height/width prop.: 1V/1.1H
height/width prop.: 1V/1.1H
26
Back Bay
The block
The grid is composed of (GF+4) blocks occupied by
single family housing with street frontage and inner
courtyards. Only some streets such as Newbury and
Boylston Streets, have commerce on the GF.
35m
35m 7m
27
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
Flickr/Eye Tunes
28
Back Bay
Flickr/John Niedermeyer
Flickr/PremshreePillai
29
Bahir Dar
Location: Ethiopia | GDP: 30,247 M. USD | Area: 6,238 Ha
Population: 219,000 (2010) | Density: 109 p/Ha | FAR: 1.05
Brief history
14th.c Original settlement, related to the establishment of St. Georgis Church
1928-33 Italian occupation
1948 Becomes capital of Awaraja region
1965 Master Plan by German engineer Professor Mantner
2002 UNESCO Cities for Peace Prize for addressing the challenges of rapid urbanization
2006 Integrated development Plan by NUPI (National Urban Planning Institute)
2013 Local development plans (lake shore and downtown)
30
Bahir Dar
The grid
2006 Integrated Development Plan:
Area distribution:
12% roads
44% open spaces & Special planning areas
44% Built-up areas
N
Residential
Commercial
Administration
Service
Manufacturing & Storage
Recreation
Transport
Special Planning Area
Special function
Agriculture
Land use plan Forest
The main grid is oriented in the N-S direction. The 2006 integrated Development Plan proposes
This orientation adapts to the surrounding a land use distribution for the city area.
natural features: one of the directions of the Commercial, administrative and productive uses
grid is parallel to the Blue Nile river and the main are aligned with the main avenues in the N-S and
commercial street has its ending in the lake shore. E-W directions which are connected to the major
city outlets (Gonder, Mota, Debre Marqos).
The streets of the neighbourhood grid are mostly
aligned in the N-S or E-W directions, resulting in
a variety of orientations for housing.
31
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
The street A A
The main grid (800x800) is composed of 35-40m A
wide avenues that carry the main vehicular traffic. C
C
In the citys central avenues, the buildings are aligned C
with the sidewalk limit creating a livable street with A A
commercial uses on the GF and street planting. 800m
800m
On the other hand, in the avenues that cross the C B C
residential areas, the buildings are set back from the
sidewalk, generating little street life. These avenues
A A
are occupied mainly by vehicular traffic.
A A A
In the inner neighbourhood streets the building Street hierarchy
faades front the street. There is no space reserved
A: Avenues: 40m
for pedestrians, therefore vehicles and pedestrians B: Intermediate sts: 16m
use the central street space. C: Inner neighbourhood streets: 12m
Street types:
Pedestrian
Vehicular
32
Bahir Dar
The block
The inner areas of the 800x800 units are occupied In the center of the unit some smaller blocks are
by single family and incremental housing (GF+2) reserved for open spaces and services.
with street frontage and inner courtyards. The shape and size of the smaller blocks with the
On the streets fronting the commercial avenues, main grid is rather random and spontaneous. The
there are commercial or office blocks (GF+4) with most common block is composed of a double row
commerce on the GF. of single family housing.
800m
B1
B2
800m
115m
Average plot: 300m2
Heights: GF+2
55m
FAR: 1
Land coverage: 75%
33
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
1957 1984
1996 2012
34
Bahir Dar
The layout and urbanization of the streets The current regulatory framework in Ethiopia is the
of the main grid is done simultaneously with following:
the construction of the buildings. The inner 2005 National Urban Development Policy - by
neighbourhood streets seem to appear more the Ministry of Urban Development
spontaneously and not respond to a rigid plan. Regional Urban Development Plans - by the
Their creation is more diffused through time once Regional Government
the main grid that supports them is in place. Citywide master & structure plans - by chartered
cities and urban administrations
The development of urban plans in 1965 and, Local development plans (kebeles) - by urban
particularly, in 2006 (Integrated Development Plan administrations.
analyzed in this document) allows for the existence of
a basic framework that guides the growth of the city.
Key lessons The avenues in the city center are well urbanized
Strengths: and planted, generating relevant and livable civic
The existence of a city wide plan allows for a spaces.
coherent and organized growth of the city in a
period of rapid urbanization. Weaknesses:
The land use plan takes into account the basic The clear structure of the main grid allows for a
natural features of the site and organizes the city somewhat random and spontaneous layout of
accordingly. Lake Tana and the Blue Nile River the smaller neighbourhood grid. There are many
have an important place in the city structure streets with dead ends and random alignments.
and many of the open spaces and services are In the areas developed after 1984 the grid
located beside them. This provides a good basic is deformed, losing structural clarity and
organization of the main open spaces that are homogeneity, which results in subsequent city
relevant in the initial phases of the city and can extensions that are less related to the original city
be upgraded as the city evolves. fabric.
The land use plan allows for a certain mix of When the main grid avenues cross residential
uses. Commercial, service and productive areas neighbourhoods, the buildings are set back from
are broken up into smaller units which are the public space and the avenues are dedicated
distributed throughout the city. mainly to vehicular traffic and have little street
The land use plan respects the preeminence life.
of the street as a defining urban element. It The new developments on the East and South
concentrates commercial, business, productive West of the city are less dense with single family
and representative activities along the main detached housing or isolated condominiums that
streets, rather than in designated abstract areas. do not conform to streets as civic spaces. The
In the city centre the buildings are aligned, with land footprint of the city is becoming very large
the sidewalk limits providing street frontage and in these areas (see comparative plans of cities in
street life. There is commerce and activity in the page 81).
ground floor. The street is read as a public space.
35
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
UN-Habitat
36
Bahir Dar
Flickr/April Rinne.
37
Villa el Salvador
Location: Lima, Peru | GDP: 180,464 M. USD | Area: 3,546Ha (district) 2,400Ha (urban area)
Population: 381,790 (2007) | Density: 160p/Ha | FAR: 1.3
Flickr/David Almeida
Brief history
1971 28 April. 80 migrant families invade the area of Pamplona in the district San Juan de Miraflores in
Lima. 11 May. After several days of tension and violence the families are relocated in an alternative
site in Hoyada Baja de Tablada de Lurn. The settlement starts based on the plan done by architect
Miguel Romero Sotelo. (Civil servant of Junta Nacional de Vivienda). The settlers are allocated a
plot of land and they are required to build a basic shelter within 24 hours. After 2 years permant
occupancy inhabitants can apply for a land title.
1973 Foundation of CUAVES (Comunidad Urbana Autogestionaria Villa el Salvador), a popular assembly
that manages the new neighbourhood. First census (self managed). Villa el salvador already has
109,165 inhabitants
1975 The World Bank Sites ans Services project provides water and electricity to Villa el Salvador and
Canto Grande.
1983 Villa el Salvador becomes a municipality.
38
Villa el Salvador
The grid
The grid is oriented in the NW-SE direction, There was a demand by CUAVES from the first
responding mainly to the geometry of the site stages of the project for Villa el Salvador not to
limits. There are housing units in all orientations become a dormitory town (Before the houses,
(NW, NE, SW and SE). factories!). Part of the area is designated for
industrial and agricultural uses.
1
4
39
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
A A
C C C C C
B
D Street hierarchy
A: NW-SE Avenues: 70-80m
C B: SW-NE Avenues: 50-70m
C: Intermediate streets:14m
D: Inner neighbourhood streets:10m
40
Villa el Salvador
40m
288m
41
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
Phasing and management Peruvian Government and so on) and the work
Phasing: of the inhabitants. Examples of this include the
The terrains of Villa el Salvador (VES) were occupied installation of public lighting which came through
in a very short time frame (1971-1990s). Today, there a Sites and Services World Bank project but the
are no more lots to be designated and assigned. inhabitants negotiated that the network be installed
underground. Each inhabitant dug the 7m long
Once the lots were occupied, the inhabitants built trench in front of his or her own lot.
their house with their own means (incremental
housing). The first shelters were very simple Time frame:
structures; in 1971 they were made with straw 1971: First market, first church, first primary and
mats, today they are usually built with tin or timber secondary schools
walls and frames. As the neighbourhood evolves 1973: First communal transport line
the original shelters are substituted with concrete 1974: First communal bank
and stone houses that can reach 3-4 stories. 1975: Public lighting inaugurated through a World
Commerce appears spontaneously. Bank Sites and Services project
1979: Lagoons of agricultural zone built; water and
The original settlement in 1971 only marked street sewerage systems of sectors I-II-III
and plot limits and assigned lots. There were no 1982: Asphalt lining of roads A and B
services or facilities (initially, water was distributed 1986: Network of public libraries; asphalt lining of
by government trucks daily). Services (such as Road C; Solidary square urbanization and
electricity or running water) and facilities came construction of industrial park starts
later as a result of the demands of the population. 1990: First section of electric rain
They were installed through donations (World 1991: Asphalt lining of Avenues Juan Velasco and
Bank, UN, UNICEF, NGOs, Municipality of Lima, Separadora Industrial
42
Villa el Salvador
2000: Inauguration of Hospital Uldarico residential module elected its own representatives. In
Fernandez Roca turn, the residential module representatives elected
2001: Urbanization of Avenue and promenade the Communal Executive Committee of VES which
Juan Velasco Alvarado - donation of the city was divided in several areas of government: General
of Amstelveen. Secretary, Education, Health, Planning, Economy and
2002: Municipal stadium Ivan Elias Moreno Finance, Administration, Relations and Vigilance.
2003: Urban security programme
2005: Asphalt lining of Av. Micaela Bastidas In 1983 VES became a municipality of Lima and
financed by the municipality the management was taken over by a Municipal
2006: Town Hall building financed by the Government. In the first few years the municipal
municipality government was based on the organization of the
Communal Executive Committee.
Today 75 per cent of the houses have running
water, 92 per cent have electrical lighting, 75 per Regulations:
cent are connected to a public sewerage system, The masterplan of VES put in place a grid and defined
77 per cent are built in brick or concrete block and assigned housing lots according to this general
and 84 per cent are owned by the inhabitants (out organization plan. The grid served as a basic structure
of which 74 per cent of the houses are paid off for the spatial layout of the city. Facilities, services and
totally). (INEI census 2007 data). commerce were put in place later and the grid was
altered where necessary. The original organizational
Management: structure was not altered deeply by these additions
From the origin of the neighbourhood in 1971 and remains readable today.
to 1983 Villa el Salvador was run by a communal
organization, CUAVES (Comunidad Urbana Housing was meant to be incremental and self-
Autogestionaria Villa el Salvador), an autonomous built. Formal, constructive and hygienic aspects of
government system composed of community housing were not regulated. Today many of the lots
representatives that was organized and elected are occupied fully, resulting in 100 per cent land
directly by the population. In this phase the physical coverage with deficient hygienic conditions (light
organization of the neighbourhood defined the and ventilation); 90 per cent of the kitchens have
administrative and political organization. Each no chimneys (INEI 2007 census).
43
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
Centro de Documentacin de Villa El Salvador, Asociacin Amigos de Villa, Escuela Mayor de Gestin Municipal.
44
Centro de Documentacin de Villa El Salvador, Asociacin Amigos de Villa, Escuela Mayor de Gestin Municipal.
Centro de Documentacin de Villa El Salvador, Asociacin Amigos de Villa, Escuela Mayor de Gestin Municipal.
45
Tel Aviv
Location: Israel | GDP: 258,217 M. USD | Area: 300 Ha
Population: Circa 45,000 persons | Density: 150 p/Ha | FAR: 2-2.89
Flickr/Kristie Wells
Brief history
1911 Sixty parcels of land are purchased to build the first neighbourhood of what would become Tel Aviv.
1923 British rule authorizes a separation from Jaffa into a self-administrative zone proclaiming Tel Aviv a
new Township.
1925 The need for a master plan becomes obvious and the local town planning authority assigns the task
to Patrick Geddes.
1927 Official approval of the plan. Several developments were consolidated in the meantime before the
plan implementation and blocking its connection to Jaffa.
1930 The early effects of the plan done by Geddes are visible, since Tel Aviv is growing quickly.
1938 A revised plan comprising a larger terrain is submitted for approval.
1948 After the Second World War, Tel-Aviv becomes a township of 50 sq. km, housing close to 300,000
residents.
1965 Tel-Aviv is complete, including the finalized Geddes plan.
46
Tel Aviv
The grid
Jaffa
N
0 500m 1km
The Geddes master plan consisted of a grid of Three major streets, roughly parallel to the
main arteries and secondary streets forming urban coastline, are cut by boulevards running from east
blocks. The system is close to an orthogonal grid to west. The Geddes plan was the first urban plan
but is far from being rigid. Each block is different for Tel Aviv to recognize the sea as an essential
from the other, but all are structured according to the element in the city and use it to achieve a better local
same external logic being larger in the north-south climate (comfortable temperature, ventilation and
direction and narrower in the east-west direction and humidity) and as a place of recreation for its citizens.
contain a public garden in the interior.
47
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
The street
The model offers a clear road hierarchy: quiet
streets connected to internal gardens within
the modules that contrast with wider perimeter B B
commercial roads. The road system is designed A
with the will to discourage vehicular traffic A
in internal streets. Streets are well defined by
buildings and respected as public spaces. D
C
Street types
Homeways 7-10m
35% Pedestrian space
65% Vehicular space Pedestrian
height/width prop.: 1V/1H Vehicular
48
Tel Aviv
The block
The module is subdivided internally in a way that There is a mixture of uses: commercial, office, and
restrains through traffic, constituting a quieter residential that makes the city lively.
residential environment. Within each block, a
sub-system of short and narrow residential streets Parcels are around 500 sq. meters with building
(homeways) encircles a small public park in its setbacks of 3m on the sides, 4m in front and 6m in
centre in a windmill pattern and this is considered the back.
one of the major innovations of the plan.
The module:
200m
aprox.
150m
aprox.
The block:
60m
100-150m
49
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
50
Tel Aviv
Existing city
Compilation of several developments.
City extension
51
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
Flickr/Paul Jacobson
52
Tel Aviv
Flickr/Jonathan Klinger
Flickr/Alex Jilitsky
53
Ouagadougou
Location: Burkina Faso | GDP: 10,726,304,841 USD (2012) | Area: 11,826 Ha
Population: 874,623 (2001) | Density: 63.5 p/Ha | FAR: 0.5-0.85
Olga Stavrakis
Brief history
1441 Ouagadougou is the capital of the Mossi empire
1960 Burkina Faso gains independence from France. Ouagadogou becomes the capital city.
1980s At the beginning of the 1980s Ouagadougou grows at a rate of 9 per cent. New inhabitants settle
in informal settlements around the city centre.
1983 Revolution Democratique Populaire (RDP). A military coup brings Capitain Sankara to power.
1984 Reforme Agraire et Foncire (RAF) is put in place, nationalizing all land.
1984-1990 Lotissements massifs Operation of massive reparcellation of the informal areas around
the city centre.
1990 ZACA project for the modernization of the city centre of Ouagadougou.
1995 Decentralization and creation of the urban commune of Ouagadougou that will be in charge of
urban projects.
54
Ouagadougou
The grid
Green belt
Barrage
Barrage reservoirs forest
Lotissements massifs
Extension limit
Informal settlements
0km 5km
55
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
The street
The streets are organized in a hierarchical
system. The widest and more continuous
streets or avenues (50-70m) are those that
connect the periphery to the city centre.
B
There are two types of local streets, 20m
wide ones border the modules, while within
B B
the modules streets are narrower (12m) and
B
shorter in length.
B B
A
C C
Since the plots are relatively large in relation B A
to house sizes, the buildings only occupy a
part of the plot, liberating the rest of the area C
as a courtyard or garden. The buildings are C
frequently set back from the street and the
borders of the street are defined by fences or
walls, which does not encourage street life.
Street hierarchy
To date, most streets are not urbanized. They A. Urban avenues: 50-70m
are compacted earth surfaces that are shared B. Local streets bodering modules: 20m
C. Local streets within modules: 12m
by vehicles and pedestrians. Infrastructure is
little or inexistent; there is no storm water
drainage, water or electricity supply networks.
Street types
B type street bordering module: 20m C type street within module: 12m
Pedestrian
Pedestrian and vehicular space undefined Pedestrian and vehicular space undefined Vehicular
56
Ouagadougou
The block
170m
140m
Uses:
Basic blocks:
Residential, single family
12
Residential, multi-family block
-20 80
Services
m
-17
m
m
40
0m
20
Open spaces
Height: GF
FAR: 0.5-0.85m2/m2
Land coverage: 50-85%
Plot size: 240-300m2
The blocks in the areas of lotissements massifs have The blocks are mostly occupied by one-storey
diverse configurations. The urban fabric is often single-family residential homes. The resulting city
organized in modules or neighbourhood units. has low density and very little street life in most
These modules are composed of blocks arranged cases. Plot sizes range from 240m2 to 300m2. There
concentrically around an open space. is very little commercial activity and few facilities.
57
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
Facilities:
There is a lack of facilities in the new Facilities
neighbourhoods and the existing ones are not Open spaces
arranged in a clear structure or hierarchy. There is a
larger density of facilities (schools, markets, health 0 200m
centres etc.) in the city centre.
Phasing and management cent) or courtyards (30 per cent). Since 1995, more
Management: emphasis has been put on providing the new areas
In 1984 through the RAF reform (Reforme Agraire with infrastructure such as storm water drainage,
et Fonciere) carried out by Captain Sankara, all land electricity and street lighting, running water, street
was nationalized. Before this measure was taken, paving or garbage collection systems, although the
traditional chiefs managed access to land. situation has not evolved significantly since 1996.
After the RAF reform people have the right to A street addressing system has been put in place
obtain a lot in usufruct, which allows them to own for the new districts. This measure proves very
a house but not the land on which it is built. Lots useful since it allows a certain readability of
are laid out according to a master plan developed the city and the imposition of small taxes. The
with Dutch cooperation. The houses are built residence tax was put in place in 1990 and it is
according to a progressive layout system MAF or dependent on the public services available for each
Methode dAmenagement Progressif. The persons neighbourhood.
who receive the plots are entitled to build their house
there. They have the obligation to start construction Phasing:
no later than one year after they receive the land. Relating the Lotissements massifs to the basic
operations of urban development (P), (U), (E): (P)
In the initial stages water and fuel were provided by Plot division: including street layout, separation
the informal and private sectors. To this date, public of public and private space and plot division,
infrastructure has been scarce. According to the (U) Urbanization: construction of the common
1996 census (MeunierNikiema), only 30 per cent infrastructure (E) Building, Ouagadogou has
of the homes in the area of lotissements massifs followed a sequence of P,E,U in which the initial
had electricity while 67 per cent used gas and petrol phase of street layout and plot division (P) was
lamps; only 10 per cent had running water; and only immediately followed by building construction
10 per cent had septic tanks, with the rest of the (E) with most of the urbanization (U) lagging
used water being disposed of in the streets (50 per seriously behind.
58
Ouagadougou
1975 1983
1987 1993
Lotissements massifs
Informal settlements
59
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
- Buildings that are set back from street fronts. The new neighbourhoods are basically
Limits between private space (plots) and public residential, with few services or activities.
space (streets) that are defined by fences or The lotissements massifs are developed without a
walls. The streets have very little activity and basic land use plan (a land use plan is envisaged
are insecure. to be approved in 2025). The establishment of
- Scarce small-scale economic and commercial basic allowances or prohibitions of uses and
activity. constructions can avoid important interferences
- Large distances and a lack of urban that may be harmful for health or security.
transportation. Residents are far from any Since the operation or lotissements massifs
economic activity. was developed in a very short period of time,
- An unnecessary occupation of land. the sociological character of the inhabitants is
very homogeneous. Younger generations tend
to occupy the new neighbourhoods while the
ageing groups occupy the city centre.
Olga Stavrakis
60
Ouagadougou
UN-Habitat
UN-Habitat
61
Aranya
Location: Indore, India | GDP: 1,872,840 M. USD | Area: 85 Ha
Population: 40,000-65,000 | Density: 400-650 p/Ha | Far: 1.5
Brief history
1983 The Vastu-Shilpa foundation was entrusted with preparation of a master plan with innovative ideas
for the development of a new township in Aranya.
1983 Design process starts
1985 Construction
1989 Project occupancy
62
Aranya
N
City extension area: 85 Ha. 0 50m 100m 200m 300m
63
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
The street D B D
A
The formal street network draws the
vehicular traffic outward to the perimeter E
road, while pedestrian traffic flows in
the interior on informal pathways and E
an open space network thus achieving a C
A
D B D
Central spine road: 15m Sector boundary road: 12m Block acces road: 9.5m
64
Aranya
The block
The plots accommodate single-family housing
arranged in rows. These row houses are
interrupted by service courtyards that are also
used as small gathering spaces.
Sector:
v
270m
Neighborhood unit:
130m
100m
15m
65
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
Facilities:
Facilities are also organized hierarchically: Uses:
The central spine, known as the Central Business Facilities
District is located in the core of the settlement. It Open Spaces
consists of four clusters of shopping, residential and
office complexes and two mixed-use clusters of
social functions.
The local community facilities are located within
each sector, by the sector green axes.
66
Aranya
67
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
68
Aranya
69
Mariano Melgar
Location: Arequipa, Peru | GDP: 180,464 M. USD | Area: 50 Ha
Population: 3,000 7,000 | Density: 85 p/Ha | FAR: 1 to 2
Brief history
11950 The Mariano Melgar squatter settlement is established in the south-east of Arequipa. At that time,
the area occupied by informal settlements in Arequipa is larger than the planned city.
1957 In June architect John F.C. Turner takes up a position in the Arequipa government office responsible
for the regulation and improvement of barriadas (self-managed, spontaneously built settlements).
1957 Turner presents a study for the control and integration of the barriadas with the city itself based
on rehabilitation of an existing settlement and the proposal of a new satellite city.
1958 An earthquake hits the region of Arequipa predisposing both citizenship and government to accept
new ideas and methods, and providing credit. Development of the area, until then reluctant, starts to
advance.
70
Mariano Melgar
71
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
B B
A C
Football
court
B B B B
Street hierarchy
A: Seplveda Street. 320m Facilities
B: Standrad street. 16-20m
C: Dry Gulley. 8-12m Open spaces
72
Mariano Melgar
B C
Vehicular
Pedestrian
Planted areas
A A B B
C C
73
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
74
Mariano Melgar
75
Allan Paolo Ayala Centeno
76
Surface of extensions and existing city at time of extension:
Manhattan Barcelona Savannah Back bay Bahir Dar Villa el Salvador Tel Aviv Ouagadougou Aranya Mariano Melgar
Manhattan Barcelona Savannah Back bay Bahir Dar Villa el Salvador Tel Aviv Ouagadougou Aranya Mariano Melgar
77
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
General parameters:
Manhattan Barcelona Savannah Back Bay Bahir -dar Villa el Salvador Tel Aviv Ouagadogou Aranya Mariano Melgar
Date of plan 1811 1859 1733 1856 1965/2006 1971 1927 1984/1990 1983 1957
Surface area (Ha) 4,036 1,826 129 175 6,238 3,546 300 11,826 85 50
FAR 2.89 2.65 1.64 2.15 1.05 1.3 2-2.89 0.5-0.85 1.5 1-2.5
Density (p/Ha) 266 265 12 103 109 160 150 63,5 400-650 85
Inhabitants 1,073,573 483,500 1,585 18,025 219,000 381,790 45,000 aprox 874,623 40,000-65,000 3,000-7,000
Block area (m2, median) 12.150 12.320 4.400 14.700 7000 3560 7.500 4.500 800 7.200
Minimum plot area (m2) 150 150 400 210 200 140 35
Most common plot area (m2) 450 350 400 210 300 140 500 250 35-614 320
Comments:
Despite the variation in the general parameters Bay and minimum block width of 60m such
(total surface area, FAR, density, number of as in Manhattan) cities can evolve and densify
inhabitants) of the various cities analyzed, the accommodating higher densities and FAR. If the
basic units of block and street have comparable dimensions of streets and blocks are too tight,
dimensions that relate to the basic housing units densification might result in less livable cities or
and human scale. might not accommodate all required building
typologies. If street, plot and block sizes are too
When the streets and blocks have generous and large, the city loses its relation to the human scale
proportioned widths (minimum street width of and is less feasible economically.
18m, such as in Manhattan, Barcelona or Back
78
Conclusions
There are probably many ways to create cities that The General Plan and the Regulation vs.
are socially inclusive, livable, economically viable the Master Plan
and sustainable but we believe that these case Cities are very complex entities that hold a great
studies present us with some common lessons that variety of people and that must prevail through
have been repeatedly successful and that should be changing times. They are not static and need to
pointed out: relate to their culture and time. With the Master
Plan approach, most aspects of the city, from
The use of the grid as a formal and the larger to the smaller scale, are defined by
organizational base a single designer/team in a particular moment
The grid as a basic organizational structure has of time. On the other hand when a city is defined
proved valid and useful in the development of large with a General Plan and a set of regulations the
and small cities all around the globe and through result is more flexible and can evolve through time.
all periods of time. The main virtue of the grid is its
simplicity; the rational organization of streets in a When a city is defined with the combination of
geometrical network simplifies the complex process General Plan and regulations:
of city construction and allows the urbanization
of extensive areas with a single identity and a The Plan delineates the basic distribution of public
coherent image. and private space (such as streets and blocks) and
defines the hierarchy of streets and open spaces. It
In situations where there are many stakeholders can be a very simple document that sets the base
present and the timeframe for construction is dilated, of the urban fabric. The Plan prevails through time
a grid-based plan provides a functional, cohesive and must be designed with the future in mind.
and readable city and optimizes infrastructure. A The regulations define all the desirable aspects of
grid becomes a tool that is understandable and that buildings and public spaces and define city form.
can be embraced by all agents. Furthermore, when They can be consolidated in four main groups:
private land must be acquired by the city for the those that regulate construction, vicinity, public
creation of streets, a grid arrangement provides a ornament and hygiene. Regulations are defined by
more equalitarian and less random layout that is more a variety of actors and are a representation of the
acceptable to reluctant land owners. culture of the city and its time. Regulations tend to
evolve through time, reflecting the changing needs
A successful city grid is based on very clear of the population and altering the city.
distinction of private and public space through the
generation of two basic urban elements: the street The General Plan and Regulation approach
and the block. The urban street, when it is defined provides a flexible framework for the creation of
with continuous building frontages and alignments, the city. The General Plan is elaborated generally
generates civic and economic activity and optimizes by a single designer/team (such as Idelfons Cerda
infrastructural costs and transportation time. The in Barcelona, James Oglethorepe in Savannah
blocks are the essence of private space in the and Miguel Romero Sotelo in Villa el Salvador)
city (residence, business, facilities and so on) and but it can generate many possible cities.
through their faades generate areas of contact
between the private and public spheres. The case studies in this paper illustrate how
different regulatory approaches have produced very
Finally, a grid need not be monotonous. Variety different cities:
can be introduced in subsequent phases, through
hierarchy or with the definition of smaller scale In many North America cities, such as New
elements. York, the General Plan was laid out in a time of
79
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
regulatory void. The original grid was filled in with The modular grid which is represented by the case
housing that was fundamentally homogeneous due studies of Savannah, Villa el Salvador and, to a certain
to the initial constructive and technical limitations. extent, Bahir Dar. This model is based on a double
When the city evolved and the initial buildings hierarchy which works at the local and city scale. The
were replaced, technical innovations and materials modules are frequently configured as neighbourhood
such as the elevator and steel structures produced units with a central core of open spaces and/
very different buildings. The absence of regulations or facilities that serve as gathering spaces for the
permitted the construction of skyscrapers adjacent community and create group identity. This model
to two-storey buildings and resulted in visual can be very useful and has been profusely used in
anarchy. Additionally, North American cities developing countries where government intervention
developed their regulations as they went along in civic and public spaces is scarce such as with 1980s
and did not accept an intrusive definition of private Lotissements massifs in Ougadougou, Sites and
property. This did not happen in Europe where Services project in Dakar. A sense of neighbourhood
older cities, in an effort to repair their previous identity and belonging facilitate the preservation
mistakes, had put in place strict regulations before and maintenance of public facilities. This model
their 19th century city extensions were constructed. has proved extremely successful in Villa el Salvador
The result was a much more homogeneous city. where it translated directly to the administrative
and political organization of the district. On the
North American cities have extensively regulated other hand, this model can be too rigid for a
zoning which has produced cities with little mix changing society, and the repetition of the module
of uses and delimitated areas for business and can generate monotony.
residence. On the other hand many cities in
developing countries (such as Villa el Salvador) do The introduction of quality public spaces in the
not have a regulation in place, and the only control grid can generate variety and provide multiple
of urban form is the economical limitations, which civic spaces that activate city life. This is the case
results in simple, low rise constructions. When of Back Bay in Boston where a variety of street
these populations evolve economically, regulations widths and treatments creates a neighbourhood
should be put in place to avoid economical that is livable and harmonic.
speculation and visual chaos.
The consideration of territorial preexistence is
The introduction of density and mixed use also an essential factor of urbanization. Cities
An adequate urban density is essential in order that are built with a grid plan generally discard
to create civic life and economic activity in the pre-existing topography and natural features
city. Urban density allows the installation of in order to install the grid in the most efficient
infrastructure and services at a reasonable cost and and extensive way possible. The interruption or
must be considered as a basic parameter to define delimitation of the grid with relevant landscape
the economic viability of future urbanization. A features, and the adaptation of the grid to
reasonable mix of uses combines urban activities existing city fabrics creates variety and a unique
that benefit from proximity, such as residence, city image. It has taken Barcelona more than a
commerce and business and contributes to the century to open the city to the seafront, since
creation a vibrant local economy. the configuration of the Eixample did not factor
the coastline as a prominent or central feature.
The introduction of variations in the grid In a similar way, Manhattan has only recently
Variations in the grid structure remove monotony started the refurbishment of the Hudson and East
and create interesting cities. We have seen many river docks as prominent urban spaces. On the
examples of this aspect in these case studies, some other hand Bahir Dar, with its Special Planning
of these variations are: Areas, is starting to configure future open spaces
and facilities around its most prominent natural
features, such as the Blue Nile River and Tana Lake.
80
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82
Planned City Extensions: Analysis of Historical Examples
The Analysis of Historical Examples of City Extensions to city scale. Various aspects of each city related to
takes a retrospective look at how various cities in the past physical configuration, process, phasing and regulation
have grown and evolved using the approach of planned are examined. The analysis results in the following
city extensions. This retrospective reflection allows us conclusions: The grid as a basic organizational structure
to draw lessons that only the passage of time can allow; has proved valid and useful in the development of large
lessons which can be useful in guiding future urban and small cities all around the globe and through all
growth so as to generate cities that are more sustainable, periods of time; a General Plan with regulations rather
socially inclusive, and economically viable. than a Master Plan is proposed because it is more flexible
The analysis examines the development of ten cities and can evolve through time; an adequate urban density
from different parts of the world: rich and poor cities; is essential in order to create civic life and economic
cities built in different time periods from 17th to 21st activity in the city; and variations in the grid structure are
century; and at different scale from neighbourhood important to remove monotony and create interesting cities.
HS Number: HS/003/15E
ISBN Number: 978-92-1-132639-0
www.unhabitat.org