A Mini Project Report

on
SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM USING LM358
Submitted for partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree
of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
BY
Ms. P.CHANDANA (14641A04I9)
Ms. T.SHIVAPRIYA (14641A04J8)
Mr. K.SHARATH (14641A04K3)
Under the guidance of
Ms. K.SWAPNA
Assoc. Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

VAAGDEVI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, WARANGAL
(UGC Autonomous Permanent Affiliation to JNTU Hyderabad, Accredited by NBA)
2014-2018
 DEPARTMENTOELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
VAAGDEVI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, WARANGAL
(UGC Autonomous, Permanent Affiliation to JNTU Hyderabad, Accredited by NBA)
P.O.BOLLIKUNTA, WARANGAL - 506 005

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project work entitled SOLAR TRACKING

SYSTEM USING LM358 is a bonafide work carried out by Ms. P.CHANDANA
(14641A04I9), Ms. T.SHIVAPRIYA (14641A04J8), Mr. K.SHARATH
(14641A04K3) in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of
(Electronics and Communication Engineering)under my guidance and it has been
found suitable for acceptance according to the requirements of the university.

Project guide Head of the Department

Ms.K.Swapna Mr.M.Shashidhar
Assoc.professor Assoc.Professor

i
 DECLARATION

We declare that the Mini project entitled SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM USING
LM358 is a record of work done by us in the partial fulfillment for the award of the
degree of Bachelor of Technology in Electronics & Communication
Engineering,VAAGDEVI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (UGC Autonomous),
affiliated to JNTUH, under the guidance of Ms.K.SWAPNA, Associate
Professor,ECE Department, and has not been copied from any earlier reports. The
conclusion and results in this report are based on our own.

Ms.P.CHANDANA (14641A04I9)
Ms.T.SHIVAPRIYA (14641A04J8)
Mr.K.SHARATH (14641A04K3)

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The development of the project though it was an arduous task it has been made by the
help of many people.We are pleased to express our thanks to the people whose
suggestions,comments,criticisms greatly encouraged us in betterment of the project.

We would like to express our sincere gratitude and indebtedness to our

project Guide Ms.K.Swapna, Asso.Professor, for her valuable suggestions and
interest throughout the course of this project

We would like to express our sincere thanks and profound gratitude to

Prof. K.Prakash, principal of Vaagdevi College of Engineering, for his support,
guidance and encouragement in the course of our project.

We are also thankful to Head of the Department Mr.M.Shashidhar, Associate

Professor for providing excellent infrastructure and a nice atmosphere for completing
this project successfully.

We are also thankful to Project Coordinators, for their valuable suggestions,

encouragement and motivations for completing this project successfully.

We convey our heartfelt thanks to the lab staff for allowing us to use the
required equipment whenever needed.

Finally, We would like to take this opportunity to thank our family for
their support through the work. We sincerely acknowledge and thank all those who
gave directly or indirectly their support in completion of this project.
Ms.P.CHANDANA (14641A04I9)
Ms.T.SHIVAPRIYA (14641A04J8)
Mr.K.SHARATH (14641A04K3)

iii
 ABSTRACT

Solar energy is fast becoming a very important means of renewable energy resource.
With solar tracking, it will become possible to generate more energy since the solar
panel can maintain a perpendicular profile to the rays of the sun. Even though the
initial cost of setting up the tracking system is considerably high, there are cheaper
options that have been proposed over time. This project discusses the design and
construction of a prototype for solar tracking system that has a single axis of freedom.
Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs) are used for sunlight detection.
One of the ways to increase the efficiency of solar panels while
reducing costs is to use tracking. Through tracking, there will be increased exposure
of the panel to the sun, making it have increased power output. The trackers can either
be dual or single axis trackers. Dual trackers are more efficient because they track
sunlight from both axes.
A single tracking system was used. It is cheaper, less complex and
still achieves the required efficiency. In terms of costs and whether or not the system
is supposed to be implemented by those that use solar panels, the system is viable.
The increase in power is considerable and therefore worth the small increase in cost.
Maintenance costs are not likely to be high.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE NOS.

Certificate ............................................................................................ i
Declaration .......................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ...............................................................................iii
Abstract.................................................................................................iv
List of figures.......................................................................................v
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1-2
1.1 Introduction 1
. 1.2 Objectives 2
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 3-5
2.1 Sun light 3
2.2 Types of Solar Trackers and Tracking Technologies 4
CHAPTER 3: HARDWARE COMPONENTS 6 - 17
3.1 Light Dependent Resistor 6
3.2 BC547 Transistor 7
3.3 BC557 Transistor 7
3.4 Resistor 8
3.5 Solar Panel 9
3.6 DC Motor 11
3.7 LM358 IC 11
3.8 Diode IN4007 13
3.9 Potentiometer 14
3.10 Power Supply 15
3.11 LED Strip Light 16
CHAPTER 4: IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS 18 - 19
4.1 Circuit Diagram 18
4.2 Working 19
CHAPTER 5: PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD DESIGNING 20 23
5.1 Introduction 20
5.2 PCB Design 21
5.3 Soldering 22
5.4 Applications 22
 5.5 Flux 22
5.6 Soldering Process 23
CHAPTER 6:CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE 24 - 26
6.1 Result 24
6.2 Conclusion 25
6.3 Future Scope 25
6.4 References 26
LIST OF FIGURES PAGE NO.S
3.1.1 Light Dependent Resistor 6
3.2.1 Pin diagram of Transistor BC547 7
3.3.1 Pin diagram of Transistor BC557 8
3.4.1 Diagram for Resistor 9
3.4.2 Table showing colour coding of Resistors 9
3.5.1 Solar modules mounted on solar tracker 10
3.6.1 DC Motor 11
3.7.1 Pin diagram of LM358 IC 12
3.7.2 LM358 IC 13
3.8.1 IN4007 DIODE 14
3.9.1 Potentiometer 14
3.10.1 9V Battery 15
3.10.2 Battery Connectors 16
3.11.1 LED Strip Lights 16
4.1 Circuit Diagram 18
5.1 Printed Circuit Board 21
5.3.1 Soldering Process 22

v
 CHAPTER - I
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction:
Solar energy is clean and available in abundance. Solar
technologies use the sun for provision of heat, light and electricity. These are for
industrial and domestic applications. With the alarming rate of depletion of
depletion of major conventional energy sources like petroleum, coal and natural
gas, coupled with environmental caused by the process of harnessing these
energy sources, it has become an urgent necessity to invest in renewable energy
sources that can power the future sufficiently. The energy potential of the sun is
immense. Despite the unlimited resource however, harvesting it presents a
challenge because of the limited efficiency of the array cells.
The best efficiency of the majority of commercially available
solar cells ranges between 10 and 20 percent. This shows that there is still room
for improvement. This project seeks to identify a way of improving efficiency
of solar panels. Solar tracking is used. The tracking mechanism moves and
positions the solar array such that it is positioned for maximum power output.
Other ways include identifying sources of losses and finding ways to mitigate
them.
When it comes to the development of any nation, energy is the
main driving factor. There is an enormous quantity of energy that gets extracted,
distributed, converted and consumed every single day in the global society.
Fossil fuels account for around 85 percent of energy that is produced. Fossil fuel
resources are limited and using them is known to cause global warming because
of emission of greenhouse gases. There is a growing need for energy from such
sources as solar, wind, ocean tidal waves and geothermal for the provision of
sustainable and power. Solar panels directly convert radiation from the sun into
electrical energy. The panels are mainly manufactured from semiconductor
materials, notably silicon. Their efficiency is 24.5% on the higher side. Three
ways of increasing the efficiency of the solar panels are through increase of cell
efficiency, maximizing the power
1
output and the use of a tracking system.
Solar tracking is a system that is mechanized to track the position
of the sun to increase power output by between 30% and 60% than systems that
are stationary. It is a more cost effective solution than the purchase of solar
panels.
There are various types of trackers that can be used for increase
in the amount of energy that can be obtained by solar panels. Dual axis trackers
are among the most efficient, though this comes with increased complexity.
Dual trackers track sunlight from box axes. They are the best option for places
where the position of the sun keeps changing during the year at different
seasons. Single axis trackers are a better option for places around the equator
where there is no significant change in the apparent position of the sun.
The level of efficiency is improved will depend on the efficiency
of the tracking system and the weather.Very efficient trackers will offer more
efficiency because they are able to track the sun with more precision. There will
be bigger increase efficiency in cases where the weather is sunny and thus
favorable for the tracking system .

1.2 Objectives :
The project was carried out to satisfy two main objectives:
Design a system that tracks the solar UV light for solar panels.
Prove that the tracking indeed increases the efficiency considerably.
The range of increase in efficiency is expected to be between 30 and 40 percent

2
 CHAPTER - II

LITERATURE REVIEW

A solar tracker is a device used for orienting a photovoltaic array solar panel or
for concentrating solar reflector or lens toward the sun. The position of the sun
in the sky is varied both with seasons and time of day as the sun moves across
the sky. Solar powered equipment work best when they are pointed at the sun.
Therefore, a solar tracker increases how efficient such equipment are over any
fixed position at the cost of additional complexity to the system. There are
different types of trackers.
Extraction of usable electricity from the sun became possible
with the discovery of the photoelectric mechanism and subsequent development
of the solar cell. The solar cell is a semiconductor material which converts
visible light into direct current. Through the use of solar arrays, a series of solar
cells electrically connected, there is generation of a DC voltage that can be used
on a load. There is an increased use of solar arrays as their efficiencies become
higher. They are especially popular in remote areas where there is no connection
to the grid.Photovoltaic energy is that which is obtained from the sun. A
photovoltaic cell, commonly known as a solar cell, is the technology used for
conversion of solar directly into electrical power. The photovoltaic cell is a non
mechanical device made power. The photovoltaic cell is a non mechanical
device made of silicon alloy.
2.1 Sunlight :
Photometry enables us to determine the amount of light given off by the
Sun in terms of brightness perceived by the human eye. In photometry, a
luminosity function is used for the radiant power at each wavelength to give a
different weight to a particular wavelength that models human brightness
sensitivity. Photometric measurements began as early as the end of the 18th
century resulting in many different units of measurement, some of which cannot
even be converted owing to the relative meaning of brightness. However, the
luminous flux (or lux) is commonly used and is the measure of the perceived
power of light. Its unit, the lumen, is concisely defined as the luminous flux of
3
light produced by a light source that emits one candela of luminous intensity
over a solid angle of one steradian. The candela is the SI unit of luminous
intensity and it is the power emitted by a light source in a particular direction,
weighted by a luminosity function whereas a steradian is the SI unit for a solid
angle; the two-dimensional angle in three-dimensional space that an object
subtends at a point.
Range of the brightness of sunlight (lux) :
Time of day Luminous flux (lux)
Sunrise or sunset on a clear day 400
Overcast day 1000
Full day (not direct sun) 10000 25000
Direct sunlight 32000 130000

2.2 Types of solar trackers and tracking technologies: There are

various categories of modern solar tracking.
2.2.1 Active solar tracking:

Active trackers make use of motors and gear trains for direction of the tracker
as commanded by the controller responding to the solar direction. The position
of the sun is monitored throughout the day. When the tracker is subjected to
darkness, it either sleeps or stops depending on the design. This is done using
sensors that are sensitive to light such as LDRs. Their voltage output is put into
a microcontroller that then drives actuators to adjust the position of the solar
panel .

2.2.2 Passive solar tracking:

Passive trackers use a low boiling point compressed gas fluid driven to one side
or the other to cause the tracker to move in response to an imbalance. Because it
is a non precision orientation it is not suitable for some types of concentrating
photovoltaic collectors but works just fine for common PV panel types. These
have viscous dampers that prevent excessive motion in response to gusts of
wind .

4
2.2.3 Chronological solar tracking:
A chronological tracker counteracts the rotation of the earth by turning
at the same speed as the earth relative to the sun around an axis that is parallel to
the earths. To achieve this, a simple rotation mechanism is devised which
enables the system to rotate throughout the day in a predefined manner without
considering whether the sun is there or not. The system turns at a constant speed
of one revolution per day or 15 degrees per hour. Chronological trackers are
very simple.
2.2.4 Single axis trackers :
Single axis trackers have one degree of freedom that act as the axis of
rotation. The axis of rotation of single axis trackers is aligned along the
meridian of the true North. With advanced tracking algorithms, it is possible to
align them in any cardinal direction. Common implementations of single axis
trackers include horizontal single axis trackers (HSAT), horizontal single axis
tracker with tilted modules (HTSAT),vertical single axis trackers (VSAT), tilted
single axis trackers (TSAT) and polar aligned single axis trackers (PSAT).
2.2.5Dual axis trackers :
Dual axis trackers have two degrees of freedom that act
as axes of rotation. These axes are typically normal to each other. The primary
axis is the one that is fixed with respect to the ground. The secondary axis is the
one referenced to the primary axis. There are various common implementations
of dual trackers. Their classification is based on orientation of their primary

5
 CHAPTER -III

HARDWARE COMPONENTS
1.Light dependent resistor
2.Transistor BC 547
3.Transistor BC 557
4.Resistor
5.DC Motor
6.Solar Panel
7.LM358 IC
8. Diode 1N4007
9.Potentiometer
10.9V Battery and its Connectors
11.Led Strip Light
3.1 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR:

Light dependent resistors, LDRs or photo resistors are often used in circuits
where it is necessary to detect the presence or the level of light. They can be
described by a variety of names from light dependent resistor, LDR, photo resistor, or
even photo cell, photocell or photo conductor .Although other devices such as
photodiodes or photo-transistor can also be used, LDRs or photo resistors are a
particularly convenient electronics component to use. They provide large change in
resistance for changes in light level.
In view of their low cost, ease of manufacture, and ease of use LDRs
have been used in a variety of different applications. At one time LDRs were used in
photographic light meters, and even now they are still used in a variety of
applications where it is necessary to detect light levels.

6
 3.1.1 LIGHT DEPENDNT RESISTOR

A photo resistor or light dependent resistor is a component that is sensitive to

light.When light falls upon it then the resistance changes. Values of the resistance of
the LDR may change over many orders of magnitude the value of the resistance
falling as the level of light increases. It is not uncommon for the values of resistance
of an LDR or photo resistor to be several mega ohms in darkness and then to fall to a
few hundred ohms in bright light. With such a wide variation in resistance, LDRs are
easy to use and there are many LDR circuits available. The sensitivity of light
dependent resistors or photo resistors also varies with the wavelength of the incident
light. LDRs are made from semiconductor materials to enable them have their light
sensitive properties. Many materials can be used, but one popular material for these
photo resistors is cadmium sulphide, CdS.

3.2.BC547:
BC547 is an NPN bi-polar junction transistor. A transistor, stands for transfer of
resistance, is commonly used to amplify current. A small current at its base controls a
larger current at collector & emitter terminals.BC547 is mainly used for amplification
and switching purposes. It has a maximum current gain of 800. Its equivalent
transistors are BC548 and BC547.
The transistor terminals require a fixed DC voltage to operate in the desired region of
its characteristic curves. This is known as the biasing. For amplification applications,
the transistor is biased such that it is partly on for all input conditions.The input signal
at base is amplified and taken at the emitter. BC547 is used in common emitter

7
configuration for amplifiers. The voltage divider is the commonly used biasing mode
For switching applications, transistor is biased so that it remains fully on if there is a
signal at its base. In theabsence of base signal, it gets completely off

3.2.1 PIN DIAGRAM OF TRANSISTOR BC547

3.3.BC557:

BC556 and BC557 are PNP general purpose transistors for switching and
amplification. Both are available in TO-92 and SOT54 plastic package.NPN
complements: BC546 &BC547.
Features:
Low current (max. 100 mA)
Low voltage (max.6v)

3.3.2 PIN DESCRIPTION FOR TRANSISTOR BC 557

8
 3.4.Resistor
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce
current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and
terminate transmission lines, among other uses. High-power resistors that can
dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor
controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors
have resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage.
Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a
lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical
activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic
circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete
components can be composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also
implemented within integrated circuits.

The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial

resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. The
nominal value of the resistance falls within the manufacturing tolerance, indicated on
the component.

3.4.1 DIAGRAM FOR RESISTOR

9
 3.4.2 TABLE SHOWING COLOUR CODING OF RESISTORS
3.5 SOLAR PANEL:

Solar panels absorb the sunlight as a source of energy to

generate electricity or heat.A photovoltaic (PV) module is a packaged, connect
assembly of typically 6x10 photovoltaic solar cells. Photovoltaic modules constitute
the photovoltaic array of a photovoltaic system that generates and supplies solar
electricity in commercial and residential applications. Each module is rated by
its DC output power under standard test conditions (STC), and typically ranges from
100 to 365 Watts (W). The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module
given the same rated output an 8% efficient 230 W module will have twice the area
of a 16% efficient 230 W module. There are a few commercially available solar
modules that exceed efficiency of 22% and reportedly also exceeding 24%.A single
solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most installations contain
multiple modules. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of photovoltaic
modules, an inverter, a battery pack for storage, interconnection wiring, and
optionally a solar tracking mechanism.
The most common application of solar panels is solar water
heating systems.The price of solar power has continued to fall so that in many
countries it is cheaper than ordinary fossil fuel electricity from the grid (there is "grid
parity").

10
Mounting and tracking:

3.5.1 Solar modules mounted on solar trackers

Ground mounted photovoltaic system are usually large, utility-scale solar power
plants. Their solar modules are held in place by racks or frames that are attached to
ground based mounting supports .Ground based mounting supports include:

1.Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in concre
2.Foundation mounts, such as concrete slabs or poured footings.
3.Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure
the solar module system in position and do not require ground penetration. This type
of mounting system is well suited for sites where excavation is not possible such as
capped landfills and simplifies decommissioning or relocation of solar module
systems.

Roof-mounted solar power systems consist of solar modules held in place by racks or
frames attached to roof-based mounting supports.

Solar trackers:These increase the amount of energy produced per module at a cost of
mechanical complexity and need for maintenance. They sense the direction of the Sun
and tilt or rotate the modules as needed for maximum exposure to the
light. Alternatively, fixed racks hold modules stationary as the sun moves across the
sky. The fixed rack sets the angle at which the module is held. Tilt angles equivalent
to an installation's latitude are common. Most of these fixed racks are set on poles
above ground.[47] Panels that face West or East may provide slightly lower energy, but
evens out the supply, and may provide more power during peak demand.A DC
motor is any of a class of rotary electrical machines that converts direct current
electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most common types rely on the forces
produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some internal
mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic, to periodically change the
11
Direction of current flow in part of the motor.
3.6 DC MOTOR

DC motors were the first type widely used, since they could be powered from
existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed can
be controlled over a wide range, using either a variable supply voltage or by changing
the strength of current in its field windings. Small DC motors are used in tools, toys,
and appliances. The universal motor can operate on direct current but is a lightweight
motor used for portable power tools and appliances. Larger DC motors are used in
propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, or in drives for steel rolling mills.
The advent of power electronics has made replacement of DC motors with AC
motors possible in many applications.

3.6.1 DC MOTOR

3.7 LM358 IC:

The LM358 specifies that it consists of two independent, high gain, internally
frequency compensated operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to
operate from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from
split power supplies is also possible and the low power supply current drain is
independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage. The LM358 and LM2904
are available in a chip sized package using Nationals micro SMD package
technology.

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LM358 pin configuration

3.7.1 PIN DIAGRAM OF LM358 IC

The pin diagram of LM358 IC comprises of 8 pins, where

1.Pin-1 and pin-7 are o/p of the comparator
2.Pin-2 and pin-6 are inverting i/ps
3. Pin-3 and pin-5 are non inverting i/ps
4.pin-4 is GND terminal
5.Pin-8 is VCC+
The LM358 IC is a great, low power and easy to use dual channel op-
amp IC. It is designed and introduced by national semi conductor. It consists of two
internally frequency compensated, high gain, independent op-amps. This IC is
designed for specially to operate from a single power supply over a wide range of
voltages. The LM358 IC is available in a chip sized package and applications of this
op amp include conventional op-amp circuits, DC gain blocks and transducer
amplifiers. LM358 IC is a good, standard operational amplifier and it is suitable for
your needs. It can handle 3-32V DC supply & source up to 20mA per channel. This
op-amp is apt, if you want to operate two separate op-amps for a single power
supply. Its available in an 8-pin DIP package.

Features :
1.Available in 8-Bump micro SMD chip sized package, (See AN-1112)
2.Internally frequency compensated for unity gain
3.Large dc voltage gain: 100 dB
4.Wide bandwidth (unity gain): 1 MHz (temperature compensated)
5.Wide power supply range:single supply: 3V to 32Vdual supplies: 1.5V to
16
13
6.Very low supply current drain (500 A)essentially independent of supply voltage
7.Low input offset voltage: 2 mV
8.Input common-mode voltage range includes ground
9.Differential input voltage range equal to the power supply voltage

3.7.2.LM358 IC

3.8 DIODE 1N4007:

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts
primarily in one direction (asymmetric conductance); it has low (ideally
zero) resistance to the current in one direction, and high (ideally
infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type
today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a pn junction connected
to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode has two electrodes, a plate (anode)
and a heated cathode. Semiconductor diodes were the first semiconductor electronic
devices. The discovery of crystals rectifying abilities was made by German
physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first semiconductor diodes, called cat's
whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals such
as galena. Today, most diodes are made of silicon, but other semiconductors such
as selenium and germanium are sometimes used.
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one
direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the
opposite direction (the reverse direction).
14
 Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a check valve.
This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to
convert alternating current(AC) to direct current (DC), including extraction
of modulation from radio signals in radio receivers these diodes are forms
of rectifiers.

3.8.1.1N4007 DIODE

3.9 POTENTIOMETER:

A potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact that

forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and the
wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. The measuring instrument called
a potentiometer is essentially a voltage divider used for measuring electric
potential (voltage); the component is an implementation of the same principle, hence
its name.
Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as
volume controls on audio equipment. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be
used as position transducers, for example, in a joystick. Potentiometers are rarely used
to directly control significant power (more than a watt), since the power dissipated
Potentiometers consist of a resistive element, a sliding contact (wiper) that moves
along the element, making good electrical contact with one part of it, electrical
terminals at each end of the element, a mechanism that moves the wiper from one end
to the other, and a housing containing the element and wiper.in the potentiometer
would be comparable to the power in the controlled load.
The resistive element of inexpensive potentiometers is often made
of graphite. Other materials used include resistance wire, carbon particles in plastic,
and a ceramic/metal mixture called cermet. Conductive track potentiometers use
15
conductive polymer resistor pastes that contain hard-wearing resins and polymers,
solvents, and lubricant, in addition to the carbon that provides the conductive
property.

3.9.1 Potentiometer
3.10 9 V BATTERY:
The nine-volt battery, or 9-volt battery, in its most common form was
introduced for the early transistor radios. It has a rectangular prism shape with
rounded edges and a polarized snap connector at
the top. This type is commonly used in walkie-talkies, clocks and smoke detectors.
The nine-volt battery format is commonly available in primary carbon-
zinc and alkaline chemistry, in primary lithium iron disulfide, and in rechargeable
form in nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride and lithium-ion. Mercury-oxide
batteries of this format, once common, have not been manufactured in many years due
to their mercury content. Designations for this format include NEDA 1604 and IEC
6F22 (for zinc-carbon) or MN1604 6LR61(for alkaline). The size, regardless of
chemistry, is commonly designated PP3 - a designation originally reserved solely for
carbon-zinc - or in some countries, E or E-block.

3.10.1 9V BATTERY

16
Most nine-volt alkaline batteries are constructed of six individual 1.5V LR61 cells
enclosed in a wrapper. These cells are slightly smaller than LR8D425 AAAA
cells and can be used in their place for some devices, even though they are 3.5mm
shorter. .
Carbon-zinc types are made with six flat cells in a stack, enclosed in a
moisture-resistant wrapper to prevent drying. Primary lithium types are made with 3
cells in series.

CONNECTORS:

3.10.2 BATTERY CONNECTORS

The battery has both terminals in a snap connector on one end. The smaller circular
(male) terminal is positive, and the larger hexagonal or octagonal (female) terminal is
the negative contact. The connectors on the battery are the same as on the connector
itself; the smaller one connects to the larger one and vice versa. The same snap-style
connector is used on other battery types in the Power Pack (PP) series. Battery
polarization is normally obvious since mechanical connection is usually only possible
in one configuration. A problem with this style of connector is that it is very easy to
connect two batteries together in a short circuit, which quickly discharges both
batteries, generating heat and possibly a fire.
Because of this hazard, 9-volt batteries should be kept in the original packaging until
they are going to be used. An advantage is that several nine-volt batteries can be
connected to each other in series to provide higher voltages.

17
11.LED STRIP LIGHT:

An LED Strip Light (also known as an LED tape or ribbon light) is a flexible circuit
board populated
by surface mounted light-emitting diodes (SMD LEDs) and other components that
usually comes with adhesive backing. Traditionally, strip lights had been used solely
in accent lighting, backlighting, task lighting, and decorative lighting applications.
Increased luminous efficacy and higher-power SMDs have allowed LED strip lights
to be used in applications such as high brightness task lighting, fluorescent and
halogen lighting fixture replacements, indirect lighting applications, Ultra
Violet inspection during manufacturing processes, set and costume design, and even
growing plants. LED strip lights most commonly operate on 12 or 24 volts of direct
current from a power supply, sometimes referred to as a driver. USB strip lights
operate on the standard 5-volt direct current used by USB devices. Mains voltage
LED strips are also available. These have the advantages of being usable in much
longer single runs without a brightness drop along the length, but are less flexible and
heavier due to higher voltage and current ratings and thick coatings for shock safety
and high IP ratings in their intended outdoor positions, with limited cut points. No
separate power supply is needed, although there must be a rectifier between the mains
supply and the end of the LED strip.
The most common PCB designs use multiple parallel circuits consisting of
passive dropper resistors in series with a certain number of LED SMDs, to operate at
a certain current and power level with the expected input voltage. This design is
referred to as constant-voltage and is rather sensitive to small variations in input
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voltage and to the voltage drop that occurs along long lengths of strip when driven
from a single power input. Alternative design is the "constant current" design where
each parallel circuit of several SMDs includes a small integrated circuit to provide a
fix current to that group of LEDs, within a wide range of applied voltages. This
allows the strip to operate at the same power level and brightness along its entire
length, or with some variation in the driver voltage.

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 CHAPTER -IV
IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS

Solar Tracker system Using LM358 :

We all know that a Solar Panel can be used to convert light energy to electrical
energy. The amount of converted energy depends on the amount of light falling on the
Panel. Generally Solar Panels are stationary devices which is fixed at a position. The
produced electrical energy can be increased if we move the solar panel as the
movement of the Sun. Here is a simple low cost Solar Tracker circuit which
automatically moves the solar panel in the direction of Sun. The movement of the Sun
is detected using two LDRs which are arranged on the Solar Panel in such a way that
the intensity of light falling on it varies as the direction of Sun changes.
5.1Circuit Diagram:

5.2 Working:
The heart of the above circuit is two voltage comparators made using
LM358 Dual Op Amp.We all know that when the intensity of light falling on a LDR
increases, its resistance decreases. Here LDR is connected with a series resistor (R3 &
R4), hence when the intensity of light falling on a LDR increases, voltage across
corresponding resistor (R3 or R4) increases.
The output of the voltage comparator will be high when the
voltage at non-inverting terminal (+) is higher than the voltage at the inverting
terminal (-). Inverting (-) terminals of both comparators are shorted and connected to
a variable resistor (RV1), which is used to set the reference voltage. Thus the
sensitivity of both LDRs can be adjusted by varying the 10K pot shown on the left
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side of the circuit diagram. When the light falls on a LDR increases, voltage at the
non- inverting (+) terminal of corresponding comparator increases and its output goes
high.

Solar Tracker Various Modes

The direction of motor rotation is controlled by the H - Bridge formed by the

complimentary symmetry transistors BC547 and BC557. Consider the case when the
output of first comparator (U1:A) is high and output of second comparator (U1:B) is
low. In this case transistors Q1 and Q4 will turns on and the resulting current rotates
the motor in clockwise direction. Consider the case when the output of the first
comparator is low and the output of the second comparator is high. In this case
transistors Q2 and Q3 will turns on and the resultant current rotates the motor in
anticlockwise direction. If the output of both comparators are low, transistors Q3 and
Q4 turns on, but no current will flow through the motor. Similarly if the output of
both comparators are high, transistors Q1 and Q2 turns on, but no current will flow
through the motor.
The DC Motor should be connected to the panel in such a way that, the rotation of
motor rotates the panel in the direction of movement of the Sun.

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 CHAPTER - V
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD DESIGNING

5.1 Introduction:

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically

connects electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other
features etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate.
Components (e.g. capacitors, resistors or active devices) are generally soldered on the
PCB. Advanced PCBs may contain components embedded in the substrate.
PCBs can be single sided (one copper layer), double sided (two copper layers)
or multi-layer (outer and inner layers). Conductors on different layers are connected
with vias. Multi-layer PCBs allow for much higher component density.
FR-4 glass epoxy is the primary insulating substrate. A basic building block of
the PCB is an FR-4 panel with a thin layer of copper foil laminated to one or both
sides. In multi-layer boards multiple layers of material are laminated together
Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products.
Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs require
the additional design effort to lay out the circuit, but manufacturing PWB) and
assembly can be automated. Manufacturing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster
than with other wiring methods as components are mounted and wired with one single
part.A minimal PCB with a single component used for easier prototyping is called
a breakout board.

When the board has no embedded components it is more correctly called a printed
wiring board (or etched wiring board. However, the term printed wiring board has
fallen into disuse. A PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed
circuit assembly (PCA), printed circuit board assembly or PCB assembly (PCBA).
The IPC preferred term for assembled boards is circuit card assembly (CCA), and for
assembled backplanes it is backplane assemblies. The term PCB is used informally
both for bare and assembled boards.The world market for bare PCBs exceeded $60.2
billion in 2014.

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5.2 Design:

Initially PCBs were designed manually by creating a photo mask on a

clear mylar sheet, usually at two or four times the true size. Starting from the
schematic diagram the component pin pads were laid out on the mylar and then traces
were routed to connect the pads. Rub-on dry transfers of common component

Foot prints increased efficiency. Traces were made with self-adhesive tape. Pre-
printed non-reproducing grids on the my lar assisted in layout. To fabricate the board,
the finished photo mask was photo lithographically reproduced onto a photo resist
coating on the blank copper-clad boards

Modern PCBs are designed with dedicated layout software, generally in the
following steps:

1. Schematic capture through an electronic design automation (EDA) tool.

2.Card dimensions and template are decided based on required circuitry and case of
the PCB
3.The positions of the components and heat sinks are determined.

4.Layer stack of the PCB is decided, with one to tens of layers depending on
complexity. Ground and power planes are decided. A power plane is the counterpart
to a ground plane and behaves as an AC signal ground while providing DC power to
the circuits mounted on the PCB. Signal interconnections are traced on signal planes.
Signal planes can be on the outer as well as inner layers. For
optimal EMI performance high frequency signals are routed in internal layers between
power or ground planes.
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Line impedance is determined using dielectric layer thickness, routing copper
thickness and trace-width. Trace separation is also taken into account in case of
differential signals. Micro strip, strip line or dual strip line can be used to route
signals.
1.Components are placed.Thermal considerations and geometry are taken into
account Via and lands are marked.
2.Signal traces are routed. Electronic design automation tools usually create
clearances and connections in power and ground planes automatically.
3.Gerber files are generated for manufacturing.

5.3 SOLDERING

Soldering is a process in which two or more items (usually metal) are joined
together by melting and putting a filler metal (solder)into the joint, the filler metal
having a lower melting point than the adjoining metal. Soldering differs
from welding in that soldering does not involve melting the work pieces. In brazing,
the filler metal melts at a higher temperature, but the work piece metal does not melt.

5.3.1 SOLDERING PROCESS

5.4 Applications:
Soldering is used in plumbing, electronics, and metalwork from flashing to
jewelry.Soldering provides reasonably permanent but reversible connections between
copper pipes in plumbing systems as well as joints in sheet metal objects such as food
cans, roof flashing, rain gutters and automobile radiators.
Jewelry components, machine tools and some refrigeration and plumbing
components are often assembled and repaired by the higher temperature silver

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soldering process. Small mechanical parts are often soldered or brazed as well
to printed circuit boards (PCBs). Soldering is also used to join lead came and copper
foil in stained work.Electronic soldering connects electrical wiring and electronic
components to printed circuit boards.

5.5 FLUX
The purpose of flux is to facilitate the soldering process. One of the obstacles
to a successful solder joint is an impurity at the site of the joint, for example, dirt, oil
or oxidation. The impurities can be removed by mechanical cleaning or by chemical
means, but the elevated temperatures required to melt the filler metal (the solder)
encourages the work piece (and the solder) to re-oxidize. This effect is accelerated as
the soldering temperatures increase and can completely prevent the solder from
joining to the work piece. One of the earliest forms of flux was charcoal, which acts
as a reducing agent and helps prevent oxidation during the soldering process. Some
fluxes go beyond the simple prevention of oxidation and also provide some form of
chemical cleaning (corrosion).
For many years, the most common type of flux used in electronics (soft soldering)
was rosin-based, using the rosin from selected pine trees. It was nearly ideal in that it
was non-corrosive and non-conductive at normal temperatures but became mildly
reactive (corrosive) at elevated soldering temperatures. Plumbing and automotive
applications, among others, typically use an acid-based (hydrochloric acid) flux which
provides rather aggressive cleaning of the joint. These fluxes cannot be used in
electronics because their residues are conductive leading to unintended electrical
connections, and because they will eventually dissolve small diameter wires. Many
fluxes also act as a wetting agent in the soldering.
5.5 SOLDERING PROCESS:
Each type of solder offers advantages and disadvantages. Soft solder is so called
because of the soft lead that is its primary ingredient. Soft soldering uses the lowest
temperatures (and so thermally stresses components the least) but does not make a
strong joint and is unsuitable for mechanical load-bearing applications. It is also
unsuitable for high-temperature applications as it loses strength, and eventually melt.
Silver soldering, as used by jewelers, machinists and in some plumbing applications,
requires the use of a torch or other high-temperature source, and is much stronger than
25
soft soldering. Brazing provides the strongest of the non-Welded joints but also
requires the hottest temperatures to melt the filler metal, requiring a torch or other
High temperature source and darkened goggles to protect the eyes from the bright
light produced by the white-hot work. It is often used to repair cast-iron objects,
wrought-iron furniture, etc.Soldering operations can be performed with hand tools,
one joint at a time, or en masse on a production line. Hand soldering is typically
performed with a soldering iron, soldering gun, or a torch, or occasionally a hot-air
pencil. Sheetmetal work was traditionally done with "soldering coppers" directly
heated by a flame, with sufficient stored heat in the mass of the soldering copper to
complete a joint; gas torches (eg, butane or propane) or electrically-heated soldering
irons are more convenient. All soldered joints require the same elements of cleaning
of the metal parts to be joined, fitting up the joint, heating the parts, applying flux,
applying the filler, removing heat and holding the assembly still until the filler metal
has completely solidified. Depending on the nature of flux material used and the
application, cleaning of the joint may be required after it has cooled.

26
 CHAPTER-VI

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

6.1 RESULT

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6.2 CONCLUSION:

The LDRs measure the intensity of light and therefore they are a valid indication of
the power that gets to the surface of the solar panel. As a result, by measuring the
light intensity at a given time, it will be possible to get the difference in efficiency
between the tracking panel and the fixed one. The light intensity is directly
proportional to the power output of the solar panel.

6.3 FUTURE SCOPE:

With the available time and resources, the objective of the project was met. The
project is able to be implemented on a much larger scale. For future projects, one may
consider the use of more efficient sensors, but which are cost effective and consume
little power. This would further enhance efficiency while reducing costs. If there is
the possibility of further reducing the cost of this project, it would help a great deal.
This is because whether or not such projects are embraced is dependent on how cheap
they can be.
Shading has adverse effects on the operation of solar panels. Shading of a
single cell will have an effect on the entire panel because the cells are usually
connected in series. With shading therefore, the tracking system will not be able to
improve efficiency as is required.

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6.4REFERENCES
1. WWW.EFY.COM
2. WWW.ENGINEERSGARAGE.COM
3. WWW.ELECTROSOME.COM
4. WWW.CIRCUITEASY.COM

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