9/8/2015
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Chapter 1.0: Introduction to engineering geology
Chapter 2.0: Rock classification
Igneous rocks
Sedimentary rocks
Metamorphic rocks
Chapter 3.0: Weathering & soils
Chapter 4.0: Geological structures & discontinuities
in rock.
Chapter 5.0: Ground Investigation.
Geological structures & discontinuities in rock
Inresponding to the physical changes (e.g. state of
stress) of the surroundings, a rock mass mass may
deform or change its physical state.
Changes in rock mass include: expands if confining
stress reduces; deforms plastically (ruptures) if
acting stress is larger than its strength; deforms
elastically (reshapes) if acting stress is smaller than
its strength.
As result, rock mass displays certain characteristics,
indicating changes in the surrounding.
Folds:
Folds only occur in clastic sedimentry rocks that
exhibit beddings/strata, in metamorphic rocks
originate from clastic sedimentary rocks, & volcanic
rocks.
Beddings are weakness planes in rock relative
displacement can occur between bedding planes.
Folds is formed when bedded/stratified rock is
subjected to lateral compressive stress in the earth
crust.
Chapter 4: Geological structures & discontinuities
in rock
Earthsurface is still undergoing physical changes, in
both small- & continental-scale.
Changes are result from the effect of geological
processes: weathering, erosion & tectonic forces.
Geological structures & discontinuities in rock
The characteristics include presence of geological
structures & discontinuities in rock & the most important
in construction activities are: FOLDINGS, FAULTS &
JOINTS.
These geological structures & discontinuities induce
unfavorable state, weaknesses, & defect into rock
bodies.
A number of discontinuities are formed during formation
of the rock mass, e.g. bedding plane & joints.
They affect rock mass behaviour when subjected to
loading ( e.g. stability of tunnel excavated in highly
jointed rock mass, compared to massive rock).
Folds:
Type of folding: symmetrical, non-symmetrical, over-
turned & recumbent fold.
Recumbent fold can affect sequence of bedding
arrangement (difficulties in verifying the relative age of
beddings).
Beddings are weakness planes which are originally
horizontal. When folded the beddings become inclined
inclined weakness planes.
Important geometrical parameters of fold:
Limbs; syncline & anticline; dip direction & dip of
inclined beddings at the limbs.
1
 9/8/2015

Types of fold Geometrical features of fold

Folds:
Folds:
When rock strata are folded, they are under a state
of strain, this will induce remnant or residual stress Slope excavated in folded rock mass may exhibit
in the folded rock mass. instability inclined bedding plane at limbs.

For a symmetrical fold residual tensile stress

For petroleum industry, folded strata is the main
occurs in the upper portion of the fold, & residual
compressive stress in the lower portion. Usually, target area in exploring for an economic petroleum
tension tension cracks can be found at the crest. reservoirs.

For a deformed rock mass (e.g. folded), the in situ

stress field can become more complex presence
of remnant (geological) stresses.

Fault:

Fault a fracture between two rock blocks where

there has been observable relative displacement.

Oneof the block can be displaced upwards or

downwards or even displaced laterally.

Faultcan occur in all types of rocks (whenever

cracks are present).

Important geometry of fault: dip direction of fault,

Inclined bedding planes in folded strata dip angle, strike & amount of displacement.

2
 9/8/2015

Associated displacements in formation of fault

Geometrical features of fault

Fault:

Faults are classified based on their formation:

normal fault, reverse fault & strike-slip fault

Alarge scale displacement (few kms) may induce

metamorphism in the surrounding rock, forming
metamorphic rocks e.g. fault breccia & clay gouge.

Fault traversing a river gives rise to waterfall.

Springline is a result of groundwater flowing a long
a fault line.

Largefaults (10 20 km deep) can act as passage

for magma to flow upwards from the mantle. NORMAL & REVERSE FAULT

STRIKE - SLIP FAULT (horizontal displacement) Movements of fault

3
 9/8/2015

San Andreas Fault two continental plates Earthquake is produced by a sudden slip along
slide past one another interlocked fault line

Fault: Fault:

Ideally, the stress distribution in rock mass without

Formation of multiple large size faults is called fault
zone, may induce remnant or residual stress in host discontinuities (faults & fold), can be assumed in a
rock. state of hydrostatic stress (P gh); stresses are
equal in all directions.
Residual shear stress may occurs in rock bodies at
If faults are present in rock mass, stress in one
the vicinity of a fault zone.
direction may not be equal to stress in the opposite
direction (e.g. horizontal stresses , h).

Joint:
Joint:
Expansion of rock bodies due to reduction in
Joint is a fracture, separating two rock blocks, overburden stress, e.g. decreasing thickness of
where there is no observable (very small) materials covering a deep seated bed rock after
continuous & intensive weathering at the surface
displacement. sheet joints.

Formation of joints are associated with tensile Tensile stress acting at crest of a fold tension
stress within a rock body. The source the stresses cracks.
can be from any/all of the followings: For impermeable rock (e.g. granite) joint acts as a
secondary permeability.
Expansion & shrinking of a massive magma
body during cooling process joint sets that are As other fracture discontinuity in rock, joints are
perpendicular to each other. weakness planes in rock.

4
 9/8/2015

Joint in granite, intersecting of more than 2 joint sets Exposed joint surfaces

Joint are weakness planes, displacement can

Joint set in almost vertical in orientation occur along this discontinuity

Joint:

Important geometrical parameters: dip angle, dip

direction, joint spacing & persistency. In terms of
scale joints are relatively smaller compared to fault
(few m).

A group of joints of almost similar orientation is

called JOINT SET.

Two or more joint sets intersecting each other is

termed as JOINT SYSTEM.

Ina joint system, if one joint set is more dominant

Joints are potential failure planes when there is than other sets, this set is called the primary set.
free face created in a rock mass, e.g. a cut slope

5
 9/8/2015

Joint set: 1 set & 3 sets, due to its nature granite

usually exhibit more than 3 sets of joint. Joint set

Joint:

Strength of rock mass largely depends on the

density, orientation and extent of fractures (joint)
within it.

When the number of joint set increases the rock

mass strength decreases dramatically.

For less number of joint set (say 1 set), the

orientation of the joint plays a significant role on the
strength of the rock mass.

For an infinite number of joint set, with small joint

spacing, the rock mass properties approching that
of soil .
Effect of 1 joint set on uniaxial compressive
strength (UCS) of rock

Effect of multiple joints on UCS of rock in highly fractured

Effect of 2 joint sets on UCS of rock rock the strength may approach that of soil

6
 9/8/2015

Joint:
Joint:
The more is the number of joint sets in a rock
body, the weaker and more unstable is the rock.
Rock with more joint sets is easier (cheaper) to
excavate. Bed rock displaying multiple joint sets
may not be suitable for foundation of large
structures.
Joints
in hard rock are passage for weathering
agents (water, O2) to penetrate into rock thus,
rocks with more joint sets are more easily
weathered compared to rock with less joint sets.
Intrusive igneous rock (e.g. granite) usually
exhibiting at least 3 sets of joint, a typical joint
characteristic for massive & strong rock, which
exhibits random minerals arrangement.
For rocks displaying structured minerals
arrangement in certain orientation (lamination, slaty
& schistosity), e.g sedimentary & metamorphic rock,
the major joint sets are usually parallel to the
mineral arrangement.

Types of structural Rock types

Discontinuity.
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic
LARGE-SCALE:
Fault plane
Joint plane

Bedding plane -
SMALL-SCALE:
Foliation - -
Slaty & schistosity - -

Microfractures

Voids -

Table 4.1: Types of discontinuity/weakness planes & and their

Fracture plane parallel to lamination (sandstone) formation in different rock types.

Thank you