GEOLOGIC ERA

- It is a subdivision of geologic time that divides an eon into smaller units of time.
- The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three such time frames: the Paleozoic, Mesozoic,
and Cenozoic represent the major stages in the macroscopic fossil record.
The Cenozoic Era
- 66 million years ago to the present day.
- Age of Mammals.
- The extinction of many large diapsid groups such as non- avian dinosaurs, Plesiosauria and Pterosauria
allowed the mammals and birds to greatly diversify and become the world's predominant fauna.
The Mesozoic Era
- 252 to 66 million years ago.
- Age of Reptiles.
- Mesozoic means "middle life", deriving from the Greek prefix meso for " between and zoon for animal.
- The era is subdivided into three major periods: the Triassic (252.17 to 201.3 million years ago), Jurassic,
(201.3 to 145 million years ago) and Cretaceous (145 to 66 million years ago) which are further subdivided
into a number of epochs and stages.
The Paleozoic Era
- It is the earliest of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic Eon. It is the longest of the Phanerozoic eras,
lasting from 541 to 252.17 million years ago.
- The Paleozoic was a time of dramatic geological, climatic, and evolutionary change.
The Cambrian Era
- This era is under Paleozoic Era
- The Cambrian witnessed the most rapid and widespread diversification of life in Earth's history, known as
the Cambrian explosion, in which most modern phyla first appeared.
- Fish, arthropods, amphibians, anapsids, synapsids, euryapsids and diapsids all evolved during the
Paleozoic.
The Neoproterozoic Era
- from 1,000 to 541 million years ago.
- It is the last era of the Precambrian Supereon and the Proterozoic Eon.
- The era when ice sheets reached the equator and formed a possible "Snowball Earth".
- The earliest fossils of multicellular life are found in the Ediacaran, an era under Neoproterozoic,
including the earliest animals.
The Mesoproterozoic Era
- from 1,600 to 1,000 million years ago.
- The Mesoproterozoic was the first period of Earth's history of which a respectable geological record
survives.
- The major events of this era are the breakup of the Columbia supercontinent, the formation of
the Rodinia supercontinent, and the evolution of sexual reproduction.
The Paleoproterozoic Era
- It existed 2,500 to 1,600 million years ago.
- It was during this era that the continents first stabilized.
- Continents existed in the Paleoproterozoic era.
- Before the significant increase in atmospheric oxygen almost all life that existed was anaerobic, that
is, the metabolism of life depended on a form of cellular respiration that did not require oxygen.
The Neoarchean Era
- The Neoarchean is a geologic era within the Archaean Eon.
- The Neoarchean spans the period from 2,800 to 2,500 million years ago.
- During this era, oxygenic photosynthesis first evolved, releasing an abundance of oxygen, that first
reacted with minerals and afterward was free to react with greenhouse gases of the atmosphere,
leaving the Earth's surface free to radiate its energy to space which is known as oxygen catastrophe
The Mesoarchean Era
- The Mesoarchean is a geologic era within the Archean Eon, spanning 3,200 to 2,800 million years ago.
 - The era is defined chronometrically and is not referenced to a specific level in a rock section on
Earth.
The Paleoarchean Era
- It is a geologic era within the Archaean Eon.
- It spans the period of time 3,600 to 3,200 million years ago.
- The name derives from Greek "Palaios" ancient.
- The oldest ascertained life form of fossilized bacteria in microbial mats, 3,480 million years old, found
in Western Australia, is from this era.
- The first supercontinent Vaalbara formed during this period.
The Eoarchean Era
- The Eoarchean is the first era of the Archean Eon of the geologic record for which the Earth has a
solid crust.
- It spans 400 million years from the end of the Hadean Eon 4 billion years ago.
- The beginnings of life on Earth have been dated to this era and evidence of cyanobacteria date to
3500 Mya( million years ago), just outside of this era.
- At that time, the atmosphere was without oxygen and the pressure values ranged from 10 to 100.
The Hadean Era
The Hadean is a geologic eon of the Earth predating the Archean. It began with the formation of
the Earth about 4.6 billion years ago and ended 4 billion years ago.
Since few geological traces of this eon remain on Earth, there is no official subdivision.
SUMMARY
Phanerozoic Era includes: Paleoproterozoic
Cenozoic Archaean Era includes:
Mesozoic Neoarchean
Paleozoic Mesoarchean
Proterozoic Era includes: Paleoarchean
Neoproterozoic Eoarchean
Mesoproterozoic Hadean Eon is not officially divided into era

Principles of Uniformitarianism
- Is a geological doctrine
- It states that current geologic processes, occurring at the same rates observed today, in the same manner,
account for all of Earths geological features
- It assumes that geological processes are essentially unchanged today from those of the unobservable
past, and that there have been no cataclysmic events in earths history
UNIFORMITARIANISM Glossary of Geology
- UNIFORMITARIANISM is defined in the authoritative Glossary of Geology as the fundamental
principle or doctrine that geologic processes and natural laws now operating to modify the Earths
crust have acted in the same regular manner and with essentially the same intensity throughout
geologic time, and that past geologic events can be explained by phenomena and forces observable
today
UNIFORMITARIANISM James Hutton and Sir Charles Lyell
- The doctrine of Uniformitarianism was significantly advanced by James Hutton (1726-1797) in his
publication, THEORY OF THE EARTH (1785).
- Hutton influenced Sir Charles Lyell (1797-1875), who is acclaimed as The Father of modern Geology
with his work, PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY (1830-1833, a three volume work).
- Lyell, in turn, influenced Charles Darwin, who later wrote THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES (1859).
- Lyell is responsible for the general acceptance of Uniformitarianism among geologists for the past
150 years.
UNIFORMITARIANISM Post Gradualism
- In regards to Uniformitarianism, Warren D. Allmon writes,
- As is now increasingly acknowledged, however, Lyell also sold geology some snake oil. He convinced
geologists that because physical laws are constant in time and space and current processes should be
 consulted before resorting to unseen processes, it necessarily follows that all past processes acted at
essentially their current rates (that is, those observed in historical time). This extreme gradualism has
let to numerous unfortunate consequences, including the rejection of sudden or catastrophic events
in the face of positive evidence for them, for no reason other than that they were not gradual.
- Post Gradualism, Science, vol. 262, Oct. 1,1993, pg. 122
UNIFORMITARIANISM catastrophism
- Uniformitarianism, together with the Geologic Column presupposed by Lyell based on uniformity, have
been disproved by geologic features such as poly-strata fossils, misplaced fossils, missing layers and
misplaced layers (including layers in reverse order or ancient layers found above modern layers).
- Observed cataclysmic events such as the eruption of Mt. St. Helens in 1980 have validated Catastrophism,
which is contrary to Uniformitarianism.
- We now know that catastrophe has had a significant role in forming Earths currently observable features.
Law of superposition
- The law of superposition is an axiom that forms one of the bases of the
sciences of geology, archaeology, and other fields dealing with
geological stratigraphy.
- In its plainest form, it states that in undeformed stratigraphic
sequences, the oldest strata will be at the bottom of the sequence. This
is important to stratigraphic dating, which assumes that the law of
superposition holds true and that an object cannot be older than the
materials of which it is composed
- The law was first proposed in the 17th century by the Danish
scientist Nicolas Steno.
Nicolas Steno
- 1638-1686
- Danish Pioneer in both anatomy and geology
- Studied brain, heart and nerve system, and discovered the parotoid salivary gland (named Stensens
Duct after Steno)
- Father of geology and stratiology
- Converted to Catholicism from Lutheranism and become Bishop
- Dedicated his religious life to helping the poor
Beatified by Pope John Paul II in 1987
Important Principles of Geology
1. Principle of Intrusive Relationships
Intrusion - forcible entry of molten rocks or magma into or between other rock formations
- Crosscutting Intrusion - when an igneous intrusion cuts across a formation of sedimentary rock
& it can be determined that the igneous intrusion is younger than the sedimentary rock
- Laccolith - a sheet intrusion (or concordant pluton) that has been injected between two layers of
sedimentary rock
- Batolith - is a large mass of igneous rock intrusive (also called plutonic) rock that forms from cooled
magma deep in the Earth's crust
- Sill - a tabular sheet intrusion that has intruded between older layers of sedimentary rock, beds of
volcanic lava or tuff, or even along the direction of foliation in metamorphic rock
- Dike / Dyke - is a sheet of rock that formed in a fracture in a pre-existing rock body & can be either
magmatic or sedimentary in origin
2. Principle of Inclusions and Components
- Proposed by Charles Lyell
- States that The components of a rock unit are older than the actual age of the rock unit itself.
- This principle is self evident in sedimentary rocks
3. Principle of Original Horizontality
- Proposed by Danish geological pioneer Nicholas Steno(16381686)
 - States that layers of sediment are originally deposited horizontally under the action of gravity. This is
one of the basic principles of stratigraphic succession, which refers to the way that geological
processes build up and change layers of rock over time.
4. Principle of Cross-cutting relationship
- is a principle of geology that states that the geologic feature which cuts another is the younger of the
two features.
- Types:
Structural relationships
Intrusional relationships
Stratigraphic relationships
Sedimentological relationships
Paleontological relationships
Geomorphological relationships
- Scale
A cartographic cutting relationship might look like, for example, a large fault dissecting the
landscape on a large map.
Megascopic are features like igneous dikes, as mentioned above, which would be seen on an
outcrop or in a limited geographic area.
Microscopic are those that require study by magnification or other close scrutiny. For example,
penetration of a fossil shell by the drilling action of a boring organism is an example of such a
relationship.
- Other uses
can also be used in conjunction with radiometric age dating to effect an age bracket for
geological materials that cannot be directly dated by radiometric techniques.
5. Principle of Faunal Succession
- also known as the law of faunal succession
- first recognized at the beginning of the 19th century by William Smith
- observation that assemblages of fossil plants and animals follow or succeed each other in time in a
predictable manner
- Sequences of successive strata and their corresponding enclosed faunas have been matched together to
form a composite section detailing the history of the Earth, especially from the inception of the Cambrian
Period, which began about 540 million years ago
- Faunal succession occurs because evolution generally progresses from simple to complex in a
nonrepetitive and orderly manner.

MINERALS
Mineral Classification : The Dana System
Mineral classification can be an organizational nightmare. With over 3,000 different types of minerals, a
system is needed to make sense of them all. Mineralogists group minerals into families based on their chemical
composition. There are different grouping systems in use but the Dana system is the most commonly used. This
system was devised by Professor James Dana of Yale University way back in 1848. But before we get to individual
specimens lets see if we can agree on what these things are. A scientific definition says that it is something that:
Occurs naturally
Inorganic
Is solid at room temperatures
Has a regular structure (its atoms have a definite arrangement).
Has a chemical formula

The Dana System divides minerals into eight basic classes:

1. Native Elements is the category of the pure. Most minerals are made up of combinations of chemical
elements. In this group a single element like the copper shown here on the right or the gold nugget below
are found in a naturally pure form.
2. Silicates are the most widespread of the minerals. They are made up of oxygen and silicon the number
one and number two most abundant elements in the earth's crust. By themselves they make up over 90%
of the weight of the earths crust. Most rocks are composed mainly of this class of minerals.
There are two forms of silicate when looking at their chemistry:
Felsic - The fel stands for feldspar while the sic represents silica. They form in granites and are lighter in
weight and color than other silicates because they have less iron and magnesium. Quartz, micas, and the
K-feldspars are notable members of this group. (eg, quartz)
Mafic - Ma stands for magnesium and fic is for iron (ferric). This group of silicates usually form in magmas
moving up to fill the gap left when tectonic plates are moving away from each other in the sea floor. They
are relatively dense and dark. (eg. Labradorite)
Note:
*Feldspar - an abundant rock-forming mineral typically occurring as colorless or pale-colored crystals and
consisting of aluminosilicates of potassium, sodium, and calcium.
*Silica - is the name given to a group of minerals composed of silicon and oxygen, the two most abundant
elements in the earth's crust.

3. Oxides are mineral compounds combining a metal with oxygen or a metal combining with oxygen and
hydrogen. This is a large group of minerals that occur in most geological environments and rock types.
They span a wide range of characteristics from common metal ores to precious gems.
Example: Rutile is an oxide that is used to produce titanium. It is both stronger and lighter than steel.
Because of this it is used to make missiles and aircraft.

4. Sulfides are made up of sulfur combined with another

mineral, usually a metal. Many of the worlds primary metal
ores belong to this group. This group of minerals tend to be
dense, brittle, and metallic in appearance. The chart below
lists some of these metal ores and the metal that is
produced from them.

5. Sulfates
- are made up of one or more metals in combination with sulfur and oxygen. The sulfur and oxygen atoms
form a unit with one sulfur atom in the center and four oxygen atoms forming a square around it. These
atoms form a tetrahedron crystal pattern.
- The chemical formula of the group is: SO4
- As a group they are soft and pale in color and sometimes transparent or translucent.
- There are many minerals in the sulfate group but most are rare in occurrence. Anhydrate, barite, and
gypsum are minerals that are common in this class.
- Examples: Barite, Gympsum, Celestite

6. Halides are formed by combining a metal with one of the five halogen elements, chlorine, bromine,
fluorine, iodine, and astatine. Many of these compounds will dissolve in water. Because of this solubility
they usually occur only under special conditions. Halite (NaCl) or rock salt is an exception to this notion. It
is so common that it is found in huge deposits all over the world. It is a mineral that has many uses
including making table salt.

7. Carbonates come from the combination of carbon, oxygen, and a metal or semimetal element. This group
of minerals is soft and easily dissolved by even mild acids. Some of these minerals form by the acidic
action of air and rain. (Example: Aragonite, Calcite)

8. Phosphates
- The phosphate minerals contain phosphorus and oxygen in a 1:4 ratio.
 - Written as PO4 this compound combines with other elements to form phosphates.The three mineral
examples listed below are some of the more common members of this class. There are over 200
phosphates.
- The most common use of phosphate minerals is for fertilizer. It is also used as a supplemental animal
feed, food preservative, fungicide, and in cosmetics.
- Examples: Turquoise, Wavellite, Apatite

Mineraloids is the term used for those substances that do not fit neatly into any of the eight classes of
minerals. Opal,and amber belong to the unofficial class called mineraloids. They are created from organic
compounds or lack crystalline structure that would qualify them to be real minerals. They are amorphous
Which means that their internal atomic structure is not ordered.
- Amber is fossilize tree resin
- Opal is a hydrated amorphous form of silica; its water content may range from 3 to 21% by weight

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Hardness
- is defined by how well a substance will resist scratching by another substance.
THREE TYPES OF HARDNESS
1) Soft - Minerals that can be scratched with a fingernail (example: Gympsum)
2) Intermediate - Minerals that cannot be scratched with a fingernail but can be scratched with a steel
nail. (example: Calcite)
3.) Hard - Minerals that cannot be scratched with a steel nail. (example: Gray Feldspar)

MOHS HARDNESS SCALE

- A scale to measure hardness was devised by Austrian mineralogist
Frederick (Friedrich) Mohs in 1822, and is the standard scale for
measuring hardness.

Several common household items have a fixed hardness, and can be

used to test for hardness

COLOR
- Color is the first thing most people notice about minerals and the reason that they make great jewelry.
Minerals appear naturally in an infinite rainbow of color hues. Some minerals are always the same color,
others can be many different colors.
What gives minerals their fantastical colors?
It all boils down to four reasons:
1.) Chemical Composition - Certain elements (particularly heavy metals) strongly absorb portions of the light
spectrum and therefore appear to have certain colors. Minerals that are based on these elements will be
consistently self-colored or idiochromatic. Although still subject to the effects of trace elements, the
minerals color is constant and predictable.
Examples:
 a. Copper in different oxides and in different crystal forms produces the teal blue in turquoise , the
azure blue color of azurite, and the vivid green in malachite.
b. Manganese produces the pink color of rhodochrosite and mercury (Hg) makes cinnabar red. The
violet red of erythrite is from its cobalt (Co).
c. Chromium produces the color orange-red color of crocoite, but the red-orange color of vanadinite is
caused by its Vanadium.
2.) Chemical Impurities - All natural minerals contain minute impurities. This means that in addition to their
chemical composition, they have trace quantities of other elements (often less than 1% of their mass) that
have been incorporated into the mineral as it formed. Many minerals get their color from these impurities
and are called other colored or allochromatic. Common coloring elements are titanium (Ti), vanadium
(V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), and copper (Cu).
Examples:
If we take one mineral beryl and add different impurities in different oxidation states, we get some
fabulous gems in different colors:
- Beryl and Fe++ = Aquamarine (blue)
- Beryl and Fe+++ = Heliodor (yellow)
- Beryl and Mn++ = Morganite (pink)
- Beryl and Cr+++ = Emerald (green)
3.) Inclusions of other minerals or elements
- Inclusions of one mineral within a host mineral can also cause a color difference.
- Quartz has many examples of color changes due to inclusions. Chlorite inclusions in quartz cause it to turn
green. Rutile inclusions give it a golden hue. Milky quartz is the most common form of quartz and gets its
color because of minute fluid inclusions of gas and/or liquid trapped during the crystal formation.
4.) Environmental Impact
- Certain minerals change color when exposed to light, heat, or
radiation. Red realgar transforms into yellow paraealgar upon
repeated exposure to light. Some minerals, such
as proustite and vivianite, darken upon prolonged exposure to
light, whereas other minerals, such as kunzite fade.

Some minerals change color when heated (a common technique to

artificially enhance the color of many gemstones.) Naturally occurring
or artificially applied radiation can also have an effect smoky quartz being the most common example.

Finally, some minerals change color when they tarnish or oxidize: silver tarnishes black, yellow, or
brown; copper oxidizes green; and chalcopyrite oxidizes to an iridescent array of colors

Difference of Streak and Color in Minerals

- Streak of a mineral is the color of the powder produced when it is dragged across an un-weathered
surface.
- Color of a mineral can vary considerably.

STREAK
- Streak is the color of a crushed mineral's powder when it is dragged across an un-weathered surface.
The color of a mineral's powder may differ from the actual color of the mineral. This property can be
useful for mineral identification.
- The surface across which the mineral is dragged is called a "streak plate," and is generally made of
unglazed porcelain tile.
- Almost every mineral has an inherent streak color, no matter what color the actual mineral is. For
example, calcite occurs in many different colors, shapes, and varieties. But every single variety of calcite
has a white streak. A streak is useful in distinguishing two minerals with the same color but different
streak.
- Calcite is the Most Prevalent Member of the Carbonates
 - A good example is distinguishing CINNABAR (brown streak), and PYRITE (black streak)
- Unlike the apparent color of a mineral, which for most minerals can vary considerably, the trail of finely
ground powder generally has a more consistent characteristic color, and is thus an important diagnostic
tool in mineral identification.
- If no streak seems to be made, the mineral's streak is said to be white or colorless. Streak is particularly
important as a diagnostic for opaque and colored materials. It is less useful for silicate minerals, most of
which have a white streak or are too hard to powder easily.
- Most light colored, non-metallic minerals have a white or colorless streak, as do most silicates,
carbonates, and most transparent minerals.

How is the color of mineral produced ?

- The apparent color of a mineral can vary widely because of trace impurities or a disturbed
macroscopic crystal structure. Small amounts of an impurity that strongly absorbs a particular wavelength
can radically change the wavelengths of light that are reflected by the specimen, and thus change the
apparent color. However, when the specimen is dragged to produce a streak, it is broken into randomly
oriented microscopic crystals, and small impurities do not greatly affect the absorption of light.
- Hematites color is grey, but its streak is red.

CLEAVAGE
- Cleavage describes how a crystal breaks when subject to stress along smooth planes parallel to zones of
weak bonding. A mineral that never produces any crystallized fragments when broken off has no
cleavage.
THREE FACTORS OF CLEAVAGE
1) Quality of cleavage
- Perfect
- Good
- Poor
- Indiscernible (indistinct)
- None

2) Number of sides exhibiting cleavage

- One direction
- Two directions
- Three directions
- All directions

3) Cleavage habit
- Is the 3 dimensional shape of the mineral after it breaks. It
depends on the crystal structure.

Basal/Sheet Cleavage
- Cleavage exhibited on a horizontal plane of the mineral by
way of its base; Peeling
- An example is Mica.
Cubic Cleavage
- Cleavage exhibited on minerals of the isometric crystal system that are crystallized as cubes.
- An example is Galena.
Octahedral Cleavage
- Cleavage exhibited on minerals of the isometric crystal system that are crystallized as octahedrons.
- Flat, triangular "wedges" peel off of an existing octahedron.
- An example is Fluorite.
Prismatic Cleavage
 - Cleavage exhibited on some prismatic minerals in which a crystal cleaves as thin, vertical, prismatic
crystals off of the original prism.
- An example is Aegirine.

FRACTURE
- is a description of the way a mineral tends to break.
- is the tendency of a mineral to break along curved surfaces without a definite shape. These minerals do
not have planes of weakness and break irregularly.
CONCHOIDAL
- the most common type of fracture
- this is a smoothly curved fracture that is familiar to people who have examined broken glass.
- Example: Quartz
SUBCONCHOIDAL
- similar with conchoidal, just not as curved, but still smooth
- Example: Andalusite
UNEVEN
- is a rough surface or one with random irregularities. It occurs in a wide range of minerals
- Example: Anhydrite
JAGGED
- has sharp points or edges that catch on a finger that's rubbed across the surface
- usually this indicates a metal, a metal alloy or some sulfides or oxides.
- Example: Copper
EARTHY
- reminiscent of freshly broken soil
- produces a texture similar to broken children's clay
- is found in minerals that are generally massive and loosely consolidated
- Example: Limonite
SPLINTERY
- comprises sharp elongated points
- It is particularly seen in fibrous minerals such as Chrysotile, but may also occur in non-fibrous minerals
such as Kyanite
MAGNETISM
- Magnetism is one of the aspect of the combined electromagnetic force. It refers to physical phenomena
arising from the force caused by magnets, objects that produce fields that attract or repel other objects.
Magnetic Properties of Minerals
1. DIAMAGNETISM - They have an extremely weak negative response to a magnetic field. Example:
BISMUTH
2. PARAMAGNETISM - This refers to materials which become magnetized in a magnetic field but their
magnetism disappears when the field is removed. Example: ALUMINUM, PLATINUM
3. FERROMAGNETISM - This refers to materials that can retain their magnetic properties when the magnetic
field is removed. Example: IRON, NICKEL
Mineral Magnetism & its application to Geology
1. MAPPING- Magnetic anomaly surveys are used for geologic mapping and they are a tool for ore deposit
prospecting.
2. Plate Tectonics - Paleomagnetism is the principle field of study that has helped place the positions of
continents and ocean floors through time.
3. Stratigraphy - Magneto-stratigraphy helps the correlation of sedimentary beds in basins and constrain
sedimentation rates.
4. Material Properties - Magnetic properties of minerals can be exploited during ore processing to help
separate/beneficiate minerals.
FIVE MOST IMPORTANT MINERALS
1. QUARTZ - a chemical compound (sio2); one of the most abundant mineral found at earth's surface; no
cleavage-typically breaks with a conchoidal fracture; Mohs hardness 7
2. CALCITE - a rock-forming mineral (caco3); the principal constituent of limestone and marble; cleavage:
perfect, rhombohedral, three directions; Mohs hardness 3
3. FELDSPAR - Large group of rock forming silicate minerals; most abundant mineral; cleavage: perfect in
two directions; Mohs hardness 6 to 6.5
4. OLIVINE - group of rock-forming minerals that are typically found in mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks;
the mineral of green gemstone known as peridot; very high crystallization temperature; cleavage: poor,
brittle with conchoidal fracture; mohs hardness 6.5 to 7
5. CHALCOPYRITE - A brass-yellow mineral with a chemical composition of cufes2; cleavage: poor; Mohs
hardness 3.5 to 4