GS - History

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Medieval india
Qutb-Hul-din ibak
Qutb-ud-din Aibak was the founder of first independent Turkish kingdom in northern India. For
his generosity, he was given the title of Lakh Baksh (giver of lakhs).
He constructed two mosques - Quwal-ul-lslam at Delhi and . Adhai din ka Jhopra at Ajmer. lie also
began the construction of Qutub Minar, in the honour of famous Still saint Khawaja Qutub-ud-din
Bakhtiyar Kaki.
Aibak was great patron of learning and patronized writers like Hasan- un-Nizami. author of Taj-ul-
Massir and Fnkhr-ud-Din. author of Tarikh- i-Mubarak Shahi.
Iltutmish
Iltutmish was the real founder of Delhi Sultanate. He made Delhi the capital in place of Lahore.
He saved Delhi Sultanate from the wrath of Chengiz Khan - the Mongol leader by refusing shelter to
Khwarizm Shah, whom Chengiz was chasing.
He completed the construction of Qutub Minar.
He issued the silver lanka for the first time. He organized the Iqta system and introduced reforms in civil
administration and army, which was now centrally paid and recruited.
He set up an official nobility of slaves known as Chahalgani (group of forty).
He patronized Minaj-us-siraj, author of Tabaqat-i-nasiri.
Razia Sultan
Though Iltutmish had nominated his daughter Razia as the successor, the nobles placed Rukn-ud-din
Firoz on the throne. However, Razia got rid of Rukn-ud-din and ascended the throne. Razia was popular
among the people but she was not acceptable to the nobles and theologians. She further offended the
nobles by her preference for an Abyssinian slave - Yakut.
Soon after her accession, the governors of Multan, Badaun, Hansi and Lahore openly revolted against her.
There was a serious rebellion in Bhatinda. Altunia, governor of Bhatinda refused to accept suzerainty of Razia.
Razia accompanied by Yakut marched against Altunia. However, Altunia got Yakut murdered and imprisoned
Razia. Subsequently, Razia married Altunia and both of them marched towards Delhi. In 1240 AD, Razia
became the victim of a conspiracy and was assassinated near Kaithal.
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban
Balban ascended the throne in 1265 AD.
He broke the power of chahalgani and restored the prestige of the crown. That was his greatest
contribution towards the stability of the Sultanate
To keep himself well-informed Balban appointed spies
He created a strong centralized army to deal with internal disturbances and . to check Mongols who
were posing u serious danger to Delhi Sultanate.
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He established the military department - Diwan-i-Arz.

The Persian court model influenced Balbans conception of kingship. He took up the title of Zil-i-
Ilahi (shadow of God).
He introduced Sijda (prostration before the monarch) and Paibos (kissing the feel of monarch) as the
normal forms of salutation,
He destoryed Mewati Rajput brigandage in the doab, where forests were cut and forts built.
Alauddin Khalji
Alauddin Khalji ascended the throne after getting his uncle Jalal-ud-din murdered.
He was the first Turkish Sultan of Delhi who separated religion from politics. He proclaimed -
Kingship knows no Kinship. Alauddins Imperialism
Alauddin annexed Gujarat (1298 AD), Ranthambhor (1301 AD). Mewar (1303 AD), Malwa
(1305 AD), Jalor (1311 AD). In Deccan. Alauddins army led by Malik Kafur defeated Yadavas of
Devagiri, Kakatiyas of Warrangal, Hoysalas of Dwarsamudra and Pandyas of Madurai.
Administrative Reforms
In order to avoid the problems created by the nobles, Alauddin issued four important ordinances.
The first ordinance aimed at confiscation of the religious endowments and free grants of lands. By
the second ordinance Ala-ud-din reorganised the spy system. An army of informers was created
and their duty was to spy on all that happened in Empire and submit reports to Sultan. The third
ordinances prohibited the use of wine. The fourth ordinance issued by Alauddin laid down that
nobles should not have social gatherings and they should not inter-marry without his permission.
He introduced the system of Dagh or the branding of horse and Chehra or preparation of the
descriptive role.
Alauddin ordered that all land was to be measured and then the share of state was to be fixed.
The post of special officer called Mustakhraj was created for the purpose of collection of revenue.
The peasants had to pay half the produce as land revenue.
Alauddin sought to fix cost of all commodities. For the purpose he set up three markets at Delhi.
One Market for food grains, the second for costly cloth and third for horses, slaves and catties.
Each market was under the control of a high officer called Shahna who maintained a register of
the merchants and strictly controlled the shopkeepers and the prices. The check on market was
kept by two officers - Diwan-i-Riyasat and Shahna-i-Mandi.
All goods for sale were brought to an open market called the Sarai-Adl.
Many forts were built by him and the most important of them was Alai Fort. He also constructed
the Alai Darwaja the entrance gate to Qutub Minar. He also built the palace of thousand Pillars
called Hazar Situn.
Amir Khusro
Amir Khusro was a prolific Persian poet (1253-1325 AD) associated with royal courts of more than seven rulers of Delhi
Sultanate. Amir Khusro was a genius of those times. A very versatile person, he was a soldier, a composer of poetry in Arabic, Persian,
Urdu, and a diplomat, shrewd in Court matters and was also a good musician. He accompanied Allauddin Khalji, when he
conquered the Yadava kingdom of Devagiri.
As a result of fusion of musical thoughts of Amir Khusro, many innovations took place. One of them was the present day
Khayal that evolved around the fourteenth century. Amir Khusro wrote Tarikh-i-Alai or Khazain-ul-Fatuh. In this book he gave an

account of conquest of Alauddin. He wrote another book called Ashiqa, which contains the love story of Deval Rani and Khizr Khan.
In his Nur-Siphir or nine skies, he gave the Story of Sultan Mubarak Shah. He also lived in the court of Ghias-ud-din Tughluq and wrote
Tughluqnama. Khushro is also known as Tuti-i-Hind or parrot of India.
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

He tried to introduce many administrative reforms. He had five ambitious projects for which he has become particularly debatable.
1) Taxation in the Doab: The Sultan made an ill-advised financial experiment in the Doab between the Ganges and
Jamuna. He not only increased the rate of taxation but also revived and created some additional Abwabs or cessess. Although the share of the
state remained half as in time of Alauddin. it was fixed arbitrarily not on the basis of actual produce. Prices were also fixed artificially for converting the produce
into money. It is said that the increase was twenty-fold and to this were added Ghan or House tax and the Charahi of pasture tax.
The Sultan created a new Department of Agriculture called Diwan-i-Kohi. The
main object of this Department was to bring more land under cultivation by giving direct help to peasants.
2) Transfer of Capital: The most controversial step which Muhammad Tughlaq undertook soon after his accession was the so
called transfer of capital from Delhi to Deogir. Deogir had been a base for the expansion of Turkish rule in South India. It appears that the Sultan wanted to
make Deogir second capital so that he might be able to control south India better. Deogir was thus named Daulatabad. After a couple of years
Muhammad Tugluq decided to abandon Daulatabad largely because he soon found that just as he could not control South India from Delhi, he could
not control North from Daulatabad.
3) Introduction of Token Currency: Muhammad Tughlaq decided to introduce bronze coins, which were to have same
value as the silver ones. Muhammad Tughlaq might have been successful if he could prevent people from forging the new coins. He was not able to
do so and soon the new coins began to be greatly devalued in markets. Finally Muhammad Taghlaq decided to withdraw the token currency. He
promised to exchange silver pieces for bronze coins.
4) Proposed Khurasan Expedition: The Sultan had a vision of universal conquest. He decided to conquest Khurasan
and Iraq and mobilized a huge army for the purpose.
He was encouraged to do so by Khurasani nobles who had taken shelter in his
court. Moreover there was instability in Khurasan on account of the unpopular
rule of Abu Said
5) Quarachil expedition: This expedition was launched in Kumaon hills in Himalayas allegedly to counter Chinese
incursions. It also appears that the expedition was directed against some refractory tribes in Kumaon Garhwal region with the object of bringing
them under Delhi Sultnate. The first attack was a success but when the rainy season set in, the invaders suffered terribly.
His five projects had led to revolts all around his empire. His last days were spent
in checking the revolts (altogether 36 revolts in 25 years).
Nature of the State

The Turkish state in India was militaristic and artistrocratic. The Turkish nobles tried at first to
monopolize the high offices of state denying a share to Tajiks, Afghans and non-Turkish immigrants.
Thus a noble birth still remained a very important qualification for high office.
Though the Sultans did not allow any violation of Islamic law, they however did not allow the Muslim
divines to dictate the policy of state. The Sultans had to supplement the Muslim law by framing
their own regulation (Zawabit).

Literature
The Hindu subjects Book Author had been given
the status of or Khazyan-ul-Futuh Amir Khusro protected
people who Tughluq Nama Amir Khusro accepted
Muslim rule and Tarik-i-AlaiAmir Khusro agreed to pay
tax called Jizya. Tabqat-i-Naisiri Minhaj-us-Siraj
Tarik-i-Firoz Shahi Zia-ud-din Barni
Gila Govind Jayadeva
Sasttra Dipika Parthasarthi Misra
Mitakshara Vighanes Vara
Dayabhaga J imuta Vahana
Nagachandra Pampa Ramayan
Alhakhandra Jagnayak
Hammir Raso Sarangdhara
Ashiqa Amir Khusro
Amuktamalyada Krishnadeva Raya
Futuhat-l-Firozshahi FirozShah
Prasana Raghava Jayadeva
Hamir-Mada-Mardana .. Jay Singh Sun
Pradyumnabhyadaya Ravi
Verman
Parvati Parinay Vaman Bhatta Bana
Iqta
Sometiems mistranslated as Jagir. It is that part of land granted by the sultan in us military chiefs for maintenance of a
given number of troopers. The land was normally taken back when the Iqtadars were not in a position to maintain the
army.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq

Alter his accession Firoz Tughlaq was faced with the problem of preventing the imminent break up of Delhi
Sultunaie. He adopted the police of trying to appease the nobility, the army and theologians and of asserting his authority over only
such areas, which could be easily administered from the centre. He therefore made no attempt to re-assert his authority over
South India and Deccan.
He decreed that whenever a noble died his son should be allowed to succeed tohis positionincluding his Iqtaand ifhe had
no sons,his son-in-law and in his absence his slave.
Firoz extended the principle of heredity to the army. Soldiers were allowed torestinpeaceandtosendintheirplacetheir
sons.Thesoldiers werenot paid in cash but by assignments on land revenue of villages. This novel technique of payment led to many
abuses.
Firoz tried to win over the theologians proclaiming that he was a true Muslim king and the state under him was truly
Islamic. In order to keep the theologians satisfied a number of them were appointed to high offices.
He tried to ban practices, which the orthodox theologians considered un-Islamic. Thus he prohibited the practice of
Muslim women going out to worship at graves of saints. It was during the time of Firoz that Jizya became a separate tax. Firoz refused to

exempt the Brahamanas from payment of Jizya since this was not provided for in Shariat.
The new system of taxation was according to Quran. Four kinds of taxes sanctioned by the Quran were imposed and those were
Kharaj, Zakat. Jizya and Khams. Kharaj was the land tax, which was equal to 1 /10 of the produce of the land. Zakat was 2Wk
tax on property. Jizya was levied on non-Muslims and Khams was 1/6 of the booty captured during war.
In order to encourage agriculture, the Sultan paid a lot of attention to irrigation. Firoz repaired a number of canals. The
first canal was from Sutlej to Ghaggar. The second canal carried the waters of Jamuna to the city of Hissar. The third canal started
from neighbourhood of Mandhavi and Sirmour Hills and connected with Hansi. The fourth canal flowed from the Ghaggar
by the fort of Sirsuti up to village of Hiram - Khera.
He was a great builder, to his credit are cities of Fathabad, Hissar. Jaunapur and Firozabad. During his Bengal
campaign he renamed Ikdala as Azadpur and Pandua as Firozabad. The two pillars of Asoka, one from Topra and another from
Meerut were brought to Delhi.
The Sultanestablished atDelhi,a hospital described variouslyas Dar-ul-shifa,Bimaristanand Shifa Khana. Thechiefarchitect ofslate was Malik
Ghazi Shainan who was assisted in work by Abdul Haq.
A new department of Diwan-i-Khairat was set up to make provision for marriage ofpoor girls.
Another step which Firoz took was both economic and political in nature. He ordered his officials that
whenever they attacked a place they should select handsome and wellborn young boys and send them to Sultan as slaves
Howeverhis ruleis markedby peace and tranquilityandcredit for itgoes to his Prime Minister Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul.
Timur Invasions (1398-99 AD)

Timur invaded India in 1398 AD during the reign of Nasiruddin Mahmud of Tughlaq Dynasty. The raid into India was
a plundering raid and its motive was to seize the wealth accumulated by the Sultans o( Delhi over the last 200 years. He plundered
Delhi and Tugluk empire could not recover from such a terrible blow and came to an end in 1412 AD.
Administration
The Turkish Sultan in India declared themselves Lieutenant of the faithful i.e. of the Abbasid caliphate of
Baghdad and included his name in Khutba, it did not mean that the caliph became the legal ruler. The
Caliph had only a moral position.
Political, legal and military authority was vested in the Sultan. He was responsible for administration and
was also the commander-in-chief of the military forces. He was also responsible for the maintenance of
law and justice.
No clear law of succession developed among Muslim rulers. Thus military strength was the main factor in
succession to the throne.
The key figure in the administration was Wazir. In the earlier period the VVazir was primarily a
military leader but now he began to be considered more an expert in revenue affairs and presided over a
large department dealing both with income and expenditure.
The head of military department was called Ariz-i-Mamalik. The special responsibility of Arizs department was
to recruit, equip and pay the army.
Diwan-i-Risalat dealt with religious mailers. pious foundations and stipends to deserving scholars and men
of piety. It was presided over by a chief Sadr or chief Qazi.
The Qazi dispensed civil law based on Muslim law (Sharia). The Hindus were governed by their
own personal laws, which were decided by panchayats in villages.
The rulers posted intelligence agents called Bands in different parts of empire to keep themselves informed of
what was going on.
Wakil-i-Dar was the officer responsible for maintenance of proper decorum at the court and he looked after the
personal comfort of Sultan and the Karkhanas.
When the Turks conquered the country they divided it into number of tracts called Iqtas, which were parcelled
among the leading Turkish nobles. The holders of the office were called Muqti or Walis. It was these tracts,

which later became province or Subas.

Below the province were the Shiqs and below them the Paragana. We are told that the villages were grouped into
units of 100 or 84 traditionally called Chaurasi. The Paragana was headed by Amil. The most important
people in villages were the Khuts (Landowners) or Muqaddam or headman. We also hear of
village accountant called Patwari.
Sikander Lodhi
Sikander Lodhi conquered Bihar and Tirhut. He transferred his capital from Delhi to Agra, a city founded by him. Sikander Shah
was a fanatical Muslim and he broke the sacred images of the Jawalamukhi Temple at Nagarkot and ordered the temples of
Mathura 10 be destroyed. He took a keen interest in the development of agriculture. He introduced the gaz-i- Sikandari
(Sikandars yard) of 32 digits for measuring cultivated fields
Ibrahim Lodhi
The Afghan nobility was brave and freedom loving but it was because of its fissiparous and individualistic tendencies that the Afghan
monarchy was weakened. Moreover. Ibraham Lodhi asserted the absolute power of the Sultan. As a result, some of the nobles turned against him. At
last Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of Punjab invited Babur to overthrow Ibrahim. Babur accepted the offer and inflicted a crushing defeat on Ibraham
in the first battle of Panipat in 1526 AD. Ibrahim was killed in the battle and with him ended the Delhi Sultnate.
Zia-ud-din Barani
The most famous historian of the period was Zia-ud-din Barani (born 1286), a contemporary of
Muhammad Tughlaq and Firoz Shah. He enjoyed the patronage of both the Sultans. He
composed Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi and Fatwa-i-Jahandan. These chronicles not only served as
important historical materials of study in themselves, but also furnished an example which Hindu
writers and Hindu rulers were not slow to imitate.
Some Landmarks
Quwwat-ul-lslam mosque, Delhi Qutub-ud-din Aibak.
Arhai Din Ka Jhopra, AjmerQutb-ud-din Aibak.
Qutub Minarlltutmish.
Alauddin Khilji was responsible for construction of Jamaat Khan Masjid at the Dargah of Nizamuddin
Auliya and Alai Darwaja at Qutub. The other monuments at Delhi were city of 5/// and the Hauz-i-Alai or
Hauz-i-Khas tank. He also constructed palace ol thousand pillars called Hazar Situn.
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq founded the city of Tughlaqabad.
Muhammad Tughlaq founded the small fortress of Adilabad and city of Jahanpanah.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq was responsible for the foundation of cities of Jaunpur. Fathehabad and Hisar Firuza. A.
Delhi he built the palace fort of Firozabad.
The best examples of architecture during the period of Sayyid and Lodhi kings are the tombs of kings and
nobles, the most important among them being the tombs of Bare Khan and Chore Khan, Bara Gumbad, Shish
Gumbad, the tomb of Sbihab-ud-din Taj Khan, Dadi ka Gumbad and Port ka Gumbad.

Central Administration
Department Purpose
Diwan-i-Risalat Department of appeals
Diwan-i-Ariz Military department
Diwan-i-Bandagan Department of slaves
Diwan-i-Qaza-i-Mamalik Department of justice
Diwan-i-Isthiaq Department of pensions
Diwan-i-Mttstakhraj Department of arrears
Diwan-i-Khairat Department of charity
Diwan-i-Kohi Department of agriculture
Diwan-i-lnsha Department of correspondence
Art and Architecture under Sultanate

The assimilation of different styles and elements to create a new one is well represented by the architecture of the Sultanate period. Many
of the characteristics of Indian architecture are obvious in the buildings of the Muslim rulers. This was because though the buildings
were designed by Muslim architects to suit the requirements of their religious ideas, Hindu craftsmen actually built them. The new features
brought by the Turkish conquerors were:
(i) the dome;
(ii) lofty towers:
(iii) the true arch unsupported by beam:
(iv) he vault. This showed advanced mathematical knowledge and engineering skill. They also brought with them an expert knowledge of
the use of concrete and mortar, which had hitherto been little used in India. The Sultans of Delhi were liberal patrons of architecture and they
erected numerous splendid edifices
The Arhai-din ka Jhonpra at Ajmer has a beautiful prayer hall. an exquisitely carved mehrab of white marble and a decorative arch
screen. The first example of true or voussoired arch is said lo be the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban in Mehrauli.
In the Khalji period the usage of voussoired arch and dome was established once and for all. The monuments show a rich
decorative character. Famous examples are the tomb of Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia at Delhi, whose style of beam-on-brackets
under the entrance arch of the central chamber came to be almost regularly employed in subsequent buildings
The Tughlaq buildings show stark simplicity and sobriety. probably indicating less financial resources as well as puritanical taste. Sloping
walls and a dark appearancecharacterise the buildings. Typical of the Tughlaq style is thick and battered or sloping walls. squinch arches for supporting
domes, multi-domed roofs and tapering minaret-like buttresses or supports at the external angles of buildings. The trabeate and arcuate are combined.
Some notable Tughlaq monuments are the fort of Tughlaqahad, the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, which marked a new phase in Indo-
lslamic architecture by serving as a model for later tombs and the fort of Adilabad.
The Sayyid period was too short to allow construction of elaborate buildings. But the tombs of this period display some characteristics such
as use of blue-enamelled tiles, the lotus-motif covering the dome and free use of guldastas. These features had much influence on the architectural style
of the subsequent period.
The resources available to the Lodhis were limited, and this is clearly indicated by the hard and bare tombs they erected. Bui some ol
their buildings were quite elegant, with the use of enamelled tilesa technique introduced from Persia. A certain amount of imagination and a bold diversity
of design are also displayed in the Lodhi architecture. Another characteristic was the use of double domes. One building of note is the Moth Ki Masjid
erected by die prime minister of Sikandar Lodhi.

Religious Movements of Medieval Age

Bhakti Saints
Ramanuja - In 11th century Ramanuja tried to assimilate Bhakti to the tradition of Vedas. He argued
that grace of God was more important than knowledge about him in order to attain salvation. The tradition
established by Ramanuja was followed by number of thinkers such as Madhavacharya, Ramananda,
Vallabhacharya and others.
Jnandeva (1275-96 AD) - He was progenitor of Bhakti movement in Maharashtra.
Namdeva (1270-1350 AD) - He was a Nirguna Upasaka. Some of his abhangas are included in
Guru Granth Sahib.
Ekanath (1548 AD) - He was opposed to caste distinction and evinced greatest sympathy for men of low
caste.
Tukaram - He was a farmers son and a great devotee of Vitthal.
Ramadasa (1608) -- He established ashramas all over India. It was from him that Shivaji received the inspiration to
overthrow Muslim authority and found the kingdom.
Gurunanak (1469-1539 AD) - He was a mystique of Nirguna School. But his followers branched off
from Hinduism and founded a separate religious system. He became a wandering preacher of a casteless, universal,
ethical, anti-ritualistic and monotheistic and highly spiritual religion.
Surdasa (1483-1513 AD) - He belongs to Saguna School. He was a disciple of famous religious teacher
Vallabhacharya. He sang the glory of Krishnas childhood and youth in his Sursagar.
Tulsi Das (1532-1623 AD)- He belongs to Saguna school of Hindu Mystics. He composed the
famous Ramacharitamanas.
Another popular movement, which arose around the 12 th century, was Lingayat or Vir Shaiva
movement. Its founder was Basava and his nephew Channabasava who lived at the courts of Kalchuri kings
of Karnataka.
In South, the Bhakti movement was led by a series of popular saints called Nayanars and Alvars. The chief
object of their worship was Shiva and Vishnu respectively. They spoke and wrote in Tamil and Telugu.
Adi Sankaracharya
The period alter Guptas is marked by revival and expansion of Hinduism and continued ecline of Jainism and
Buddhism. Al the intellectual level the most serious challenge To Buddhism and Jainism was posed by Sankara
who revived Hinduism. He is called Aquinas <>t Hinduism, since he reduced the apparently self- contradictory
passages of the Upanishads into one consistent system. He propounded the doctrine of Advaita (non-dualism).
According to this philosophy, there are various levels of truth. On a lower level, the world is a creation of Brahma.
But. on the highest level, the whole universe is Maya (illusion) The only ultimate reality was Brahma, the
impersonal world soul. Creation is his lila (eternal play). He is imminent and omniscient. According to Sankara.
God and the created world were one. The differences were apparent but not real and arose due to ignorance He
wrote excellent commentaries on Bhagwadgita and Upanishads. After his death 4 mathas were established in
Sringeri (Karnataka), Dwaraka (Gujarat). Puri (Orissa) and Badrinath in the Himalayas

Hindu Religious Ideas

Vishishtadvaita of Nimbark-acharya - Radha is the power
Ramanuja-charya - According to this of Krishna, there is
It means qualified dualistic monoism no difference
monoism. The Brahma really between him and
ultimate reality transformed himself Radha. Although
according to it is into the world and infinite he
Brahma (God) who souls, which are real incarnates in form
is imminent in and distinct and of finite mortals and
matter and different from God, is subject to love.
individual souls and but cannot exist Bhakti or devotion
controls them from without its support. is only means of
within. Suddhadvaita of liberation.
Sivadvaita of Vallabha-charya - Chaitanya spread
Srikanthacharya- Vallabhas the message that
He propounded the philosophy is known Raag Marg or path
view that Shiva as Pushtimarga (the of spontaneous love
endowed with path of grace) and was the best for
Shakti is ultimate his school by the salvation.
Brahma who name of
pervades the Rudrasampradaya.
universe and exists Brahma is identified
beyond it. with Sri Krishna.
Dvaita of Salvation is through
Madhavachaiya - Sneha (deep-rooted
According to this and all surpassing
dualism the world is love for God).
not an illusion but Achintyabhedavada
reality full of real of Chaitanya god
distinctions. God, according to
matter and soul are Chaitanya is
all unique in their Krishna. He is
nature and are infinite life and bliss
irreducible to each He is full of infinite
other. power and
Dvaitadvaita of consciousness.
Sufism
Those saints among the Muslims who advocated a life of purity and renunciation were called Sufis. Another
view is that the word Sufi came out of the word Sooph meaning wool.
Sufism sprang from the doctrine of Wahadat-ul wajud or unity of being. This doctrine was propounded by lbn-
Ul-Arabi(1165-1240AD).

One of the earliest Sufis was a woman saint Rabia of Basra who laid great emphasis on love as bond between
god and individual soul
The Sufis were organized in 12 order or Sitsilas. The silsilas were generally led by a prominent mystic who
lived in Khanqah along with his disciples.
The link between the teacher or Pir and his disciple or Murid was a vital part-of Sufi system. Every Pir
nominated a successor or Walt to carry out work.
The Sufi orders are widely divided into two - Ba-sahara that is those who followed the Islamic law and Be-
Sahara that is those, who were not bound by it. 01 the Be-sahara movement only two acquired significant
influence. These were the Chisti and Suharwardi Silsilahs.
Chisti Silsila: The Chisti order was founded by Khwaja Abdal Chisti in Herat, it was brought
to India by Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chisti (1141- 1236). He arrived at Lahore in 1161 AD and settled at Ajmer
about 1206 AD. However, the most famous of Chisti saints were Nizamitddin Auliya and Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Delhi. Auliya was generally
known as Mahbub-i-llahi (beloved of God). They made themselves popular by adopting musical recitation called Sama to create mood of
nearness to god.
Suhrawardi Silsila: It was founded by Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi. The credit of organising it goes to Shaikh Bahauddin
Zakariya. Its main centre was Multan. Saints of this order had big Jagirs and had close contact with state.
Firdausi Silsila: Slunk Badruddin of SamarkfirstestablisheditinDelhi,butlater on it moved to Bihar and became the most influential
mystic older. Its most distinguished saint was Shaikh Shamasuddin Yahya Munair who believed in Pantheistic monoism.
Shattari Silsila: It was founded in India by Shah Abdullah Shattari. However it gained in popularity under Shaik
Muhammad Ghauth of Gwalior. Among his disciple were the famous musician
Tansen. The Shattari saints sought to synthesize Hindu and mystical Muslim thoughts to practice. Qadiri Silsila
Shah Niamatullah Qadri was probably the first notable saint of this order to enter India but it was Syed Muhammad Jilaui
who organised it on affective basis. Dara Shikoh. the eldest son of Shah Jahan was follower of this order.
Naqshbandi Silsila: This Silsila was introduced in India by Khwaja Baqi Billah during the later years of Akhars reign.
It attained a position of great importance in India under the leadership of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. He was opposed to
pantheistic philosophy wahadat-ul-wujud and propounded the theory of wahadal-ul- shudud
Mahdawi Movement: It was initiated by Syed Muhammad Mahadi of Jaunpur He concentrated his energies on
regeneration of people.
Raushaniyah Movement: The movement owed its origin to Miyan Bayazid Ansari a native of Jalandhar. He emphasised
inter organisation of religious riles and inspired his followers with the ideal of ascetic self-denial.
The Coming of the Mughals Babur (1484-1530)

Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, descended from his fathers side in the 5th generation from Timur. and through his mother in
the 15th generation from Chenghiz Khan. Reasons for his Indian expedition.
TheOttomans defeated the Safavids and the Uzbeks controlled Trans oxiana forcing Baburs imperial
impulses towards India.
Meagre income of Kabul
Desire to emulate Timur

Punjab was part of the Timurid province and hence was considered a legal partrimony of the Timurids
Apprehension of Uzbek attacks.
He was invited to attack India by Daulat Khan Lodi, Subedar of Punjab; Ibrahim Lodis uncle Alamkhan
Lodi and Rana Sanga.
He was successful in his 5th expedition. In the Battle of Panipat 20th April 1526. he finally defeated Ibrahim
Lodhi. Babur was the first one to entitle himself as the Padshah
Battle of Panipat (1526)- Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi
Battle of Khanwa (1527)- Babur defeated Rana Sanga
Battle of Chanderi(1528)- Babur defeated Medini Rai
He wrote Tuzuk-i-Baburi or Baburnama in Turkish. It was translated into Persian by Abdur Raltim Khan i-
Khanan. Other works include a Masnavi
Significance
After the Kushans, he was the first to bring Kabul and Kandahar into the Indian empire, which provided stability
since it was the staging post of invasions of India. This helped in promoting trade since these towns were the starting points of
caravans meant for China in the east & Mediterranean in the west. He smashed Lodi and Rajput power, destroying the
balance of power which paved the way for. an empire. New mode of warfare was introduced with combination of artillery
and cavalry. He restored the prestige of the crown after Feroze Shah Tughlaq.
Humayun (1530-40; 1555-56)

Campaigns 1530 Kalinjar : The Raja offered nominal submission.
1532 - Muhamud Lodi defeated at Daubrua. 1533 - Siege of Chunar. Slier Khan (later Slier Shah) offered nominal
submission by sending son Qutb Khan to Humayuns court.
Humayun then built Dinpanah at Delhi as his second capital.
Second siege of Chunar and then the march to Gaur which was slopped at Teliagarhi pass by Jalal Khan (Slier
Shahs son) in 1538. Occupied Gaui where Slier Shah had left wine, women and opium to delay Humayun
who renamed it Jannatabad (paradise). Hindal meanwhile assumed the crown at Agra.
1539: Battle of Chausa Buxar. Humayun was saved by Nizam, the water carrier (Bishti). 1540 Humayun was
again defeated by Sher Shah at Kanauj
He faced a formidable opponent in the Afghan, Sher Khan (Shah) who in
the successive battles of Chausa and Kannauj defeated Humayun and
forced him to flee India.
Humayun saw the death of Sher Shah as an opportunity to regain the throne. Humayun had
conquered Qandahar and re-established his control over Kabul with the help of the Safavid King of Persia. He could
now use Kabul as his base for campaigns into India.
His sister, Gulbadan Begum, wrote his biographyHumayunama.
Humayun died while climbing down the stairs of his library in 1556.
Sher Shah (1540-1545)

He was born to Hasan, (the Jagirdar of Kwaspur, Sahasram and Hajipur Tanda) as Farid. Ibrahim lodi transferred his fathers
Jagir to him. In 1527-28-he joined Baburs service and then returned to Bihar as deputy governor and guardian of the minor king
Jalal Khan Lohani. He aided Mahmud Lodi at Ghagra. 1530-he usurps throne as Hazarat-i-Ala. He gamed Chunar by
marrying the widow Lad Malika. Humayun besieged Chunar again, in 1539, he captured Chausa. He assumed the title
Slier Shah as emperor, in 1540 he annexed Kanauj and then Lahore. He died in 1545 while conquering Kalinjar.
Various Diwans
Wazarat-revenues and finance.
Ariz-military

Rasalatmuhtasib-correspondence.
Insha-dispatches.
Quza-justice.
Barid-intelligence.
Saman-Toy a\ household.
Administration
He continued the central machinery of administration which had developed during the Sultanate period. A
number of villages comprised of Pargana, which was under the charge of Shiqdar, who looked after the law
and order and general administration. The Munsif or Amil looked after the collection of land revenue.Above
the Pargana was the Shiq or Sarkar under the charge of the shiqdar-i-shiqdaran and munsif-i-munsifan. A number of
Sarkars were grouped into a province.
Justice
Civil cases of pargana were heard by Amin and criminal cases by a Qazi or Mir-i-Adal. He introduced the principle of
local responsibility for local crimes. Muqqadams were punished for failure to find culprits.
Revenue System
Land was measured using the Sikandari-gaz (a unit of measure introduced by Sikandar Lodi) One third of
the average was fixed as tax. The peasant was given a patta (title deed) and a qabulivat ( deed of agreement) which fixed
the peasants rights and taxes Zamindars were removed and the taxes were directly collected.
Customs
All internal customs and duties were abolished. Only 2 duties were levied.
Currency
He introduced the silver rupiya
Public works
Parana Qila was built along with Grand Trunk Road from Sonargaon (Bengal) to Attock (NWFP). He also built 17(H)
sarais (rest houses) which also served as dak chuukis.
Akbar (1556-1604)
Akbar was 14 veals old when he was crowned at Kalanaur in 1556 but he
could consolidate his position only after the second hunk of Panipat (5th
November 1556), fought against Mohammad Adil Surs Wazir
Vikramaditya (Hemu).
Between 1556-60. Akbar ruled under Bairam Khans regency.
Akbars earliest campaigns were against Durgawati of Garh-Katanga (Gond & Rajput principalities)
followed by Chittor (Rana Udai Singh); Ranthambor (Rao Surjan Hada).
The two powerful forts of RajasthanRanthambor and Chittor (guarded by Jaimal)were captured
by the Mughals.
Akbars deccan campaign began with the siege of Ahmednagar {defended by Chand Bibi).
Ahmednagar soon resurrected itself under the leadership of Malik Amber.
Akbars last campaign was against Asirgarh, resulting in the annexation of Khandesh( 1601). Akbar
conquered Kandahar in 1595.
Bharmal of Amber, followed by Jaiselmer and Bikaner established marital relationships with Akbar.

Bhagwan Das (5000/at) and Man Singh (7000 zat) enjoyed a privileged position in the Mughal court.
Akbar faced a rebellion in Gujarat in 1572. which was crushed and following which he built the Buland Darwaza at
Fatehpur Sikri.
Organization of the Government
Parganas and Sarkar continued as before. Chief officers of the Sarkar were Fauzdar and Amalguzar. the former being
in charge of law and order and the later responsible for the assessment and collection of the land revenue. The empire was divided
into Jagir. Khalisa and Inam. Akbar reorganized the central machinery of the administration on the basis of division of
power between the various departments.
Wazir- Head of the revenue department
Mir Bakshi - Head of the military department
Barids-Intelligence Officers
Waqia navis- Reporters
Mir saman- In charge of imperial household
Qazi- Head of the judicial department
Akbar divided the empire into 12 subas in 15X0. These were Bengal. Bihar. Allahbad. Awadh. Agra. Delhi.
Lahore. Multan. Kabul. Ajmer. Malwa. & Gujarat. A Subbahdar. diwan. bakshi. sadr, qazi. and a waqia- navis
were appointed each to of the provinces
Akbar's Religious Policies

He abolished Jaziya and pilgrimage tax and forcible conversion of
prisoners of war.
He built an Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri to discuss religious matters. He invited many distinguished persons.
To curb the dominance of Ulema. Akbar introduced a new Khutba. written by Faizi and proclaimed
Mahzarnama in 1579. which made him the final interpreter of Islamic law (Mujtahid Imam-i-Adil) in case of an)

controversies. It made him Amir ul Momin (leader of the faithful) and Amir-i-Adil (a just ruler).
His liberalism is reflected again in the pronouncement of Tauhid-i-Ilahi or Din-i-llahi. which propounded
Sufi divine monotheism.
Tenets of Din-i-llahi (1582)

It could be adopted on Sunday by performing paibos (The
emperor placed his feel on the head of the initiated). following
which Akbar gave Shat (formula)
The initiated had to express greeting in the form of Allah-o-Akbar and Jalle-Jalalhu a
He had to abstain from meat and give alms.
There were no scriptures and priests.
Tauhid-i-llahi had four grades of devotion in the ascending ordersacrifice of property, life, honor and religion.
Birbal. Abul Fazl and Faizi joined the order.
Badauni believed that Akbar was creating a new religion but contemporarv historians believe that he was only trying to
attain the status of Insaan-i-Kamil.
Akbar's Court
Todar Mai, Abul Fazl, Faizi, Birbal, Tansen, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Mullah do Pyaza and Man
Singh were gems of his court.
Akbar established the painting Karkhana, headed by Abdus Samad.
Ralph Fitch (1585) was the first Englishman to visit AkbarsCourt.
Abul Fazl wrote Akbarnama, the appendix of which was called Ain-i-Akbari. This section deals with the laws and
revenue system.
Jahangir (1605-27)
His wife, Nurjahan (daughter of Itimad-daulah) exercised tremendous influence over the state
affairs. She was made the official Padshah Begum.
Jahangir banned slaughter of animals on Sunday and Thursday.
He established Zanjir-i-Adal at Agra Fort for the seekers of royal justice.
Jahangir also married Jodha Bai of Marwar, and a Kachchwaha princes.
His son Khusrau, who received patronage of Guru Arjun Dev, revolted against Jahangir. The fifth Sikh Guru
Arjun Dev was later sentenced to death for his blessings to the rebel prince.
Khurram (Shahjahan) supported by his father-in-law, Asaf Khan, also revolted against Jahangir but the
two soon reconciled.
His military general, Mahabat Khan revolted and abducted him but Nurjahan saved him due to her
diplomatic efforts.
He was well read and wrote his memoirs Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in Persian.
On the refusal to pay the fine, Guru Arjuns son, Hargovind was imprisoned inthe fort of Gwalior.
Jahangir faced a formidable opponent in Malik Amber (an Abyssinian) in his expedition to
Ahmednagar. Shahjahans military capacity was proved during the expeditions undertaken during Jahangirs reign
and Ahmednagar was annexed (1601).
John Hawkins resided at Agra for two years (1609-11). He was given the mansab of 400.

Sir Thomas Roe (1615-18) was ambassador of James I.
Shahjahan (1628-58)
In 1612 he married Arzmand Banu Begum who became famous as Mumtaz Mahal
In 1632, he defeated Potugese and annexed Ahmednager in 1636
Shahjahans reign is described by French traveller Bernier and Tavernier and the Italian traveller Manucci. Peter Mundi
described the famine that occured during Shah Jahans time.
Shahjahan succeeded to the throne on the death of Jahangir in 1628. The first thing that he had to face
was revolts in Bundelkhand (Jujjhar Singh Bundela of Orchcha) and the Deccan (Khan-i-Jahan Lodi, the governor of
Deccan).
He sent his armies to Balkh and Badakshan in Central Asia in order to secure the defence of north-
western India. Shah Jahan who had recovered Kandahar (1638) from the Iranians but lost it again (1649) despite three
campaigns under Prince Murad, Aurangzeb and Dara.
The War of succession took a notorious turn during Shahjahans reign and his two daughters Jahan Ara and Roshan
Ara supported his two sons. Dara and Aurangzeb, respectively.
Aurangzeb (1658-1707)
He defeated Dara (1659).
He took the title of Alamgir in 1659.
He was called as Zinda Pir, the living saint.
In 1662, Mir Jumla, Aurangzebs ablest general led the expedition against Ahoms.
He forbade inscription of Kalma on the coins.
He ended the celebration of Navroz festival.
Mutasib (regulator of moral conduct) were appointed.
He forbade music in the court.
He ended Jarokha darshan, use of almanacs and weighing of the emperor.
Aurenzeb compiled Fatwa-i-Alamgri.
Jaziya was re-introduced. However, the Hindu mansabdars maintained their high proportion
during his rule.
The Mughal conquests reached a climax during his reign, as Bijapur and Golconda were annexed
in 1686 and 1687, respectively.
Revolts under Aurangzeb

Aurangzebs failure to understand the root causes and nature of the rise of Marathas, gave him
a formidable opponent, Shivaji.
The first anti- imperial reaction took place in the form of Jai \ Rebellion under Gokla. Rajaram
and Chinaman Satnamis.
First Afghan rebellon was by Yusufshahi tribes of Afghanistan of Roshnai sect.
Second Afghan rebellion led by Ajmal Khan.
During his reign, ninth Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed.

Mughal State and Architecture

Mughal Architecture
Babar
Babars built two mosques one at Kabulibagh in Panipat and the other at Sambhal in Rohilkhand.
Humayun
Humayun laid the foundation of the city Din Panah at Delhi.
Humayuns tomb is called the proto type of Taj Mahal. It has a double dome of marble, while the central dome
is octagonal. It was built by his widow Haji Begum.
The garden and the gateway are to be found in all Mughal-style tombs.
Akbar
Buildings built by Akbar are Agra Fort (1565), Lahore Palace (1572), Fatehpur Sikri, Buland Darwaza and
Allahabad Fort (1583).
The architecture at Fatehpur Sikri is an excellent blending of Persian, Central Asian and various Indian (Bengal
and Gujarat) styles . It is also known as Epic poem in red sandstone. Indian tradition includes deep eaves, balconies
and Kiosks. Central Asian Style is evident in the use of glazed blue tiles.
Two unusual buildings at Fatehpur Sikri are Panch Mahal & Diwan-i-Khas
The Panch Mahal has the plan of Buddhist Vihara.
The Jodhabais Palace, Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas are Indian in their plan.
Buland Darwaja (built after Gujarat victory), formed the main entrance to Fatehpur Sikri. It is built in the Iranian
style of half dome portal.
Salim Chistis tomb (redone in Marble by Jahangir is the first Mughal building in Pure marble), palaces of
Birbal, Anup Talao, Mariyam Mahal are also inside the Fatehpur Sikri.
He built the Jahangiri Mahal in Agra fort according to Hindu design based on Man Mandir.
Haroon MinorTower built by Akbar in memory of his elephant (Haroon).
He also began to build his own tomb at Sikandara which, was later completed by Jahangir.
Jahangir
The style of architecture used by both Jahangir and Shahjahan is known as Indo Persian. Important features of
this style are Curved lines, Bulbous dome, foliated arches vigorous use of marble instead of red sand stone and use of
pietre dura for decorative purposes.
Nurjahan built Itimad-ud-Daulas (another name of Mirza Ghiyas Beg) marble tomb at Agra, which is
noticeable for the first use of pietra dura (floral designs made up of semiprecious stones) technique.
He built Moti Masjid in Lcdwre and his own mausoleum at Shahdara (Lahore).
He also changed the plan of Akbars tomb at Sikandara. It is an unusual tomb as it is not surmounted by a dome
and built on the model of a Buddhist Pagoda.
Shahajahan
Mosque building activity reached its climax in Taj Mahal. He also built the Jama Masjid (sand stone).
Some of the important building built by Shahajahan at agra are Moti Masjid (pniy mosque of marble) in Agra,
Khaas Mahal, Musamman Bun (Jasmine Palace where he spent his last years in captivity ) and Sheesh Mahal
with mosaic glasses on walls and ceilings.
Many stone buildings were destroyed by him and replaced by marble.
He laid the foundations of Shahjahanabad in 1637 where he built the Red Fort and Taqt-i-taus (Peacock

throne).
Most richly ornamented building in Red Fort was the Diwan-i-Khas or Rang Mahal
He laid the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore.
Shahjahan built Nahar-i-Fuiz.
Aurangzeb
Only building built by Aurangzeb in the Red Fort is Moti Masjid.
Only monument associated with Aurangzeb is Bibi ka Makbara which is the tomb of his wife Rabbia-ud-daura
in Aurangabad.
He also built the Badshahi mosque in Lahore.
Mughal Painting
The Mughals introduced new themes depicting the conn, battle scenes and the chase and added new
colours (Peacock blue and Indian red).
Humayun had taken into his service two master painters Mir Syed Ali and Abdus Samad.
Jaswant and Dasawan were two famous painters of Akbars court.
Apart from illustrating Persian books of fables (Hamzanama), the painters illustrated
Razamnama (Mahabharta) and Akbaranama.
Jahangir claims that he could distinguish (he work of each artistina picture.
Under Akbar, European painting was introduced at the court by the Portuguese priests.
Regional Architecture
Jaunpur
Tughlaq influence on the Sharqi architecture is seen in the use of arch and beam, and battering walls.
Propylons (huge recessed arch framed by tapering square minars divided into registers) have been used in
Atala Masjid (Ibrahim Shah) and Jami Masjid (Hussain Shah).
Malwa
It is notable for the excellent combination of arch and lintel, construction of stairs of flight, the use of coloured
tiles and lofty plinth for the buildings.
Malwa boasts of Hussain Shahs tomb, Jami Masjid. Jahaz Mandal, Hindola Mahal and the palaces of Baa:
Bahadur and Rupmati.
In Chanderi, Shahzadi Ka Rauza, Kushak Mahal and the Badal Mahal are located.
Bengal
Adina Masjid built by Sikandar Shah and the Eklakhi tomb of Mahmud Shah were constructed. Some other
monuments are Dakhil Darwaza, Tantipura Masjid, the Bara Sona Masjid etc.
Kashmir
Wood was the principle building material and the roofs are pyramidal.
Kashmir has two buildings of prominence: Mir Sajjid Ali Hamadanis Mosque and Jami Masjid of
Sikandar Shah.
Gujarat

Notable monuments are Jami Masjid of Ahmedabad, Nagina Masjid of Champaner and the cities of
Mahmudabad and Mustafabad founded by Mohammed Beghara.
Sur Architecture
Sur Architecture forms the climax of Pre Mughal style of Architecture.
Surs buit tombs at Sasaram which were octagonal but most outstanding was Shei Shahs Mausoleum built on a
huge plinth. amidst a lake and is multi storeyed.
He also built the Parana Qila whose surviving monuments are Qila-i-Kuhna Masjid and the Sher Mandal
library.
Mughal State and Administration

Provincial Administration
Mughal empire was divided into subas which was further subdivided into sarkar. parganas and villages.
However, it also had other territorial units as Khalisa, (royal land), Jagirs (autonomous rajas) and Inams (gifted lands, mainly
waste lands).
There were 15 territorial units (subas) during Akbars reign, which later increased it) 20 under
Aurangzebs reign.
Province (Suba)
SipahsalarThe Head Executive(under Akbar and later he was known Nizam or Subedar)
DiwanIncharge of revenue department
BakshiIncharge of military dept.
District/Sarakar
FauzdarAdministrative head
Amal/AmalguzarRevenue collection
KotwalMaintenance of law and order, trial of criminal cases and price regulation.
Pargana
ShiqdarAdministrative head combined in himself the duties of fauzdar and kotwal
Amin, QanungoRevenue officials
Village
MuqaddamHeadman
PatwariAccountant
ChowkidarWatchman
Mansabdari System
1. Mansabdari system which was introduced in 1595-96, was a combined status, showing a nobles civil and
military capacity.
2. Twin ranks Zat and Sawar, were allotted. The former indicated a nobles personal status, while the latter, the
number of troops he had to maintain.
3. Mansabdari had three scale gradation, viz
Mansabdar (500 zat and below)
Amir (between 500-2500 zat)
Amir-i-Umda (2500 zat and above)
4. The salary of the Mansabdar was fixed on a Month Scale system.
During Jahangirs reign, a du aspa siha aspa system was introduced through which, a nobles sawar rank
could he increased without affecting his zat.

5. Mansab was not an hereditary system. Mansabdars were paid through revenue assignments (jagirs).
State and Economy

Apart from land revenue (charged 1/3 to ) the state being a military state, also depended upon benefits of
conquest. However, much of its revenue was wasted in ostentation and wars
The revenue was collected by state machinery in alliance with local Zamindars who got their due share.
There were several methods of revenue collection in practice viz. Kankut (estimate). Rai (yield per unit
area) and zabt (based on the yields of crops)..
Zabti: A standardized method of collection based on rates of crops determined
alter 10 years assessment Todar Mai pioneered it. It required annual
measurement of land and where it was not possible Nasaq was prevalent.
Another method, muqtai was prevalent in Bengal.
GhallaBaqshi: Assesment by the division of crops (in Thatta, Kabul and Kashmir).
Jagirdari system was the assignment of land in proportion to a jagirdars salary. Hence. Every
Mansabdar was entitled to a jagir if he was not paid in cash. A jagir could be transfered and the jagirdar
had no police powers over the land
Madad-i-maash or Suyur ghal/inam were land grants to people of favour/religious
assignment.
Zamindars were hereditary claimants in every category of land revenue assignment. They collected
revenue on behalf of the state and received assistance callednankarorMalikana
.
Mughal Administration
Wazir Akbar abolished the post of all-powerful Wazir. He became the
head of the revenue department Also known as Diwan-i-ala.
Diwan Responsible for all income and expenditure and had control over
Khalisa and jagir land.
Mir Bakshi Headed military department, nobility, information and intelligence
agencies.
Mir Soman Incharge of Imperial household and Karkhanas.
Diwan-i-Bayutat Maintained roads, government buildings etc. and worked under
Mir Saman.
Diwan-i-Bayutat Maintained roads, government buildings etc. and worked under
Mir Saman.
Sadr us Sadr Incharge of charitable and religious endowments
Qazi id Quzat Headed the Judiciary department
Muhtasib Censor of Public Morals.
Later Mughals
Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712)
Aurangzeb died in 1707. A war of succession started amongst his three surviving sons viz. Muazzam-the
governor of Kabul, Azam-the governor of Gujarat and Kam Baksh-The governor of Bijapur. Muazzam defeated

Azam and Kam Baksh and ascended the Mughal throne with the title of Bahadur .Shah.
He pursued pacifist policy and was therefore also called Shah Bekhaber.
P He also assumed the title of Shah Alam I.
P He made peace with Guru Gobind Singh and Chatrasal. He granted Sardeshmukhi to Marathas and also
released Shahu.
P He forced Ajit Singh to submit but later in 1709. recognised him as the Rana Marwar.
P He defeated Banda Bahadur at Longarh and reoccupied Sirhird in 1711
Jahandar Shah (1712-13) ascended the throne with the aid of Zulfikhar Khan. His
nephew, Farrukh Siyar, defeated him. He abolished Jiziya .
Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719) ascended the throne with the help of Sayyid brothers.
Abdullah Khan and Hussain Khan who were Wazir and Mir Bakshi respectively Farrukh Siyar was killed by the
Sayyid brothers in 1719. Banda Bahadur was captured at Gurudaspur and executed.
Mohammad Shah (1719-48). During his reign Nadir Shah raided India and took
away the peacock throne and the Kohinoor diamond.
He was a pleasure loving king and was nick named Rangeela.
Nizam ul mulk was appointed Wazir in 1722 but he relinquished the post and marched to the Deccan to found the state
of Hyderabad.
Bengal acquired virtual independence during the governorship of Murshid Quli Khan.
Saddat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk who was appointed governor of Awadh by him laid down the foundation of the
autonomous state.
Ahmed Shahs (1748-1754) During his reign, Ahmed Shah Abdali(one of the ablest
generals of Nadir Shah) marched towards Delhi And the Mughals ceded Punjab and Multan.
Alamgir(l754-l759) During his reign Ahmed Shah Abdali occupied Delhi. Later,
Delhi was also plundered by the Marathas.
Shah Alam II (1759-1806) During his reign Najib Khan Rohilla became very powerful
in Delhi so much so that Shah Alam II could not enter Delhi. The Battle of Buxar (1764) was fought during his reign.
Akbar Shah II (1806-37), During his reign Lord Hastings ceased to accept the
sovereignty of Mughals and claimed an equal status.
BahadurShah II (1837-1862), The last Mughal king , who was confined by the
British to the Red Fort. During the revolt of 1857 he was proclaimed the Emperor by the rebellions. He was deported to
Rangoon following the 1857 rebellion.
Vijaynagar Empire and the Bahamani

Kingdoms
Vijaynagar (c. 1350 - 1564)
Vijaynagar Kingdom and the city was founded by Harihar-l and Bukka-1 (sons of Sangama) who
were feudatories of Kakatiyas and later became ministers in the court of Kampili.
Harihar and Bukka were brought to the centre by Mohammed bin Tughlaq, converted to
Islam and were sent to south again to control rebellion but on the instance of Vidyaranya, they established
Vijaynagar Kingdom in 1336 AD.
Vijaynagars arch rival were Bahmani Sultans with whom they fought over Tungabhadra
doab(between Krishna & Tungabhadra). Krishna-Godavari delta (Raichur) and Marathwada.
Vijaynagar-Bahamani contest was started by Bukka I in 1367 when he attacked the Bahmani

fortress at Mudkal. Il was a war state its resources being devoted to military purposes.
Vijayanagar Dynasties
Dynasty Founder Period
Sangama Harihar and Bukka 1336-1485
Saluva Saluva Narsimha 1485-1505
Tuvalu Veer Narsimha 1503-1570
Aravidu Tirumala 1570- mid 17th c
Famous Travellers to Vijayanagar Kingdom

Abu Abdullah/Ibn Batuta: A Moroccan traveller. Left account of Harihara Is reign in his book Rehla also called
Tuhfat-un-Nuzzar ft Gharaib-ul-Amsar Wa Ajaib-ul-Assar.
Nicolo de Conti: A Italian traveller who visited during the time of Deva Raya I. Left an account in Travels of
Nicolo Conti.
Abdur Razzak: Ambassador of Shah Rukh of Samarqand at the Court of the Zamorin of Calicut, He gives an
account of the reign of Devaraya 11. in his Matla us Sadain Wa Majma id Bahrain. Athanasius Nikitin: A Russian merchant who
described the conditions of the Bahamani kingdom under Muhammad 111 in his Voyage to India.
Ludvico de Vorthema: An Italian merchant who visited India in 1502-1508 and left his memoirs in Travels in
Egypt, India.
Syria etc.
Duarte Barbosa (1500-1516): A Portugese He has given a vivid account of the Vijayanagar government under

Krishna Deva Raya in his famous book - An Account of Countries bordering the Indian Ocean and their Inhabitants
Dominigas Paes: Portugese who spent a number of years at Krishna Devas court has given a glowing account of his personality.
Fernao Nuniz: A Portugese writer of 16th century spent three years in Vijayanagar. (1535-37).
Vijayanagar Coins
The Vijayanagar rulers issued gold coins called Varahas or Pagodas. (Varaha because the most common
symbol was the Varaha-the boar incarnation of Vishnu). These help us know that they were Vishnu worshippers.
Impressions found on Vijayanagar coins include the bull, elephant and various Hindu deities and the Gandahherunda (a
double headed eagle holding an elephant in its beaks and claws). On the reverse they contain the kings name in Nagari or
Kannada script. Harihara 1 and Bukka I employed the Hanuman symbol, while Krishnadeva Raya had Venkatesh
and Balkrishna, Achutya Raya used Garuda, while Tirumala maintained the original Varaha. Deva Raya II is
described as Gajabentakara.
The Varaha was the main coin, of gold with slight copper content. The Perm was half a varaha. The Fanani was
one tenth a Perta. All were of gold mixed with alloy, with the Fanam as the most useful. Tar was a silver coin which was a
sixth of the Fanam. The Jital was a copper coin worth a third of the Tar.
Vijaynagar Local Government

The country was divided into kuttams; a kutiam into nodus; a nadu into dimhadin melagram, below this came
the agaram. A province in Karnataka was divided into venthes; a venthe into simes; a simi into sthalas: and a sthala into
valitas.
The Auagar system was an important feature of the village organistion. Body of twelve functionaries,
known as ayagars, conducted every village affair. They were granted tax free lands manyoms, which they
were to enjoy in perpetuity. In addition to land tax there were various other taxes such as properly lax, tax on sale of produce
(rate varied according to the type of soil, crop, method of irrigation etc), profession taxes, military contribution, taxes on
marriage etc.
Vijaynagar Architecture
The Vijayanagara rulers produced a new style of architecture called as Provida style. The large number and
prominence of pillars and piers are some of the distinct features. Horse was the most common animal on the pillars.
Another important feature was the Mandapa or open pavittion with a raised platform, meant For seating deities.
Important temples were Vithatswami and Hazara temples at Hampi, Tadapatri and Parvati temples at
Chidambaram and Varadrajcf and Ekambarnatha temples at Kanchipuram.
The Vijaynagar rulers started the practice of inscribing the stories of the Ramavana and the Mahabharata on
the walls of the various temples. Hazara temple and Vithalswami temples are examples of this / type of
wall inscription.

Bahmani Kingdoms
Kingdom Year Founder Dynasty Annexation
Beirr 1484 Fataullah Imad Shah [mad Shahi 1574
(Ahmednagar)
Bijapur 1489 Yusuf Adil Khan Adil Shahi
!686(Aurangzeb)
Ahmadnagar 1490 Malik Ahmad Nizam Shahi l633(Shahjahah)
Golkonda 1512/1581 Quli Shah Qutab Shahi l687(Aurangzeb)
Bedar 1526-27 Amir Ali Band Band Shahi 16IS(Bijapur)
Vijaynagar Trade
Accounts of foreigners like Nuni:, & Paes indicate a dependence on foreign trade for maintenance of the two most important
bases contributing to the might of military strength iW the Vijayanagara empire; its cavalry and its firearms. Thus the success
of the Vijayanagara state depended directly upon its contacts with Muslim & Portuguese traders. The trade in
warhorses remained securely in the hands of foreigners. The Vijayanagara emperors monopolized the trade so thai they could
assign the best cavalry to warriors. Artillery and musket became important parts of Vijayanagara war machine.
Vijaynagar Society
Only empire in Medieval India which employed women in the state services. Women even went to battles.Only state that
promoted widow remarriage. Status of women improved during this time.
Important Terms:
Viprulu: Brahmins (teachers and preisls)
Rajutu: Kshatriya
Natavajativaru: Shudras
Vipravinoilins: Artisans
Kaikollas: Weavers
Tottiyans or Kambalattars: Shephards Sahaguman: Sati Besabaga: Forced labour under begara.
Bahmani Kingdom
Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (1347-58): He also known as Hasan Gangu and whose original name was Ismail
Mukh, founded the Bahmani kingdom with us capital at Gulbarga (First capital). There were a total of fourteen Bahmani
Sultans.
Taj-ud-din Firoz Shah (1397-1422):
The Greatest among them all. He was determined to make Deccan the cultural centre of India. Inducted large number of Hindus
in the administration on large scale. Paid much attention to the pons of his Kingdom Chaul & Dabhol which attracted trade ships
from Persian Gulf & Red Sea.
Ahmad Shah Wali (1422-35): transferred the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar

Mahmud Gawan
He was the Prime Minister or the Peshwa of Muhammad Shall III between 1463-81. The
Bahmani kingdom saw a resurgence under his guidance. His military conquests included
Konkan. Goa and the Krishna-Godavari delta. He divided the kingdom into eight tarafs , each
governed by a tarafdar. In every province . Khalisa (tract of land) was set apart for the
expenses of the Sultan .
The discontented nobles, particularly the Deccan(also called Habshis) nobles who resented
the rise ofAfaqis (also called gharibs) or new arrivals from West Asia organised a
conspiracy against Gawan (an Afaqi) and had him executed in 1482. After Gawans
execution, the Bahmani kingdom began to decline and disintegrate .
Break up of the Bahmani Kingdom

Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagur (1490-1633): Founder of city of Ahmednagar and the Kingdom was
Ahmad Nizam Shah. Later conquered and annexed by Shah Jahan (1633).
Adil Shahis of Bijapur (1490-1686): Founded by Yusuf Adil Shah. Greatest ruler was Ibrahim Adil Shah.
Introduced Dakhini in place of Persian as court language. Gol Gumbaz, was built by Muhammad Adil Shah. It is
also famous for the so-called Wispering Gallery. Bijapur was later conquered and annexed by Aurangzeb
(1687).
Imad Shahis of Berar (1490-1574): Founded by Fatullah Khan lmad-ul-mulk with Daulatabad as capital.
Later it was conquered and annexed by one of the Nizam Shahi rulers of Ahmadnagur.
Qutub Shahis of Golconda (1518-1687): Founded by Quli Qutub Shah (1518-43) who built the famous
Golconda fort and made it his capital. Another Qutub Shahi ruler, Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah, was the greatest of
all. and it was he who founded the city of Hyderabad (originally known as Bhagyanagar after the name of the
Sultans favourite, Bhagyamati) and he also built the famous Charminar. Most important port of QutubShahi
Kingdom was Masulipatnam. The kingdom was later annexed by Aurangzeb (1687).
Barid Shahis of Bidar (1528-1619): Founded by Ali Barid. It was later annexed
by the Adil Shahis of Bijapur.
The Advent of the Europeans

Portuguese
Discovery of the New Sea Route The Cape route, was discovered from Europe to India by Vasco da Gama. He reached
the port of Calicut on the May 17. 1498, and was received by the Hindu ruler of Calicut (known by the title of Zamorin).
This led to the establishment of trading stations at Calicut, Cochin and Cannanore. Cochin was the early capital of the
Portuguese in India. Utter Goa replaced it.
Alfonso d' Albuquerque arrived in India in 1503 as the governor of the Portuguese in India in 1509 (The first governor
being Francisco de Almeida between 1505-09). He captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur in 1510.
Other Governors
Nino da Cunha (1529-38) transferred his capital from Cochin to Goa (1530) and acquired Diu and Bassein (1534) from
Bahadur Shah of Gujarat

Martin Alfonso de Souza (1542-45) the famous Jesuit saint Franrisco Xavier arrive in India with him
Dutch
Formation of the Company in March. 1602, by a charter of the Dutch parliament the Dutch East India Company was
formed with powers to make wars, conclude treaties, acquire territories and build for tresses.
Establishment of Factories The Dutch set up factories at Masulipatam (1605). Pulicat (1610)-. Surat (1616),
Bimilipatam( 1641), K.arikal( 1645), Chinsura (1653). Kasimbuzar.Baranagore, Patna. Balasore. Negapatam(all in 1658)
and Cochin (1663).
The Dutch replaced the the Portuguese as the most dominant power in European trade with the East, including India.
Pulicat was their main centre in India till 1690, after which Negapatam replaced it.
The Dutch conceded to English after their defeat in the battle of Bedera in 1759.

English
Before the East India Company established trade in the India. John Mildenhall a merchant adventurer, was
the first Englishman who arrived in India in 1599 by the over land route, ostensibly for the purpose of trade with
Indian merchants.
Formation of the Company Popularly known as the English East India Company. it was formed by a group of
merchants known as the Merchant Adventures in 1599.
Decision to open a factory at Surat
Following the decision of the East India Company to open a factory at Surat (1608).
Captain Hawkins arrived at Jahangirs court (1609) to seek permission. A farman was issued by Jahangir permitting the
English to build a factory at Surat (1613).
Sir Thomas Roe came to India as ambassador of James I to Jahangirs court in 1615 to obtain the permission to trade
and erect factories indifferent parts of theempire.
Danish
The Danes formed an East India Company and arrived in India in 1616. They established settlements at
Tranquebar (in Tamil Nadu) in 1620 and at Serampore (Bengal) in 1676. Serampore was their headquarters in India.
They were forced to sell all their settlements in India to the British in 1854

French
The French East India Company was formed by Colbert understate patronage in 1664. The first French
factory was established at Surat by Francois Caron in I66H. A factory at Masulipatam was set up in 1669.
The French power in India was revived tinder Lenoir and Dumas (governors) between 1720 and
1742. They occupied Mahe in the Malabar. Yanam in Coromandal and Karikal in Tamil Nadu (1739).
The arrival of Dupleix as French governor in India in 1742 saw the beginning of Anglo-
French conflict (Carnatic wars) resulting in their final defeat in India
Establishment of Factories
The East India Company acquired Bombay from Charles II on lease. Gerald Aungier was its first governor from 1669
to 1677. The first factory was built at Surat in (160S). Later, Surat was replaced by Bombay as the headquarters of the Company
on the west coast in 1687.
In 1639 Francis Day obtained the site of Madras from the Raja of Chandragiri with permission to build a fortified factory,
which was named Fort St. George. Madras soon replaced Masulipatam as the headquarters of the English on the Coromandal
coast
In 1690 Job Charnock established a factory at Sutanuti and the zamindari of the three villages of Sutanuti, Kalikata and
Govindpur was acquired by the British (1698). These villages later grew into the city of Calcutta. The factory at Sutanuti was fortified in 1696 and this
new fortified settlement was named fort William in 1700.
In 1694. the British Parliament passed a resolution giving equal rights to all Englishmen to trade in the East. A new
rival company, known as the English Company of Merchants Trading to the East Indies (1698) was formed
The final amalgamation of the company came in I 708 under the title ofThe United Company of Merchants of England
Trading to the East Indies. This new company continued its existence till 1858.
The Maratha Age

Shivaji (1627-80)
Born at Shivneri to Shahji Bhonsle and Jija Bai. he inherited the Jagir o( Poona from his lather ill 1637. After the
death of his guardian. Dadaji Kondadev, in 1647, he assumed full charge of his jagir. Before that, at the age of
18. he conquered Torna .built forts at Raigarh & Pratapgarh (1645-47).
Afzal Khan was deputed by the Adil Shah ruler to punish Shivaji, but the later murdered Afzal in 1659.
Later Shaista Khan, governor of Deccan, was deputed by Aurangazeb to put down the rising power of Shivaji
in 1660. Shivaji lost Poona and suffered several defeats till he made a bold attack on Shaistas military camp and
plundered Surat (1664) and later Ahmadnagar.
Raja Jai Singh of Amber was then appointed by Aurangazeb to put down Shivaji (1665) and Jai Singh succeeded

in besieging Shivaji in the fort of Purandhar. Consequently the treaty of Purandhar (1665) was signed according
to which Shivaji ceded some forts to the Mughals and pay a visit to the Mughal court at Agra
In 1674 he was coronated at Raigarh and assumed the title of Haindava Dharmodharak (Protector of Hinduism).
Shivaji died in 1680.
Shivajis Administration
Shivaji divided his territory under his rule (swaraj) into three provinces. each under a viceroy .
Provinces were divided into prams which were subdivided into parganas or tarafs .The lowest unit was
village headed by Headman or Patel.
Shivaji was helped by the ashtapradhan (eight ministers) which was un-like a council of ministers, for
there was no collective responsibility; each minister was directly responsible to Shivaji.
Most of the administrative reforms of Shivaji were based on Malik Ambars (Ahmadnagar)
reforms.
Shivajis Revenue Administration

Assessment of land revenue was based on measurement. The kathi of Ambar was adopted as the unit of
measurement. Share of the state was fixed at two-fifths of the gross produce
Chauth was one-fourth of the land revenue paid to the Marathas so as not be subjected to Maratha raids.
Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10 per cent on those lands of Maharashtra over which the Marathas
claimed hereditary rights, but which formed part of the Mughal Empire.

Successors of Shivaji
Sambhaji (1680-89): Sambhaji, the elder son, defeated Rajaram, the younger son of Shivaji, in the war of
succession. He provided protection and support to Akbar, the rebellious son of Aurangzeb. He was captured
at Sangamesvar by a Mughal noble and executed.
Rajaram (1689-1700): He succeeded the throne with the help of the ministers at Raigarh. He fled
from Raigarh to Jinji in 1689 due to a Mughal invasion in which Raigarh was captured along with Sambhajis
wife and son (Shahu) by the Mughals. Rajaram died at Satara, which had become the capital alter
the fall of Jinji to Mughals in 1698. Rajarams created the new post of pratinidhi, thus taking the total number of
ministers to nine.
Sivaji II and Tarabai (1700-1707): Rajaram was succeeded by his minor son Sivaji II under the guardianship
of his mother Tarabai.
Shahu (1707-1749): Shahu was released by the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah. Tarabais army was
defeated by Shahu at the battle of Khed (1700) and Shahu occupied Satara. But the southern part of the
Maratha kingdom with its capital at Kolhapur continued to be under the control of the descendants of Rajaram
(Shivaji II and later Sambhaji II). Shahus reign saw the rise of Peshwas and transformation of the Maratha
kingdom into an empire based on the principle of confederacy.
Shivaji's Ashtapradhan
They included:
PeshwaAlso called Mukhya Pradhan Finance and general administration; later he became Prime Minister
and assumed great importance.
Sar-i-NaubatSenapati or military commander: this was only an honorary post with no real military
powers.
Majumdar or AinatyaAccountant general during the rule of the Peshwas; he later became revenue and
finance minister.
Waqenavis Intelligence, posts and household affairs.
Surunavis or SachivAlso called chitnis, looked after correspondence.
Dabir or Suriiania Master of ceremonies.
Nyayadhish Justice.
Pandit Rao Charities and religious affairs.
The Peshwas (1713-1818)

Balaji Viswanath (1713-20): He began his career as a small revenue official and was given the title of Sena Karte (marker
of the army) by Shahu in 1708. He became Peshwa in 1713 and made the post the most important and powerful as well as
hereditary. He played a crucial role the final victory of Shahu by winning over almost all the Maratha sardars to the side of Shahu. lie
concluded an agreement with the Say y id brothers (1719) by which the Mughal emperor (Farukh Siyar) recognised Shahu as the
king of the swarajya.

Baji Rao 1 (1720-40): Baji Rao. the eldest son of Balaji Viswanath. succeeded him as Peshwa at the young age of 20. I le
was considered the greatest exponent of guerrilla tactics alter Shivaji and Maratha power reached its zenith under him.
Under him several Maratha families became prominent and got themselves entrenched in different parts of India(a) the
Gaekwad at Baroda. lb) the Bhonsles at Nagpur, the Holkars at Indore, (d.) the Scindias at Gwalior and (e) the Peshwas
at Poona.
After defeating and expelling the Siddhis of Janjira from the mainland (1722). he conquered Bassein and Salsetle
from the Portuguese ( 1733). lie also defeated the Nizam ul-Mulk near Bhopal and concluded the treaty of Durai Sarai by which
he got Malwa and Bundelkhand from the latter (1737). lie led innumerable successful expeditions into north India to weaken the
Mughal empire and to make the Marathas the supreme power in India. lie said: let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree and the
branches will fall of themselves.
Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61): Popularly known as Nana Saheb, he succeeded his lather at the age of 20. After the
death of Shahu (I 749). the management of all state affairs was left in his hands. In an agreement with the Mughal
emperor (Ahmad Shah), the Peshwa (1752) was to protect the Mughal Empire from internal and external (Ahmad
Shah Abdali) enemies in return for the chauth.
The battle of Panipat (January 14. 1761 ) resulted in the defeat of the Marathas by Ahmad Shah Abdali and the death of
Viswas Rao (son of Nana Saheb). Nana Saheb died in 1761.
Madhav Rao (1761-72). Narayana Rao (1772-73). Sawai Madhav Rao (I 77.3-95). and Baji Rao (1795-1 81 8)
succeeded him
Ascendanof the British

Anglo Mysore Wars
First War (1766-69) Haider Ali defeated the British. Treaty of Madras signed
Second War (1780-84). Warren Hastings attacked French port Mahe. which was in Hyder Alis
territory.
Hyder Ali led a joint front with Nizam and Marathas and captured Arcot.

In 1781. Hyder Ali was defeated at Porto Novo by Eyre Coot.

Treaty of Mangalore (1784) was signed by Tipu Sultan.
Third War (1789-92). Marathas and Nizam aided the British. Cornwallis captured Bangalore.
By Treaty of Seringapatnam, Tipu ceded half of histerritories.
Fourth War (1799). ford Wellesley attacked and Tipu died.
Anglo Sikh Wars

Began after the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839.
First War (1845-46). Sikhs were defeated in all the four battles at Mudki. Feroz Shah, Aliwal and
Sobraon. Treaty of Lahore ended the War. Sir Henry Lawerence became the first resident.
Second War (1948-49/. Dalhausie annexed Punjab. Sir John Lawerence became the first Chief
Commissioner of the Punjab.
The East India Company and the Bengal Nawabs

Siraj ud Daula (1756-57)
He seiged the English factory at Kasimbazar. On 20th June 1756, Fort William
surrendered hut Robert Clive recovered Calcutta.
On 2nd January 1757, Treaty of Alinagar was signed, whereby Siraj conceded
practically all the
demands. British then captured Chandernagore. the French settlement, on March
1757.
Battle of Plassey was fought on 23 June 1757. Owing to the conspiracy. the Nawab was
defeated.
The following betrayed the Nawab:
Mir ./afarMir Bakshi
ManikchandOfficer in charge of
Calcutta
AminchandRich Sikh merchant
Jagat SethBiggest banker of
Bengal.
Khadim Khan Commanded a large number of Nawabs Troops
Mir Jafar (1757-60)

The Company was granted undisputed right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. It received
the Zamindari of 24 Parganas. Mir Jafar, however, fell into arrears and was forced to abdicate in
favour of his son-in-law Mir Qasim.
Mir Qasim (1760-64)
Mir Qasim ceded Burdwan, Midnapore and Chittagong. He shifted his capital to
from
Mursidabad to Monghyr.
Mir Qasim soon revoked as he was angry with the British for misusing the dastaks (free duty passes).
However, having been defeated by the British, he fled to Awadh, where he formed a
confederacy with Shuja-ud-daulah and Shah. Alain.


Battle of Buxar (1764) Shuja-ud-daulah. Shah Alam and Mir Qasim were defeated by
Munro.
Mir Jafar (1763) was again placed on the throne.
Nizam-ud-Daulah(l 765- 72)
On Mir Jafars death, his son Nizam-ud-daulah was placed on the throne and signed a treaty
on 20th February. 1765 by which the Nawab was in disband most of his army and to
administer Bengal through a Deputy Subahdar nominated by the company.
Clive concluded two separate treaties of Allahabad with Shuja ud daula and Shah Alam II.
Dual system of government started in Bengal. The company acquired both Diwani and
Nizamat lights from Najm-ud- Daula (1765-66). the new nawab of Bengal. But the
company did not take over direct administration and revenue collection. Warren
Hastings ended the Dual system of government in 1772.
Anglo-Carnatic (Arcot) Wars
An instance of AngloofFrench
An instancxe Angle Rivalry.
French Rivarly.
First (1746-48). The FrenchThe
First (1746-48). besieged
French Madras. At St.
besieged ThomeAtbattle
Madras. the battle
st. Thome
Nawab of Carnatic's
the Nawab army
of was defeatedarmy
Carnatics by French under Dupliex
was defeated by French under
Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle
Dupliex (1748) ended the War of Austrian Succession.
Second WarTreaty (17-49-54). Dupleix aligned(1748)
of Aix-La-Chapelle with Muzaffar
ended theJung
War(Hyderabad)
of Austrian
and ChandaSuccession.
Sahib (Carnatic).
Alter initial victories.
Second RobertWar
Clive(1749-54).
emerged victorious.
Dupleix aligned with Muzaffar Jung
Third War {1758-63) French, Count
(Hyderabad) de LallySahib
and Chanda captured Fort St. David'.
(carnatic)
After initial victories. Robert Clive emerged victorious.
Third War (1758-63) French, Count de Lally captured Fort St. David.
French were defeated at Wandiwash (1760).
Pondichery was returned to French by the Treaty of Paris.
Anglo-Burmese Wars
Aims
To control forest resources.
To increase exports
To check French influence.
First War (1824-26). British forces drove the Burmese out of Assam, Cachar, Manipur
and Arakan. Peace Treaty of Yandobo signed.
Second War (1852). British an-nexed Pegu but faced a popular guerrilla warfare.
British now controlled whole of Burmas coastline.
Third War (I8S5). The British annexed upper Burma
Anglo-Afghan Wars

First War (1839-42). Arose because the British (Lord Auckland) wanted 10 replace Dost
Muhammad with a puppet ruler. Shah Shuja.
The British laced a popular revolt but were able to re-occupy Kabul. However, they had to restore
the throne to Dost Muhammad.
Second War (1878-80). Afghan ruler. Slier Ali. was defeated by Lord Lytton and his son signed the
Treaty of Gandamak. A British resident was kept in Kabul. Alter he was killed. British adopted
the principle of non-interference (Lord Ripon).

Anglo-Maratha Wars
First War (1775-82). Favouring the cause of Raghunath Rao for Peshwaship, English
(Hastings)
came in conflict with the Marathas. On being defeated, the British had to sign the
humiliating Convention of Wadgaon.
British later signed Treaty of Salbai, renouncing the cause of Raghoba.
Second War (1803-06). The Marathas Peshwa signed the Subsidiary Alliance Treaty of
Bassein (1802).
The Maratha confederacy, which did not like the idea challenged the British power but were
defeated by the British.
Third War (1817-1888). Lord Hastings was determined to proclaim British paramountacy in
India. Hastings moves against Pindaris transgressed the sovereignty of the Maratha chief and the
war began.
The Marathas were decisively defeated.
HISTORY AT A GLANCE
Major Dynasties and rulers c. AD 650-1206

Major States, Dynasties and rule rs c. BC 550-c. AD 560
Century
6-4 BC Magadhan Ascendancy (North India)

543-491 Bimbisara
44 1-461 Ajatshatru
362-334 Mahapadma Nanda
4-2 BC Mauryan Empire (Areas south of Karnataka)
321-297 Chandraupta Maurya
297-272 Bindusara
272/268-232 Ashoka
2-1 BC Shungas (Ganges valley and part of central India)
I SO-165 Demetrius II
155-130 Menander (Milinda)
I BC-AD3 Satavahanas (North Deccan)
120 Gautanmiputra Satakarni
I BC-AD 3 Shakas (West India)
I BC-AD 3 Kushanas ( Northern India and Central Asia)
78-248 Kanishka
AD 4-AD 6 Guptas (North India)
319/20-335 Chandragupta I
335-376 Samadragupta
376-415 Chandragupta II
415-454 Kumara Gupta I
454-467 Skanda Gupta
AD4-AD9 Pallavas (Tamil Nadu)
AD 5-AD 6 Hunas (Northwest India and Central Asia)
AD 7 Harsha (North India)
606-747 Harshavardhana
Major dynasties and rulers c. AD 650-1206
300-888 Pallavas (Tamil Nadu)
630-668 Narasimhavaraman Mahamalla
730-796 Nandivarman II
556-757 Chalukyas of Vatapi (West and Central Deccan)
610-643 Pulakeshin II
7th to 10th e Pandyas of Madurai (Tamil Nadu)

668-8 15 Veruguna I
815-862 Shrimara Shrivallabha
862-867 Varaguna II
630-970 Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (Andhra Pradesh)
750-1 142 Rashtrakutras (West and Central Deccan)
780-793 Dhruva
793-833 Govinda III
814-876 Amoghavarsha
878-914 Krishna II
914-972 Indra III
939-986 Krishna III
773-1019 Pratiharas (West India and Upper Ganges >

773-793 - Vatsaraja
793-833 Nagabhata I
836-885 Bhoja
908-942 Mahipala
850-1276 Cholas of Thanjavur (Tamil Nadu)
984-1014 Rajarajal
1014-1044 Rajendra
1070-1 I 18 Kulottunga I
916-1203 Chandellas (Bundelkhand)
850-1 195 Kalachuris of Tripuri (Madhya Pradesh)
973-1 192 Chalukyas of Kalyani (West and Central Deccan)
992-1008 Satyashraya
1043-1068 Someeshvara I
1076-1 126 Vikramaditya VI
11 81-1 189 Someshvara IV
974-1238 Chaulukyas (Gujarat)
974-1060 Paramaras (Malwa)
1090-1 193 Gahadavalas (Kanauj)
10-1327 Hoysalas of Dvarasamudra (South Deccan)
18-1 199 Senas (Bengal)
90-1294 Yadavas of Devagiri (North Deccan)
197-1323 Kakatiyas of Warangal (Andhra Pradesh)
Rulers of India 1526-1707

Mughals Emperors 1526-1707 (Empire 1508-1553 Burhan 1
ends 1858) 1553-1565 Husain
1526-1530 Zahir ud Din Babur 1565-1588 Murtaza
1530-1540 Nasir ud Din Humayun 1588-1589 Miran Husain
(first reign) 1580-1590 Ismail
1540-1555 Suri Sultans of Delhi 1590-1594 Burhan II
1540-45 SherShah 1594 Ibrahim
1545-54 IslamShah 1594-1595 Ahmad II
1554-55 Muhammad Shah Adil 1595 Bahadur
1555-1556 Nasir ud Din Humayun Baridi Shahs of Bidar 1526-1609
(second reign) (Sultanate begins 1492)
1556-1605 Jalal ud Din Akbar I 1504-1549 Amir I
1605-1627 Nur ud Din Jahangir 1549-1562 Ali
1627-1628 Dawar Baksh 1562-1569 Ibrahim
1628-1657 Shihab ud Din Shah Jahan I 1569-1572 Qasimll
1657 Murad Baksh (in gujarat) 1572-1609 Mirza Ali
1657-1660 Shah Shuja(in Bengal) 1609 Amir II
1658-1707 Aurangzeb Alamgirl Adilshahis of Bijapur 1526-1686
Imadshahis of Berar 1526-1572 (Sultanate (Sultanate begins 1489)
begins 1484) 151 1-1534 Ismail
1504-1529 Ala ud Din 1534-1535 Mallu
1529-1560 Burhan 1535-1557 Ibrahim 1

1568-1572 Tufal (usurper) 1557-1580 Alii

Nizamshahis of Ahmadnagar 1526-1595 1580-1627 Ibrahim 11
(Sultanate begins 1490) 1627-1660 Muhammad
1660-1686 Ali 11
Qutubshahis of Golconda 1526-1687
(Sultanate begins 1512)
1512-1543 Sultan Quli
1543-1550 Jamshid
1550 SubhanQuli
1550-1581 Ibrahim
1581-1612 MuhammadQuli
1612-1626 Muhammad
1026-1672 Abdullah
1672-1687 Abul Hasan
Faruqi Sultans of Khandesh 1526-1601
(Sultanate begins 1370)
1520-1537 Miran Muhammad I
1537 Ahmad Shah
1537-1566 Mubarak Shah II
1566-1576 Miran Muhammad II
1576-1577 Hasan Shah
1577-1597 RajaAli Khan or Adil Shah IV
1597-1601 Bahadur Shah
Chhatrapati Bhonsles to 1707
1674-1680 Shivajil
1680-1689 Sambhajj
1689-1700 Rajaram
1700-1707 Tara Bai
Rulers of India 1707-1858

Mughal Emperors 1707-1858 1756-1757 SirajudDaula
(Empire ends 1858) 1757-1760 Mir Jafar
1707 A/am Shah 1760-1763 Mir Qasim
1707 Kam Bakhsh(in the Deccan) 1763-1765 Mir Jafar
1707-1712 Shah Alaml 1765-1766 Najmud Daula
1712 AzimushShah 1766-1770 Saif ud Daula
1712-1713 Muizz ud Din Jahandar Nawabs of Avadh 1724-1856
1713-1719 Farrukhsiyar 1724-1739 Saadat Khan
1719 Shams ud Din Rafi ud Darajat 1739-1754 Safdar Jang
1719 Nikusiyar 1754-1775 Shuja ud Daula
1719-1748 Nasir ud Dm Muhammad 1775-1797 Asaf ud Daula
1748-1754 Ahmad Shah Bahadur 1797-1798 Vazir Ali
1754-1760 Aziz ud Din Muhammad 1798-1814 Saadat Ali
1748-1754 Ahmad Shah Bahadur 1814-1827 Ghazi ud Din Haidar

1754-1760 Aziz ud Din Alamgir II 1827-1837 Nasir ud Din Haidar

1760 Shah Jahan 111 1837-1842 Ali Shah
1760-1788 Shah Alam II (first reign) 1842-1847 Amjad Ali Shah
1788 Bidar Bakht 1847-1856 Vajid Ah Shah
1788-1806 Shah Alam II (second reign) Nawabs of Arcot 1707-1858
1806-1837 Muin ud Din Akbar II 1703-1710 DaudShah
1837-1858 Sirajud Din Bahadur Shah II 1710-1732 Muhammad Sayyid
Nawabs of Bengal 1703-1770 Saadatullah Khan I
1703-1727 Murshid Quli Jafar Khan 1732-1740 Dost Ali Khan
1727-1739 ShujaudDin 1740-1742 Safdar Ali Khan
J739-I740 Sarfaraz Khan 1744-1749 Anvar ud Dm Muhammad
1740-1756 Alivardi Khan 1749-1795 Vain Jan Muhammad Ali
1795-1801 Umdat ul Umara

1801-1819 Azimud Daula
IS 19-1867 Azam Jah
Nizams of Hyderbad 1724-1858
(Rule ends 1948)
1724-1748 Mir Qamar ud Din, Nizarm ul
Mulk Asaf Jah
1748-1750 Mir Muhammad Nasir Jang
1750-1751 Muzaffar Jang
1751-1762 Mir Asaf ud Daula Salabat Jang
1762-1802 Nizam Ali
,Mir Akbar Ali KhanSikandarJah
1819-1857 Nasir ud Daula
1857-1869 Afzal ud Daula
The lineage of Haidar Ali of Mysore
1761-1799
1761-1782 Haidar All
1782-1799 Tipu Sultan
Maratha Peshwas 1714-1818
1714-1720 Balaji Vishwanath
1720-1740 Baji Rao I
1740-1761 Balaji Baji Rao
1761-1772 Madhava Rao Ballal
1772-1773 NarayanRao
1-773-1774 RaghunathRao
1774-1796 Madhava Rao Narayan
1796-1818 Baji Rao II
HISTORY AT A GLANCE

Important Battles In Indian History

B.C.
327 Alexander the Great defeated Porus in the Battle of
Hydaspes
261: Ashoka captured Kalinga alter a body battle near
Bhubaneswar
180: Menandcr, a Greek king invaded north-western India
and became the Indo-Greek ruler till 160 B.C.
Medieval India
A.D.
712: Invasion of Sind under the command of Mohammed-
bin-Qasim
1191: Fust Battle of Taratn in which Prithviraj Chauhan
defeated Muhammad Ghori
1192: Second Battle of Tarain in which Muhammad Kannauj
was defeated by Muhammad Ghori
1194: Battle of Chandawar in which Jaichand of kannauj
was defeated buy Muhammad Ghori
1526:- First Battle of Panipat. Ibrahim Lodi was defeated
by Babur
1527: Battle of Khanua. Rana Sanga was defeated by Babur
1529: Battle of Ghaghar. The Afghans were defeated by
Babur
1539: Battle of Chausa. Humayun was defeated by Sher
Shah Suri
1540: Battle of Kanauj or Bilgram. Humayun was defeated
by Sher Shah Suri, who now became the ruler of Delhi
. 1556: Second Battle of Panipat. Hemu was defeated by
Akbar
1565: Battle of Talikota or Banihati. Vijayanagar empire was
defeated by the combined forces of live Muslim states.
1576: Bailie of Haldighali. Rana Pratap was defeated by
Akbar
1601: Battle of Asirgarh. Miran Bahadur Shah was defeated
by Akbar
1615: A treaty of peace was signed between Emperor
Jahangirand Rana Amar Singh of Mewar
1649: Kandahar was lost to Persia for ever by the Mughals
1658: Battle of Dharmat and Samugarh. Dara Shikoh is
defeated by Aurangzeb
1665: Shivaji defeated by Raja Jai Singh and the Ticaty of
Purandhar is signed
Modern India
1707: Baltic of Khed. Tara Bai defeated by Shahu

1739: Battle of Karnal. The Mughal army defeated by Nadir

Shah
1740: Battle of Gharia. Fought between Sarfaraz. Khan,
Nawab of Bengal, and Alivardi Khan was killed.
1746-48: First Carnatic War. Fought between French and British
forces. Madras was captured by French but returned to the English by he Treaty of Aix-la-Chappalle. It is famous for the battle of St.
Thome, in which a small French army defeated the Nawabs large force.
1749-54: Second Carnatic War. Initially the French under
Duplcix had some successes but at last the English
got a hold
1758-63: Third Carnatic War. French captured Fori St. David
in 1758, but suffered badly at Wandiwash (1760)
1557: Battle of Plassey. The Englhish forces under Robert
Clivedefeatcd the army of Siraj-ud-daula
1761: Third battle of Panipat. Marathas were defeated by
Ahmad shah Abdali
1746: Battle of Buxar. The English under Mttnrodefeated
Mir Qasim. the Nawab of Bengal. Shuja-ud-daiila.
Nawab of Avadh, and Shah Alam II. the Mughal
emperor
1767-69: First Anglo-Mysore War. Contested between Haider
Ali and the British
1770: Battle of Udgir. The Nizam was defeated by the
Marathas
1775: Battle of Sindkhcd between the Marathas and the
Nizam. The Nizam was forced to surrender some
territories
1752-82: First Anglo-Maralha War. The British army was
defeated. The humiliating convention of Wadgoan (1779) was concluded. Peace was at last restored by the Treaty of Salbai (1782)
1780-84: Second Anglo-Mysore War. Haider Ali died in the
battle (1782) and the field was taken by his son
Tipti sultan. The war was concluded by the Treaty
of Mangalore (1784)
1789-92. Third Anglo-Mysore War. Tipu Sultan was defeated
(1792). The war came to a close with the Treaty of
Seringapatam
1799: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. Tipu died fighting
1803-06: Second Anglo-Maratha war. The Marathas were
defeated by the British
1814-16: Nepalcse War. Between the English and the Gurkhas
The war came to an end with the Treaty of Sagauli
1817-19: Third Anglo-Maralha war. The Marathas were
badly defeated by the British
1824-26: First Anglo-Burmese War. The British defeated the
Burmese. Peace was restored by the Treaty of
Yandahhoo

1839-42: First Anglo-Afghan War. The Afghan ruler Dost

Muhammad was defeated by the English
1845-46: First Anglo-Sikh War. The Sikhs were defeated by
the English. The war was ended by the Treaty of
Lahore
1848-49: Second Anglo-Sikh War. Sikhs were defeated and
Punjab was annexed by the British
1852: Second Anglo-Burmese War. The English were
successful
IS65: Third Anglo-Burmese War. The English annexed
Burma
1878-80: Second Anglo-Afghan war. The English suffered
losses
1919-21: Third Anglo-Afghan War. The English though
victorious did noi benefit from the war.
Important Foreign Travellers/Envoys

Megasthenes (302-298 B.C.): An ambassador of Seleucus Nieator. who visited the court of
Chandragupta Maurya. He wrote an interesting book India in which he gave a vivid account of
Chandragupta Mauryas reign.
Fa-Hsien (405-411 A.I).): He came to India during the reign of Chandragupta II Vikiamaditya. The
object of his visit was to see the holy places of Buddhism and to collect Buddhist hooks and relics. He
was the first Chinese pilgrim to visit India.
Hiuen-Tsang (also spelt Yuan Chwang) (630-645 A.D):
He usiied India during the reign of Harsha.
1-tsing (671-695 A.D): A Chinese traveller, he visited India in connection with Buddhism. His work
Biographies of eminent Monks, provides us useful information about the social, religious and cultural
life of the people of this country.
Al-Masudi (957 A.D): An Arab traveller, he has given an extensive account of India in his work
Murujul Zahab
Al-beruni (1024-1030 A.D.): His real name was Abu Rehan Mahamud and he came to India along with
Mahmud of Ghazni during one of his India raids. He travelled all over India and wrote a book Tahqiq-l-
Hind. The book dealt with the social, religious and political conditions in India.
Marco Polo (1292-1294 A.D.): A Venetian traveller, he visited South India in 1294 A.D. His work The
Book of Sir Marco Polo givers an invaluable account of the economic history of India.
Ibn Butula (1333-1347 A.D.): A Morrish traveller, he visited India during the reign of Muhammad-bin-
Tughlaq. His book Rehla (the Travelogue) throws a lot of light on the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq
and the geographical, economic and social sonditions in India.
Shihabuddin al-Umari (1348 A.D): He came from Damascus. He gives a vivid account of India in his
book, Masalik albsar fi-mamalik al-amsar.
Nicolo Conti (1420-1421 A.D.): A Venetian traveller, he gives a comprehensive account of the Hindu
kingdom of Vijayanagar.
Abdur Razzaq (1443-1444 A. D.): He was a Persian traveller who came to India and stayed at the court
of the Zamorin at Calicut. He has given a vivid account of the Vijayanagar empire, especially of the city.

He describes the wealth and luxurious life of the king and the nobles.
Athanasius Nikitin (1470-1474 A.D): lie was a Russian merchant, who visited south India in 1470. he
describes (he condition of the Bahmani kingdom under Muhammad III (1463-82).
Duarte Barbosa (1500-1516 A.D.): He was a Portuguese traveller. He has given a valuable narrative of the
government and the people of the Vijayanagar empire.
Domingos Paes 11520-1522 A.D): He was a Portuguese traveller who visited the court of Krishnadeve Raya of the
Vijayanagar Empire.
Fernao Nuniz (1534-1537 A.D): A Portuguese merchant who visited the Vijayanagar empire. He wrote the
history of the empire from its earliest dines lo (he closing years of Achyutdeve Rayas reign.
John Hnghen Von Linschbotten (1583 A.D): he was a Dutch traveler, who has given a valuable account of the
social and economic life of South India.
William Hawkins (1608-1611 A.D.): He was an English ambassador of the British King James lo die court of
Jahangir (1609).
Sir Thomas Roe (1615-1619 A.D.): He was an ambassador of James I, King of England, at (he court of
Jahangir, the Mughal emperor.
Franciso Palsaert (1620-1627 A.D.): He was a Dutch traveller who stayed at Agra and gave a vivid account of the
flourishing trade at Sural. Ahmedabad, Broach. Cambay, Lahore. Multan, etc.
John Albert de Mandesto (1638 A.D.): He was a German traveller, who reached Surat in 1638.
Peter Mundy (1630-34 A.D): He was an Italian traveller (o (he Mughal empire m the reign of Shah Jahan. He gives
valuable information about the living standard of the common people in (he Mughal Empire.
Jean Baptiste Tavernier (1638-1663 A.D.): He was a French traveller who visited India six limes. His account covers the
reign of Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.
Nicolae Manucci (1656-1708 A.D.): He was an Italian traveller, who got service at (he court of Data Shikoh.
Francois Bernier (1656-1717 A.D.): He was a French physician and philosopher. Danishamand khan, a noble of
Aurangzeb, was his patron.
Jean de Thevenot (1666 A.D.): He was French traveller. Who has given a good account of cities like Ahmedabad.
Cambay, Aurangabad and Golconda. John Fryer (1672-1681 A.D.): He was an English traveller who has given a
vivid account of Surat and Bombay.
Gemelli Careri (1695 A.D.): He was an Italian traveler who landed at Daman. His remarks on the Mughal
emperors military organization and administration are important.

HISTORY AT A GLANCE
Classical Writers in Indian Languages

Author Work(s)
Abdul Hamir Lathori ............................. Padshahnama
Al-beruni ........................................... Kitab-i-Rahla
AH Muhammad Khan .......................... Mirat-i-Muluk
Amar Simha (Chandragupta II) ........................Amarkosa
Amir Khusrau ......................................Tarikh-i-Alai
Arybhatta......................................... Surya Sidhanta
Asvaghosha .................................... Bhuddha Charita
Ayapa Senani ................................ Nrutyaratnakaram
Babur ........................................... Tuzuk-i-Baburi
Banabuatta (Harshavardham) Kadambari, Harshacharita
Barani ....................................... Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi
Bharavi (Simhavishun)........................ Kiratharjuneeyam
Bhavabhuti........ : ..................... Uttararamacharita
Bilhana ................................Vikramanakadeva Charita
Chand Bardoi Prithvaraj Raso
Charaka .........................................Charaka samhita
Dandin (Narasimhavaraman) ........... Dasa Kumara Charita
Firdausi.................................................. Shahnama
Gona Buddha Reddy......................Ranganadharamayanam
Gulbadan Begum................................ Humayun-nama
Hala .................................................. Suptasotka
Harshavardhana .......... Priyadarsika. Ratnavali. Nagananda
Hulakki Bhaskara ............................ Bhaskararamayananm
Ibn Batuta................................ Tughlaqnama. Safarnama
(Muhammed-bin-Tughlaq)
llango Adign\ ..................................... Silappadikaram
Jayadeva ........................................... Gita Govinda
Jayasi ................................................... Padmavat
Kathana ............................................Rahantarangini

Kalidasa (Chandragupta II)........................ Ritusamhara. Raghuvamsa,

Kumarasamhhava. Meghaduta,
Malavikagnimitra.Vikramorvashi. Sakuntalam
Kautilya Arthasastra
Author Work(s)
Kumaragiri Reddy ........................... Vasanta Rajeeyam
Malikarjuna Pandita ................................ Sivatatvasara
Manjhan ........................................... Madhumalati
Minhaj-ns-Siraj.............................Tabaqat-i-Firuzahahi
Mirza Muhammad Kasim ........................ Alamgir-nama
Muhammad Manzil ............................ Miral-i-Sikandri
Nagachandra.....................................jainaramayanam
Nandi Timmana .............................. Parijatapaharanam
Palkurki Somanata ................................ Basavapuranam
Panini................................................ Ashtadhyayi
Patanjali ................................................ Mahabhasya
Pillalamarri Pina Veerabhadra ..................... Jaimini Bharatam
Pingalisurana ..................................Kalapoornodayam
Prataparudra ............................................. Neetisara
Rajashekhara (Mahipal).. Vidha Salabhanjika, Bala Bharata.
Kavyamimansa. Bala Ramayana
Ravi Kirti (Pulakesin II)............................. Aihole Prasasti
Saki Mustaid Khan ........................... Maasir-i-Alamgiri
Shirazi ......................................... Tazkirat-i-Muluk
Sri krishnadeva Raya .... Madalasa Charitra. Amuktamalyada
Srinatha Haravilasam. Kasi Khandam ... Palnativeeracharitra.
Sringara Naishadam
Sudraka.......................................... Mrichchakatika
Surdas................... SurSagar. SinSarawali. Sahitya Ratna
Tenali Rama Krishna ................... Panduranga Mahatyain
Tirnvalluvar.................................................. Kural
Tulsidas .......................................... Ramacharitmans
Varamihira ....................................... Brihat Sidhanta
Vatsyayana ............................................ Kamasutra
Vijnaneswara......................................... Mitakshara
Visakhadatta .....................................Mudrarakshasa
Vishnu Sharma ......................... SambhavaPanchatantra
Yahya-bin-Ahmed ........... Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi Sarhindi
Mughal Literature
Author Name of the Work Remarks
Gulbadan Begam Humayun Namah About Humayuns reign
Abul Fazl Ain-I-Akbari About Akbars reign
Abul Fazl Akbar Namah About Akbars reign

Badauni Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh About Akbars reign

Mulla Daud Tawarikh-I-Alfi About Akbars reign
Nizam-ud-din Ahmad Tabaqat-I-Akbari About Akbars reign
Jahangir Tuzuk-I-Jahangiri Autobiography
Mutamad Khan lqbal Namah Aoout Jahangirs reign
Abdul Haqq Nuriyya-I-Sultaniyya Theory of kingship
Abdul Hamid Lahori Padshah Namah About Shah Jahans reign
Muhammad Waris Padshah Namah About Shah Jahans reign
Inayat Khan Shah Jahan Namah About Shah Jahans reign
Muhammad Salih Shah Jahan Namah About Shah Jahans reign
Dara Shikoh Safinat-ul-Auliya Biographies of Sufi saints
Dara Shikoh Sakinat-ul-Auliya Upanishads Translation
Dara Shikoh Hasanat-ul-Arifin His religious and
Dara Shikoh Majma-ul-Bahrain philosophical ideas
Aurangzeb Raqqat-I-Alamgiri A collection of his letters
Khafi Khan Muntakhab-ul-Lub about Aurangzebs reign

Rulers of the Vijayanagar Empire

1339-1526
{Effective rule ends IM5)
1336-1354 Harihara I
1354-1377 Bukka I
1377-1404 Harihara II
1404-1400 Bukka I
1406-1422 Devaraya II
1447-1465 Mallikarjuna
1465-1485 Virupaksa
1485-1486 Praudhadevaraya
1486-1402 Saluva Narasimha
1492-1503 Immadi Narasimha
1503-1509 Vira Narasimha
1509-1530 Krishnadevaraya

Modern India;
Economic & Commercial Policy

The British conquerors were entirely different from the previous conquerors. Through laws and administrative, economic
and fiscal policies, the British government in England and Companys administration in India used their powers to the
advantage of British manufacturers and to the detriment of the Indian socio-political and economic fabric. The gradual
development of underdevelopment has been traced through the three stages of British Colonialism by R. R Dutta in his
classic work India Today.
Phases of Economic Policy in India

1600-1757: The East India Company was a purely trading company dealing with import of goods and precious metals into
India and export of spices and textiles.
1757 - 1813 (The Mercantilist Phase)
The East India Company monopolized trade and began direct plunder of Indias wealth.
They could impose their own prices that had no relation to the costs of production. This was the phase
of buccaneering capitalism whereby wealth flowed out of the barrel of the traders guns.
The company used its political power to monopolize trade & dictate terms to the weavers of Bengal
The company used revenue of Bengal to finance exports oi Indian goods.
1813-1858 (The Industrial Phase)
The commercial policy of the East India Company after 1813 was guided
by the needs of the British industry
The British mercantile industrial capitalist class exploited India as Industrial Revolution in Britain completely
transformed Britains economy
Charter Act of 1813 allowed one way free trade for British citizens resulting in Indian markets flooded
with cheap & machine made imports. Indians lost not only their foreign markets hut their markets in India too.
India was now forced to export raw materials consisting of raw cotton jute and silk, oilseeds, wheal, indigo and
lea, and import finished products.
Indian products had to compete with British products with heavy import duties on entry into Britain.
1860 & After (Finance Colonialism): The essence of 19 th century colonialism lay in the transformation of India into a supplier of
foodstuffs and raw materials to the metropolis, a market for metropolitan manufactures and a field for investment of British capital.
Started with the emergence of the phase of Finance Capitalism m Britain. The rebellion of KS57 was the
key factor in the change of the nature of the colonialism.
The British introduced roads and railways, post and telegraph, banking and other services
under the guaranteed interests schemes (government paid a minimum dividend even if profits
were nonexistent). Various investments by the British capitalists were also made in India.
As a result of this, the burden of British public debts kept on increasing and India became, in
the real sense, a colony of Britain.
Drain of Wealth Theory

R C Dutta & Dadabhai Naoroji first cited the drain of wealth theory. Naoroji brought ii to light in his book titled

Poverty And Un-British Rule In India. R C Dutt blamed the British policies for, Indian economic ills in his book
Economic History of India (1901-03).
Drain of wealth refers to a portion of national product of India, which was not available for consumption of its
people.
Drain of wealth began in 1757 after Battle e>t Plassey when the companys servants began to extort fortunes
from Indian rulers, zamindars, merchants and common people and send home.
In 1765 the company acquired the Diwani of Bengal & began purchase the Indian goods out of the
revenue of Bengal and exported them. These purchases were known as Companys investment.
Duty free inland trade provided British merchants a competitive edge over their Indian counterparts.
Constituents of the Drain

Home charges: Costs of the Secretary of States India Office, East India Companys military adventures,
cost of suppressing the Mutiny of 1X57 and the compensation to the companys share holders, pensions lo
the British Indian officials and army officers, costs of army training, transport, equipments and
campaigns outside India and guaranteed interests on railways.
Remittances: To England (a part of their salaries, incomes and savings) by English Civil servants,
Military and railway employees lawyers, doctors etc.
Foreign trade: The phase of finance imperialism entered India with the introduction of railways .
development of plantations, mines, banking and factories financed through British capital. Much of
the burden of the expanding railway network was met by the Indian taxpayer through the guaranteed
interest scheme.
Land Revenue Systems

Permanent Settlement
Introduced in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and districts of Benaras & Northern districts of Madras by
Lord Cornwallis in 1793.
John Shore planned the Permanent Settlement.
It declared Zamindars as the owners of the land. Hence. theycould keep l/l1th of the revenue collected to
themselves while the British got a Fixed share of 10/11th of the revenue collected. The Zamindars were free to fix the
rents
Assured of their ownership, many zamindars stayed in towns(absentee landlordism) and exploited
their ten ants.
Ryotwari System
Introduced in Bombay, Madras and Assam. Munro (Viceroy) and Charles Reed recommended it.
In this, a direct settlement was made between the government and the ryot (cultivator).
The revenue was fixed for a period not exceeding 30 years, on the basis of the quality of the soil and the nature of the
crop. It was based on the scientific rent theory of Ricardo.
The position of the cultivator became more secure but the rigid system of revenue collecton often
forced him into the clutches of the moneylender.

Besides, the government itself became a big zamindar and and retained the right to
enhance revenue at will while the cultivator was left at the mercy of its officers.
Mahalwari System
Modified version of Zamindari settlement introduced in the Ganga valley, NWFP. parts of Central

India & Punjab.

Revenue settlement was to be made by village or estates with landlords. In western Uttar Pradesh, a settlement
was made with the village communities, which maintained a form of common ownership known as
Bhaichara, or with Mahals, which were groups of villages.
Revenue was periodically revised.
Colonial Impact of Land Revenue Systems
The land settlements introduced market economy and did away with customary rights. Cash
payment of revenue encouraged money-lending activity.
It sharpened social differentiation. Rich had access to the courts to defend their properly.
Forcible growing of commercial crops proved hazardous for the peasants because they had to buy food
grains at high prices and sell cash crops at low prices.
The stability of the Indian Villages was shaken and the setup of the rural society began to break up.
The Revolt of 1857

The Beginning
The earliest incident being the revolt in the 19 th Native Infantry in Berhampur.
29th March 1S57 First spark of revolt at Barrackpore in Bengal where Mangal Pandey killed the
British adjutant and was later hanged for tiring on senior officers.
10th May IS57Ninety sepoys of 3rd Native Regiment at Meerut revolted on the issue of the greased
cartridges. After their trial and execution, entire garrison in Meerut revolted and raised the cry of Delhi
Chalo.
Centres of Revolt and Their Leaders

Delhi Bahadur Shah II, General Bakht Khan
Kanpur Nana Sahib. Tantiya Tope, Azimullah Khan
Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal (Awadh), Maulvi
Ahmadullah of Faizabad
Jhansi Rani Laxmi Bai
Bareilly Khan Bahadur Khan
Arrah (Bihar) Kunwar Singh of Jagdishpur
Causes of the Revolt

Political
Nana Sahib was refused pension, as he was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.
Lucknow was annexed in 1856. on charges of maladministration and Jhansi was annexed owing to
Doctrine of Lapse.
Military Discrimination
Indian soldiers were paid low salaries: they could not use above the rank of subedar and were racially
insulted. The soldiers were also distressed by the fact that their cherished Awadh stale had been annexed by the
British.

Religious Discrimination
British social reforms (widow remarriage, abolition of Sati, school for girls. Christian missionaries)
Rumours that Enfield rifles used greased (by pork or beef) cartridges.
Economic Grievances
Heavy taxation, summary evictions, discriminatory tariff policy against Indian products & destruction of
traditional handicrafts that hit peasants, artisans and small zamindars.
Suppression of the Revolt

Delhi: Recaptured on 20 Sept 1X57 by John Nicholson Kanpur: Recaptured on 6 December 1857 by Colin Campbell
Lucknow: Recaptured on 21 March 1858 by Colin Campbell.
Jhansi: Recaptured by Hugh Rose
Arrah: William Taylor and Eyre suppressed the revolt
Fate of the Leaders

Bahadur Shah II - Deported to Rangoon, where he died in 1862. His sons were shot dead.
Nana Sahib & Begun Hazrat Mahal - Escaped to Nepal Rani Jhansi - Died in the battle field. Tantia Tope - Was captured &
executed on 15th April 1859.
Who Said What about 1857 Revolt

British Historians - A Mutiny, due to the use of greased cartridges.
Disraeli (Opposition Leader) - A national revolt rooted in deep mistrust.
V D Savarkar- First War of Independence.
S B Choudhary - Civil Rebellion.
R C Majumdar - Neither first nor national nor a war of independence.
S X Sen - An effort by the conservative elements to turn the clock back
Marxists - A soldier-peasant struggle against foreign and feudal bondage
Malleson - Sepoy Mutiny
Causes of Failure
Lack of coordination and central leadership.
Revolt lacked a forward-looking programme, coherent ideology, apolitical perspective or a vision of
the future society and economy.
Rebel leaders lacked resources and experience as compared to British
Revolt lacked the support of martial races of the north.
British power had remained intact in the Eastern. Western it Southern pans of India from where the forces were
sent to suppress the revolt.
Tacit supportofcertainsectionsofIndianpublicl moderneducatedIndians)to British authorities
Lack of coherent ideology and political perspective
Limited territorial and social base

Impact of the Mutiny

In August 1858. the British Parliament passed ail Act. which put an end to the rule of the Company. The
control of the British government in India was transferred to the British Crown.
A minister of the British government, called the Secretary of State, was made responsible for the government of
India.
The British Governor-General of India was now also given the title of Viceroy, who was also the representative of
the monarch.
Marked the end of British Imperialism & Princely starts where assured against annexation. Doctrine of
lapse was withdrawn
After the revolt, the British pursued the policy of divide and rule.
far-reaching changes were made in the administration and increase of while soldiers in the army.
Total expense of the suppression was borne by Indians.
Descriptive Note on the Spread of Mutiny and Civil Rebellion

During 1857-58
2 l-ebruary 1857 - Mutiny of the 19th Native Infantry at Berhampur.
10 May 1857 - Mutiny of Sepoys at Meerut.
11-30 May 1857-Outbreaks in Delhi. Ferozepur. Bombay. Aligarh. Etawah. Bulandshahr. Nasirabad.
Bareilly. Moradabad, Shahjehanpur and other stations in UP.
The Mughal Emperor proclaimed as the Emperor of India.
June 1857 - Mutinies at Gwalior, Bharatpur. Jhansi. Allahabad. Faizabad. Sultanpur. Lucknow etc.
The civil rebellion spreads through the Indo-Gangetic plain. Rajputana. Central India and some parts of
Bengal.
July 1857 - Mutinies at Indore, Mhow. Saugar and certain places in the Panjab like Jhelum. Sialkot etc.
August 1857 -Civil rebel I ion spreads throughout Saugor and Nerbudda districts.
September 1857 - The English recapture Delhi: further out-breaks in Central India.O
October 1857 - Revolt spreads to Kotah Stale
November 1857 - The rebels defeat General Windham outside Kanpur
December 1857 - Sir Colin Campbell wins the battle of Kanapur
Tantia lope escapes
March 1858 - Lucknow recaptured by the English
April 1858 - Jhansi falls to the English, fresh rising in Bihar led by Kunwar Singh
May 1858 - The English recapture Barcilly. Jagdishpur and Kalpi
Indian rebels begin guerilla warfare in Rohilkhand
July-December 1858 - English authority re-established in India.

Brahmo Samaj
Rammohan Roy (1771-1833)
He was horn at Radhanagar in Bengal in 1772. He is regarded as the first great leader of modern India. He opposed
idol worship and pressed on Doctrine of the Unity of God. He believed that basically all religions preach a common message. He was
deeply influenced by monotheism, anti-idolatry of Islam, Sufism, and ethical teachings of Christianity & liberal & rationalist doctrines of the
west. He was one of the earliest propagators of modern education.
Started the Atmiya Sabha in 1814
The Brahma Sabha in 1829, (Brahmo Samaj). Based on the twin pillars of-reason, the Vedas and
the Upanishads. Laid emphasis on human dignity, opposed idolatry, and criticised social evils. Succeeded in
persuading Lord Bentick to abolish sati in 1829
He gave enthusiastic assistance to David Hare, who founded the famous Hindu college in Calcutta.
Established a Vedanta College (1825) in which courses both in Indian and western social and
physical sciences were offered
Wrote in Persian his famous work ,4 Gift to Monotheists or Tuhafat-ul-Muwahidin 1809
Launched a movement for the abolition of Sati through his journal Sabad Kaumudi (1819)
Published his Precepts of Jesus 1820
He believed that the philosophy of Vedanta was based on this principle of reason.
Was opposed to Sanskrit system of education , because he thought it would keep the
country in darkness.
Brahmo Ideas
The purpose of Brahmo Samaj was lo purify Hinduism & to preach monotheism. It laid emphasis on human
dignity, opposed idolatry & criticized such social evils as the practice of Sati Preached by Raja Rama Mohan

Roy and later went through some changes

Opposed idol worship, priesthood and the ritualistic worship
Emphasized on worship through prayer, meditation and reading from Upanishads.
It emphasized on higher human qualities like piety, virtue and benevolence
The Brahmo Samaj

The earliest reform movement of modern type.
Founded by Raja Rammohan Roy in 1828 under the name Brahmo Sabha
1848 Devendranath Tagore joined the Samaj
1858 Keshab Chandra Sen joined the Samaj
1866Adi Brahmo Samaj (under Devendranath Tagores leadership) Brahmo Samaj of
India (under Keshab Chandra Sens leadership)
Sadharan Brahmo Samaj

(Led by the disgruntled followers of Keshab Chandra Sen)
It was based on democratic principles & gave equal rights to all members in management of Samaj.
Important members of the Samaj were Sivnath Shastri, Anand Mohan Bose, Bipin Chandra Pal, Dwarka
nath Ganguly & Sir Surendra Nath Bannerjee. They contributed immensely lo the growth of the spirit of
nationalism in India
It started many new journals lo educate the masses, such as Tattva-Kaumudi, Brahmo
Public Opinion. Indian Messenger. Sanjibani, Nabhyabharat, Modern Review & Prabase.
Dharma Sabha
The orthodox Hindus organised the Dharma Sabha under the leadership of Raja Radhakant Dev. The chief
objective of all the activities of the Dharma Sabha was only to counter the propaganda of the Brahmo Samaj.
The Paramahansa Mandali

Founded by Dadoba Pandurang & Bal Shastri Jambhekar in 1849
Founders believed in one god and were interested in breaking caste rules.
Members took food cooked by low caste people.
Believed in permitting widow remarriage and in education of women
The Prarthana Sabha

Founded in 1867 by M.G. Ranade.
Prominent leaders were Dr. Atmaram Pandurang & R G Bhandarkar and /V G Chandavar kar
Along with its reformist attitudes the Prarthana Samaj was also very much attached with the
Maharashtrian Bhakti Cull.
The two main planks of the Samaj were worship and social reform.
It rejected idolatry, denied the Vedas and adopted the method of congregational worship.

AryaSamaj
Arya Samaj
The firs! Arya Samaj unit was organised in Bombay in 1875, by Swami Dayanand Saraswati.
It stood for the Four-fold varna system determined by merit and not by birth.
Stood for equal rights for both men and women in social and educational matters.
Opposed untouchabiliry, caste discrimination, child marriage, and supported widow remarriage and inter
caste marriages.
Their head quarter was later shifted to Lahore.
Accepted the authority of the Vedas (but sanctioned by rationalsm and utilitarianism). Preached father-hood of
God and brother hood o\ man. Equality of sexes, love and charily towards all
In |886- DAV School was instituted at Lahore by Lala 1Hansraj In 1902 - Gurukula Pathsala at Hardwar was
established.
After the death of Dayanand in 1883, differences occurred in the Gurukul section led by Swami
Shradhananda and DAV Section led by Lala Lajpat Rai and Lala Hansraj. While the Gurkul section laid emphasis
on the traditional pattern of education the Dayanand-Anglo-Vedic section stood for the spread of English
education stood for the spread of English education. This led lo the split of the Samaj in 1892.
The Anglo-Vedic school established at Lahore in 1886 provided the nucleus for Arya Samaj movement.
Lala Hansraj started the Gurukul near Hardwar to propagate the more traditional ideals of education.
The Samaj started the shuddhi movement to convert non-Hindus to Hinduism. This became a contributory
factor in the growth of communalism in India in the 20th century.
Sister Organisations of Arya Samaj

DAV
Shudhi Sabha
Jaat-Paat Todak Mandal by Bhai Parmananda
Reaction to formation of Arya Samaj

Dharma Mahamandal by conservative hindus Led.to formation of 2 divisions of Hinduism
Sanatan Dharm of conservative following (Puranic Hindus) -Arya Samaj
swami Dayananda
Swami Dayanand Saraswati (or Mula shankar) was born in 1824 in Gujarat. He received education from
Swami Virajonanda at Math lira . Formally organised the first Arya Samaj unit at Bombay in 1875
He was known as the earliest Neo-nationalist.
His ideal was to unite India religiously, socially and nationally, lie looked on the Vedas as Indias Rock of Ages, the
true original seed of Hinduism. His motto was Go back to Vedas.
He condemned idol worship and preached unity of God.

He decried untouchability and casteism and advocated remarriage and a high status of woman in society.
Denounced infinite number of meaningless rues & launched a crusade against all religious superstitions.
He was the first hindu reformer who turned from defence to attack., from protecting hindu faith from assaults .
He wrote three books Satyartha Prakash in Hindi, Veda-Bhashya Bhumika in Hindi and Sanskrit and Veda
Bhashya in Sanskrit.
Ram Krishna Paramhansa &

Swami Vivekanand
Ram Krishna (1836-1886)
His original name was Gadoidhar Chattopadhyay. He was born in 1836 in
Kamarpukar village in Hooghly district of VVest Bengal.
He was a priest in Dakshineshwar temple of Goddess Kali near Calcutta.
He sought religious salvation in traditional ways of renunciation, meditation &
devotion
Emphasized that service to man was service to god
His thinking was rooted deeply in Indian thought and culture although he emphasized
the truth in all religions.
Ram Krishna Mission

The Ram Krishna monastic order & mission was officially established in 1887 by Swami Vivekananda to carry
on humanitarian relief & social work. Il laid emphasis not on personal salvation bin on social good or
social service. It opened many schools, hospitals & dispensaries, orphanages, libraries, etc.
Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902)

His original name was Narendranath Dutta and was burn at Calcutta in 1863. He was a disciple
of Ramakrishna Paramhansa.
He attended the Parliament of Religions held at Chicago in 1893 and published two papers
Prabhudha Bharata in English and Udbodhana in Bengali.
Social ideas
He stressed on social action & proclaimed the essential oneness of all religions and condemned any
narrowness in religious matters.
He believed that only in uplifting the- masses lay the vitality of the nation.
He urged people to imbibe spirit of liberty, equality & freethinking
Wanted new social order based on freedom & equality.
He was champion of emancipation of women & was of the view that no social progress is possible
without improving condition of women, who were most important instrument of social change.
He said, So long as millions live in hunger and ignorance I hold every man a traitor who, having been
educated at their expense, pays not the least heed to them.
Religious ideas
Felt Hinduism needs reinterpretation

He subscribed to Vedanta, which he declared to be a fully rational system & reinterpreted the vedant
which led to Neo-Vedantism
Condemned the caste system and the Hindu emphasis on rituals and superstitions
Preached humanistic religion and was of the view that best form of worship was service to humanity.
Nationalism
Contributed to the rise of nationalism. His nationalism was based on 4 pillars of
Awakening of masses
Development of physical and moral strength
Unity based on common spiritual ideas
Pride in ancient Indian glory
Wanted modernization of India through Science & Technology
In 1807, he founded the Ramakrishna Mission to carry on humanitarian relief and social work.
Belur became the head quarters of his mission and Matha. An Irish woman Margaret Noble
popularized the teachings of the Mission.
Vivekananda died in 1902.
The Indian National Congress

Political Associations Before 1885
Association of Landholders: Landholders Society (1837), Bengal British India Society (1843). In 1851,
the two were merged to form the British Indian Association.
Bombay Association and Madras Native Association Were established in 1852. They sent petitions
suggesting changes in EICs charter to end companys monopoly of salt and indigo.
Associations like Poona Sarvjanik Sabha were established to promote reform and political consciousness.
1876 Indian Association was founded in Calcutta by Surendranath Banerjee, & Anand mohan
Bose Madras
Mahajan Sabha and Bombay Presidency Association were established in 1884.
In December 1883, the Indian Association of Surendra Nath Bannerjee& Anand mohan Bose decided to
invite prominent public men and associations to discuss questions of general concern. This was referred to as the National
Conference (in 1883) and is described as the dress rehearsal for the Indian National Congress (INC).
National Conference & Indian National Union (by A.O Hume in 1884) merged to form the Indian
National Congress in 1885
Aims and Objectives of

Congress
Promotion of friendship amongst the countrymen
Development and consolidation of feeling of nationalunity irre- spective of race, caste, religion or provinces
Formulation of popular demands and presentation before the Gov-ernment through petitions.
Training and organization of pub-lic opinion.
Consolidation of sentiments of national unity
Recording of the opinions of educated classes on pressing problems
Laying down lines for future course of action in public interest

Indian National Congress

The First meeting of the INC was organised by A 0 Hume at Gokaldas Tejpal Sanskrit College on 28th
December 1885 (Bombay). Its first President was W C Bonnerjee. It was the first organised expression of the Indian National
movement onanall-India scale.
Humes main purpose in encouraging the foundation of the congress was probably to provide a safety
valve to the growing discontent among the educated Indians
The Methods of Work

Early Congressmen had faith in peaceful and constitutional agitation.
Prayers & petitions were the instruments.
Congress sessions lasted only for three days a year. had no machinery to carry on the work in the
interval.
They helieved in the goodness of the British nation and believed that all would be well if the British
could be acquainted with the true slate of affairs in India. Deputations of Indians were sent to inform the British public
In 1889, a British Committee of INC was founded.
Important Sessions of INC

Year Presidents Vwnuee
I. 1885 W.C. Bonnerjee Bombay
2. 1886 Dadabhai Naroji Calcutta
3. 1887 Badruddin Tyabji Madras
4. 1888 George Yule Allahabad
5. 1889 Sir William Wedderburn Bombay
6. 1890 Pherozshah Mehta Calcutta
7. 1891 P. Ananda Charlu Nagpur
8. 1892 W.C. Bonnerjee Allabad
9. 1893 Dadabhai Naroji Lahore
10. 1894 Alfred Webb Madras
II I894 S. N. Banerjea Poona
12. 1896 Rahimtulla M Sayani Calcutta
13. 1897 C.Sankaran Nair. Amravati
14. 1898 Ananda Mohan Bose Madras
15. 1899 R.C. Dull Lucknow
16. 1900 N.G. Chandavarkar Lahore
17. 1901 D.E.Wacha Calcutta
18 1902 Hasan Imam Bombay
S.N. Bonerjea Ahmedabad
19. 1903 LalMohanGhose Madras
20. 1904 Sir Henry Cotton Bombay
21. 1905 G.K. Gokhale Benaras
22. 1906 Dadabhai Naoroji Calcutta
23 1907 Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh Surat

(Suspended)
1908 Dr. Rash Behari Ghosh Madras
24. 1909 Pandit Madan Mohan Lahore
Malaviya
25. 1910 Sir William Wedderburn Allahabad
26. 1911 Pandit B.N. Dhar. Calcutta
27 1912 R.N. Modholkar Bankipore
28. 1913 Nawab Syed Mohammad Karachi
Bahadur.
29. 1914 Bhupendranuth Basu. Madras
30. 1915 Sir Satyendra Prasad Sinha. Bombay
31. 1916 Ambika Charan Majumdar Lucknow
32. 1917 Mrs. Annie Besant Calcutta
Year Presidents Venue
1918 Hassan Imam (Special session)
33. 1918 Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya Delhi
34. 1919 Motilal Nehru Amritsar
35. 1920 Lala Lajpat Rai (Suspended) Calcutta
C.Vijayraghavachariar (annual) Nagpur
36 1921 C.R. Das (in prison) Ahmedabad
Hakim Ajmal Khan (Acting)
37. 1922 C.R. Das Gaya
38. 1923 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Delhi
(suspended)
Maulana Mahammad Ali Golconda
(Annual)
39. 1924 Mahatma Gandhi Brlgaun
40. 1925 Mrs Sarojini Naidu. Cawnpore
41. 1926 S. Srinivasa Iyengar. Guwahati
42. 1927 Dr. M.A. Ansari Madras
43. 1928 Pandit Motilal Nehru. Calcutta
44. 1929 Jawaharlal Nehru. Lahore
1930 (No session) but
Independence Day Pledge
was adopted on 26th Jan, 1930.
45. 1931 Vallabhabhai Patel Karachi
46. 1932 R. Amritlal (session was banned)
47. 1933 Mrs. J.M. Sen Gupta Calcutta
(sesson was banned )
48. 1934 Rajendra Prasad Bombay
(Continued again for 1935)
49. 1936 Jawahar lal Nehru Lucknow
50. 1937 Jawahar lal Nehru Faizpur
51. 1938 S.C. Bose Haripura
52. 1939 S.C. Bose (Re elected for 1939) Tripuri
53. 1940 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Ramgarh
1941-45 (No sessions, caused by
arrests and jailing).

54. 1946 Acharya J. B. Kripalani Meerut

55. 1948 B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya Jaipur
Trivia
st
1 President of INC W C Bonnerjee
Gandhiji became the President in l924(Belgaum)
S C Bose became the President in 1938 ( Haripura )& 1939 (Tripuri)
President during Quit India Movmt.1940 Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (Ramgarh) and no sessions during
1941-45 due to arrests and jailing of all eminent leaders
Jawahar Lal Nehru became President for the first time in 1929 (Lahore)
Swadeshi Movement
It began as a anti-partition agitation in Bengal and boycott was first suggested by Krishnakumar Mitra in Sanjivni
in 1905. The boycott of British products was followed by the advocacy of swadeshi and to buy indigenously
produced goods as a patriotic duty.
*
Stages of Swadeshi Movement

1905-1909 Movement confined lo Bengal & launched as a protest movement.
1909-1910Countrywide spread of movement & launching of anti colonial movement
1910-1911Swadeshi movement merged with revolutionary terrorist movement of 1 phase & led to foundation of
numerous secret associations.
To encourage indigeneous industries, some Swadeshi Enterprises were setup viz. Calcutta Potteries, Bengal
Chemicals and Bengal Lakshmi Cotton Mills.
Swadeshi melas or lairs were held for selling handicrafts
Charkha (spinning wheel) came to typify the popular concern for countrys economic self-sufficiency.
The Carlyle Circular withdrew giants and scholarships to educational institutions. Hence, Nationalist educational
institutes were founded, e.g. Bengal Technical Institute, Bengal National College and School with Aurobindo Ghosh as its
Principal
Rabindranath Tagore called for the observance of raksha-bandhan as a symbol of brotherhood
A large number of volunteer bodies or Samitis were founded. Swadesh Bandhav Samiti of Barisal founded
by Ashwini Dint was the largest.
Anushilan Society had two branches. Pulin Das led the Dacca branch. Birendra Ghosh and Jatin Banerjee
led the Calcutta Branch.
Moderate-led Anti-Partition Movement (1903-05)

Under Surendranath Banerjee, K.K.Mitra. Prithwish Chandra Kay. Methods
Public meeting, petitions, memoranda, propaganda through newspapers and pamphlets.
Movement under Extremists (1905-08)
Led by Tilak. Bipin Chandra Pal. Lajpat Rai, and Aurobindo Ghosh.
The political extremists demanded self-government for India, not under British tutelage or British
Paramountcy (as the Moderates wished), but by severing all British connections, and wiping off British influences. Methods

included boycott of foreign cloth and other goods, public meeting and
Processions, forming corps of volunteers or samitis.
Use o( traditional popular festivals and melas for propaganda.
Emphasis on self-reliance or atma shakti.
Launching programme of swadeshi or national education, swadeshi or indigenous enterprises.
Initialing new trends in Indian painting, songs, poetry, pioneering research in science.
Call for boycott of schools, colleges, councils, government service, etc.
The students of Bengal played a prominent part. They practiced & propagated Swadeshi.
Remarkable aspect was the involvement of women.
Many prominent Muslims including Abdul Rasul, Liaquat Hussain. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad also joined
the movemen
Tilak played the leading role in spreading the movement lo the rest of the country.
Impact of Swadeshi
Movement
Swadeshi movement was stepping stone of Nationalist movement. which led to beginning of organized
political movement in India.
Rise of Neo-Nationalistsmvt
Surat split
Revival of indigenous industries
Boycott of foreign goods Cultural
Revival & emergence of nationalist art & literature
Concept of national education
Regional Variations
Bihar and United Provinces were quiet
B C Pal in Madras led Vande Mat ram Movement.
Lala Lajpal Rai and Ajit Singh led the movement in Punjab
Tilak began the Swadesh Vastra Pracharni Sabine
Savarkar founded the Mitra Mela
Tilak was imprisoned for 6 years in Mandalay jail and was released in 1914.
Leaders Journals
BipinPal New Indio
B Upadhyaya Sandhya
Barinder Ghosh Yugantar
K K Mitra Sanjivini
Ajit Singh Bharat Mata

Most Important Achievement

A leap forward because hitherto untouched sections participated, major trends of later movement emerged; richness of the movement
extended to culture, science and literature;peopleeducatedinbolderformofpolitics;colonialhegemonyundermined.
Failure of Swadeshi Movement by 1908 .

Severe government repression. .
Lack of effective organization of all leaders
Spin in nationalist ranks
The Swadeshi leaders refrained from rallying the peasants.
Narrow social base.
Acts Passed by the Government to Suppress the

Movement
Seditious meetings Act (1907)
Criminal Law (Amendment) Act (1008)
Indian Newspapers (Incitement lo Offences) Act (1908)
Explosive Substances Act (1908)
Indian Press Act (1910)
The Moderates and the Extremists
The Moderates
The Congress programme during the first phase of the Freedom Movement (1885-1905) was very moderate.
It demanded mild constitutional reforms. economic relief, administrative reorganization andprotection ofcivil rights.
A strong point made by the nationalists during this phase was about the economic drain of India.
Political methods of the moderates were constitutional agitations within four walls
Moderates believed that the british people & parliament wanted to be just lo India but did not know the truestateof affairs.
The other important demands were:
Organisation of the provincial councils,
Simultaneous holding of examinations for the I.C.S in India and England.
Reconstitution of the Indian Council, 1892
The separation of (he judiciary from the executive, and the repeal of the Arms Act,
The appointment of Indians to the . commissioned ranks in the Army,
The reduction of military expenditure etc.
Indianisation of higher grades of the administrative services on economic, political & moral grounds
During the first twenty years (1885-1905) there was practically no change in the Congress programme. The leaders were cautious in their
demands. They did not want to annoy the government and incur the risk of suppression.
To pacify them, the government was forced to pass the Indian Councils Act, 1892 but the moderates raised the slogan No taxation without
representation.

However, during this period, a general impression grew (hat the Moderates were political mendicants. only petitioning and
praying to the British Government for petty concessions. This was because early Congress leaders believed that the
presence of the British administration was important for continued political progress in India

The Extremists
Ideological Basis of Extremism
Attachment to rationalism and western ideals had almost alienated the Liberal (Moderate) school from the masses in India.
Socio-religious reform also influenced the extremists ideology
Movements like Ramakrishna Paramahamsa and his disciple, Swami Vivekananda Swami Dayananda, and the Arya Samaj founded by him with a strong emphasis in
native pride, played a vital role in the birth o( extremist philosophy.
They derived inspiration from their traditional cultural values wanted to have relations with other countries in terms of quality and self-respect.
They opposed the Moderates who were considered by them to be servile and respectful to the British.
They gave a call for passive resistance in addition to Swadeshi & boycott
Social Reform Movements like Arya Samaj and Theosophical Society gave impetus to political radicalism. The political radicals derived inspiration from their
traditional cultural values.
There were three groups of extremists The Maharashtra Group (headed by Bal Gangadhar Tilak), The Bengal Group (represented by B C Pal
and Aurobindo) and the Punjab group (led by Lala Laipat Rai,)
Aurobindo published New Lamps for Old in the indu Prakash in 1853-94. It was the first systematic critique of the Moderates
Tilak resented any interference by an alien government into the domestic and private life of the people. He quarreled with the reformers over the Age
of Consent Bill in 1891.
Tilak asserted, Swaraj is My Birth Right and I will have it. He was also the editor of the Maratta (English) and the Kesari (Marathi)
Reasons for the Emergence of Extremists

1. Realization that the true nature of British rule was exploitative
2. International influences and events, which demolished the myth of while/European supremacy. These included
Abyssinias (Ethiopia) victory over Italy.
Boer Wars (1899-1802) in which the British faced reverses.
Japans victory over Russia (I905).
Nationalist movements worldwide.
3. Dissatisfaction with the achievements of Moderates.
4. Reactionary policies of Curzon such as the Calcutta Corporation Act (1899). the Official Secrets Act (1904), the Indian
Universities Act (1904) and partition of Bengal (1905).
5. Existence of a militant school of thought and the emergence ofatrained leadership.
Differences between the Moderates

& the Extremists
Moderates. Constituted of zamindars and upper middle classes in towns. Believed that the movement should be limited to middle
class intelligentsia and that the masses were not yet ready for participation in political work. Inspired by western liberal thought and European history.
Professed loyalty to the British Crown, believed in Englands providential mission in India believed and that political
connections with Britain to be in Indias social. political and cultural interests. Demanded constitutional reforms and share for
Indians in services and insisted Oil the use of constitutional methods only.
Extremists. Constituted of educated middle and lower middle classes in towns and had immense faith in the capacity of
masses to participate and to make sacrifices. Inspired by Indian history, cultural heritage and Hindu traditional symbols. Believed that political
connections with Britain would perpetuate British exploitation of India and rejected providential mission theory as an illusion. Demanded
swaraj as the panacea for India ills.Did not hesitate to use extra constitutional methods like boycott and passive resistance to achieve their objectives.

Conflict and Surat Split

Tilak was unpopular with the Moderate group of Bombay. At the Calcutta Congress 11906) Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo
wanted Tilak to become the President of the Congress. But the Moderates were in no mood to accept him. P Mehta. MM Malaviya
and Gokhale were heckled and booed. Ultimately a compromise was hurriedly made and the agreeable resolutions on the partition of Bengal.
Swadeshi and Boycott were phrased and they secured a smooth passage in the open session. With the foundation of the Deccan Sabha.
the division between the Extremists and the Moderates in Maharashtra was complete. The Congress split in 1907 at Surat under the
presidentship of Rash Behari Ghosh.
Morley-Minto Reforms
Numbers of elected members in Imperial and Provincial Legislate
Councils increasedelected non-officials still in minority.
Separate electorates introduced for Muslims.
Elected non-officials to be elected indirectlythus elections introduce forthe lust time.
Legislatures could pass resolutions, ask questions an supplementaries. vote separate items of the budget. No
responsibility entrusted to the legislators
One Indian to be on viceroys executive council.
Aimed at dividing the nationalist ranks and at rallying the Moderate and the Muslims to the Governments side.
Home Rule Movement

After Tilaks return, having served sentence of six years in Mandalay, he tried securing the readmission of himself and other
Extremists into the Indian National Congress. With the need being felt for popular pressure to attain concessions,
disillusionment with Morley-Minto Reforms and wartime miseries, Tilak and Annie Besant readied to assume leadership. The
Home Rule League was pioneered on lines of a similar movement in Ireland.
Objective
The objective of Home Rule League was
Self Government for India in British Empire
Work for National Education. Social & Political reforms.
Tilak linked up the question of swaraj with the demand for the formation of linguistic states and education in vernacular. He also used Home
Rule lo put an end to caste feeling among the common people and advocated abolition of untouchability.
Tilak (April) and Annie Besant & S. Subramaniam Iyer (September) established Home Rule Leagues in 1916.
Tilaks League was lo work in Maharashtra. Karnataka. Central Provinces and Berar and Annie Besants in the rest
of India
Annie Besant set up the newspapers New India. Commonweal and Young India (1916)
Tilak published Mahratta & Kesari
Jamnadas Dwatkadas. Shankarlal Banker. Indulal Yagnik. George Arundale. B P Wadia and L P Ramaswamy Iyer were
in Besants League.
Home Rule Movement declined after Besant
accepted the proposed Montford Reforms and Tilak
went to Britain lo light the Libel

suit against Valentine Chirol's Indian Unrest.
Methods
Create public opinion in favour of Home Rule through public meeting, also organising discussions, reading
rooms propaganda through public meetings, newspapers. pamphlets, posters, etc.
Positive Gains Emphasis shifted to the masses permanently organizational link established between town and
country prepared a generation of ardent nationalists, influenced Moderate-Extremist reunion at Lucknow (1916)
Lucknow Session-1916 (Presided by Ambika Charan Mazumdar ) Lucknow Pact 119(6) was signed between
the INC and the Muslim League. The mam provisions (a) Principle of separate electorates was accepted, (b)
Demand for a representative government and Dominion Status for India.
Results
The movement marks the beginning for attainment of Swaraj
It discredited moderates of INC and created condition for readmission of Neo-Nationalists in 1916
Montague Declaration of 1917Greatest political achievement
Education Programme
Anti-Rowlatt Satyagrah
The 1919 sedition Committee headed by Justice Rowlatt, led to the Rowlatt Act (18 March 1919) whereby war time
restrictions of civil rights were to he made permanent by
a) System of special courts
b) Detention without trial for 2 years maximum
c) Greater police powers.
This Act authorized the Government to imprison any person without trial and conviction of the court of law.
This law also enabled the Government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, which had been the foundation of
civil liberties inBritain.
Anti-Rowlatt Satyagraha intended to mobilize public opinion against the Act.
It was first countrywide agitation by Gandhi & marked the foundation of Non Cooperation Movement.
During March & April 1919, the country witnessed a remarkable political awakening in India. There were hartals,
strikes, processions & demonstrations.
On April 13-1919 (Baisakhi Day). Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Satyapal were addressing a peaceful rally in
Jallianwala Bagh when General Dyer ordered for the infamous massacre
The Hunter Commissions report on the Punjab disturbances was described by Gandhi as a white wash.
Tagore returned his knighthood in protest.
Sardar Udham Singh who took the name of Ram Mohammed Singh murdered Dowyer in England
Mahatma Gandhi
The Earlier Phase
South Africa: (a) 1907 Satyagraha against compulsory registration and passes for Indians (b) 1910 Satyagraha
against immigration restrictions, derecognition of non- christian Indian marriages while deciding the cases of new

entrants and 3% tax on ex-indentured labourers.

Literary Influences on Gandhi: John Ruskin's Unto the Last,, Emerson, Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy, the Bible and the
Bhagvad Gita.
Appeal of Gandhi:
I) He was already a leader of action who had achieved results in South Africa
2) The social composition of Indians in S. Africa made him an all India figure while the Lal-Bal- Pal, trio were
essentially regional leaders
3) The doctrine of a hi ms a mediated internal differences contributing to a joint nationalist struggle.
4) Gandhis social Utopia was a critique o( Industrialism appealed to those alienated by it.
5) The use of the Indian idiom (eg Ram Rajya) helped in communication
6) Rumours greatly enhanced his stature.
Gandhi in Champaran, Ahmedabad and Kheda

The story of Champaran (Bihar) begins in the early 19th century when European planters had involved the cultivators
in agreements that forced them to cultivate indigo in 3/20th of their holdings (Tin-Kathia). Bui when indigo became unremunerative, the
European planters imposed higher taxes to compensate their losses inthe internationaltradeatthatlime.Gandhi(inJuly 1917)was
successful in abolishing the Tin-Kathia system and refund was made to the cultivators in wages.
In Ahmedabad (March 19/18) the dispute was between the null owners and workers over the plague bonus which the
former wanted to withdraw once the epidemic was over. The workers troubled by inflation wanted adequate
compensation. Gandhi initially persuaded the mill owners and workers to agree to arbitration by a tribunal but the mill
owners withdraw alter commitment. Gandhi then advised the worker to go on strike &he under look hunger strike after
which the mill owners were pressurised into accepting the tribunal award of 35 percent
increase in wages
The peasants of Kheda district (1917-1918) were in extreme distress dueto afailure ofcrops andthegovernment ignored their appeals for
the remission of land revenue. The peasants of Kheda were already hard pressed because of plague, high prices and drought.
Appeals and petition having tailed Gandhi advised the withholding of revenue and asked the peasants to fight unto death.
After the Government directed that revenue should be recovered only from those peasants who could pay. the movement was
withdrawn.
Gandhi undertook his first hunger strike Ahmedabad (1918) for the mill wage hike of workers
His first Civil Disobedience movement was the Champaran
Satyagraha
His first all-India .Satyagraha was the Rowlatt Satyagraha
His first Non-Cooperation Movement was the Kheda Satyagraha
Khilafat and the NCM

During the First World War, Turkey was allied with Germany and Austria against the British. The Indian Muslims
regarded the Sultan of Turkey as their spiritual leader, Khalifa, so naturally they sympathized with Turkey, After the War, the
British removed the Khalifa from power and fragmented Turkey. Hence, the Muslims started the Khilafat movement in India
for the restoration of the Khalifas position. The demands were
Khalifas control should be retained over the Muslim sacred places.
After the post-war territorial adjustments, the Khalifa should be left with sufficient territories.
Khilafat Movement in India
The Khilafat issue was not directly linked with politics in India but the Khilafat leaders (Ali Brothers, Maulana Azad. Hakim
Ajmal Khan & Hasrat Mohani) were eager in enlisting the support of Hindus. Gandhi saw in this, an opportunity to bring about
Hindu-Muslim unity against the British.

The publication of the terms of the Treaty with Turkey, which were very harsh, and also the publication of the Hunter
Committee Report on Punjab disturbances in May 1920 infuriated the Indians. Thus at one level Indian political situation also merged
with the issue of Khilafat.
Initially the Khilafat Leaders limited their actions to meetings, petitions, and deputations in favour of the Khilafat. Later a militant trend emerged,
demanding an active agitation such as slopping all cooperation with the British.
The Central Khilafat Committee met at Allahabad. The meeting was attended by a number of Congress and Khilafat
leaders. In this meeting a programme of non-cooperation towards the government was declared. This was to include
boycott of titles conferred by the Government,
boycott of civil services, army and police, i.e. all government jobs.
non-payment of taxes to the Government.
August I, 1920 was fixed as the dale to start the movement.
The Non-Cooperation Movement

st
It was the 1 Mass based political movement under Gandhi.
The Movement was launched as per resolution of Calcutta session & ratified in Nagpur session Dec 1920.
Anti-Rowlatt Agitation. Jalianwala Bagh tragedy, Khilafat. Movement, General economic, distress during & after
the war were the reasons of Non-Cooperation Movement
The Tilak Swarajya Fund was started to finance the Non-Cooperation Movement
The main emphasis of the movement was on boycott of schools, colleges, law courts and advocacy of the
use of Charkha. There was widespread student unrest and top lawyers like C R Das and Motilal Nehru gave up their
legal practice. Thereafter, the stress was on boycott of foreign cloth and boycott of the forthcoming visit of the Prince of
Wales in November, 1921; popularization of Charkha and Khadi and Jail Bharo by Congress volunteers.
Swaraj or self-rule, Redressal of Punjab wrongs & Khilafat issue were demanded through Non-Cooperation
Movement
Non-Cooperation Movement progressed powerfully from January 1920 to Early February 1922.
From November 192 I, a shift towards radicalism was visible. Gandhi decided to launch a no-revenue
campaign at Bardoli, and also a mass civil disobedience movement for freedom of speech, press and association.
The attack on a local police station by angry peasants at Chauri Chaura, in Gorakhpur district of UP, on February
5, 1922. changed the whole situation. Gandhi, shocked by this incident, withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement.
Spread of NCM
United Provinces
became a strong base of the Gandhian Non-Cooperation Movement. Organised non-cooperation wasanaffair of cities and small towns In
the countryside the movement got entangled with the kisan movement. The peasants rose in revolt not only against Talukdars but also, against merchants with
widespreadagrarian-riotsundertheleadership of Baba Ram Chandra In late 1 921, Eka movement under Mac/an Pan started. Demand was
conversion of produce rents into cash
Punjab
Akali movement for reform and control of the Gurudwaras got closely identified with non-cooperation. Udasi Sikh
Mahants, who managed Gurudwaras, had issued Hukumnamas against Ghadrites & honoured Dyer. Akalis were led by
Kartar Singh Jhabbar, Master Tara Singh and Baba kharak Singh (head of SGPC). The Shrromani
Gurudwara Prabandha Committee was founded by the Shiromam Akali Dal
Maharashtra
Non-cooperation remained relatively weak because the Tilakites were unenthusiastic about Gandhi. Non-Brahmins too felt
that the Congress was a Chitpavan-led affair
Andhra

The Non-Cooperation Movement attained great success in the Andhra delta area Alluri Sitaram Raju organised the tribals
in Andhra and combined their demands with those of the Non-Cooperation Movement. Temple Entry for Ezhavas and
Pulayas was led by Sri Narayan Guru, NK Asan and TK Madhavan. In 1 924, Vaikom Satyagraha in Travancore was led
by KP Kesava Menon
Revolutionary Terrorism
The youth had participated actively in the Swadeshi movement in the hope and belief that Extremist methods of
agitation such as boycott and passive resistance would take the national movement out of its elitist groove. The
inability of the Extremist leadership to adequately analyse the weaknesses of the movement and their failure to suggest
new ways out of the impasse further strengthened revolutionary ideas of assassination and dacoities. Brutal repression of
the Swadeshi movement by the Government too added to the trend of revolutionary terrorism. The youth drew inspiration
from Irish nationalists and the Russian Nihilists.
Ideology
Assassinate unpopular officials, thus strike terror in hearts of rulers and arouse people lo expel the British
physically, based on individual heroic and not by mass-based countrywide struggle
.
Bengal
1902 First revolutionary groups in Midnapore and Calcutta (The Amushilan Samiti)
1906 Yugantar & Sandhya in Bengal, and Kal in Maharastra.
1908 Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose attempt to murder Muza-ffarpur Judge. Kingsford. Alipore conspiracy ease
involving Aurobindo Ghosh. Barindra Kumar Ghosh and others.
1912 Bomb thrown at Viceroy Hardinge by Rashbehari Bose and Sachin Sanyal.
Anushilan Committee (a secret society) whose Dhaka section had 500 branches.
Sandhya, Yugantar newspapers advocating revolutionary activity.
Punjab
Revolutionary activity by Lala Lajpat Rai, Ajit Singh, Aga Haidar Syed Haidar Raza. Bhai Parmanand.
Lalchand Falak.Sufi Ambaprassad.
Abroad
1905 Shyamji Krishnavarma set up Indian Home Rule Society and India House and brought out journal The
Sociologist in London.
1909 Madan Lai Dhingra murdered Curzon-Wyllie; Madame Bhikaji Cama operated from Paris and
Geneva and brought out journal Bande Mataram
Maharashtra
1879 Ramosi Peasant Force by Vasudev Balwant Phadke.
1890 Tilaks attempts to propagate militancy among the youth through Shivaji and Ganapati festivals, and journals Kesri and

Maharatta.
1897 Chapeker brothers assassinated two unpopular British Officials Rand, the plague commissioner of Poona and Ll. Ayerst.
1899 V.D Savarkarand his brother Ganesh organized a secret society Mura Mela. They were co-accused in Nasik and
Gwalior Conspiracy cases)
1904 Mitramela and Abhinav Bharat were merged.
1909 Jackson. District Magistrate of Nasik was assasinated.
The 2nd Phase of Revolutionary Terrorism

Influences on Revolutionary Terrorism
Upsurge of working class trade unionism after the war: the revolutionaries wanted to harness the revolutionary
potential of the new emergent class for nationalist revolution
Russian revolution 1917
Newly sprouting communist groups with their emphasis on Marxism. socialism & proleterial
Journals extolling the self sacrifice of revolutionaries
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA)

It was founded in September 1928 at Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi under the leadership of Chandrashekhar Azad. They were
also influenced by socialist ideas.
Hindustan Republican Army (HRA)

Sachin Sanyal. Jogesh Chatterjee and Ramprasad Bis mil founded Hindustan Republican Army (HRA) at Kanpur in
October 1924. ilk. aimed at organising an armed revolution and establishing ,; Federal Republic of the LISA with a government
elected on the basis of adult franchise. Sachin Sanyal wrote Bandi .Jivan. Hindustan Republican Army was later renamed
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA). Important action of Hindustan Republican Army was Kakori
Robbery (August 1925)
Miscellaneous
Bhagat Singh, Azad & Rajguru shot dead Saunders, the police official responsible for the lathicharge in
Lahore.
Bhagat Singh and B K Dutt threw bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929 to protest against the
passage of the Public Safely Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill, The objective was not to kill but to make the deal hear.
Bhagat Singh wrote: Why I Am An Atheist.
Jatin Das (Sept, 1929) died alter a prolonged fastinjail
Alter raiding Chittagong Armoury Surya Sen proclaimed the formation of Provisional Revolutionary
Government and the Indian Republican Army, which fought at Jalalabad.
Bina Das fired point blank at the governor whle receiving her degree at the convocation.
Kalpana Datta was arrested and tried along with Surya Sen.
Udham Singh assassinated General Dowyer

Famous Conspiracy Cases

Muzzafarpur Conspiracy Attempt on Kingsford, Judge of Muzaffarpur by Prafful Chaki & Khudi Ram
Bose in 1908
Alipore Conspiracy Case Aurobindo Ghosh arrested
Delhi Conspiracy Case (1911) Sanchin Sanyal and Rash Behari Bose were accused of attempting to assassinate
Lord Hardinge
Kanpur Conspiracy Case (1924) British government started the case against four communists-Muzaffar
Ahmed, S.A.Dange, Shaukat Usmani and Nalni Gupta. The government alleged that the Communists wanted
to deprive the British King of the sovereignty of British India.
Kakori Conspiracy Case On August 9, 1925, ten revolutionaries held up the 8-Down train from
Saharanpur to Lucknow ai Kakori and looted its official railway cash. Asfaqullah Khan. Rumprasad Bismil and
Roshan Lehri were hanged.
Lahore Conspiracy Case Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Raj Guru assassinated Saunders, a police official, al
Lahore to avenge Lala Lajpat Rais death. (December 1928)
Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929) Bhagat Singh & Batukeswar Dutt were asked to throw a bomb in the
Central Legislative Assembly on April 8th 1929 against the passage of Public Safety Bill & Trade Disputes Bill
Swaraj Politics and Towards COM

After the debacle of Non-Cooperation Movement in 1922, a group of leaders (No-changers: Ansari, Rajapogalachari,
Kasturiranga Iyengar, Rajendra Prasad and Vallabha bhai Patel) who still believed in Gandhian methods advocated on continuing
Gandhian constructive rural work while another group, the Pro-changers with such stalwarts like, Motilal Nehru. C R Das
demanded Congress participation in council politics. The Gaya session (1922) rejected council entry. A compromise was
struck by which Pro-changers were allowed to stand for elections even as their faith in the constructive programme was reiterated.
Their immediate objective was speedy attainment of full Dominion StatusSwaraj, including the right to frame a
constitution with provincial autonomy.
In the elections of 1923 the Das-Nehru group under the banner of the Swaraj Parry emerged the single largest party in
the Central Assembly, Bombay and Bengal Councils.
The Swarajists pursued an obstructionist strategy to defeat all proposals for legislative enactments.
C R Das died in 1925 and a section of Swarajists (NC Kelkar, MR Jayakar, Lajpat Rai and Malaviya)
mined responsivists. Madan Mohan Malviya and Lala Lajpat Rai founded the independent Congress
Party and rallied the Hindus.
In 1933. u was reorganised as Congress Nationalist Party. In 1930 the Swarajists walked out of the
Assemblies in accordance to the Lahore resolution. The Swaraj Party now merged with the Congress as the
country began to prepare for the second round of direct mass action to achieve complete independence.
Towards Civil Disobedient Movement
Simon Commission
In 1927 the British (Lord Birkenhead was the Secy. Of Slate) decided to appoint a commission to recommend further
constitutional reforms. The Indian protest was on the grounds that the commission headed by Sir John Simon was an all
white commission. Lord Birkenhead constantly talked of the inability of Indians to arrive at any consensus and that the British
did not find any one from among the Indians fit enough to serve in a body that would make recommendation about Indias political
future.
The commissions arrival in India led to a powerful protest movement in which nationalist enthusiasm & unity reached
new heights. On 3rd February, the commissions was greeted with hartals and black flag demonstrations
They could not carry with on will) their coalition partners because of conflicting ideas

Nehru Report
To measure up to the challenge of the British the Report was tabled in 1928. It
remains memorable as the first major Indian effort to draft a constitutional framework for India complete with lists of central
and provincial subjects and fundamental rights.
It demanded responsible government both in the center and in the provinces. But it advocated Dominion
Status and not complete independence.
It demanded universal adult suffrage.
It rejected separate communal electorates. Ii proposed reservation for the Muslims at the center and in
provinces in which they were in minority.
The report recommended equal rights for women, freedom to from unions. and dissociation of the state from
religion in any form.
Calcutta Session of INC in 1928 approved the report. INC now wanted the English government to either accept or
reject the recommendations of the suggested constitution based on Dominion status. By Swaraj the Congress leaders
had so far meant the Dominion Status for India within the ambit of British Empire.
Irwin Offer of 1929
Dominion Status (DS) was a natural issue of Indian constitutional progess
A proposed Round Table Conference (RTC) alter the publication of the Simon Report.
Lahore Session (Dec 1929)
Irwin talks broke down on the issue of Dominion Status, which the British were reluctant to concede immediately.
Jawaharlal Nehru replaced Motilal Nehru as the INC President at Lahore and the major decisions taken at Lahore session
Round Table Conference to be boycotted
Puma-Swaraj or complete independence as the main aim of Congress
Launch a programme of civil disobedience including non payment of taxes
January 26 1930 fixed as the I Independence day to be celebrated everywhere.
On December 31. 1929 the tricolour was hoisted on the banks of Ravi.
Civil Disobedience Movement

After the INC authorized Gandhiji to start CDM, he placed Eleven Point Ultimatum to Irwin (31 Jan 1930) for
administrative reforms and stated that if Lord Irwin accepted them there would be no need for agitation. Civil
Disobedience Movement started with the Dandi March on 12th March. Salt production had geographical limitations. So
in other parts of the country the movement included a) Picketing of liquor shops and auctions (b) No revenue
campaign in Bardoli Forest Satyagrahas (d) Large scale resignation of rural officials (e) Refusal of chaukidari lax (f)
Prabhat Pheris-singing of national songs (g) Patrikas-distribution of illegal pamphlets
11-Point Ultimatum
1. Reduce expenditure on Army &
civil services by 50/f
2. Introduce total prohibition.
3. Carry out reforms in Criminal Investigation Department (C.I.D)
4. Change Arms Act allowing popular control of issue of licences.
5. Release political prisoners
6. Accept Postal Reservation Bill
7. Reduce rupee-sterling exchange ratio
8. Introduce textile protection

9. Reserve coastal shipping for Indians.

10. Reduce land revenue by 50/r
11. Abolish salt tax
First Round Table Conference (1931)

First ever conference arranged between the British & Indians as equals
Congress and most business leaders kept away.
Muslim League represented by Mohammed Ali, Agha Khan. Fazlul Haq and Jinnah.
Hindu Mahasabha represented by Moonje and Jayakar.
Liberals represented by Sapru, Chintamani and Srinivas Sastri.
Princesrepresented by Akbar Hydari and Mirza Ismail, the Dewans of Hyderabad and Mysore
respectively.
With Incidents of rising violence and with majority of leading Congress leaders behind bars Gandhiji called for rather
sudden retreat. He initiated a talk with Irwin. which culminated in the Delhi Pact of 5 th March popularly called Gandhi-
Irwin pact.
Chronology of Events in CDM

12 Mar, 1930Dandi March was undertaken from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi.
Apr, 1930Chittagong Armoury was raided by Surya Sen
Jan 1931 First Round fable Conference
5 Mar, 1931 Delhi Pact signed between Viceroy Irwin and Gandhi
23 Mar 1931 Bhagat Singh. Rujgu ru and Sukhdev were executed.
Mar 1931 (Karachi Congress) It accepted Delhi Pact. Civil Disobedience Movement was withdrawn. The
session also passed the resolution for Fundamental R ig h ts and the Economic Policy.
Sept-Dec 1931Gandhi participated in Second Session of the Round Table Conference
Dec 1931Gandhi returned and launched CDM but the movement was b ru ta lly suppressed by
force
Apr 1934The movement was withdrawn formally
Delhi Pact (Gandhi-Irwin Pact)

Irwin agreed to release all political prisoners except those who were engaged in violence.
Right to make salt in coastal villages for personal consumption.
Gandhi agreed to suspend CDM and participate in 2nd of RTC.
Second Round Table Conference

Gandhi agreed to attend the second Round Table Conference scheduled to be held m September 1931. He demanded
control over defence & foreign affairs. Hindu Mahasabha demanded federal responsibility which was opposed by Muslim
League & the Princes. Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for Dalits which was opposed by Gandhi.
The Government refused to concede the basic nationalist demand of freedom on the basis of immediate grant of dominion
status.
Communal Award And Poona Pact

On August 16. 1932 McDonald announced the proposal on minority representation, known as the Communal

Award which recommended:

to double the existing seals in provincial legislatures.
to retain the system of separate electorate for the minorities.
to grant weightage to Muslims in provinces where they were in minority.
to reserve 3% seats for women in all provincial legislatures except in N WFP
to recognize depressed classes as minority community and make them entitled to the right of separate electrode,
and
to allocate seats to labour, landlords, and traders and industrialists.
Gandhis objections
Gandhi reacted strongly to the proposal of granting the right of separate electorates to the Depressed Classes. He regarded the
Depressed Classes as an integral part of Hindu society. He thought what was required was not protection of the depressed classes but root
& branch eradication of untouchability. He had pinned his hopes for their welfare in the firm belief that the Hindus would do full social
justice to fully integrate them within their fold. He demanded that the depressed classes be elected through a joint & if possible a wider electorate
through universal franchise.
To persuade the recalcitrant Ambedkar to accept his viewpoint, Gandhi, then in the Yarvada Jail, resorted to fast unto death. In an
anxiety to save his life,the Poona Pact with the following main terms was concluded between him and Ambedkar on 25
September 1932.
seats were to be allotted to the depressed classes in the provincial legislatures as against 71 promised by the
Communal Award & 18 % of the total in central legislature.
Adequate representation for the depressed classes in the civil services.
Ambedkar also accepted the principle of joint electorate.
Third RTC
Third Round Table Conference was scheduled to be held in London (1932). The congress did not participate in it. The discussions
led to the passing of the Government of India Act. 1935.
CDM compared to NCM

Launched to attain Puma Swaraj and not merely to remedy wrongs..
It involved deliberate violation of law and not merely non-cooperation
In the initial phase urban people participated but it spread to rural areas where it gained its maximum strength.
Little Muslim and labour participation
Women participated on a large scale to picket shops
Regional Spread
Chittagong: 1 8 th April, armoury raid by Surya Sen.
Peshawar: 2 3 April. Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khans Khudai Khidmatgar activated the NWFP leading to rioting where
the Hindu Gharwal rifles refused to fire on Muslim masses.
Sholapur. news of Gandhis arrest (4 th May) led to working class strike form 7 th to 17 th May.
Darshana salt works (21 May) satyagraha led by Sarojini Naidu, Imam Saheb and Maniklal Gandhi.
Madras: Rajagopala Chari led the March from Trichinopoly to Vedaranniyam.
Kerala K Kelappan marched from Calicut to Payannur. Central Provinces had forest satyagrahas
Gandhis Harijan Campaign

Gandhiji withdrew from the Civil Disobedience Movement to focus on Harijan welfare. After the Poona Pact Gandhi started an All
India Anti- Untouchability League and the weekly newspaper, Harijan.

Harijan welfare work by Gandhians indirectly helped to spread the message of nationalism down to the most oppressed
sections of rural society.
Gandhi confined the Harijan Campaign to limitedsocial reform (opening of wells, roads, and particularly temples plus humanitarian
work) delinking it from any economic demands (though many Harijans wereagriculturallabourers),andalsorefusing to attack caste as a whole.
The Harijan Movement was formally withdrawn in April 1934
Impact of CDM
The Congress swept the polls in most provinces in 1937
The Left alternative emerged, for the Movement had aroused expectations, which Gandhian strategy could
not fulfill
At the level of leadership, Nehru and Bose voiced the new mood, emphasising the need to combine nationalism
with radical social andeconomic programmes.
Some Congress activists formed a socialist group within the party in 1 934.
Kisan Sabhas with anti-zamindar programmes developed rapidly in provinces like Bihar and Andhra.
Towards Quit India Movement

Following the withdrawal of the CDM, Gandhi wanted to focus upon his village reconstruction programme and
Harijan Campaign while many other party members wanted to fight the elections. In October 1934, Gandhi resigned
from the Indian National Congress.
In the Elections to the Central Legislative Assembly in November 1934, the Congress won 45 seats out of the 75. The
government announced the holding of elections to the provincial legislatures in February 1937 under the Government of
India Act 1935 which promised provincial autonomy. At the Lucknow session (April 1936), the Congress decided to
contest them. The Congress framed a detailed political and economic programme at the Faizpur session (December
1936) under the Presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru.
Provincial Elections under the GoI Act 1935
The Congress won a massive mandate. It formed ministries in 8 provincesMadras, Bombay, Central Provinces,
Orissa, Bihar, UP, NWFP and Assam.
Haripura Session (Feb 1938) declared Puma Swaraj ideal to cover Princely States.
Tripuri Congress (Mar 1939) favoured active participation in the Princely States because of the
federal structure of the 1935 Act and due to assumption of office by the Congress after the 1937
elections.
The Tripuri Session witnessed Bose vs. Sitaramyya (Gandhis nominee) conflict. Bose resigned to
form the Forward Bloc.
Individual Satyagraha
With the failure of the British govt. to measure up to the demands, there were two opinions in Congress about the
launching of civil disobedience. Gandhi fell that the atmosphere was not in favour of civil disobedience as there were
differences and indiscipline within the Congress. However, the Congress Socialists and the All India Kisan Sabha were
in favour of immediate struggle. Convinced that the British would not modify their policy in India, (the Congress
having rejected the August Offer), Gandhi decided to start the Individual Satyagraha.

The very reason for confining the movement to individual participation was that neither Gandhi nor the Congress
wished to hamper the War effort and this was not possible in a mass movement. Even the aim of the Satyagraha was a
limited one i.e. to disprove the British claim of India supporting the War effort whole-heartedly.
On 17 October 1940 Vinoba Bhave became the first satyagrahi followed by Nehru.
August Offer, 1940

The Viceroy (Linlithgow) put forward a proposal that included:
Dominion Status in the unspecified future
A post-war body to enact the constitution
Expansion of Governor-Generals Council with representation of the Indians,
Establishing a War Advisory Council.
In this offer he promised the Muslim League and other minorities that the British Government would never agree to a
constitution or government in India, which did not enjoy their support (the Muslim League had demanded Pakistan in
its Lahore session of 1940). The Congress rejected this offer because:
There was no suggestion for a national government and because the demand for Dominion Status was
already discarded in favour of Puma Swaraj
It encouraged anti-Congress forces like the Muslim League.
The Cripps Mission: March-April 1942

Under the pressure of Allies and the need for gestures to win over Indian public opinion, the British were forced to offer
reconciliatory measures. After the fall of Rangoon to the Japanese the British decided to send the Cripps Mission to India
for constitutional proposals, which included:
Dominion status to be granted after the war with the right to secede (Any province could, if it so desired,
remain outside the Indian Union and negotiate directly with Britain)
Consitution making body to be elected from Provincial Assemblies and Princes nominees alter the
War
Individual princes could sign a separate agreement with the British which in effect accommodated
the Pakistan Demand
British would however, control the defence for war period.
The Congress did not want to rely upon future promises. It wanted a responsible government with full powers and also a

control over the countrys defence. Gandhi termed the proposals as a post dated cheque in a crashing bank. Cripps Mission failed to
satisfy Indian nationalists & turned out to be merely a propaganda device for US & Chinese consumption.
Bui above all the Cripps Proposals brought in Pakistan through the backdoor via the local option clause.
Though the Cripps Mission failed, Cripps proposals provided legitimacy to the Pakistan demand by
accommodating it in their provision for provincial autonomy.
Quit India Movement

In the backdrop of the failure of Cripps Mission, imminent Japanese threat, the British attitude towards Indians
who were left behind in Burma and the prevailing anger and hostility to an alien and meaningless war, Quit India
resolution was passed on 8 August 1942 at Gowalia Tank, Bombay. Gandhi told the British to quit and leave India
in Gods hand. His message was Do or Die.
In the initial stages, the Movement was based on nonviolent lines. Repressive policy of the government and
Indiscriminate arrests of the leaders provoked people to violence. (Nehru was lodged in Almoru jail,
Maulana Azad in Bankura and Gandhi in Agha Khan & palace, Poona). Further, it was the only all-India
movement, which was leader less. In many areas, the government lost all control and the people established
Swaraj.
Public Participation
Parallel governments were established in Satara (Prati Sarkar under Nana Patil), Talcher (Orissa),
parts of eastern U.P and Bihar.
In Bengal, Tamluk Jatiya Sarkar functioned in Midnapore district. This national government had various
departments like Law and Order, Health, Education. Agriculture, etc. along with a postal system of its own and
arbitration courts.
The Movement had initially been strong in the urban areas but soon it was the populace of rural areas, which kept the
banner of revolt aloft-for a longer time.
The trend of underground revolutionary activity also started during this phase. Jaya Prakash Narain and
Ramnandan Misra escaped from Hazaribagh Jail and organised an underground movement.
In Bombay, the Socialist leaders continued their underground activities under leaders like Aruna Asaf
Ali. The most daring act of the underground movement was the establishment of Congress Radio with
Usha Mehta as its announcer. The participation was on many levels. School & College students remained in the
forefront. women actively participated and workers went on strikes. Though, peasants concentrated their offence
on symbols of authority, there was complete absence of anti zamindar violence. There were no communal clashes
during the movement. Repression was severe. The Movement did not evoke much response from the
merchant community. In fact, most of the Capitalists and merchants had profited heavily during the War. The
Muslim League kept aloof and the Hindu Mahasabha condemned the Movement. The Communist Party of
India due to its Peoples War line did not support the movement. The Indian Princes and the landlords were
supporting the War effort and therefore did not sympathize with the movement.
Some Congress leaders like Rajagopalachari also did not participate.
Towards Freedom
Rajagopalachari Formula (1945)
In 1944, C Rajagopalachari proposed that after the termination of the war, a Commission could be appointed for demarcating

contiguous districts in the north-west and east where Muslims were in absolute majority. In the areas thus demarcated, a plebiscite
would be held on the basis of adult suffrage that would ultimately decide the issue of separation from Hindustan. If the majority
decided in favour of forming a separate Sovereign State, such decision could be accepted.
In case of acceptance of partition, agreement to be made jointly for safeguarding defence, commerce, communications
etc. The above terms would to be operative only if England transferred full powers to India.
Muslim League was expected to endorse the Congress demand for independence and co-operate with it in the
formation of provisional government for the intrerim period.
Jinnah objected, as he wanted congress to accept two-nation theory & wanted only Muslims of the northwest and east of
India to vote in the plebiscite. Hindu leaders led by V.D Savarkar condemned the plan.
Shim la Conference (June-July 1945)

Proposed by Wavell.

Talks suggested setting up of a new Executive council with only Indian members. The Viceroy and the
Commander in chief would be the only non-Indian members of the council
Caste Hindus and- Muslims would have equal representation the executive would work within the
existing constitution (i.e. not responsible to the central Assembly) but the door was kept open for
discussions on a new constitution.
The Congress, headed by Maulana Azad, resented being characterized as a caste Hindu organization.
Talks broke down due to Jinnahs demand for the Muslim League to have absolute choice in choosing all Muslim
members and a demand for communal veto, though it had ministries only in Assam and Sind.
The dissolution of the conference gave Jinnah the Communal Veto in effect. Thereafter, the satisfaction of the League became a
pre-requisite to any major settlement.
Cabinet Mission (March-June 1946)
MembersPethwick Lawrence (secretary of Stale), Stafford Cripps and Alexander.
The Mission rejected the demand for a full-fledged Pakistan (Comprising the whole of all the Muslim majority areas). The
Mission reasoned that the right of communal self-determination, if conceded to Muslims, also had to be granted to non-Muslims who
formed majorities in West Bengal and Eastern Punjab, as well as in Assam proper. The truncated or smaller Pakistan was unacceptable
to the League.
The Plan proposed
Rejection of the demand for a full fledged Pakistan.
For a very loose union of all the Indian territories under a centre that would control merely the defence, the
Foreign Affairs and the Communications, leaving all other subjects to the existing provincial legislatures.
Provincial legislatures would elect a Constituent Assembly. The members
would divide up into three sections A,B & C while electing the constitutes Assembly. All these sections would have the
authority to draw up provincial constitutions and even group constitutions.
Section A- Non Muslim Majority provinces (Bombay, United Provinces, Bihar, Central Provinces, Orissa, Madras)
Section B - Muslim majority provinces in the north-west (Sind, NWFP & Punjab)
Section C - Muslim majority provinces in North east (Bengal, Assam)
Communal questions in Central legislature were to be decided by a simple majority in both communities
Provinces were to have full autonomy & residual powers
Princely stales were no longer to be under paramountcy of British Government.
After the first general elections, a province could come out of a group and after 10 years a province could call for reconsideration of
the group or union constitution

Each group had powers to set up intermediate level legislature and executive on their own.
The plan failed on the issue of the nature of grouping Jinnah was for compulsory while Nehru was for grouping only till the
formation of a constituent assembly. On 29th July 1946 Jinnah withdrew his earlier acceptance of the plan and fixed 16 August 1946 as
Diner Action Day. Calcutta, Noakhali, Garmukteshwar were the storm centres. Communal massacre weakened the Congress
position in the NWFP.
Interim government
Came into existence on 2nd September 1946, in accordance with Cabinet Missions proposal and was headed
by J L Nehru. Muslim League refused to joinitinitially.
Wavell persuaded the League leaders to join on 26 October 1946.
8th December 1946 Constituent Assembly begins its session with Liaqat Ali Khan of Muslim League as the
Finance Minister
The Interim government, obstructed by its League members and bureaucracy was reduced to a figurehead
and was unable to control the communal carnage.
Attlees Announcement
Prime Minister Atlee on 20 February 1947 announced that the British would withdraw from India by 30 June, 1948 and that
Lord Mountbatten would replace Wavell. British powers & obligations vis-a-vis the princely states would lapse with transfer of
power but these would not be transferred to any successor Government in British India. Partition of the country was implicit in the
provision that if the constituent assembly was not fully representative then power would be transferred to more than one central govt.
Mountbatten Plan (3rd June Plan)
His earlier Plan Balkan was abandoned for the 3rd June Plan.
The Plan declared that power would be handed over by 15 August 1947 on the basis of dominion status to India and
Pakistan.
Mountbatten supported the Congress stand that the princely states must not be given the option of
independence. They would either join India or Pakistan
Boundary commission was to be headed by Radcliffe and the award was to be announced after Republic day
(which was a major cause of massacres)
Punjab & Bengal Legislative Assemblies would meet in two groups, Hindus & Muslims, to vote for
partition. If a simple majority of either group voted for partition, then these provinces would be artitioned.
In case of partition, two dominions & two constituent assemblies would be created
Indian Independence Act, 1947
Implemented on 15th August 1947 and Sovereignty of British Parliament was abolished. Dominions of
India and Pakistan were created. Each dominion to have a Governor - General. Pakistan was to comprise
Sind, British Baluchistan, NWFP, West Punjab and East Bengal
The Muslim League

The partition scheme and the subsequent Swadeshi Movement were followed by the formation of the All India Muslim
League towards the end of 1 906 by Aga Khan, the Nawab of Dacca and Nawab Mohsinul Mulk It consisted of a
group of big Zamindars, ex-bureaucrats and other upper class Muslims.
The factors that the helped the growth of Muslim separatism, were the surfacing of Hindu revivalist tendencies
during the Swadeshi movement, The British propaganda that the partition of Bengal would benefit the Muslims and
the spurt in communal violence.
Later, Muslim League came to be dominated by Young Turks who nursed anti-British feelings. Britain had refused to
aid Turkey in the Balkan Wars (191 1 - 1 2) and had rejected University Status to the Aligarh College.
In 1928, the Muslim League rejected the Nehru Report, as it did not incorporate all their demands. This led to the

estrangement of Jinnah, who called it a Parting of the Ways with the Congress and formulated his infamous fourteen
points (including separate-electorates, reservation of seats in the center and provinces, reservation of jobs for
Muslims, creation of new Muslim majority provinces, etc.) which became the text of the communal demands.
1 939, Dec 22The Muslim League observes the resignation of the Congress ministries as Deliverance Day.
1 940, MarchLahore session of the Muslim League passes the Pakistan Resolution.
On Dec 1 943 the Karachi session of the Muslim League adopts the slogan Divide and Quit.
Integration of States
By 1 5 August all except Kashmir, Hyderabad and Junagadh had signed the Instrument of Accession with India, and Bhawalpur with
Pakistan. Goa was with the Portugese and Pondicherry with the French.
THE END.
SOME IMPORTANT FACTS;

Development of Education
Warren Hastings set up the Calcutta Madrasa in 1781 for the study of Arabic and Persian.
The Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded by Sir William Jones iii Calcutta in 1784.
Jonathan Duncan, the resident at Benares started the Sanskrit College in 1791.
Lord Welleslley started the Fort William College m 1800 forthetrainingofCivil Servants,whichthecourtof
Directors closed in 1802.
William Carey, a Baptist missionary, set up schools and publishedBengali translations of theBible,thereby
laying the foundations of EnglishEducation and Bengali prose literature.
The Charter Act of 1813, was the first to provide an annual expenditure of one lakh rupees for the revival and
promotion of literature.
David Hare and Raja Rammohan Roy were instrumental in selling up the Calcutta Hindu College in 1817.
Which later developed into the Presidency College.
Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy
and Macualays Minutes
The Orientalists led by HT Princep who favoured encouragement of Oriental literature and
The Anglicist who favoured the advancement of Western Science and literature.
Macualay, a member of the Executive Council wrote his Minute on Educational Policy (2. February 1833) which favoured
the Anglicist viewpoint. The Macualayan system was based as the idea that limited means negated mass education, hence a

minority would be educated in English, who would act as class of interpreters, thereby enriching the vernaculars such that the knowledge
nf Western Sciences and literature would reach the masses.
Lord William Bentick, in the Resolution of 7 March 1835, accepted Macualays viewpoint which led to the
promotion of European science and literature.
Sir Charles Wood Despatch (1854)

The President of the Board of Control, his scheme became the Magna Carta of English education in India. The
universities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay were set up in 1857. It was Bethunes contribution, which helped a setting up
of a number of girls schools.
The Hunter Education Commission (1882-83)

Its main recommendations were basically for secondary education. Secondary Education should be in two sectorsliterary
Education leading to the university entrance examination and commercial and vocational training.
The Raleigh Commission (1902)

The only Indian member of the commission Gurudas Banerji appointed by Lord Curzon, strongly disagreed with
its recommendations, which were adopted in the Indian Universities Act ^i 1904.
The Indian Universities Act (1904)

It was enacted to ensure greater government controls over the Universities
It transferred the power of ultimate decision in matters of college affiliation and schools recognition to
government officials and sought to fix minimum colleges fees.
Sadler Commission (1917-19)

The two Indian members were Sir Ashutosh Mukherji and Dr Ziauddin Ahmed. It was mainly for higher education.
It recommended a twelve year course of Matriculation, then intermediate followed by University
University course was limited to three years and divided into Pass Course and Honours
Each University should be a Centralized system.
A Board of womens education was also suggessted.
Wardha Scheme
Wardha scheme of Basic Education (1937), worked out by the Zakir Hussain Committee alter Mahatma Gandhi published a series
of articles in the Harijan. It centred around manual productive work which would cover the remuneration of teachers. There
was to be a seven year course through the mother tongue of the students. It was to be centred around crafts.
Sargeant Plan of Education (1944)

It envisaged
The establishment elementary schools and high schools
Universal and compulsory education for all children between the age of six and eleven
A school course of six years was to be provided for children between age eleven and seventeen.
High schools were to be of two types

(a) academic and

(d) technical and vocational.
Governor Generals and Viceroys

The Governors of Bengal
Roger Drake (1757)
Robert Clive( 1757-60)
Holwell (officiating) 1760
Vansittart (1760-1765)
Robert Clive (Second
Administration) (1765-67)
Henry Verelst (1767-69)
Cartierf 1769-72)
Robert Clive : (Governor of Bengal from 1857-60 and
again during 1765-67), Established Dual Government
in Bengal from 1765-72
Vannistart (1767-69)
Carder (1769-72)
Governor-Generals (1772-1857)
Warren Hastings (1772-1785)
Became governor of Bengal in 1772 and Governor-General in 1773 through the Regulating Act.
Abolished Dual system of administration)
Wrote introduction to the first English translation of lire Gila by Charles Wilkins.
Founded the Asiatic society of Bengal with William Jones in 1784.
Revenue reforms
Auctioned the right to collect land revenue to the highest bidder.
Divided Bengal into districts and appointed collectors and other revenue officials.
Judicial reforms
Started Diwani and faujdari adalats at the district level and Sadar diwani and Nizmat adalats (appellate
courts) at Calcutta.
Redefined Hindu and Muslim laws. A translation of the code in Sanskrit appeared in 1776 under the title of
Code of Gentoo laws.
Wars
Rohilla wart 1774)
1st Anglo Maratha War (177682)
2ndAnglo-Mysore-War( 1780-84).
Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793)
First person lo codify laws (in 1793). The code separated the revenue administration from the
administration of justice.
Created post of district judge.
Introduced Permanent Settlement in Bengal
Cornwallis is called the father of civil service in India.

Wars: 3rd Anglo-Mysore (defeat of Tipu and the Treaty ofSeringapatanam, 1972)
Sir John Shore (1793-1798)
Introduced the 1st Charter Act
Planned the permanent settlement and later succeeded Cornwallis as Governor- General
Wars: Battle of Kharda between Nizam the Marathas(1795)
Lord Wellesley (1798-1805)
Started Subsidiary Alliance system to achieve British paramountcy in India.
Madras Presidency was formed during his tenure
War
4th Anglo-Mysore (1799)defeat and the death of Tipu Sultan .
2nd Anglo Maratha war( 1803-05) defeat of the Sindhia. the Bhonsale and the Holkar.
Treaty of Bassein (1802)
George Barlow (1805-1807). Vellore Mutiny (1806)
Lord Minto I (1807-1813)
Concluded Treaty of Amritsar with Ranjit Singh (1809).
Charter Act of 1813 was passed.
Lord Hastings (1813-1823)
Adopted the policy of intervention and war.
Wars
Anglo-Napelese war (1813-23
3rd Anglo-Maratha war (1817-18). Hastings forced humiliating treaties on Peshwa and the Sindhia.
Introduced the Ryotwari settlement in Madras by Thomas Munro, the Governor.
Lord Amherst (1823-28)
Wars:
1st Burmese War (1824-26),
Acquisition of territories in Malay Peninsula.
Capture of Bharatpur (1826).
Lord W Bentick (1828-35)

Most liberal and enlightened Governor-General of India
Regarded as the Father of Modern Western Education in India.
Abolition of sad and other cruel riles (1829)
Suppression of Thuggee (1830). Curbed by Colonel Sleeman.
Passed the Charter Act of 1833. which provided that no Indian subject of Company was to be debarred from
holding an office on account of his religion, place of birth, descent and colour.
Macaulays minutes in education were accepted declaring that English should be the official language of
India.
Abolition of provincial courts of appeal and circuit set up by Cornwallis, appointment of commissioners of
revenue and circuit
Wars. Annexed Mysore (1831) Coorg (1834), Central Cachar (1834) on the plea of misgovernment. Concluded a treaty of
perpetual friendship with Ranjit Singh.
Sir Charles Metcalfe (1834-1836).
Passed the famous Press Law, which liberated the Press in India.
Lord Auckland (1836-42)
1st Afghan War (1836-421 great blow to the prestige of the British in India.
Lord Ellenborough (1842-44)
Brought an end to the Afghan War.

Annexation of Sindh.( 1843)

War with Gwalior (1843)
Lord Hardinge (1844-48)
1st Anglo-Sikh war and the Treaty of Lahore. I S46.I Marked the end ofSikh Sovereignty in India)
Gave preference to English educated in employment.
Lord Dalhousie
(1848-56)
Abolished of Title and Pensions
Widow Remarriage Act (1856)
Wars
Introduced Doctrine of Lapse (Captured Satra (1848), Jaipur and Sambhalpur (1849), Baghat
(1850), Udaipur (1852) Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854)
Fought the Anglo Sikh War and annexed the whole of the Punjab
2nd Burmese War (1852) and annexation of Lower Burma or Pegu
Annexation of Berar in 1853.
Annexation of Oudh in 1856.
Administrative Reforms
Introduced the system of Centralized control in the newly acquired territories known as Bon-
Regulation system.
Raised Gurkha regiments.
Educational Reforms
Recommended the Thomsonian system of Vernacular education for whole of (he Northwestern
Provinces (1853).
Woods Educational Despatch of 1884 & opening of Anglo-Vernacular Schools and Government
Colleges.
Universities were to be set up at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. An Engineering college was
established at Roorkee.
Public Works
Started the first railway line in 1853 (connecting Bombay with Thana was laid down)
Started electric telegraph service. Laid the basis of the modern postal system
Established a separate public works department was set up for the first time
Started work on the Grand Trunk Road and developed the harbours of Karachi, Bombay and
Calcutta
Lord Canning (1856-62)

The last Governor General and the first Viceroy.
Revolt of 1857
Passed the Act of 1858, which ended the rule of the East India Company.
Withdrew Doctrine of lapse.
The Indian Councils Act of 1861 was passed, which proved to be a landmark in the constitutional history of India.
The Doctrine of Lapse was withdrawn. The Indian Penal Code of Criminal Procedure (1859) was passed.
The Indian High Court Act (1861) was enacted.

Income Tax was introduced for the first time in 1858.

The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras founded in 1857.
The Indigo riots in Bengal
Lord Elgin I (1862-63)

Wahabi Movement (Pan-Islamic Movement)
Sir John Lawrence (1864-69)
Telegraphic communication was opened with Europe.
High courts were established at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1865.
Expanded Canal works, railways.
Bhutan War (1865)
Advocated State-managed railways. Created the Indian Forests Department and reorganized the
native judicial service
Lord Mayo (1869-72)

Introduced financial decentralization of in India and made the first Provincial settlement in 1870
He established the Rajkot College at Kathiawar and Mayo College at Ajmer for the Indian princes
He organised the Statistical Survey of India
He established the Department of Agriculture and Commerce
He was the only viceroy to be murdered in office by a convict in the Andamans in 1872
Introduction of Slate Railways
Lord Northbrook (1872-76)
Kuka Movement of Punjab look rebellious turn during his period
Lord Lytton (1878-80)

(The viceroy of reverse character)
Most unpopular Governor-General
Pursued free trade and abolished duties on 29 British manufactured goods which accelerated drain
of India .
Arranged the Grand Darbar in Delhi (in 1877) when the country was suffering from a severe
famine.
Passed the Royal Title Act (1876) and Queen Victoria was declared as the Kaiser- a- Hind.
Arms Act (1878) made it mandatory for Indians to acquire license for arms.
Passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act (1878)
Proposed the plan of Statutory Civil Service in 1878-79 and lowered the maximum age limit from
21 to 19 years.
The 2nd Afgan war which proved a failure.
Lord Rippon (1880-84)

He was appointed by the Liberal Party under Gladstone.
Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act, 1882.
The first Factory Act, 1881 to improve labour condition.
Resolution on Local sell Government in 1882.
Resolution on Land revenue policy.

Appointed Hunter Commission (for education reforms) in 1882.

The Ilbert Bill controversy erupted during his time
Lord Dufferin (1884-88)
3rd Burmese War (Annexation of upper & lower Burma; 1885).
Establishment of the Indian National Congress; 1885.
Lord Lansdowne (1888-94)

The Factory Act of 1891
Catagorization of Civil Services into imperial, Provincial & subordinate
Indian Council Act of 1892 (introduced elections which was indirect)
Appointment of the Durand Commission lo define the line between British India and
Afghanistan.
Lord Elgin II (1894-1899)

The Santhal Uprising of 1899
Convention delimiting the frontier between China and India was ratified
Great famine of 1896-97
Lyll Commission appointed after famine
Assassination of two British officials by the Chapekar brothers in 1897
Lord Curzon 1899-1905)

Appointed a Police Commission in 1902 under Andrew Frazer
Set up the Universities Commission and accordingly the Indian Universities Act of 1904 was
passed
Set up the Department of commerce and Industry
Calcutta Corporation Act (1899)
Passed the Indian Coinage and Paper currency Act (in 1899) and put India on a gold standard.
Partition of Bengal took place in 1905 (It was cardinal blunder of Curzon)
In 1890, a Sino British convention was organised to demarcate the boundary of the two nations
He created the new North West Frontier Province between the ministrative frontier and the
Durand line
Lord Minto II (1905-1910)

Swadeshi Movement
Surat session and split in the Congress (1907)
Newspapers Act. 190S
Morley-Minto Reforms, 1909
Foundation of the Muslim League. 1906
Lord Hardinge II (1910-1916)

Annulment of the partition of Bengal
Transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi
Durbar in Delhi and Coronation of George V and Queen

Establishment of Hindu Mahasabha by Madan Mohan Malviya, 1915
Lord Chelmsford
(1916-21)
Home Rule Movement launched by Tilak and Annie Besant
Lucknow Pact, 1916 between Congress and Muslim League
Arrival of Gandhi. And Champaran Satyagraha : 1916
Montagues August Declaration (1917)
1918 Kheda Satyagraha and Satyagraha at Ahmedabad
Government of India Act (1919)
Constitutional Reform of 1919
Repressive Rowlatt Acts (1919)
Massacre at Jalianwala Bagh (1919)
Saddler Commission of Education in 1917
Khilafat Movement
Non-Cooperation Movement
Lord Reading
(1921-1926)
Criminal Law Amendment Act and Abolition of cotton excise
Repeal of Press Act (1910) &Rowlatt Act of 1919
Chauri-chaura incident
Violent Mooplah rebellion in Kerala (1921)
C.P.I founded in 1921
R.S.S founded in 1925
Nagpur Kakori robbery in 1925
Holding of the simultaneous examination for the ICS in England and India from 1923
Murder of Swami Sraddhanand
Lord Irwin (1926-1931)

Simon Commission (announced) 1927
Butler Commission in 1927
All India Youth Congress. 1928
Nehru Report, 1928
Lahore session of the congress and Poorna Swarj declaration
Civil Disobedience Movement 1930
Dandi March (March 12th, 1930)
1st round Table Conference, 1930
Gandhi-Irwin Pact March 5, 1931

Lord Willingdon (1931-1936)

Civil Disobedience Movement
Second Round Table Conference in September 1931
Announcement of Communal Award (1932)
Third Round Table Conference, 1932
Foundation of Congress Socialist Party, 1934.
Government of India Act ,1935
Burma separated from India, 1935
All India Kishan Sabha 1936
Lord Linlithgow (1936-1944)

st
1 General Election (1936-37)
Congress ministries, 1937 & Resignation of Congress Ministries 1939
Forward Block founded in 1939
Deliverance day by Muslim League 1939
Lahore Resolution, 1940
August offer, 1940
Cripps mission, 1942
Quit India Movement, 1942
Lord Wavell (1943-1947)

C.R. Formula 1944.
Wavell plan and Shimla Conference m 1945
End of 2nd World War; 1945
INA Trails and the Naval mutiny. 1946
Cabinet Mission, 1946 and acceptance of its proposals by Congress.
Direct Action Day by the Muslim League on the 16th August, 1946
Lord Mountbatten
(Mar-Aug 1947)
Announced the 3 June, 1947 plan.
June 3rd Plan announced (3rd June 1947)
Introduction of Indian Indepedence Bill in the House of Commons
Appointment of 2 boundary commissions under Sir Cryil Radcliffe
C Raj Gopalchari
The last Governor General of free India
The only Indian Governor General remained in office from 21 st June, 1948 to 25th January, 1950.

Socio-Religious Reform Movements of the 19th-20th

Centuries
Socio-Religious Reform Movements and
Organizations
Movement/Or Year Place Founder Objectives
ganisation
Swaminaraya Gujarat Swami Protest against epicurean and luxurious
n Sahjananda practices of Vaishnavism
Sampradaya (original
name
Atmiy 1815- Calcutt Raja Ram Mohan Roy To propagate monotheism
aSabh 1828 a & reforms in the Hindu society
a Syed Ahmed of Rae Popularized the teachings of Waliullah;
Waha 1820 Rohi Bareilly stressed role of individual conscience in
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, religion.
bi 1828 lkha Keshab Chandra Sen. Emphasized on human dignity, opposed idolatry
Debendranath and criticized social evils as Sati
Tagore
Move nd

Young (1826- Calcutt Derozio. Opposed vices in the society; believed in

Bengal 1832) a Rasikkrishna truth, freedom, & reason; social reform
Dharma 1830 Calcutt Mullik. Tarachand
Radha Kanta Deva Founded to counter Brahmo Samaj Movement.
Sabha a Opposed to liberal and radical reforms,
Namdhari/ 1841- NWF including
Bhai Balak Singh and Spread the Sati.
true spirit of Sikhism . opposed to
Kuka 1871 Profince Baba Ram Singh all caste distinctions.
Movement & Bhaini
Rahanumai 1851 (Ludhian
Bombay S.S.Bangal A socio-religious organization of the Parsis
Mazdayasan i. Naoroji founded for the restoration of Zoroastrian
Sabha Fundonji, religion to its pristine glory and social
J.B.Nacha, regeneration of the Parsi community through
Radha Soami 1861 Agra etc. ram also
Tulsi modem
B el ie education and emancipation
f in one Supreme of women.
Being, religious
Satsang known as Shiv Dayal unity, emphasis on simplicity of social life
Saheb and socialHindu
service.
Prarthana 1867 Bombay Dr. Atmaram Reforming religious thought and
Samaj Pandurang practice in the light of modem knowledge
Indian 1870 Calcutt Keshab Chandra Sen Create public opinion against child marriages
Reform a & for legalizing the Brahmo form of (Civil)
Association marriage. Promote the intellectual and social
Arya Samaj 1875 Bombay Swami Dayananda To reform Hindu religion in North India
Theosophica 1875 New Saraswati
Madam HP Blavatsky Advocated the revival & strengthening of
l Society York & Col. H.S Olcott ancient religions of Hinduism,
Deccan 1884 Pune M.G.Ranade Zoroastrianism
To contribute to&the Buddhism.
cause of education and
Education . culture in Western India. The Society
Society
Seva Sadan 1885 Bombay V.G.Chibdo
Behramji founded the
Campaign Ferguson
against College.
child Puneand
marriages in 1885
enforced
M.Malabari widowhood and care for socially exploited
Ramakrishna I887 Swami Vivekananda To women.
carry on humanitarian relief and social
Mission work
Movement/Orga Year Place Founder Objectives

nisation
Indian 1887 Bombay, M.G.Ranade and To focus attention on matters relating to

National Raghunath Rao social reforms. The social reform cell of the
Social
Indian National Congress.
Deva Samaj 1887 Lahore Shiva Narain ideas closer to Brahmo Samaj Asked his followers to
Agnihotri follow social code of conduct and ethics, as not to
accept bribe, indulge in gambling, and consume
Madras Hindu 1892 Madras Viresalingam Pantalu Movement concerned with the plight of widows and
Association combat Devadasi System.
Bharat Dharma 1902 Varanasi Pandit Madan Organization of the orthodox Hindus, also known as
Mahamandala Mohan Malaviya Sanatandharmis, to counter the teachings of the Arya
The Servants 1905 Bombay and Pandit
Gopal DinGokhale
Krishna Sama.
To work for social reforms, & train "national
of India missionaries for the service of India"
Society
Poona Seva 1909 Pune G.K. Devadharand establish institutions for the economic uplift and
Sadan useful employment of women.
Ramabai Ranade
Nisk 1910 Pune Dhondo Keshav Karve work for social reform, selfless service to mankind and
am educational progress of women. Founded India's first
karm Women's University in Pune, 1916,
a
The Bharat 1910 Calcutta Saralabala Deve first women's organization on all-India basis to
Stri Mandal Choudharani further the cause of women's education and
Social 1911 Bombay Narayan Malhar Joshi Social service and improve the conditions of the common
Service masses by opening schools, libraries dispensaries.
League
Seva Samiti 1914 Allahaba Pandit Hridayanath Organize social service, promote education and reform
d Kunzru criminal and fallen elements in society
The Indian 1917 Madras Mrs Annie Besant Work for uplift of Indian women and ''to secure a
Women's
larger a free and fuller life for them".
Association

Khudai 1929 Khan Abdul Gaffar Upliftment of people of Frontier & prepare them for
Khidmatgar Khan attainment of independence.
movement
Muslim Socio-Religious Movements and Organizations

Movement/ Year Place Founder Objectives
Organization
Faraizi or 1804 Faridpur, Haji Shariatullah and Emphasis on strict monotheism and to rid the
Faraidi Bengal Dudhi Miyan Muslim society of non-Islamic social customs,
Movement
rituals and practices. Anti-landlord & anti-
British movement.
Taayuni 1839 Dacca Karamati Ali Jaunpur Opposed to the Faraizi movement and supported the
Movememt British rule.
Deoband IS67 Deoband Muhamman Qasim Nanautavi Improve the spiritual and moral conditions
movement and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi of India Muslim. It supported the INC and
(A school of was opposed to the pro-British Aligarh
Islamic movement.
Thcology
at Deoband
Sharanpur,
UP)
Movem Ye Place Founde Objectives

ent/O ar r
rgani
Aliga 18 Aliga SirSye Liberalization of Indian Islam and modernization of Indian Muslims through religious
rh 75 rh d reinterpretation, social reform and modem education.
Movem Ahmad
ent Khan
Ahama 188 Farid Mirza Universal religion of all humanity, opposed to Islamic orthodoxy and spread of
diya 9- kot ghulam western liberal education among Indian Muslims.
Movem 90 Ahmad
ent of
Nadwa 189 Luck Qadiya
Maulan To reform the traditional Islamic system of education, to strengthen Hindu-Muslim
tal 4- now aShibl to arouse nationalism among Indian Muslims.
Ulama 95 i
Numani
Ahrar Riza Against Aligarh Movement
Movem Khan &
ent Ali
Brothe
Lower Caste/Caste Movements and Organizations

Moveme Year Place Founde Objectives

nt/Org r
anizat
Satya 1873 Mahara Jyotib Opposed to untouchability, priestly or Brahmin domination, belief in social equality
Shodha shtra a and uplift of the lower castes by educating them.
k Phule
Samaj
Aravip 1888 Aravipp Shri Opposed to religious disabilities against lower castes, believed in social
puram uram Naraya equality, attacked Brahmin domination and worked for the uplift of lower
Moveme Kerala n Guru castes by educating them. Demanded free entry of the people of lower castes
nt (1856-
temples.
1928)
Shri 1902- Kerala S Same as above. In 1920. TK.Madhavan launched the temple entry movement.
Narayan 3 h
Dharma 1906
The Bombay r
V.R.Sh Launched by the Prarthana Samaj as an Independent association to organize
Depre inde education facilities for lower castes.
ssed
Bahuja 1910 Satar Mukund Opposed to exploitation of the lower castes by the upper caste Brahmins,
n a, rao landlords, merchants and moneylenders
Samaj 1915-
Justic Mahar Patil
Madr C Opposed to Brahmin predominance in education, services and polities
e 16 as, .
(Party
Depr 1924 (Tam
Bambay Dr.B.R To propagate the gospel of social equality among caste Hindus and
esse . untouchables. Demanded constitutional safeguards for the depressed classes.
d Ambedk
Clas
Self- 1925 ar
E.V.Ra
Madr Anti-Brahmin and Hindu Orthodoxy radical movement, advocated ,Weddings
Respec as maswam without priests, forcible temple entry, total defiance of Hindu social
t (Tam i laws and also theism
Moveme ilna Naicke
Harija 1932 Pune Mahat Organization for removal of untouchability & social discriminations against
nSevak ma untouchables and other lower castes. Provide medical, educational and
Sangh Gandh technical facilities to untouchables.
i
Dravid 1944 C.N Social equality.
a Annadu
Munetr rai &
a Ramasw
Peasant Movements
Movement Region Year Leader Objective
Titu Mir's Movement West Bengal 1782-1731 Mir Nathar Ali or Titu Against Hindu landlords who imposed beard
Mir lax on the Farazis.
Pagal Panthis Hajong & Garo tribes 1825-1835 Karam Shah & Tipu Shah Against hike in rents; the movement was
movement Mymensingh district, violently suppressed.
Moplah Uprisings Malabar 1836-1854 Against rise in revenue demand and
reduction of field size.
Indigo Revolt Nadia district 1859-1869 Degambar and Bishnu Against terms imposed by European
Biswas indigoplanters; Indigo Commission (I860)
set up to view the situation.
Deccan Peasants' Kardeh village and 1875 Against corrupt moneylenders (Gujarati
Uprising Poona in &Marwari); Agriculturists' Relief Act
Maharashtra ( 1879) passed
Phadke's Ramosi Ramosi,Maharashtra 1877-1887 Wasudeo Balwanl Phadke Against the British failure to take up
Uprising anti-famine measures.
Pabna Agrarian Pabna district, 1873 Shah Chandra Roy, , Against policies of zamindars to prevent
Uprising East Bengal (now in Shambhu Pa Khoodi occupants from y acquiring occupancy
Bangladesh) Mollah and supported b rights, Bengal tenancy Act (1885) passed.
B.C. Chatterjee & R.C.

Punjab Peasants' Punjab Last decade Against prospect of losing their land; the
Revolt of 19th Land Alienation Act (1900) passed, imposed
century regulations on sale & mortgage of land &
revenue demands
Poona Sarvajanik Districts of Thana, 1870 M G Ranade To popularize the peasants legal rights.
Sabha Colaba and
Champaran Ratnagiri
Champaran, Bihar 1917 Peasants Against the tinkathia system imposed by
Satyagraha the Europenan indigo planters; the Champara
Kheda Satyagraha Kheda. Gujarat 1918 Peasants led by Gandhi Against ignored appeals for remission of la
revenue in case of crop failures; the
demands were finally fulfilled.
UP Kisan Sabha United Province 1918 Indra Narain Dwivwedi
& Madan Mohan Malviya
Awadh Peasant Barielly -Pratapgarh 1918
Movement region
Oudh Kisan Sabha Oudh 1920 Nehru & Baba Ram
Chandra
Andhra Ryots Andhra 1928 N.G Ranga Accepted abolition of Zamindari
Association
All India Kisan Apex organization of 1936 Swami Sahajananada. Protection of peasants from economic
Sabha peasants exploitation
Bardoli Satyagraha Surat, Gujarat 1928 Kunbi-Patidar peasants Against oppression by upper caste and
and untouchables hike in revenue by 22 percent ;a by the
supported, by Mehts Bombay Government; the revenue was
brothers, Vallabhabhi brought down lo 6.03%.
Eka Movement Hardoi, 1921-22 Members of Pasi and s Against hike in rents.
Barabanki and Ahir caste
Tebhaga Movement Sitapur
Bengal 1946 By poor peasants & Against zamindars and moneylenders;
tenants & Bargardars Bargardari Bill was passed
Telangana Hyderabad 1946-5 1 Against practices of moneylenders and
insurrection officials of the Nizam of Hyderabad.
Newspapers and Journals

Name of the Paper/Journal Name of Founder/Editor
Bengal Gazette 1780 James Augustus Hicky

(Irishman)
India Gazette 1787 Henry Louis Vivian Derozio
associated with it.
Madras Courier 1784
(First paper from Madras)
Bombay Herald 1789 --
(First paper from Bombay)
Indian Herald 1795 R. Williams (Englishman)
and published by Humphreys
Digdarshna 1818
(First Bengali monthly)
Calcutta Journal 1818 J.S. Buckingham
Bengal Gazette 1818 Harishchandra Ray

(First Bengali newspaper)

Sambad Kaumudi 1821 Raja Rammohan Roy
Marat-ul-Akbar 1822 Raja Rammohan Roy
(First journal in Persian)
Jam-I-Jahan Numah 1822 An English firm (First paper in Urdu)
Banga-Duta 1822 Rammohan Roy,
(a weekly in 4 languages Dwarkanath Tagorc and others
English, Bengali, Persian, Hindi)
Bombay Samochar 1822
(First paper in Gujarati)
East Indian 19th century Henry Vivian Derozio
Bombay Times 1838 Foundation laid by Robert Knight,
(The Times of India after 1861) stated by Thomas Bennett.
Rast Goftar 1851 Dadabhai Naoroji
Hindu Patriot 1853 Girishchandra Ghosh (later,
Harishchandra Mukerji became owner
cum-editor)
Spmaprakasha 1858 Dwarkanath Vidyabhushan
(First Bengali political paper)
Indian Mirror Early 1862 Devendranalh Tagore
(first Indian daily paper in English)
Bengalee 1862 Girishchandra Ghosh (taken over
By S.N.Banerjeain 1879)
Madras Mail1868
(First evening paper in India)
Anirila Bazar Patrika 1868 Sisirkumar Ghosh &
(In Bengali and later, an English daily) Molilal Ghosh
Bangadarshana 1873 Bankimchandra Chatterji
Indian Statesman 1875 Robert Knight
(later, The Statesman)
The Hindu 1878 G.S Aiyar, Viraraghavachari and
Subba Rao Pandit
Tribune 1881 Dayal Singh Majeetia
Name of the Paper/Journal Name of Founder/Editor
Kesari and Maharatta 1881 Tilak, Chiplunkar,

Agarkar (before Tilak, Agarkar
and Prof Kelkar were the editors respectively)
Swadeshamitram G.S. Aiyar
Paridasak 1886 Bipin Chandra Pal (publisher)
Yugantar 1906 Barindra Kumar Ghosh and
Bhupendranath Dutta
Sandhya 1906 Brahamabandhab Upadhyay
Kal 1906 --
Indian Sociologist London Shyamji Krishnavarama
Bantle Mataram Paris Madam Bhikaji Cama
Talvar Berlin Verendranath Chattopadhyay

Free Hindustan Vancouver Tarakanth Das

Ghadr San Francisco Ghadr Party
Bombay Chronicle 1913 Phcrozeshah Mehta.
EditorB.G. Horniman(Englishman)
The Hindustan Times 1920 K.M. Panikkar as part of
the Akali Dal Movement
The Milap 1923 M.K.Chand
Leader... Madan Mohan Malaviya
Kirti 1926 Santosh Singh
Bahishkrit Bharat 1927 B.R. Ambcdkar
Kudi Arasu 1910 E.V.Ramaswamy Naicfcer
(Periyar)
Kranti 1927 S.S. Mirajkar, K.N.Joglekar,
S.VGhatc
Langal and Ganabani 1927 Gopu Chakravarli
and Dharani Goswami
Bandi Jivan Sachmdranath Sanyal
National Herald 1938 Jawaharal Nehru
Al-hilal Maulana Abul Kalam Azad
Comrade Mohammed Ali
Young India, Harijan Mahatma Gandhi
Nation Gopalakrishna Gokhlc
Bengali Surendernath Banerjee
Som Prakash Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Karmyogi Arvindo Ghosh
Free Hindustan Taraknath Das
Zamindar, Lahore Zafar Ali Khan
New India, Commonweal Annie Besant
Satpatra Series Gopal Hari Deshmukh
Din Mitra Mukundrao Patil
Kudi Arasu Periyar
Ghulamgiri (Slavery) Jotirao Phule
Marathu, Din Bandhu Bhaskar Rao Jadhav
Darpan Bal Shaslri Jambekar
Prabhudha Bharat, Udbodhava Vivekananda
Important Acts
The Regulating Act, 1773
First attempt by the British Parliament to regulate the affairs of the Company.
End of Dual Government.
Provided for centralization of Administration of Companys territories in Indian.
Governor of Bengal became Governor-general for all British territories in India.
Governor General and council of 4 members appointed for Bengal.
Bombay and Madras Presidency subordinated to Bengal presidency.
Supreme court to be set up at Calcutta.

The Pitts India Act, 1784

This Act gave the British government the supreme control over Companys affairs and its administration in India.
Established dual system of governance. Court of directors consisting of 24 members to look after commercial functions.
Board of control consisting of 6 parliamentary Commissioners appointed to control civil, military and revenue affairs of
India.
Strength of Governor general-in council reduced to 3.
Subordinated the Bombay and Madras presidency to Bengal in all questions of war, diplomacy & revenues.
First effective substitution of Parliamentary Control over East India Company.
The Charter Act of 1793

Company given monopoly of trade for 20 more years.
Expenses and salaries of the Board of Control to be charged on Indian Revenue.
Governor-General could override his Council.
Company deprived of its trade monopoly in India except in tea and trade with China.
All Englishmen could trade with India subject to few restrictions.
Rules and procedures made for use of Indian revenue.
A sum of Rs 1 lakh earmarked annually for education.
End of companys trade monopoly even in tea and with China. Company was asked to close its business at the earliest.
Governor-General of Bengal to be Governor-General of India. (1st Governor-General of India-Lord William Benick).
Govt. of Madras and Bombay deprived of legislative powers.
A fourth member, law member added to council of Governor-General.
Government Service was thrown open to the people of India.
All laws made by Governor General-in-council henceforth to be known as Acts and not regulations.
Extended life of the Company for an unspecified period.
First time separate legislative machinery consisting of 12 member legislative council was created.
Law member was made a full member of the Executive Council of the Governor-General
Recruitment to Civil Services was based on open annual competitive examination. (excluding Indians)
The Govt of India Act, 1858

Rule of Company in India ended and that of the Crown began.
System of double Government ended. Court of Directors and Board of Control abolished.
Secretary of Stale (a member of the British Cabinet) for India was created. He was assisted by a 15-member council (India
Council). He was to exercise the powers of the Crown.
Secretary of State governed India through the Governor-General.
Governor-General was to be called the Viceroy and wasthe direct representative of the Crown in India.
A unitary and highly centralized administrative structure was created.
The Indian Council Act, 1861

Policy of Association of Indians in legislation started.
A filth member who was to be a jurist, was added to the Viceroys executive council.

For legislation, executive Council ol Viceroy was enlarged by 6 to 12 members composed of half non-official members.
Thus foundations of Indian legislature were laid down.
Legislative powers of the Presidency Government deprived in 1833 were restored.
Viceroy could issue ordinances in case of emergency.
The Indian Council Act, 1892

Though the majority of official members were retained, the non-official members of the Indian Legislative Council were Bengal
Chamber of Commerce and the Provincial Legislative Councils.While the non-official membersofthe provincialcouncilwere tobe nominated
bycertain local bodiessuch as universities,districtboards,municipalities.
Beginning of representative system in India
Council to have the power to discuss budget and of addressing questions to the Executive.
Indian Council Act, 1909 (Morley-Minto Act)

Morley was the secretary of state, while Minto was the Indian Victory.
Additional members in central legislative assembly were increased to 60
Introduced for the first time indirect elections to the Legislative Councils.
Separate electorates was introduced for the muslims.
non-official seats were to be filled in by elections. They were distributed as
follows
By non-official members of the Provincial Legislative councils.
By landholders of 6 provinces
By Muslims of 5 provinces
Alternately by Muslim landholders of Up/Bengal Chambers of commerce
of Calcutta and Bombay.
Muslim were to be elected by Separate electorates.
Resoultions could be moved before the budget was taken in its final form.
Supplementary questions could be asked.
The Govt. of India Act, 1919

Popularly known as Montague-Chelmsford Reforms.
The idea of Responsible Government was emphasised upon.
Devolution Rules: Subjects of administration were divided into two categories-Central and Provincial. Subjects of
all India importance (like railways & finance) were brought under the category of Central, while matters relating to the
administration of the provinces were classified as provincial.
Dyarchy system introduced in the Provinces. The Provincial subjects of administration were to be divided into
two categories Transferred and Reserved subjects. The transferred subjects were to be administered by the Governor
with the aid of Ministers responsible to the Legislative Council. The Governor and his Executive Council were to
administer the reserved subjects (Rail, Post, Telegraph, Finance, Law & Order, etc.) without any responsibility to the
legislature.
An office of the High commissioner of India was created in London.

Indian legislature became bicameral for the first lime.

Communal representation extended to Sikhs.
Secretary of State for India now to be paid from British revenue.
Indian Independence Act, 1947

This Act did not lay down any provision for the administration of India
Partition of India and the establishment of two dominions of India and Pakistan.
Constituent Assembly of each Dominion would have unlimited powers to frame and adopt any constitution
The Suzerainty of the crown over Indian stales was terminated.
The office of the Secretary of Slate for India was to be abolished and his work was to be taken over by the Secretary of Stale for
Commonwealth Affairs.
The Govt. of India Act, 1935

The Act was based on 2 basic principles, federation and parliamentary system.
Provided for the establishment of an All India federation consisting of the British Provinces and the Princely States.
The joining of Princely States was voluntary and as a result the federation did not come into existence.
Dyarchy was introduced at the Centre (e.g. department of Foreign Affairs and Defence were reserved for the Governor
General). Provincial autonomy replaced Dyarchy in Provinces. They were granted separate legal identity.
It made a three-fold division of powers - Federal, Provincial and concurrent lists. Residuary powers were to
be with the Governor General.
The Indian Council of Secretary of State for India was abolished.
Principle of separate electorate was extended to include Anglo-Indians, Indian Christians and Europeans.
A Federal Court was to be constituted with a chief Justice and 10 other judges. This was set up in 1937.
Sind and Orissa were created.
Franchise was based on property qualifications.
HISTORY AT A GLANCE
India's Freedom Struggle

1905 Partition of Bengal announced to come in force

from Oct. 15. 1906.
1906, Dec 31 Muslim League founded at Decca 1908, Apr JO Khudiram Bose executed.
1908, Jul 22 Tilak sentenced to six years on charges of
sedition.
1909, Max 21 Minto-Morely Reforms or Indian councils Act,
1909.
1911 The coronation or Delhi durbar held at Delhi
in which the partition of Bengal was cancelled.
1912 Delhi becomes the new capital of India.
1912,Dec 23 Bomb thrown on Lord Hardinge on his state
entry into Delhi.
1913, Nov 1 Ghadar party formed at San Francisco 1914, Jan 16 B.G.Tilak released from jail 1914, Aug 4 Outbreak of the
1st World War. 1914, Sept 29 Komagata Marti ship reaches Budge Budge.
1915, Jan Gandhiji arrives in India.
1915, Feb 19 Death of Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
1916, Apr 28 B.G. Tilak founds Indian Home Rule League
with its headquarters at Poona.
1916. Sept 25 Another Home Rule League started by Annie
Besant.
1917. Apr Mahatma Gandhi launches the Champaran
campaign in Bihar to focus attention on the grievances of indigo planters.
1917, Aug 20 The Secretary of State for India Montagu, declares
that the goal of the British government in India is
the introduction of Responsible Government.
1918 Beginning of trade union movement in India.
1918, Apr Rowlatt (Sedition) Committee submits its report.
Rowlatt Bill introduces on February 16, 1919.
1919, Apr 6 All India hartal over Rowlatl Bills.
1919, Apr 3 Jallianwalas Bagh tragedy
1919, Dec 5 The House of Commons passes the Montagu-
Chelmsford Reforms or the Government of India
Act, 1919. The new reforms under this Act came
into operation in 1921.
1920 First meeting of the All India Trade Union
congress. (Narain Malhar Joshi)
1920. Dec The Indian national Congress (INC) adopts (he
Non-Cooperation Resolution. (Started in Aug 31,
1920)
1920-22 Non-Cooperation Movement, suspended on
February 11-12, 1922 after the violent incidents
at Chauri Chaura on February 5,1922
/y22, Aug Moplah rebellion on the Malabar coast.
1923 Jan 1 Swarajist Party formed by Motilal Nehru and

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Dream Dare Win www.jeywin.

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He established the military department - Diwan-i-Arz.

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Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

Nature of the State

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Firoz Shah Tughlaq

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Timur Invasions (1398-99 AD)

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which later became province or Subas.

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Art and Architecture under Sultanate

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Religious Movements of Medieval Age

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Hindu Religious Ideas

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The Coming of the Mughals Babur (1484-1530)

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Humayun (1530-40; 1555-56)

Sher Shah (1540-1545)

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Akbar's Religious Policies

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Tenets of Din-i-llahi (1582)

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Sir Thomas Roe (1615-18) was ambassador of James I.

Revolts under Aurangzeb

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Mughal State and Architecture

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Mughal State and Administration

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State and Economy

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Vijaynagar Empire and the Bahamani

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Famous Travellers to Vijayanagar Kingdom

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Vijaynagar Local Government

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Break up of the Bahmani Kingdom

The Advent of the Europeans

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The Maratha Age

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Shivajis Revenue Administration

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The Peshwas (1713-1818)

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Ascendanof the British

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