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HURRICANE MAPPING AND DAMAGE ASSESSMENT

D. GAYATHIRI, A. LAVANYA, B. SUGANYA.

B.E.GEO-INFORMATICS
ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI – 600 025

ABSTRACT

Hurricanes, or Cyclones as they are called in India, are one of nature‘s most violent
manifestations and potentially one of the deadliest of all meteorological phenomena. It is a unique
combination of violent winds with a speed greater than 120 km per hour, heavy rains, mountainous
waves and abrupt sea floods. Hurricanes have a life span of 1 to 30 days. This paper analyzes the
hurricane formation and movement and attempts to qualitatively assess the damage caused by
hurricane Katrina (August 23, 2005 to August 31, 2005) over New Orleans, Louisiana. Using
images acquired by NOAA GOES satellite and ancillary data in a GIS, the dynamics of the
hurricane are studied. The data obtained from GOES real time satellite is of resolution 1 km visible
and 4 km infrared of the Continental United States in 5 spectral bands. Studying pre and post-
hurricane IKONOS imagery, damage to property and the extent of inundation are identified and
classified. Contours are generated for the study area and the severity zone maps prepared, aided in
validating the study. The work presented gives us an experience in combining the concepts of GIS
and remote sensing in the damage assessment of hurricanes.

INTRODUCTION
Hurricane Katrina was an extraordinarily powerful and deadly hurricane that carved a wide
swath of catastrophic damage and inflicted large loss of life. It was the costliest and one of the five
deadliest hurricanes to ever strike the United States. It made its landfall in Louisiana on 29 th
August 2005, of which New Orleans was most severely affected.

Most of New Orleans lies below mean sea level and the city existed with the help of levees
and pumps. With Katrina, several of the levees and floodwalls were overtopped and/or breached.
Nearly 80% of New Orleans was flooded with the water reaching a depth of upto 20 feet in several
areas of the city. As per MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) satellite image
of 30th August, 470 square kilometers (120000 acres i.e., 48.45%) out of 907 sq.kms of New
Orleans were under water.
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AIM
Our study aims to study the formation, movement and wind dynamics of hurricane and
generation of contours of the study area and verification with the severity zone map of the post-
hurricane image of hurricane Katrina, using Geographical Information System.

STUDY AREA

The city of New Orleans lies in the state of Louisiana covering 6743 square
kilometers and is located along the east coast of United States of America. It has metropolitan
population of 1,337,726 and density of 534.4/km². New Orleans is a major port city located near
the Gulf of Mexico, the Mississippi River and Lake Pontchartrain and much of the city is located
below sea level. A part of the city has been considered for study, which includes “The Louisiana
Superdome” of New Orleans and its adjacent areas. The area is about 2.36 sq.km.

NEED FOR STUDY

The city of New Orleans has suffered severely from the effects of Hurricane Katrina on
August 29, 2005. The eye of the storm passed within 15 miles of New Orleans, bringing heavy
rains and flooding immediately. Pumping of groundwater from underneath the city resulted in
subsidence. The subsidence greatly increased the flood risk, causing the levees to be breached or
precipitated (as was the case in Hurricane Katrina).

GIS provides a tool for mapping and registering changes using temporal data. Instead of
using conventional methods to assess the damage, GIS could be used effectively by incorporating
many thematic layers for qualitative and quantitative assessment. Using data management tools,
various analyses could be performed. By this way, GIS could be used as a decision making tool
for economic and environmental tribulations.

DATA

The images used in the study are the IKONOS data of New Orleans. The Ikonos-2 satellite
was launched in September 1999. IKONOS data records 4 channels of Multi spectral data at 4-
meter resolution. The pre-hurricane image is as of date 28th August 2002 and the post hurricane
image is of date 2nd September 2005. The wind gust study is made using NOAA image.
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METHODOLOGY

The following flowchart illustrates the methodology involved in our study:

Satellite
Image Point Data
IKONOS

Software Input to 3D
ArcGIS 9 Analyst

Identification Generation
of themes of TIN

Contours

Preparation of Digitization of
severity zones map Water logged areas

Verification of
post-hurricane
image
Fig 1: Methodology involved in our study

STUDY OF HURRICANES
Formation

A hurricane (or tropical cyclone) is formed when the energy released by the condensation
of moisture in rising air causes a positive feedback loop,that is, continued condensation leading to
higher winds, continued evaporation, and more condensation, feeding back into itself. The air
flowing out of the top drops towards the ground, forming powerful winds. Factors such as
continued lack of equilibrium in air mass distribution give supporting energy to the hurricane.
While the most obvious motion of clouds is toward the center, hurricanes also develop an upper-
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level (high-altitude) outward flow of clouds which originate from air that has released its moisture
and is expelled at high altitude through the "chimney" of the storm engine. This outflow produces
high, thin cirrus clouds that spiral away from the center which are the signs of an approaching
hurricane.

Classification of Hurricanes

The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale is used to categorize the intensity of hurricanes with a
rating of 1-5 based on the wind gust and storm surge.

Table 1: Categories of Hurricane (Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale)

Wind Storm
Category Speed Surge in Damage Hurricane
km/hr feet
No damage to structures.
Danny, Alabama,
One <150 3-5 Vegetation may be damaged;
1997
coastal flooding
Damage to roofs, mobile Marilyn, Virgin
Two 151 – 177 6–8
homes and piers Islands, 1997
Small structures on coast
Fran, North
Three 178 – 209 9 - 12 damaged; low-lying areas
Carolina, 1996
need to be evacuated.
Places 10 feet or less, above
Hugo, Carolina,
Four 210-249 13 – 18 MSL; extensive evacuation
1989
needed.
Places 15 feet or less, above Gilbert, Mexico,
Five >249 >18
MSL, 457m of the shoreline 1988

Time of Formation

Worldwide, tropical cyclone activity peaks in late summer when water temperatures are
warmest. However, each basin has its own seasonal patterns.In the North Atlantic, a distinct
hurricane season occurs from June to November, sharply peaking from late August through
September. The statistical peak of the North Atlantic hurricane season is September. The number
of hurricanes for the month of September was 224 from a period of 1944 - 2005 (National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration).

Movement and Track

Large-scale winds are responsible for moving and steering tropical cyclones. The path of
motion is referred to as a tropical cyclone's track. Tracking included geostationary satellite-based
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Dvorak Technique intensity estimates from Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch (TAFB), the
Satellite Analysis Branch (SAB), and the U. S. Air Force Weather Agency (AFWA). Microwave
satellite data and imagery from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) near-
polar-orbiting satellites, Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) satellites, and National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) satellites including the Tropical Rainfall
Measuring Mission (TRMM), QuikSCAT, and Aqua, were also useful in tracking Katrina and
assessing changes in its internal structure. The major force affecting the track of tropical systems
in all areas are winds circulating around high-pressure areas and is mainly based on the Coriolis
effect .

Coriolis Effect

The Coriolis effect is an apparent deflection of moving winds in a rotating frame of

reference (earth). The formula for the Coriolis acceleration is

where is the velocity of the particle in the rotating system (winds), and is the angular velocity
(the rotation rate and orientation) of the earth. The equation may be multiplied by the mass of the
winds to produce the Coriolis force.

The Coriolis effect is the behavior added by the Coriolis acceleration. The formula implies that the
Coriolis acceleration is perpendicular both to the direction of the velocity of the moving mass and
to the rotation axis. So in particular:

• if the velocity (as always, in the rotating system) is zero, the Coriolis acceleration is zero
• if the velocity is parallel to the rotation axis, the Coriolis acceleration is zero
• if the velocity is straight (perpendicularly) inward to the axis, the acceleration will follow
the direction of rotation
• if the velocity is following the rotation, the acceleration will be (perpendicularly) outward
from the axis .

Wind Models for Tracking

To understand the behaviour of hurricanes, various computer models are being used for
forecasting , design and operation. Some of models used widely are
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1. Statistical Models

The statistical models start with the information as to where the storm is located and the
time of year of the observation. The program will then search the available database for other
storms in the same location at the same time of year. The program is not provided with any
information concerning current weather factors that may influence the system being forecasted.
Examples: CLIPER (CLImatology and PERsistence) , NHC98.

2. Dynamic Models

These models use as much information as possible concerning the storm itself and the
conditions surrounding the storm. These models will use as much "real-time" information. There
are basic equations based on the laws of physics, which include hydrodynamic, thermodynamic,
continuity equations.

3. Other Models

The AVN or Aviation model is run by the NCEP, or National Centers for Environmental
Prediction, MRF (Medium Range Forecast) model. BAM( Beta and Advection model) follows a
trajectory from the Aviation run of the MRF model to provide a track forecast. This model
incorporates a correction known as the "Beta Effect". GFDL(Geophysical Fluid and Dynamics
Model) is a baroclinic model, developed specifically for hurricane prediction.

Role of Satellites

Satellites are constantly circling the Earth carrying sensors that collect data. The kind of
data they collect depends on the purpose of the sensors. Sensors of meteorological satellites collect
information about water vapor, temperature, or clouds, and some collect information about all of
these parameters at once. This helps us to be warned that we might be in harm's way of potentially
threatening weather phenomenon.

GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are computer-based tools that allow for the
processing and analysis of geographically referenced data. GIS maybe defined as a tool for
decision-making which consists of hardware, software and procedures designed to support the
capture, management, manipulation, analysis, modeling and display of spatially referenced data for
solving complex planning and management problems. GIS can be effectively used for managing
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large amounts of heterogeneous data. It involves overlaying of various themes and facilitates the
query and manipulation of the database. Logical and arithmetic operations on the existing data
enable linking of attributes and image databases to provide necessary models. Outputs thus
obtained can be combined using spatial and aspatial queries to obtain the appropriate results.

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

Digital Image processing (DIP) has significant advantages in processing of remotely sensed
data for scientific visualization. DIP enables the fundamental methods of rectifying the remotely
sensed data to a map projection, enhancing the data, classifying the data into land use and land
cover, and identifying changes between dates of imagery to be performed digitally with reasonable
precision. Our work includes the last application mentioned here to a small extent.

DIGITISATION AND PROJECTION

The digitizing was done using ArcGIS software. The method of digitizing adopted was on-
screen mode wherein the raster image of the data is georeferenced and digitized. The co-ordinate
system selected is WGS-84. Digitized features must be in the same coordinate system (in the same
map projection and datum) to be used together in analysis tools. The selection of appropriate co-
ordinate system plays an important role as each country has their projection system. The correct
choice of the time zone within a country is obligatory. In our study area, the projection used is
Behrmann Equal Area Cylindrical projection.

GENERATION OF CONTOURS

The most prevalent data structure for generating contours is the point data. Point coverage
was effectively created using the latitude, longitude and elevation of sufficient number of points in
the study area. The co-ordinates of the points were obtained from Google Earth. These points are
input to ArcGIS as shapefile from ArcView. A Triangular Irregular Network (TIN) is generated
from the point coverage using 3D Analyst and a contour for the study area is developed using the
TIN. The figure 2 shows the contour overlaid on the TIN.
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Fig 2: TIN-Contour Overlay

CHANGE DETECTION BY IMAGE PROCESSING

The visual change detection can be done using the ‘swipe’ technique of digital image
processing. One of the two temporal data, which has least distortions, is taken as the reference.
Common, defined features (like road intersections, building corners etc) are identified on both the
images and the second image is resampled with respect to the reference image. This is image-to-
image registration. This process involves changing one of the views of surface spatial relationships
to agree with other without concern about any particular geodetic referencing system. The two
images, now when opened in the same viewer and swiped, reveal the temporal changes.

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT BY ZONATION MAPS

The severity map for the study area is prepared by manual on-screen digitization using GIS.
This map is initially rectified by input of latitude and longitude. After the image geo-referencing,
standard interpretation techniques such as size, shape, shadow and texture (Ryerson, 1989) were
used to analyze the image. Change detection (Wang et al., 1992, Lacy, 1992; Cowen et al., 1991;
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Westmoreland and Stow, 1992; Cheng et al., 1992) is done by visually interpreting the images of
both dates. A similar kind of methodology was adopted to study the change during Hurricane
Hugo, South Carolina, September 22, 1989 (Boone, 1989).

The following features were taken into consideration for the preparation of severity zone
map from the pre and post-hurricane images:
• Buildings with no damage
• Buildings which are partially damaged
• Buildings which are completely damaged
• Areas of water flooding.

The waterlogged portions of the study area are mapped which qualitatively depict the
extent of damage. The map is shown in figure 3.

Fig 3: Map showing Severity Zones and Water-logged area

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The zone maps were prepared using both Digital Image Processing (DIP) and Geographical
Information Sysem (GIS). While DIP technique was adopted to identify the damage, the digitizing
part was done in GIS.

From the contour map, it is seen that, in the northern portion of the study area, the contours
are not formed. The reason for this is that those areas are below sea level. Obviously, these areas
would be the most severely damaged. This is verified from the Fig. 3 zone map, where the severely
damaged areas are shown in brown. It is estimated that out of 2355746.0965m² of the total land
area, 1119282.875m² was flooded and damaged. This explains the water logging of most of the
area (shown in blue).

The case study we have done is for a small area of about 2.36 sq. km. A comprehensive
study could be made at micro level by taking into account the details of individual houses, by
which the damage in terms of economy can be estimated.

CONCLUSION

Thousands of homes and businesses throughout entire neighborhoods in the New Orleans
metropolitan area were affected by flood. Though it is not possible to fully control hurricane, some
methods have been tried on board to befriend it. When artificial dissipation was adopted to weaken
hurricanes by seeding with silver iodide to destruct the storm’s eye wall and changing the course
of the storm during its early stages of formation, (Controlling hurricanes, Scientific American,
2005), their behavior was uncertain. Spreading degradable film of oil over the ocean that thwarts
the positive feedback thereby preventing water vapor from fuelling the storm was also thought of
as an initiative in controlling hurricanes.

ACKNOWLEGDEMENTS
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We extend our gratitude to Dr. S. Sanjeevi, HOD, Dept of Geology, Anna University, who amidst
his demanding schedule always found time to help us whenever we approached him.

Our heartfelt thanks to Mr. Udaya kumar, Institute of Remote Sensing, Anna University who let us
use the GIS lab to carry out our work. He also gave us valuable guidance at many instances.

We also thank Mr. Hemadri, our GIS lab coordinator and Ms. Amudha, project staff, Institute of
Remote Sensing who helped us with understanding the GIS softwares.

Our appreciation extends to Mr. Elavarasu who lend us a helping hand many a time in
troubleshooting and to Mr. Jaya Seelan who checked our work from time to time and corrected us.

REFERENCES

1Tropical Cyclone Report of Hurricane Katrina - Richard D. Knabb, Jamie R. Rhome, and Daniel
P. Brown, National Hurricane Center, U.S
Introductory Digital Image Processing: A Remote Sensing Perspective by John R Jensen
http://www.spaceimaging.com
http://www.nasa.gov Nasa’s Observatorium – Hurricane 2005
http://www.fema.gov Federal Emergency Management Agency
http://www.noaa.com
http://www.earth.google.com