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Verification of Asphaltene-Instability-Trend
(ASIST) Predictions for Low-Molecular-Weight
Alkanes

Article in SPE production & operations May 2009

DOI: 10.2118/125203-PA

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Verification of Asphaltene-Instability-Trend
(ASIST) Predictions for
Low-Molecular-Weight Alkanes
Jefferson L. Creek and Jianxin Wang, Chevron Energy Technology Company, and
Jill S. Buckley, New Mexico Tech
Summary
Anticipating when and where asphaltenes may flocculate during
oil production is a key step in successfully preventing or mitigat-
ing asphaltene problems in the field. Because there will be no
deposition without precipitation, mapping of asphaltene stability
over a wide range of temperature, pressure, and composition is
required. The ASIST allows the determination of the onset of
asphaltene instability to be established with a series of liquid
n-alkanes. These data are used to predict asphaltene stability of
live fluids by extrapolating the onset condition from the base data
to reservoir conditions by use of a linear extrapolation of the onset
solubility parameter vs. square root of the partial molar volume of
the precipitant. This extrapolation has been demonstrated previ-
ously to be accurate for methane and a model oil. The present
work verifies that such an extrapolation is valid for predicting the
asphaltene instability for mixtures of methane, ethane, and pro-
pane with a representative stock-tank oil (STO). The STO was
combined with known amounts of methane, ethane, or propane.
The asphaltene onset pressure was determined by a combination
of near-infrared (NIR) light scattering and microscopic observa-
tion. The onset conditions at ambient pressures were examined for
flocculation periods ranging from 20 minutes to 24 hours. Onset
pressures calculated with the 5-hour ASIST trends compared well
with measured onset pressures.
Introduction
Asphaltenes are materials in a crude oil that are among the highest
molecular weight and/or those with the highest degree of polarity
(Long 1981) and aromaticity (Cimino et al. 1995). These large
molecules have limited solubility in saturated hydrocarbons, tend
to form aggregates that are dispersed in crude oils, and form
separate heavy phases in response to changes in pressure, temper-
ature, or composition of the oil mixture. The amount of material
that separates (asphaltene amount) and the solubility conditions at
which separation occurs (asphaltene-flocculation onset) vary not
only with the composition of the asphaltenes themselves, but also
with the size of the paraffinic precipitants, whether these are the
native crude-oil light ends or added nonsolvents (typically, n-
pentane or n-heptane).
Wang (2000) demonstrated that asphaltene onset conditions
defined in terms of the mixture refractive index (RI), which for
nonpolar species can be related to the mixture solubility parameter
(d) (Buckley et al. 1998)changed predictably with molar vol-
ume of n-alkane precipitating agents. Extrapolation of the rela-
tionship established by measurements with liquid n-alkanes to
predict asphaltene instability during depressurization was pro-
posed (Wang and Buckley 2001a). Numerous successful applica-
tions of ASIST (Buckley et al. 2007) have since been published
(e.g., Wang et al. 2004) suggesting that extrapolation of the
ASIST relationship is reasonable. Nevertheless, direct verification
is needed of the link between asphaltene instability, upon addition
Copyright 2009 Society of Petroleum Engineers
This paper (SPE 125203) was revised for publication from paper OTC 19690, first pre-
sented at the Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, 58 May 2008. Original manu-
script received for review 4 February 2008. Revised manuscript received for review 16
September 2008. Paper peer approved 3 October 2008.
360
of normal alkanes, and the asphaltenes that appear during depres-
surization of a crude oil.
Predictions With Thermodynamic Models. Hirschberg et al.
(1984) introduced the use of the Flory-Huggins approach to devel-
opment of thermodynamic models of large asphaltene molecules in
solution in much smaller solvent species. An improved asphaltene-
solubility model (ASM) was proposed by Wang and Buckley
(2001b). ASM calculations, shown as the solid line in Fig. 1, are
compared to measured data points for Mars-P STO. Values of
solubility parameter were calculated from measured values of RI
with Eqs. 1 and 2:
d 52:042FRI 2:904; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1)
where FRI is defined as:
FRI RI 2  1=RI 2 2: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
Deviations from a linear relationship are predicted for higher
molar volume normal alkanes, but there is also a decrease in
solubility of these materials that reduces their practical interest as
far as asphaltene stability is concerned. Prediction for methane,
ethane, propane, and n-butane is completely consistent with the
extrapolation of ASIST.
Other equation-of-state (EOS) models predict a similar trend
for onsets induced by liquid alkane precipitants, but a slightly
different trend for low-molecular-weight precipitants. Calcula-
tions with perturbed-chain statistical associating fluid theory (PC-
SAFT) for a model oil composed of 1 wt% asphaltene in toluene
(Fig. 2) predict a downward deviation for the low partial-molar-
volume end of the trend (Gonzales 2008), a prediction that can be
replicated by similar calculations with a commercially available
tool, Multiflash PC-SAFT (Infochem Computer Services, London,
UK) (Fig. 3). However, the results from methane as a precipitant
with PC-SAFT are on trend.
In a recent publication, Kraiwattanawong et al. (2007) reported
an S-shaped curve (Fig. 4) that deviates below ASIST for high-
molar-volume precipitants and above ASIST for the light ends.
This prediction is attributed both to calculations with an in-house
modified Hirschberg model (Hirschberg et al. 1984) and to the
constant critical onset solubility parameter assumption applied
in interpreting automatic titration data. Both onset solubility pa-
rameter and oil solubility parameter retrieved from this interpreta-
tion may be underestimated (Buckley et al. 2007). Our calculations
with the original Hirschberg model do not show upward deviation
from ASIST for low-partial-molar-volume precipitants (open cir-
cles in Fig. 4). Clear experimental verification of the ASIST trend
is needed to distinguish between these conflicting predictions and
to further this area of study.
Test of Methane-Induced Asphaltene Precipitation From a
Model Oil. Ting (2003) prepared model oils by dissolving 1% of
n-heptane asphaltenes in toluene and combining the resulting
mixture with varying amounts of methane. After equilibration at
high pressure, pressure was decreased slowly to determine the
onset of asphaltene instability as a function of methane concent-
ration by light scattering. The ASIST relationship measured with
the asphaltene/toluene mixture at ambient conditions was used to
May 2009 SPE Production & Operations

Fig. 1ASM calculations predict a linear relationship between
onset solubility parameters and vp1/2, where vp is the precipitant
partial molar volume. vp data for C1C4 are from CRC Handbook
(Barton 1991.) The precipitation condition varies with the partial
molar volume of the precipitant. However, for precipitants that
are normal liquids at ambient conditions, the partial molar vol-
ume can be approximated as the molar volume because of the
incompressible nature of these liquids. T: temperature.
predict onset pressures that were very similar to those measured
(Buckley et al. 2007).
Kinetics of Asphaltene Flocculation. One source of experimen-
tal uncertainty in the determination of the onset of asphaltene
flocculation is the difference in the time required for the floccula-
tion onset at ambient conditions and in high-pressure/high-tem-
perature tests. The kinetics of asphaltene flocculation can be
relatively slow if the mixture of oil and the precipitant is near the
onset of instability and more rapid as the driving force for phase
separation increases. This effect was demonstrated by Wang
(2000) and, recently, in more detail by Maqbool et al. (2008).
Fig. 5 demonstrates this effect from a series of onset experiments
Fig. 3Predicted onset solubility parameter vs. partial molar
volume of precipitant by use of a commercial simulation tool,
multiflash/association model, for the same model oil (1 wt%
asphaltene in toluene).
May 2009 SPE Production & Operations
Fig. 2Predicted onset solubility parameter vs. partial molar
volume of precipitant by use of PC-SAFT for a model oil with
1 wt% asphaltene in toluene (after Gonzales 2008).
in which mixtures of Lagrave crude oil with three n-alkane pre-
cipitants were examined microscopically at times ranging from a
few minutes to 2 weeks (Wang, 2000). The results in Fig. 5 show
the onsets change little after one day of development. An asphaltene
solvent was added to Lagrave before mixing with the precipitants to
ensure that the starting mixture was free of asphaltene particles. The
present technology calls for heating the STO samples to 50 to 70 C
to redissolve any precipitated asphaltene particles. The solubility
parameter at the onset of asphaltene precipitation (donset) is much
lower initially than that determined after longer times, and it follows
approximately a logarithmic function of time. Asphaltene precipi-
tation was obvious in mixtures with driving force higher than that
required for just onset. The onset conditionsmixtures with the
minimal amount of precipitant required to initiate asphaltene pre-
cipitationare typically approached only a day or more after mix-
ing. In titration experiments, the titrant can be added too rapidly,
causing rate-dependent estimates of the onset condition (Hotier and
Robin 1983).
Fig. 4An S-shaped onset curve was predicted by Kraiwattana-
wong et al. (2007) by use of a modified Hirschberg model. Calcu-
lations in the current study by use of original Hirschberg model
yielded a linear trend for the low-partial-molar-volume end.
361

Fig. 5Apparent onset solubility conditions as a function of
observation time for mixtures of precipitants with Lagrave
crude oil + 30% 1-methylnaphthalene at ambient conditions.
The rate of depressurization is analogous to the rate of titration.
Decreasing the pressure on mixtures of light precipitant and crude
oil, comparable to those in this study, increases the volume frac-
tion of precipitant and decreases the solubility parameter of the
mixture. If enough precipitant is dissolved in the mixture, floccu-
lation occurs. Therefore flocculation rate must be considered in the
experimental design. In addition, depressurization-experiment
endpoints can be misinterpreted; the onset may occur at a higher
pressure than a minimum in absorbance or maximum in transmit-
tance (Correra et al. 2004).
Experimental Materials and Methods
Crude Oil. STO from the Gulf of Mexico was used in this study.
Compositional analysis of this STO indicated that contamination
by oil-based-drilling-mud fluid was less than the detectable limit
(<0.5 wt%). At ambient conditions, the oil sample contained some
asphaltene particles that disappeared upon heating at 60 C for
several hours. Wax-appearance temperature for this oil was 24 C
(75 F). No wax crystals were observed at room temperature. Se-
lected properties of this oil are summarized in Table 1.
Asphaltene Precipitants. Three high-performance liquid-chroma-
tography (HPLC) grade liquidsn-alkanes, n-heptane (n-C7), n-
undecane (n-C11), and n-pentadecane (n-C15), with purity of
99%were used to establish the ASIST trend. The difference
between the partial molar volumes of these components allows
adequate extrapolation of the onset vs. square root of partial molar
volume. Three gaseous precipitantsmethane (C1), ethane (C2),
and propane (C3) were selected to verify the ASIST trend valid-
ity for predicting asphaltene-precipitation onset. The purity of the
gases used varied from 96% for methane and ethane to 93% for
propane. The impurities in these gases were not considered detri-
mental to the results of the present experiments.
STO Onset Measurements With Liquid n-Alkanes. A portion
of the STO was used to establish the ASIST trend by measuring
the onset of asphaltene precipitation induced by addition of liquid
n-alkanes, including n-C7, n-C11, and n-C15. Mixtures of oil and
n-alkanes were prepared with varying volume percentages, soni-
cated to ensure complete mixing, and stored at 60 C. Three differ-
ent aging times were chosen to investigate the kinetic effects of
precipitation (i.e., 20 minutes, 5 hours, and 24 hours). After each
storage period, the mixtures were examined with a microscope
(maximum 400X magnification) to detect visually any presence of
flocculated asphaltenes, as described elsewhere (Buckley and
Wang 2002; Wang 2000). Once the onset of precipitation was
detected, RI of that onset mixture was measured at 60 C by use
of an automatic refractometer (Instrument Index, GPR11-37E),
362
and the results were converted to onset solubility parameter (donset)
with Eqs. 1 and 2.
Recombined-Oil Onset Measurements. Direct titration of STO
with gas components inside a pressure/volume/temperature (PVT)
cell to find the minimum amount of gas required to trigger the
onset of precipitation is a complicated experiment. The gases are
compressible, compression can cause changes in temperature, and
there is the risk of inhomogeneous mixing, which results in local
precipitation.
The solids-detection system (SDS) experiment is commercially
available from Schlumberger Oilphase-DBR (Edmonton, Canada)
and has been performed on numerous reservoir-fluid samples dur-
ing the past decade (Hammami et al. 2000; Joshi et al. 2001;
Jamaluddin et al. 2001; Muhammed et al. 2003). In these experi-
ments, the sample of interest was first conditioned in the single-
phase region. The reservoir was then depressurized stepwise at a
specified rate until, typically, the onset of precipitation or the bub-
blepoint of the sample was detected by the change in intensity of
transmitted near-IR (NIR) light through a short-path-length view-
ing cell [high-pressure microscope (HPM)]. Periodically, during
the depressurization, an aliquot of the phase cell contents was
circulated into the HPM for NIR transmittance testing and visual
observation. This experiment effectively has been an industry stan-
dard method for detecting precipitation onset of solids from reser-
voir fluids. We have also carefully considered the difficulties
involved with titrating a mixture with dense phase fluids, and the
rate-of-titration issues as well as the cumulative-error issue with
sequential addition of fluids. The experimental path chosen was to
prepare mixtures with known fraction light precipitant, then exe-
cute an SDS pressure-sweep experiment to determine the onset of
asphaltene precipitation at the temperature of interest. We decided
to perform all experiments at 60 C because that would eliminate
questions regarding temperature correction of the onset data from
STO to reservoir fluid.
Three live recombined oils were prepared by mixing the STO
with methane, ethane, and propane, respectively. Onset measure-
ments were first conducted for STO at 60 C to establish the ASIST
trend and to ensure the original STO was free of precipitated
asphaltenes. The ASIST trend was then used to design the experi-
ments such that an onset would occur above the bubblepoint pres-
sure of the given mixture but yet allow establishment of the single-
phase depleting curve before the onset of asphaltene precipitation.
The JEFRI phase cell at Schlumberger Oilphase-DBRTM was rated
to 15,000 psia. The target was to have an onset pressure of less
than 10,000 psia in each mixture. ASIST was used to estimate the
best composition for each type of recombined oil to reach this
target.
The recombined oils were first conditioned at 60 C (140 F) and
15,000 psia for 5 days, then filtered through a 0.2-mm filter to
remove any particulates that might have been present in the field
STO sample, before beginning the SDS tests. Isothermal depressur-
ization was then conducted, beginning from 15,000 psia, with pres-
sure decrements of 100 psia per minute with an additional 2 minutes
May 2009 SPE Production & Operations
Fig. 6Onsets for the STO induced by n-C7, n-C11, and n-C15 at
60 C and varying aging times.
of equilibration between pressure steps. The SDS, equipped with
NIR transmittance and HPM photography, was used to detect the
onset pressure during depressurization. Light transmittance was
measured continuously, and HPM photographs were taken every
1,000 psia of pressure change. The photos were analyzed with
computer software to obtain the particle-size distribution.
Results and Discussion
STO Asphaltene Stability. Fig. 6 shows the onset for STO
measured at 60 C with n-C7, n-C11, and n-C15 as the precipitants at
three different aging times. In all three cases, there is a linear corre-
lation between onset solubility parameter (donset) and the square root
of the molar volume of n-alkane precipitants (vp1/2). Similar to
Lagrave oil shown in Fig. 5, donset also increases with aging time as
a logarithmic function (Fig. 7) (i.e., mixtures with longer aging time
appear to be less stable). This kinetic effect is more obvious when the
mixing time is short; the change of donset from 20 minutes to 5 hours
is greater than that from 5 hours to 24 hours.
Predict Onset Pressure for Recombined Oils. As described in
the Introduction section, it is assumed that the ASIST trends
established with n-C7, n-C11, and n-C15 can be extended to low-
molecular-weight alkanes such as methane, ethane, and propane,
Fig. 8Calculated square root of partial molar volume for meth-
ane in the recombined (STO+methane) oils at 60 C.
May 2009 SPE Production & Operations
Fig. 7Onset solubility parameters for the STO induced by
n-C7, n-C11, and n-C15 at 60 C vary linearly with log(time).
with the partial molar volume of the gas component in solution at
the given temperature and pressure. The Chevron Phase Calcula-
tion Program (CPCP), an in-house EOS simulator, was used to
generate the bubblepoint-vs.-composition data for the recombined
oils on the basis of STO composition, density, and gas molar
fraction. The partial molar volume of methane in the recombined
oil at 60 C was calculated as a function of pressure from
simulated density, formation volume factor (FVF), and gas/oil
ratio (GOR) (Wang and Buckley 2001a; Buckley et al. 2007), as
shown in Fig. 8. Similar plots were prepared for ethane and
propane. It was observed that partial molar volume varies with
pressure, but was weakly dependent on the molar percentage of
the gas phase in the recombined oils. Consequently, it is expected
that the asphaltene-instability boundary line (onset line) for the
recombined oils during isothermal depressurization should be fair-
ly independent of the molar concentration of the gas in recom-
bined oils. The averages of vp1/2 for methane, ethane, and propane
over the simulated pressure range from 100 to 20,000 psia were
approximately 7, 8, and 9 (mL/mol)1/2, respectively. To give an
idea of how far the ASIST trend needs to be extrapolated to
determine the onset condition for dense phase components, Fig. 9
compares the measured vp1/2 for n-C7, n-C11, and n-C15 with
Fig. 9Example of ASIST extrapolation to obtain onsets for
methane, ethane, and propane on the basis of onsets for the
STO induced by n-C7, n-C11, and n-C15 at 60 C and 24-hour
aging time.
363
Fig. 10Comparison of recombined-oil solubility parameter
(STO+C1) with ASIST-extrapolated asphaltene onset line (onset,
C1) to assess asphaltene stability at varying methane concen-
tration.
calculated average vp1/2 for methane, ethane, and propane with the
ASIST trend obtained from 24-hour aging.
The solubility parameters of the recombined oils were calcu-
lated as follows: First, the RI of the recombined oils was calculat-
ed on the basis of the measured RI of the STO, FVF, GOR, and
molar refraction of gas components (Wang and Buckley 2001a).
This RI was then converted to recombined oil solubility parameter
by use of Eqs. 1 and 2. To check asphaltene stability during
depressurization, the calculated recombined-oil solubility param-
eters and the asphaltene onset lines were superimposed, as shown
in Figs. 10 through 12, in which the onset lines were estimated on
the basis of the ASIST trends measured from 24-hour aging.
Fig. 10 shows that when methane molar concentration in the
methane/STO mixture is lower than 53 mol%, the whole curve of
recombined-oil solubility parameter (dSTO+C1) is above the onset
line (donset,C1), indicating that asphaltenes are stable in solution
over the whole pressure range. At 53 mol% methane, dSTO+C1 is
close to donset,C1 at the bubblepoint; thus, asphaltenes may precipi-
tate near the bubblepoint. With more methane added to the recom-
Fig. 12Comparison of recombined-oil solubility parameter (STO
+C3) with ASIST-extrapolated asphaltene onset line (onset,C3) to
assess asphaltene stability at varying propane concentration.
364
Fig. 11Comparison of recombined-oil solubility parameter
(STO+C2) with ASIST-extrapolated asphaltene onset line (onset,C2)
to assess asphaltene stability at varying ethane concentration.
bined oils, dSTO+C1 is further lowered while donset,C1 remains
approximately unchanged owing to the weak dependence of meth-
ane partial molar volume on the methane concentration. As a result,
the crossover point between dSTO+C1 and donset,C1, which indicates
the asphaltene onset pressure (Ponset), moves to pressures above the
bubblepoint when the methane fraction is greater than 53 mol%.
Similarly, the conditions in which the onset pressure and bubble-
point pressure coincide can be determined for ethane/STO mixtures
(43 mol%) and propane/STO mixtures (39 mol%), below which
there is no asphaltene precipitation over the whole pressure range,
as shown in Figs. 11 and 12, respectively.
Table 2 summarizes the simulated asphaltene precipitation on-
set pressures for recombined oils with varying methane molar
concentration, with the three different ASIST trends established
for different aging times. Similar results for ethane and propane
were modeled and are summarized in Table 3 and Table 4, respec-
tively. Note the extreme variation in onset pressure with mixture
maturation time for the propane estimates. The forecast onset for
recombined oil with 60 mol% propane is 1,900 psi at 20 minutes,
4,100 psi at 5 hours, and 6,200 psi at 24 hours. Therefore, matching
the depressurization rate in the SDS test with the aging time in
ASIST tests is crucial if the results are to be comparable.
Measured Onset Pressure for Recombined Oils From SDS
Tests. Three recombined oils were generated, on the basis of the
ASIST calculations. The first oil contained 63.9 mol% methane,
the second oil contained 58.9 mol% ethane, and the third oil
contained 57.0 mol% propane. Each oil was preconditioned, fil-
tered, and charged to the PVT cell to measure isothermal onset
pressure. Figs. 13 through 15 show the measured onset pressures
from each SDS test, compared with the onset pressures predicted
by ASIST modeling from Tables 2 through 4, respectively. For all
three recombined oils, the directly measured onset pressures from
the SDS tests agree with the onset pressure curves predicted from
modeling by use of ASIST trends established from onset tests with
5-hour aging. Table 5 compares the measured onset pressure from
SDS tests with that predicted from ASIST trends with 5-hour aging.
Note that in SDS tests, judging onset point on the basis of variation
of the NIR transmittence curve is not straightforward. HPM parti-
cle-size-distribution analysis can help to improve the accuracy, but
the error in onset pressure is still 500 psi. Each pressure step (100
psia) in the SDS tests lasted 3 minutes. The total times during SDS
test, before the onset point was reached, were approximatly 3.6,
6.0, and 5.9 hours for recombined oils with methane, ethane, and
propane, respectively.
May 2009 SPE Production & Operations
Conclusions
Experiments were designed to measure the asphaltene onset con-
ditions for a series of normal alkane precipitants from methane to
pentadecane and to compare the results with the ASIST method
for forecasting onset of asphaltene precipitation. Liquid n-alkanes
were combined with an STO in individual mixtures at 60 C and
subsequently examined microscopically after 20 minutes, 5 hours,
and 24 hours. Mixtures of STO with alkanes that are normally
gases at ambient conditions were prepared at high pressure and
60 C; onset pressures were measured by use of transmitted-NIR-
light and high-pressure microscope observation of the phase-cell
contents. Comparisons of predicted onset pressures on the basis of
the ASIST relationship established with liquid n-alkanes extrapo-
lated to determine the onset conditions for the added gaseous
precipitants show good agreement when the flocculation time for
the asphlatenes in each experiment is comparable. Thus, use of the
ASIST method to forecast asphaltene-precipitation-onset condi-
tions for gaseous precipitants has been verified experimentally.
Nomenclature
P = pressure, psia
Pb = bubblepoint pressure, psia
Ponset = pressure at onset of asphaltene precipitation during
depressurization, psia
PRI = RI of the mixture of oil/precipitant at onset of
asphaltene precipitation
T = temperature,  C or  F

May 2009 SPE Production & Operations 365

Fig. 13Comparison of onset pressures from ASIST prediction
and SDS measurements. Recombined oil (STO + 63.9 mol%
methane) at 60 C.
vp = molar volume of n-alkane precipitant, mL/mol
d = solubility parameter, MPa1/2
donset = solubility parameter of oil/precipitant mixture at
onset condition, MPa1/2
donset,C1 = solubility parameter of recombined STO/methane oil
at onset condition, MPa1/2
donset,C2 = solubility parameter of recombined STO/ethane oil at
onset condition, MPa1/2
donset,C3 = solubility parameter of recombined STO/propane oil
at onset condition, MPa1/2
dSTO+C1 = recombined-oil solubility parameter, of recombined
STO/methane oil, MPa1/2
dSTO+C2 = solubility parameter of recombined STO/ethane oil,
MPa1/2
dSTO+C3 = solubility parameter of recombined STO/propane oil,
MPa1/2
f = volume fraction, dimensionless
Fig. 15Comparison of onset pressures from ASIST prediction
and SDS measurements. Recombined oil (STO + 57.0 mol%
propane) at 60 C.
366
Fig. 14Comparison of onset pressures from ASIST prediction
and SDS measurements. Recombined oil (STO + 58.9 mol%
ethane) at 60 C.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Chevron Corporation for
providing the research funding and oil sample in this study and
for the permission to publish the results. STO characterization and
onset measurements were performed by Petroleum Recovery
Research Center at New Mexico Tech. Oilphase-DBR, a division
of Schlumberger, performed laboratory measurements to detect
the onset pressure for the recombined oils.
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May 2009 SPE Production & Operations
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SI Metric Conversion Factors

API 141.5/(131.5+ API) = g/cm3
bbl  1.589 873 E-01 = m3

F ( F-32)/1.8 = C
ft3  2.831 685 E-02 = m3
mL  1.0* E+00 = cm3
psi  6.894 757 E+00 = kPa
*Conversion factor is exact.
Jefferson L. Creek is a senior research consultant for the Flow
Assurance Core Team of Chevron Energy Technology Com-
pany in Houston, Texas. He holds a BS degree in chemistry from
Middle Tennessee State University and MS and PhD degrees in
chemistry from Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. He
completed a Post-Doctoral Fellowship at the University of Cali-
fornia at Los Angeles in the Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry. Jianxin Wang is a lead research scientist at the
Flow Assurance Core Team of Chevron Energy Technology
Company in Houston, Texas. He holds a BS degree in physics
from Peking University in China, and MS and PhD degrees in
petroleum engineering from New Mexico Tech. Jill Buckley is a
senior scientist and Head of the Petrophysics and Surface
Chemistry Group at the New Mexico Petroleum Recovery Re-
search Center in Socorro, New Mexico. She holds a BS degree
in chemistry from UCLA, an MS degree in chemistry from New
Mexico Tech, and a PhD degree in petroleum engineering
from Heriot-Watt University.
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