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The Exchange Integral: Ifj Is Positive Energetically Favorable To Align Spin Parallel
The Exchange Integral: Ifj Is Positive Energetically Favorable To Align Spin Parallel
The Exchange Integral: Ifj Is Positive Energetically Favorable To Align Spin Parallel
Eex 2 J eS1 S 2
If Je is positive energetically
favorable to align spin parallel
Magnetic Domains:
Ferromagnetic Materials
Not all iron possesses a net permanent magnetization without any external
field!
Take a piece of iron heat it above TC and let it cool down without any magnetic
field present, what do you think will happen to the magnetization?
Magnetic Domains:
Ferromagnetic Materials
This requires energy, remember the exchange energy favors parallel spins.
There is a higher potential energy around the Bloch wall compared to the
bulk of the crystal. Why?
wall is?
A larger wall thickness
Whowill increase
thinks the Who
1 atom? excess energy
thinks in the
1 um? Whowall.
thinks 1mm?
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 5
The size and shape of these domains depend on several factors like
size and shape of the overall sample.
Iron particles of about 10 nm have only one domain and are therefore
permanently magnetized, creating walls cost too much energy!
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 7
These are called the easy directions. The domains Single Fe Crystal
have magnetization along these easy directions.
If we want to magnetize an iron sample in the [111] direction this will start
easily. All the spins that are not aligned in the easy directions will rotate
and align along the [111] direction.
Magnetic Domains:
Exchange interaction
Magnetization direction (Easy/Hard)
Magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy K
Saturation magnetostriction coefficient sat
Material Crystal Eex kTC Easy Hard K sat
(meV) (mJ cm3) ( 106 )
Fe BCC 90 <100>; <111>; cube 48 20 [100]
cube edge diagonal 20 [111]
Co HCP 120 // to c axis to c axis 450
Ni FCC 50 <111>; <100>; 5 46 [100]
cube cube edge 24 [111]
diagonal
Iniron
In which
these material will the
walls are typically 100 Bloch
nm thick wall
but in be thicker?
Co they are thinner
Fe, Co
since or Ni? energy is larger.
the anisotropy
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 14
Eex 2 J eS1 S 2
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 15
Here we see a
cartoon
representation of a
typical 180 Bloch
wall between
domain A and B
BUT This would mean many magnetic moments are orientated away from
the easy direction requiring excess energy or anisotropy energy K.
To calculate the potential energy Uwall of a Bloch wall of unit area and
thickness we need to calculate Uexchange and Uanisotropy.
It takes energy to rotate one spin with respect to an other spin. Since the
change from atom to atom is very small a thicker wall means less
contribution to Uexchange, i.e. it is inversely proportional to . At the same time
Uexchange is directly proportional to the exchange energy :
Eex
U exchange
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 17
U anisotropy K
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 18
Potential energy
of a domain wall
depends on the
exchange and
anisotropy
energies as well
as the wall
thickness.
There is a minimum
in wall potential at
the optimum
thickness .
In Ni
With Eex kTC , K 50 kJ/m3, a 0.3 nm
we find: 68 nm.
And Uwall 7mJ/m2
This simple approach gives values
close to more accurately calculated
values of 40 nm and 3 mJ/m2.
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 20
Magnetostriction
By applying stress on a ferromagnetic crystal we will change the inter
atomic spacing along the stress direction but also along other directions.
Change the exchange interaction between the spins,
leading to change in magnetization properties
The Reverse:
The application of a magnetic field will causes changes in physical
dimensions of the crystal.
Applying a magnetic field along the easy [100] direction of an iron crystal
will cause the crystal to extend along this direction but shrink along the
transverse directions [010] and [001].
The longitudinal strain l/l along the
direction of the magnetic field is called
magnetostriction constant . It
depends on the crystal direction and
can be positive or negative.
extension contraction
Chapter 8 PC2133 13 &14 21
Magnetostriction
can also depend on the applied field and can change sign if the field
increases.
Mix metals like Fe and Ni so that they cancel each other out when placed in
a magnetic field so that becomes zero.
Magnetic Domains:
Exchange interaction
Magnetization direction (Easy/Hard)
Magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy K
Saturation magnetostriction coefficient sat
Crystals are not perfect The grow of these domains will be influenced
by the presence of crystal imperfections and impurities!
Polycrystalline Materials
M H
Commonly used magnetic material are poly crystalline;
They contain many grains of various orientations and sizes (micron level)
The structure depends on the thermal history and way of machining.
Polycrystalline Materials
M H
If we now apply a small magnetic field (0H) along the +x direction
The domain walls with a component of M along +x direction will grow,
resulting in a small net magnetization. Oa
As we saw before, when applying a
larger field, impurities will pin the Bloch
walls resulting in irregular growth of the
domains.
This is called the Barkausen effect
Polycrystalline Materials
M H
Increasing the magnetic field further will eventually result in single domains
with the magnetization pointing in a easy direction, point c. Only some of
the grains will have their magnetization pointing along the applied field H
By increasing the magnetic field beyond c will force the magnetization in the
grains to rotate and align along the
applied field. When all the grains are
aligned along H the specimen reaches
saturation magnetization Msat point d
To completely demagnetize
the specimen a field Hc, or
coercive field has to be
applied (point f).
Polycrystalline Materials M H
If we continue to increase the magnetic field further in the x
direction from point f onwards the behaviour will be similar to
the magnetization from point a to d.
We can now expect to reach saturation in point g. Reversing
the magnetic field (+x) will eventually bring us back to d.
Going round we now have a
saturation (major) hysteresis loop
Polycrystalline Materials
Energy dissipation
The work done by the battery per unit volume to in-
crease the magnetic field by dB (as we saw before) is:
dEvol HdB Hl Ni
The total work done changing the field from B1 to B2 in
the core is:
B2
Evol HdB
B1
EM waves
X-rays: your doctor uses them to look at your bones and
your dentist to look at your teeth. Hot gases in the Univers
also emit X-rays .
Gamma-rays: radioactive materials (some natural and
others made by man in things like nuclear power plants)
can emit gamma-rays. Big particle accelerators that
scientists use to help them understand what matter is
made of can sometimes generate gamma-rays. But the
biggest gamma-ray generator of all is the Universe! It
makes gamma radiation in all kinds of ways.
A Radio Wave is not a Gamma-Ray, a Microwave is not an X-ray ... or is it?
Radio waves, visible light, X-rays, and all the other parts of the electro-
magnetic (EM) spectrum are fundamentally the same thing, EM radiation.
Chapter 89 PC2133 13 &14 34
Optical properties
determine the interaction of
light with matter. The
refractive index (n) is a
good example; it
determines the speed of
light in a medium:
c
v EM Light waves
n
The refractive index depends on the dielectric polarization mechanism of the
material as well as the wave length .
c
v
n
E x E0 cos(t kz 0 )
Ex is the electric field at position z at time t
E0 is the amplitude
k is the propagation constant or wavenumber given by k = 2/
is the angular frequency
0 is the phase constant
Chapter 89 PC2133 13 &14 36
Faradays law tells us that a time varying magnetic field result in a time
varying electric field with the same frequency and vice versa.