ManagingProjects:aholisticapproach

MichaelRandel
 Thisarticleintroducesonaframeworkforunderstandingandworkingwith
projectmanagement.Itadvocatesforamoreholisticandstrategicapproach
tothemanagementofprojectswhichlooksbeyondprojectplanning.

Anincreasingnumberoforganisationsareadoptingaprojectbasedapproachasthe
corebasisformanagingtheirwork.Fornonprofitorganizations,thiscanbeoftentracedtothe
influenceoftheirdonors,whooftentiefundstoindividualprojects.However,itisalsopartofa
widertrendintheworldoforganisationsandwork,withmanyprivatesectorcompanies
adoptingaprojectorientationintheirorganisationandmanagementofwork.Despitethis
growingshifttowardsprojectwork,manyorganisationshaveonlyanarrowunderstandingof
theskillsneededbyprojectmanagers.
Andthereisahugeproblemwiththewaythatmanyorganizationshaveadopted
projectmanagementapproaches.Inspiteofaproliferationoftrainingprogramsand
certificationstandards,manyorganizationshavenotfoundthatanincreasedfocusonproject
workhasresultedinbetteroutcomes,orqualityofservicesprovidedtoclients.Infact,research
suggeststhatatleast70%ofprojectsfallshortofexpectationstheyeitheraredeliveredlate,
runoverbudget,orfailtomeetqualitystandards.Therearealsomanyinstancesofprojects
beingwellimplemented,butfailingtomeettheunderlyingproblemoropportunitythatgave
risetotheprojectbecausetheclientsenvironmentchangedintheinterim.
Inmyexperienceofadvisingorganizationsonprojectmanagementforthelastfifteen
yearsinmorethanadozencountries,"project"skillsaretypicallyviewedas"planning"skills.So
therequestforassistancethatweoftenreceiveisto"...developplanningskillsamongstour
staff."Thisseemstosuggestthattheorganisation'sstaffneedonlyimprovetheirplanningskills
tobebetterabletomanageprojects.
Yetthestaffthemselvesoftenhaveadifferentview.Inobservingandinterviewing
effectiveprojectmanagers,andthroughcountlesshoursspentengagingwithpeoplelearning
projectmanagementskills,wehavefoundamoreholisticviewisneededofthecorecapabilities
requiredtosuccessfullydevelopandleadprojectsinorganisations.
Inourwork,weexplorethethemesandpatternsidentifiedasimportantforeffective
projectwork,andforprojectsuccess.Thesethemeshaveevolvedintoaveryinteresting
framework:

Technical

Social Institutional

Projectmanagers,itturnsout,needtodrawonawiderangeofcapabilitiesiftheyare
tobesuccessfulintheirwork.Theskillsareoftencomplementary,andcannotbeviewedin
isolationfromoneanother.Evenmoreinteresting,therearetensionsinholdingthebalance
betweenthethreeelementsofthisframework.

THETHREECIRCLES...

Thetechnicalcomponentistheonethatprobablyreceivesthegreatestattentionwhen
peoplethinkaboutprojectmanagement.Thisisthepartoftheframeworkthatdealswiththe
workoftheprojectdevelopingtheplan,identifyingtheactivities,allocatingresponsibilities
andschedulingthework.Italsodealswithmonitoringandreporting,soitistheareaofbudgets
andfinancialreports,ofindicatorsandprogressreports,andofqualityandstandards.
Thedonorliteratureonprojectmanagementsuggeststhatthisistheheartofthe
matter.Ifonecanonlyplan,organizeandschedule,everythingwillgowell.Undoubtedly,
thesearecriticalareasforprojectsuccess.Thisistheareawheremodels,steps,and
frameworksaremostevident.
Itis,unfortunately,ashortstepfrom"technical"to"technicist"thereductionofplans
andbudgetstorigidproceduresandrequirements.Nomatterhowoftentheoppositeis
stressedintraining,manypeoplethinkthattheirmainresponsibilityistoimplementtheplanas
itstands,andtoreportthattheindicatorshavebeenachieved,onscheduleandwithinbudget.
Andifthingsdon'tgoasplanned,thentheresponsetoooftenbecomesoneofwhippingthings
backintolinegettingthenumbersup",increasingthepaceofwork,butneverexploringwhat
hashappenedtocausetheplantogoastray.
Therealityisthattherearemanythingsthatcaninfluencetheprojectandthesmooth
implementationoftheplan.Theexistenceofthesefactorscallforamoreholisticapproachto
projectmanagement,toseeingthebreadthofworkthatisrequired.
Oneimmediatewaytobroadenyourunderstandingofprojectmanagementisto
includepeopleinyourview.Thesocialcomponentrequirestheprojectmanagertodealwith
twointerrelatedareas:theprojectteam,andtheindividualsthatmakeitup.Alothasbeen
writtenaboutteambuildingandteamwork,muchofwhichappliestoprojectteams.Thereare
twofeaturesthatmakeleadingaprojectteamchallenging:theteamhasalimitedlifespan,and
itmayconsistofpeoplewhoonlyworkonitforpartoftheirtime.
Projectsarebytheirverynaturetimebound.Ateamisformedtoworkonaprojectby
recruitingstafffromoutsidetheorganisation,orbyallocatingstaffalreadywithinthe
organisationtonewresponsibilities.Aconsequenceofthisisthatteammembersmayonly
havealimitedloyaltytotheproject.Iftheyhavebeencontractedintotheteamfromoutside
theorganisation,theirloyaltyismorelikelytobetotheirprofessionalworkthantothe
organisation,andtheymaybelookingaheadtotheirnextproject.Iftheyhavecomefrom
anotherpartoftheorganisation,theymaycontinuetohavesomeloyaltytotheirprevious
 3

teams,andmaybelookingforwardtoreturningthereto"resume"theirwork.Bothofthese
situationsclearlypresentchallengestotheprojectmanager,whomustexplorewaystohelp
peoplefocusonthecurrenttask.
Whilesomeprojectsconsistofateamoffulltimepeople,therearemanyprojectsthat
makeuseofpeoplewhoareworkinginanumberofteamsatthesametime.
Theprojectmanagermustcompetewithotherteamsforthetimeandattentionoftheirstaff.
Thiscanpresentarisktotheproject,especiallyifateammember'sotherresponsibilitiesgrow
toconsumeanincreasingamountofher/histime,leavingtheprojectwithouttheperson's
services.
Theindividualsthatmakeuptheteamalsorequiretheattentionoftheproject
manager.Andaswithso~manyotheraspectsofmanagement,thereisatension:supporting
anddevelopingindividuals,whilstensuringthattheteamasawholehasasharedpurpose.In
supportingtheindividualmembersoftheteam,youcangiveattentionto3areas1:

1Developingandempoweringindividualspartofthemanager'sroleistodevelopstaffsothat
theprojectcanbeeffectiveinitswork.However,thisdevelopmentcanalsotakea
longertermorientation,andgiveattentiontothecareerdevelopmentofstaff
members.Thisapproachistothebenefitoftheorganisationasitpromotes
commitmentandmotivation.
2Motivationandrewardpeopleseekmorerecognitionthancanbeofferedthroughfinancial
rewards.Othermotivatingfactorsshouldbegivenattention,suchashavingasenseof
purposeinone'swork,theopportunitytoachieveresults,thechancetolearnnew
thingsanddealwithnewchallenges,andrecognitionandacknowledgementfor
contributionstoprojectsuccess.
3Counsellinganddisciplinetheprojectmanagershouldofferregularfeedbacktostaff
membersontheirperformance.Aclearunderstandingofwhatisexpectedofstaffcan
provideafoundationfromwhichclearfeedbackcanbeoffered.Thisalsomakesit
easiertodeveloppathsofactiontoimproveunsatisfactoryperformance.

Thesetechnicalandsocialcomponentsareprobablythemostfamiliartoproject
managers.Theremainingcomponentislessfamiliaryetequallycriticalforthesuccessofthe
project.Thisthirdpartdealswiththeinstitutionalcontextandrelationships.Inmanynon
profitorganizations,projectsaretypicallyintendedtobringaboutchange.Aswithanychange
process,therewillbethoseinfavourofitandthoseresistanttoit.Therelativestrengthand
influenceoftheseforcescanswaytheprojecttowardsorawayfromsuccess.
Thefirstchallengefacingtheprojectmanageristodefinetheirinstitutionalcontextand
toidentifythevariousactors.Whiletheprojectmightbehousedinoneorganisation,its
eventualsuccessmaybeinfluencedbyanumberofdifferentorganisations.Theseactorsmight

1
TheseideasaredrawnfromTurner,GrudeandThurloway(eds)(1994)Theprojectmanageraschange
agent:leadership,influenceandnegotiationLondon:McGrawHill.
 4

includetheseniormanagementofthehostorganisation,donors,governmentagencies,target
andbeneficiarygroups,andcontractorswhoprovideservicestotheproject.
Basedontheirsupporttotheproject,theseactorsmaybeclassifiedas"allies"or
"enemies"or,possibly,"neutral."Thepurposeofthisisnottostereotypeandlabeltheactors,
buttohelptheprojectmanagerinidentifyingstrategiestoinfluencethemforthebenefitofthe
project.Thiscanbeviewedaspoliticalwork,fortheprojectmanagerwillhavetolearnhowto
readtheinterestsoftheinstitutionalpartnersandthendecidehowbesttoinfluencethem.
Importanttoolsforthisworkofinfluencingwillbethecredibilityoftheprojectmanager,and
theappropriatenessoftheinformations/heprovidestoprojectpartners.
Thisworkofinfluencinganddealingwithrelationshipscanbethemostdifficultfora
projectmanager.Itcannotbereducedtoafew"stepsforsuccess",aseachrelationshipwill
needtobehandledinauniquemanner.Itcannotbescheduledandprogrammed,forallsorts
ofeventscangiverisetonewandunexpectedquestions.Yetitisprobablythemostrewarding
areatowhichtheprojectmanagercangivetheirattention,asthiscanhaveamajorinfluenceon
theproject'seventualoutcome.

...WITHONEFURTHERELEMENT...

Thethreeinterlinkedcirclesillustratetheinterrelationshipsbetweenthethree
componentsdiscussedabove.Whenparticipantsinourcoursesidentifyfactorsthattheythink
helporhinderprojects,theyidentifyelementsthatfitintothethreeelementsofthe
framework.
Andyetsomethingseemedtobemissingfromthepicture.Drawingfromourown
experiencesinplanningandreviewingprojects,wecanidentifyafourthcomponenttoaddto
theframework.Thisnewcomponentchallengesustothinkmoreconsciouslyofthe
environmentinwhichtheprojectislocated.Thiscontextualunderstandingsurroundsand
underpinstheotherelements.Theearlierdiagramcanbeadaptedtolooklikethis:

Technical
Environment Environment

Social Institutional


 5

Therearemanydifferentwaysofreadingandunderstandingthisenvironment.One
usefulframeworkistheSTEEPLEanalysis2:

1. Social
2. Technology
3. Economic
4. Ecological
5. Political
6. Legal
7. Ethical

Thistoolallowstheprojectteamtoexploretheenvironmentfortrendsandforces
actingagainsttheorganization,forexample,threats,challenges,etc.Itcanalsobeusedtolook
foremergingopportunitiesorpositiveforces.Inpractice,itisbettertodrawontheproject
team'scombinedexperienceandinsightratherthanrelyingonlyononeperson'sviews.This
allowsyoutotapintotherichnessofdiversethinkingwhichmightotherwisebelost.
Onewaytoembarkontheexerciseistodividetheteamintosevengroups,eachof
whichthenworksonidentifyingpotentialthreats(oropportunities)underoneofthecategories
intheSTEEPLEframework.:
Ifyourteamistoosmalltoformsevengroups,thensmallgroupscouldtaketwoor
threecategorieseach.Afurtheralternativeisfortheteamtoworkthrougheachcategory
together.
Trendsandforcesarecapturedoncardsandputupforthewholegrouptosee.These
canthenbediscussedandadditionsorchangesmade.Newcategoriesorforces(e.g.culturalor
psychological)mayalsoemergeandbeincorporated.Theideasthatemergefromthe
discussionscanthenbeassessedinrelationtotheprojectanditsobjectives.Areascanbe
identifiedwherearesponseisneededbytheproject,andthesecanbedelegatedtoteam
membersforaction.
Caremustalwaysbetaken,though,thatastructuredexercise,suchastheone
describedabove,doesnotreplacecontinuousstrategicthinkingaboutyourenvironment.
AnawarenessoftheSTEEPLEelementscanhelpdeepentheprojectteam's
understandingandconsciousnessofthebroaderenvironmentalissuesfacingtheproject.
Further,anawarenessoftheelementscanassisttheprojectmanagertolookintothefuture,
andtoanticipatenewopportunities,challengesandquestionsbecauseofcurrenteventsor
emergingtrendsandpatterns.Ofcourse,noonecanperfectlyforecastthefuture,andthat
shouldnotbeyourintention.Rather,thisadditionalperspectivecanhelpyouprepareand
positionyourselftodealwithwhatiscomingtowardsyou,ratherthanbeingcaught

2
Forfurtherinformationonthistool,seeThawandPetersen(1999)IdeasforaChangePart1Strategic
ProcessesDurban:OlivePublications.
 6

unprepared.Itcallsforstrategicthinkingratherthanlongtermplanning,forresponsiveness
ratherthanprogrammedreactions.
Thisbroaderapproachtoprojectmanagementcanhelporganizationsviewwhatthey
doinamoreholisticmanner.Itdoesraisequestionsabouthowtheworkofprojectmanagersis
defined,andhowtheyaresupportedintheirorganisations.Itchallengesustothinkabouthow
wedesignandofferlearninganddevelopmentopportunitiesthatwillequippeopletowork
effectivelyandholisticallyinthepositionofprojectmanagement.Itismyhopethatthisarticle
willstimulatediscussionbypractitionersonthesematters.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Iwouldliketothankallthepeoplewhosecommentsandcontributionshavestimulatedmyown
thoughtsonprojectmanagement.Iwouldliketoacknowledgemyclients,participantson
learningprograms,andmycolleagues,especiallyCatherineCollingwood,DavidHallowes,Peter
MarinusJensen,JochenLohmeier,PinkyMashego,NathanielMjema.DavineThaw,Lorettavan
Schalkwyk,andJurievanNiekerk.




AnearlierversionofthisarticlewaspublishedinODdebateOctober1999:Vol6:5:57
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