System Earthing

By

T.R.Sathyanarayana Rao
 Agenda
Ungrounded & Solidly Grounded Systems
Show Hazards
Review Systems
Discuss causes of Hazards

High Resistance Grounded (HRG) Systems

Review System
Resolve Hazards shown above via HRG

Design Considerations when applying HRG Systems

Potential Hazards
Avoid Hazards via new technology

Quick Review of Low-Resistance Grounded Systems

 Power System Grounding
Methods
Ungrounded

Solidly Grounded

Resistance Grounded
 Ungrounded Systems
Popular in 3-wire LV systems up to 1950s
Industrial and water treatment facilities
Negligible fault current and no tripping on first
ground fault
Difficult to locate ground faults
5-6 times transient voltage escalation on
intermittent, sputtering arcing ground faults due
to DC voltage buildup across the stray
capacitance to ground
Capacitive Charging Current

IC0 IC0 IC0

 Ground Fault
on Ungrounded Systems
C A

C A N

C A N
120 60
82
N
G G
B
Full Ground Fault on Phase B
B

B
50% Ground Fault on Phase B
No Ground Fault
System Charging Current 3IC0
A

3 IC0 3 IC0 IF = 3IC0

 Solidly Grounded Systems
Popular in 3-wire LV systems since 1950s
Eliminated transient overvoltage problem
Permit line-to-neutral loads (lighting,
heating cables)
Ground faults easy to locate, but cause
unscheduled service interruption
Danger from low-level arcing ground faults
Low Level Arcing Ground Faults
Sustained arcing faults can release
intense heat and mechanical energy
causing severe damage and injury
 IEEE Arcing Faults
IEEE Std 242-2001
Recommended Practice for the Protection and Coordination of
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
8.2.2
One disadvantage of the solidly grounded 480 V system
involves the high magnitude of destructive, arcing ground-fault
currents that can occur.

IEEE Std 141-1993

Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for
Industrial Plants
7.2.4
The solidly grounded system has the highest probability of
escalating into a phase-to-phase or three-phase arcing fault,
particularly for the 480 and 600 V systems. The danger of
sustained arcing for phase-to-ground faultis also high for the
480 and 600 V systems, and low or near zero for the 208 V
system.
 Resistance Grounding
Popular for 3-wire LV systems since 1970s,
when ground fault protection was made
mandatory for solidly grounded 600V services
rated 1000A and higher
Used on MV systems even longer, to limit
ground fault current
No arcing ground faults as with solid grounding
No overvoltages as with ungrounded systems
 Resistance Grounding
Resistor inserted between neutral and ground to
limit ground fault current
Resistor rated for line-to-neutral voltage
A

347V

B
C

N Bolted
Ground Fault
69 5A to equipment
G frame

Equipment Bonding Conductor Resistor Let-Thru Current

 High Resistance Grounding
Limit ground fault current to 10 A or less
Provides service continuity on first ground fault
Prevents arc flash incidents on first ground faults
Allows faults to be located without de-energizing
feeders (ground fault pulse locating)
Used in continuous process industries, hospitals
and data centres where unscheduled downtime
is costly
 What are the main Hazards with
Ungrounded / Solidly Grounded?
Ungrounded Method used to ground first power systems
Very large transient over-voltage conditions may exist.
Insulation not rated, therefore, hazard to personnel and equipment.

Very difficult to locate ground fault.

Good chance of second ground fault on a different phase due to
prolonged ground fault.

Solidly Grounded Replaced Ungrounded Systems

Very high ground fault currents.
Fault must be cleared, shutting down equipment.
Generators may not be rated for ground fault (see Appendix A).

Tremendous amount of arc flash / blast energy.

Equipment and people are not rated for energy.
 What are the main Hazards with
Ungrounded / Solidly Grounded?

Congratulations, we went from Electrocution

To Arc Flash / Blast Injuries
 Do others agree?
TO HRG OR NOT TO HRG?

IEEE Std 242-2001 (Buff Book)

Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems

8.2.5 If this ground fault is intermittent or allowed to continue,

the system could be subjected to possible severe over-
voltages to ground, which can be as high as six to eight
times phase voltage. Such over-voltages can puncture
insulation and result in additional ground faults. These over-
voltages are caused by repetitive charging of the system
capacitance or by resonance between the system
capacitance and the inductance of equipment in the system.
 Do others agree?
TO HRG OR NOT TO HRG?

IEEE Std 141-1993 (Red Book)

Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for
Industrial Plants

7.2.1 Accumulated operating experience indicates that, in general

purpose industrial power distribution systems, the over-
voltage incidents associated with ungrounded operation
reduce the useful life of insulation so that electric
current and machine failures occur more frequently
than they do on grounded power systems.
 Do others agree?
TO HRG OR NOT TO HRG?

IEEE Std 242-2001 (Buff Book)

Recommended Practice for Protection and Coordination of
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems

8.2.5 Ungrounded low-voltage systems employ ground detectors

to indicate a ground fault. These detectors show the
existence of a ground on the system and identify the faulted
phase, but do not locate the ground, which can be
anywhere on the entire system.

One disadvantage of the solidly grounded 480V system

involves the high magnitude of destructive, arcing
ground-fault currents that can occur. However, if these
currents are promptly interrupted, the equipment
damage is kept to acceptable levels.
 Thats great in Theory,
but what about Reality?
Ungrounded Systems Very Expensive!!

Cannot Locate Fault: turning Off/On, Off/On,

Transient Over-voltages creates 2nd Fault

 Fault Location in
Ungrounded Systems
Turn Off/On, Off/On, Off/On,
 Fault Location in
Ungrounded Systems
Turn Off/On, Off/On, Off/On,
 What causes the Hazards in
Ungrounded Systems?

System Capacitance
Unable to discharge leading to transient over-voltages

No direct return path for ground fault current

Prolonged fault conditions due to inability to quickly locate fault
 Ungrounded Systems
Ungrounded systems do not have an intentional
connection from the source generator or transformer to
ground

Typically a three wire delta system

Can be a four wire system where the source neutral is

not connected to ground
A B
A B

C
 Ground Faults
Ground fault current distribution (minimal current)
480V Delta Source
3 Load

A B

C
440V
Xc
c
c
Xb Xc
a
Total Capacitive Current
Ic
c
c
Ib Ic
a If
I f = (I c c c
a + I b + Ic )
Ica = 0A (short-circuited)
V l-l V l-l
c c
Ib = Ic =
c c Ground A
Xb Xc
 Bolted Ground Faults
Highly Inductive Reactance Ground Fault
Bolted ground fault: A highly inductive reactance ground fault in series with
system capacitance can create a resonant circuit causing high transient over-
voltages.
i.e. grounding of one side of the operating coil of a motor starter, grounding of one
control wire to a push button station, or grounding of one side of a transformer
winding
480V Delta Source
R fe 3 Load

V V

L fa

Ca Ca
 Bolted Ground Faults
Highly Inductive Reactance Ground Fault
The voltage across Lfa is increasing due to resonance.
Resonance occurs when L = 1 / ( C).
OCPDs do not trip because ground fault current is low due to high
values of Lfa and Ca.

System Resonance:
L = 1 / ( C)
260*700mH = 1/ (260*0.01mF)
263.9 265.3
 Bolted Ground Faults
Highly Inductive Reactance Ground Fault
Plot of transient over-voltage for a bolted ground fault
 Arcing Ground Faults
Intermittent or Re-strike
Intermittent ground fault: A re-striking ground fault can create a high
frequency oscillator (RLC circuit), independent of L and C values, causing
high transient over-voltages.
i.e. re-striking due to ac voltage waveform or loose wire caused by vibration
480V Delta Source
R fe 3 Load

V V

Cb Cb

S fa
 Arcing Ground Faults
Intermittent or Re-strike
The voltage across Cb is increasing due to intermittent contact or
re-striking (shown below as switches Sfa and Sfb) between phase
conductor and ground causes an oscillator effect.
OCPDs do not trip because ground fault current is low due to high
value of Rf.
 Arcing Ground Faults
Intermittent or Re-strike
Plot of transient over-voltage for a bolted ground fault
 Locating Ground Faults
Good Luck!
No direct return to source, only way is through system
capacitance.

Use over-voltage
Indicator light and relay method to indicate ground
fault.
De-energize one feeder at a time.
Very time consuming and dangerous!
Unknown ground fault may be on system for long period of time.
May de-energize vital equipment trying to find fault.
 Advantages / Disadvantages
with Ungrounded Systems

Advantages
Low fault current for line-to-ground faults (typically < 5A)
No Flash Hazard for ground faults
Continue operation during FIRST ground fault

Disadvantages
Difficult to locate ground faults
Severe transient over-voltages possible during ground faults
Higher costs due to labor and downtime locating ground faults
Second ground fault on another phase will result in phase-phase
fault
 Do others agree?
TO HRG OR NOT TO HRG?

IEEE Std 242-2001 (Buff Book)

Recommended Practice for Protection and
Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power
Systems

8.2.5 One disadvantage of the solidly grounded 480V

system involves the high magnitude of
destructive, arcing ground-fault currents that can
occur. However, if these currents are promptly
interrupted, the equipment damage is kept to
acceptable levels.
 Do others agree?
TO HRG OR NOT TO HRG?

IEEE Std 141-1993 (Red Book)

Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for
Industrial Plants

7.2.4 A safety hazard exists for solidly grounded systems

from the severe flash, arc burning, and blast hazard
from any phase-to-ground fault.
 Thats great in Theory,
but what about Reality?
Solidly-Grounded Systems Extremely
Expensive!!!

Arc Flash Damage: see videos

GFP Tripping MCB: NEC requirement only

Waste of copper (Neutrals): WHY HAVE IT???

 Extra Expense due to SG System
Example of a Double-Ended Substation

Dont need
the red in a
HRG System

LSG LSG

A
B
C
N
 Extra Expense due to SG System
NEC 250.95 GFP Requirement
Systems over 150Vlg to less than 600Vll
Each disconnect switch 1000A or more
Maximum setting of 1200A
Maximum time delay of 1sec
Must be performance tested upon installation

Nuisance tripping possible?

How many downstream GFPs do you install?
 What causes the Hazards in
Solidly Grounded Systems?

Very low impedance in ground path

High fault current
High fault energy

Ground Fault Coordination

Long time delays on upstream devices
High fault energy
 Solidly Grounded Systems
Grounded systems have an intentional connection from
the source generator or transformer to ground

Typically a four wire delta system

Can be a three wire system where the source neutral is

not connected to loads
A B
N

C
 Solidly Grounded Systems
Intentionally grounded through ground wire

480V Wye Source

3 Load

A B

~0
In Icc Icb Ica

Total Capacitive Current

I ca + I cb + I cc = 0
 Bolted Ground Faults
Ground fault current distribution on A
480V W ye Source
3 Load

A B

In I cc I cb I ca If

~60kA
Estim ated Total Fault Current Exam ple (2500kVA, 480V, Z = 5 % )
~0A (3A)
1 1
If = * I fla + (I cb + I cc ) = ~I n In = If = * 3000A = ~60,000A
Z pu 0.05
 Bolted Ground Faults
Bolted ground fault: A high fault current
causing severe damage. If properly
coordinated and installed, OCPDs will clear No transient
fault after acceptable damage. over-voltages
High fault
current
 Arcing Ground Faults
Ground fault current distribution on A
480V W ye Source
3 Load

A B

In I cc I cb I ca
If

~23kA
Estim ated Total Fault Current Exam ple (2500kVA, 480V, Z = 5 % )
~0A (3A)
1 1
If = * I fla * .38 + (I cb + I cc ) = ~I n In = If = * 3000A * .38 = ~23kA
Z pu 0.05
 Arcing Ground Faults
Arcing ground fault: Lower fault current, so
OCPDs may not clear fault. Delay will cause
severe equipment and personnel damage due to No transient
tremendous amount of energy released. over-voltages
High fault
current

Arcing ground faults are approximately 38% bolted faults.

 Locating Ground Faults
Follow the Smoke!

Direct return to source provides over-current

conditions that allow for OCPD to operate, hence,
clearing the fault.

OK, IF the following condition is met (and you like repair

work):
Acceptable Damage
People???
Equipment???
Costs???
 Coordination Problems
Discussed Over-Voltage and Over-Current Hazards ...

Now discuss time factor

Energy is also a function of time

E = volts * amps * time

Large radial systems have long time delays for coordination

 Advantages / Disadvantages
with Solidly-Grounded Systems
Advantages
No severe transient over-voltages possible during ground faults
Easy to find the ground fault (follow the smoke)
Can have phase-to-neutral loads

Disadvantages
Severe Arc Flash Hazard
Loss of production
Higher costs to due equipment damage
High values of ground fault current
High probability of ground fault escalating into 3-phase fault
Creates problems on primary
 High Resistance Grounding
How does HRG solve these hazards?
Inserts a resistor between neutral and ground
Eliminates 100% of Electrocution
Eliminates 90% of Arc Flash / Blast Injuries
Source
(Wye)

A B

HRG C
 High Resistance Grounding
What if no neutral exists (i.e. delta systems)?
A grounding transformer is installed (either a zig-zag or a wye-
delta) from all three phases to create an artificial neutral for
grounding purposes only.
See Appendices B,C and D for examples and calculations.
A B C A B C A B C

Zig-Zag
Grounding HRG
Transformer

Wye-Delta Wye-Delta
Grounding Grounding
Transformers Transformers
HRG HRG
 High Resistance Grounding
Intentionally grounded through neutral resistor
480V Wye Source
3 Load

A B
N

C
HRG
277V

Vng0V
c c c
Ir Ic Ib Ia

Ground 0V
 High Resistance Grounding
Compared to Ungrounded Systems (voltage rise)
480V Wye Source
3 Load

A B
N

C
HRG
480V

VngVan
(277V) Ir
c
Ic
c
Ib
c
Ia If

Additional return path, only difference Ground A

between Ungrounded and HRG!
 High Resistance Grounding
Importance of additional path versus Ungrounded
480V Wye Source
R fe 3 Load

A B

C
L fa
HRG

Ca
c c c
Ir Ic Ib Ia If

RLC circuit no longer exists! System Capacitance (capacitors) causing resonance

cannot occur due to dampening resistor (HRG) preventing transient over-voltage!
 High Resistance Grounding
Importance of additional path versus Ungrounded
480V Wye Source
R fe 3 Load

A B

C
HRG

S fa
Ca
c c c
Ir Ic Ib Ia
If
Dischage Path

Intermittent arcing cannot build up a charge (transient over-voltage) in the System

Capacitance. Capacitors are discharging during non-strike to the resistor (HRG)!
 High Resistance Grounding
Only discharges if Ro < Xco, so Ir > Ixco

That is, resistor current must be greater than capacitive

charging current.

Here are rule of thumb numbers for estimation

Transformer (kVA) Charging Current (A)
1000 0.2 - 0.6
1500 0.3 - 0.9
2000 0.4 - 1.2
2500 0.5 - 1.5
 High Resistance Grounding
Importance of additional path versus Solidly Grounded
480V Wye Source
3 Load

A B

C
HRG

Ca
c c c
Ir Ic Ib Ia If

Resistor (HRG) in lieu of wire adds significant amount of resistance to lower ground
fault to a predetermined value preventing destructive fault currents and shut-down!
 High Resistance Grounding
Compared with Solidly Grounded (current rise)
480V Wye Source
3 Load

A B

C
HRG

55.4
277
c c c
5.00A Ir Ic Ib Ia If
5.83A
1.73A

Resistor in return path, only difference Ground A

5.83A 3.00A + 5.00A
between Solidly Grounded and HRG!
 High Resistance Grounding
Currents:
Normal Operation
c c c
( Ia + Ib + Ic ) = 0 A
2 c c c
I f = I r + ( I a + I b + I c )2 = 0 A
Vng
0V
Ir = = = 0A
Rr 55.4

Fault conditions
c c c
( I a + I b + I c ) = (0 + 1.7360o + 1.73120o ) = 3.0090o A
2 c c c
Vng 277V I f = I r + ( I a + I b + I c ) 2 = 5.83 A
Ir = = = 5.000o A
Rr 55.4 I f = 3.0090o + 5.000o = 5.8331o A
 High Resistance Grounding
Another advantage of return path: ground fault location
480V Wye Source
3 Load

A B

C
HRG

Ca
c c c
Ir Ic Ib Ia
If

Contactor shorts out part of the resistor changing the resistance, hence, changing the
current. Ground fault current now is a pulse signal that allows for detection!
 High Resistance Grounding
Contactor shorts out resistance, thus, doubling
current to 10A at ~30 pulses / minute.
 High Resistance Grounding
Meter reading will alternate
Method to quickly locate ground faults. from 5A to 10A every 2
seconds.
480V Wye Source
85A 55A

5A

A B 80A 50A

C
HRG
55.4 80A 50A
ohms
30A 30A 30A 55A 50A 50A
0A 5A
ZSCT ZSCT
5A

Meter Meter

5A

0A
ZSCT

30A 30A 30A 50A 50A 50A Meter

Motor Motor
 Ground Faults
Damage to Power System Components:

Thermal Damage (Irms)2 * t

Mechanical Damage (Ip)2

Comparison between S-G example and HRG

System Grounding Ground Fault (A) Damage to Equipment (1 sec)
HRG 5 1 per unit
S-G 10,000 (10,000 / 5)2 = 4x106 p.u.

Solidly-Grounded Systems have 4 million times more damage than HRG!!!

Trend of High-Resistance Grounding
Heavy Industrial Grounding Systems

1930s 1960s Present

Ungrounded HRG

Light Industrial / Commercial Grounding Systems

1930s 1970s 1990s Present

Ungrounded Solidly Grounded HRG

 Design Considerations when
applying HRG Systems
HRG is the best Grounding Method available today
First developed with resistor and pulsing contactor (Analog)
Least Hazards of all grounding methods, but some still exist
Elevated Voltages
Trained Personnel
Cables, TVSSs, VFDs Insulation
Line-to-Neutral Loads
Phase-to-ground-to-phase Faults
Bypasses neutral grounding resistor
Single-poling circuit breakers
Loss of Ground
System becomes Ungrounded or Solidly Grounded introducing more
Hazards

HRG Systems Resolve these Hazards

 Design Considerations when
applying HRG Systems
NFPA 70: National Electrical Code (2008)

250.36 High-impedance grounded neutral systems in which a

grounding impedance, usually a resistor, limits the
ground-fault current to a low value shall be permitted for
3-phase ac systems of 480 volts to 1000 volts where all
the following conditions are met:

1) The conditions of maintenance and supervision

ensure that only qualified persons service the
installation.
2) Continuity of power is required.
3) Ground detectors are installed on the system.
4) Line-to-neutral loads are not served.
 Resolve Cable Insulation Issue
600V Cables
Insulation thickness based on mechanical strength, not electrical
Extra thickness exceeds 600V electrical rating
Therefore, should be used on 600V systems (HRG)

1000V Cables
Only CSA listed, not UL

5000V Cables
Non-shielded: Should be used on 2400V systems (HRG)
Shielded: Should be used on 4160V systems (HRG)

8000V Cables
Non-shielded: Should be used on 4160V systems (HRG)
 Loss of Ground Hazard

A B A B A B
N N N

C C C C
HRG HRG HRG

Open Circuit: Open Circuit: Short Circuit:

Desired fault current
cannot flow.
Ungrounded System.
Desired fault current Undesired fault current
cannot flow. can flow.
Grounded thru high Place CT close to N,
inductive transformer. >costs (elevated N).
Resonance System. Solidly Grounded
System.
 Advantages / Disadvantages with
High-Resistance Grdd Systems
CHARACTERISTIC HRG UNGROUNDED S-G

SERVES LINE NEUTRAL LOAD NO NO YES

SERVICE CONTINUITY AFFECTED NO NO YES
BY A SINGLE PHASE FAULT
EACH OF LOCATING LINE GROUND YES NO YES
FAULT
ARCHING GROUND FAULT ESCALATING NO NO YES
TO INVOLVE OTHER PHASES
LIMITS THERMAL DAMAGE YES YES NO
LIMITS MECHANICAL DAMAGE YES YES NO
ELIMINATE FLASH HAZARDS YES YES NO
CONTROLS TRANSIENT OVERVOLTAGE YES NO YES
REQUIRES BACKUP ON PRIMARY SYSTEM NO NO YES
POSSIBILY OF SINGLE PHASING THE NO NO YES
LOAD
COSTLY NO NO YES
LIMITS TERMINAL BOX EXPLOSION YES YES NO
Low-Resistance Grounded Systems
Brief Summary
Resistor between Neutral and Ground
Never used on 600V Systems
Sometimes used on 2.4kV & 5kV Systems
Mostly used on > 5kV Systems
Ranges from 100A to 1200A for only 10 seconds
Advantages
Limits ground fault current and associated damage
Yet high enough to operate relays
Disadvantages
Some damage may occur
Loss of production will occur
 Summary
Hazards with Ungrounded Systems
Severe transient over-voltages
Cannot efficiently locate ground faults

Hazards with Solidly-Grounded Systems

Very high fault currents and time delays
Causing severe arc blast / flash conditions
Ground fault coordination problems
 Summary
High-Resistance Grounded Systems

Best Grounding Method today

Resolves Ungrounded hazards
Resolves Solidly-Grounded hazards

Technology continues to make HRG Systems safer

than any other grounding method, but need help
Continue to educate and train personnel (engr and maint.)
NETA
Update standards and guideline that hinder HRG
NEC
NFPA 70E and IEEE 1584
THANK YOU