5 Lawrence rboin Asoc I ees see. Ne eo nook ny eee ‘ form, retrieval system, or any other sore Ren pir wien permion fe pbs, Lawrence Erlbaum Associate, Inc, Publishers Originally published in 1979 ISBN 0-99859-958- ISBN 0.99059.959.8 LC card Number 7849585 ___ EIGHT THE THEORY OF AFFORDANCES have described the nt as the surfaces that separate substances from medium in which the ive. But I have also described what the environ affords animals, ment ie terrain, shel snimals, and human displays. How do we go fo 5 information in light for the perception of surfaces, Perception of what they afford? Perhaps the comp what they afford. (0 perceive what they afford, ies that the “values” and “mean support. It is surface of support, and we ct stand-on-able, permitting an upright posture for quadrupeds and bipeds, It is theveh walkonable and run-overable. It is not sink-into-able like a surface of water o not for heavy terrestrial animals. Support for water bugs is differe: he four properties listed—horizontal, ft, extended, and rigid—wot pertes ofa surfice if they were measured with the scales and standa tunis used in physics. AS en affordance of support for a species of animal, howeve they have to be measured relative tothe animal. They are unique for that animal. Th te not just abstract physical properties. They have unity relative to the posture a‘measure in physics. juts aford different may have various shapes, as long as its functional layout is that of a seat, The color and tenture of the surface are irrelevant. Knee-high for a child is not the same clative to the size of the i it does, the affordance is perceived to the body surfaces, the self, ‘There could be 1d have meaning, tances ofthe environment have teractions, sexual, predatory, nurturing, fighting, id communicating. What other persons allord, comprises the ignficance for human beings. We pay the closes mn that specifies what the other person is threatens, and does. THE NICHES OF THE ENVIRONMENT have the concept of aniche. A species of ani 4 certain niche in the environment, ‘offers many ways of life, and different a akind of animal, and the ‘THE INFORMATION FOR VISUAL PERCEPTION 135 ® I sorts of ways of getting food; ‘eaves; all sorts of niches not yet occupied. niche is a place that is th if you like. An affordance tomy of subjective-ohjective and helps us to understand its inad- Ilya fact ofthe environment and a fet of| both physical yet neither. An affordance points both ways, to the environment and to ‘The niche for a certain species should not be confused with what some animal psychologists have called the phenomenal encironment ofthe species. This ean be taken erroneously to be the “private work posed to live, the “subjective wor on their perception of the em depend on the organism for its existence. MAN'S ALTERATION OF THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT In the last few thousand years, as everybody now realizes, the very fice of the earth has been modified by man. The layout of surfices has been changed, by cutting, clearing, leveling, paving, and building. Natural deserts and mountains, swamps and rivers, forests and plains stil exist, but they are being encroached upon and reshaped by man-made layouts. Moreover, the substances of the environment have been partly converted from the natural materials of the earth such as bronze,t air for us and the water for fsh—is becoming cycles that yielded a steady ‘Why has man changed er to get about, and easier to not anew environment—an artificial environment distinct from the natural cenvironment—but the same old environment modified by man. It is a mistake to from the natural environment, as if there were a world of mental prod ct from the world of material products. There is only one wor depend. We cannot thange it. , for we were , in fact, formed by them. We were ereated by the SOME AFFORDANCES OF THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT Let us consider the affordances of the medium, of substance layout, of objects, of ecological of went (Chapter 5). ‘THE MEDIUM, Air affords breathing, more exactly, respiration. It also affords unimpeded locomotion relative he ground, which affords support. When illuminated and fogsfree, it affords ‘THE INFORMATION FOR VIS 1 PERCEPTION visual percept fields and the perce c perception of vibratory events by means of sound THE SUBSTANCES ind always has a surface with air. It does not afford alfrds drinking. Being fluid, it afords pouring from a container, affords washing and bathing. Its surface does not aford support for information for water is well specified b ‘unique fluctuations caused by rippling 2}, Depending on the animal species, some afford toxic. Fruits and berries, for example, have more food value when they are ripe, and ied by the color ofthe surface. But the food values of substances are often misperceived. Iso afford various kinds of manufacture, depending on the kind of are prerequisite to other behaviors, such as mn. There will be more about the perception ofthe groun the basis of the b& perception, their so-called space perception. Gi earth as abstracted by Euclid, abstracted by Descartes. The alfordin plane are therefore notin differe Ihave supposed, ‘The flat earth, of course, lies beneath as T have said, and, in ict, extends not, of course, the earth of Copernicus, it f the and on that scale itis fat, not round. Wherever one goes, the earth is separated from the sky by a horizon that, although it may be hidden by the clut there ‘There will be evidence to show that the horizon can always be seen, in the sense that it can be visualized, and that it can always be touches is experienced in relation to the horizontal plane, Of course, a horizontal, fat, extended surface that is nonrigid, a stream or lake, does not aford support for standing, or for walking and running. Thes as we say. It may afford floating o by nature or by learning. ly of the axes of empty space a support and the geometry of a horizontal of discourse; they are not as separate as we if face fs a harrier tical and horizontal afford walking, if ease the surface cannot be a slope downward affo is dangerous and looks dangerous. The perceived if the layout is perceived. «d people have altered the steep slopes oftheir habitat by building stairways alford ascent and descent. What we call the steps allo stepping, up or down, the size of the person's legs. We are still capable of getting around in an arboreal layout of surfaces, tree branches, and we have ladders that afford this kind of se oF a rock is there are paths between obstacles, and these openings are progress of lcomotion is guided by the perception of barriers and obstact the act of steering into the openings and away from the surfaces that afford hhave tried to describe the optical informa specified in a particularly simple way, by an explosive rate of magnification of the optical texture. This has been called looming (eg, Schi, 1965), It should not be confused, however, with the magnification of an opening THE INFORMATION FOR VISUAL PERCEPTION such as occurs in the approach to a THE OBECTS re extremely various 1 distinguish between attached obj ture ofthe earth, some items of which are attached to thout breakage t be comparable in size to the animal under th hands. Objects can be manufactured ry afford lifting and carrying, while others are not. Some are graspable and other not. To be graspable, an abject must have opposite surfaces separated by a distance inch cube can be grasped, but a ten-ineh object needs “handle” to afford grasping. Note th alford manipulation (Chapter 3). Additional examples ate given below 1. An elongated object of moderate size and wei affords wielding, If moderate size and weight affords be amissle or only an object ‘The launching of mis tools other than the hands alone—the sling, the bow, the catapult, the gun, and so ‘on—is one of the behaviors that makes the human animal a nasty, dangerous species. 4. An elongated elastic object, such as a fiber, thread, thong, or rope, affords knotting, binding, lashing, knitting, and weaving, These are kinds of behavior where ‘manipulation leads to manufacture owing, It may by supplementarycrayon, to represent scenes and to specify words, to depict and to write, We have thousands of names fo elasticity, rigidity, and mobil psychology asserts that we perceive these objects insofar as we discrimi r properties or qualities. Psychologists carty out elegant experiments in the iow and how wel these are composed of their T now suggest that what we perceive when we look at objects are their affrdances, not their qualities, We can Aliseriminate the dimensions of difference if required to do so in an experiment what about the young to show that the infant does not begin by first is easier to perceive such an invariant unit for perception. Ifyou know what can be done with «grasp detache sed fr, you can call it whatever The theory ofallrdances rescues us fom the philosopl of objets, each defined by its common festores and then gi knew, you cannot specify the necessary and sufcie ‘They have only a “family cesemblance,” But ings and perceive their uses, You do not have to caus and label things in order to perceive what they afford THE INFORMATION FoR the variables separately. in fat, it would be impossible ary to distinguish all do so. Perception OTHER PERSONS AND ANIMALS ‘The richest and most elaborate affordances of the environment are provided by other ng their own movement are subject to the laws of mec for they are not governed by these laws. They are so different from ordinary objects that infants learn almost immediately to distinguish them from plants and nonliving things. When touched they touch back, when struck they strike back; short, they interact with the observer and with one another. Behavior affords behavior, socal sciences can be thought of ring behavior, fighting be- what the buyer affords the buyer, and so on. The percei feet. For other animals and other persons can only give off information about themselves insofar as they are tangible, audible, odorous, tastabe, or visible. ‘The other person, the generalized other, the alter as opposed to the ego, is an ‘ecological object with a skin, even if clothed. It isan object, although itis not merely an object, and we do right to speak of he or she instead of t. But the other person has& {he information to specify what he or she i, invites, scan be found in the light. PLACES AND HIDING PLaces ihe habitat ofa givon animal contains places. A place i not boundaries buta region (Chapter). The diferent placeaf alfordances. Some are places where food The bject with definite may have different lly found and others where concealed. The reciprocal of rt of the envionment, that other observers are hidden or unhidden fom other cbserer. Surely, babies paying pecker i‘ : ig pecka-boo and children phying desde Practicing this kind of apprehension, To hide ones 's concealed the pri sled of these fact of observat ve are peepholes and screens that pe wet of glass in a window transmits bot THE INFORMATION FOR v1 Note also that a glass wall affords seeing through but not a cloth curtain affords going through but know such fact f the environment are enough to show how Substances have biochemical offerings and afford afford posture, locome ts—tools, utensils, weapons—afford special types ior to primates and humans, The other animal and the other person provide and reciprocal aflordances at extremely high levels of behavioral complexity. At the highest level, when vocalization becomes speech and manufactured displays become images, pictures, and writing, the affordances of human behavior ae staggering. No ‘more of that will be considered at this stage except to point gut that speech, and wr ave to be perceived. are neutral. As 1 pleasure and the biologi affords affords filling off, injury. Third, whereas on the other tha sharp edge, a knife Wve affordances are properties of things taken ‘observer but not properties ofthe experiences ofthe observer. They are nol they are not felings of pleasure or pai£ ‘There has been endless debate among philosophers and psychologists as to whether alues are physical or phenomenal, in the world of matter or only in the world of mind For afordances as distinguished from values, the debate does not apply. Aflordances ate neither in the one world or the other inasmuch as the theory of two wore {ieeted. There is only one environment, although it contains many observer with limitless opport THE ORIGIN OF THE CONCEPT OF AFFORDANCES: A RECENT HISTORY {The stall psychologists recognized that the meaning or the value ofa thing seems to be perecived just as immediately as its color. The value is elear on the face say and thus it has a physiognomic quality inthe way that {appear on his face. To quote from the Principles of Gestalt Paychology (Koflea, 1539) Each thing says what itis... a fruit says Eat me’; water says “Drink me’ thunder {avs ‘Fear me’; and woman says Love me’ (p. 7). These values are vivid and eseental features of the experience itself. Koffa didnot believe that a meaning ofthis sort ead be explained as pale contest of memory images or an unconscious set of response wites” the mailing of a letter, the handle “wants to be srasped,” and things what to do with them” (p. 353). Hence, they have what Koflka called “demand character. Kurt Lewin coined the term Aufforderungscharakter, which has been translated 4s intitation character (by J. F. Brown in 1829) and as valence (by D. K. Adare ix 1851: cf Marrow. 1969, p. 56, for the history of these translations). The latter term came into general use. Valences for Lewin had corresponding vectors, which could be 18 the observer toward or away from the object. What xelanation could be given for these valences, the characters of objects that demanded behavior? No one, not even the gestalt theorists, could think Physical and, indeed, they do not M wi ographical” object. The valence of an obj in experience, Ghd bestowed by a need of the observer. Thus, Kofla argued that the postbor has ¢ Gemand character only when the observer needs to mail a letter, He is attracted eck when he has a letter to post, not otherwise, The value of something was neeeed tt change as the need of the observer changed The concept of afordan: and demand but with a erueial is derived from these concepts of valence, invitation, "nce. The aflordance of something does not change ———-THEINFonwaTION FonvisuaL encermion £ othe ned ef the obiewer changes. The sb yo my tr peo and % the airs, soning ht neds bth aortas beng Sven, ane ther tobe ened An since eo! besel pena jen br ed ae Sbsener nd hse a prong Test fen ht does boa ok 1 Tobe re, we dec ha interns of aap yn ata plone bly, an ere es aning nd ae toe Bt hts ee Indalico new sot ° Foros are pew pote ht ied htevg, ot phys! te ay ems tpt ty tts en ihe ony om) ss etermaling os er rng human cance bot stem This at perl when the te eae re od teehee wether he i nt rca ough Hoa soi wien one ha eter ia ateciens ported othe veneration se Ihe Exeone ane th age of tk ea ts brads ee The perception oft re shld eben be coed wth te aay ‘pect ston nay he The gest pnb expe de dete nd stale by imams beeen 9 “yhmamiereton ice and that a “tension” -nomenal ego. When the object is he epo” said Kolfka, it has a demand character. Note that or the “vector” must arise in the "“Reld,” that is, in the e. Although many psychologists Bind this theory int do not. There is an easier way of explaining why the values of things seem to Figure 81 The ann ese secre 7 sone er te ceases * . array. (From The agreement ofthebe perceived imme observer are specifi becaus 4 compound invariant, i just do not have to be combined or psychologists to working in the laboratory with but they never managed to go beyond f a way to measure themn. How can they variant of optical structure so as to apply 2 The answer comes in two parts, 1 low-order stimu hope to isolate and control san invariant, to apply an exact mathematical description so that other ‘can make it available to their observers. The virtue ofthe psychophysical is simply that it is disciplined, not that it relates the psychical to the physical by « metrie formula An affordance, as I said, points two ways, to the envi So does the information to specify an affordance, But Separate realms of consciousness and m: ism. It says only that the information to specify the utilities of the environment is accompanied by information to specify the observer himself, his body, legs, hands, and ly to reemphasize that exteroception ereeive the world is to coperceive oneself. Thi ‘any form, either mind-matter di and of one’s compleme ‘The child begins, no dou! THE OPTICAL INFORMATION FOR PERCEIVING AFFORDANCES i theories of value and ‘of what value and meani ‘ment and to the observe is does not in the least im on in light for some properties of i g00d to eat. The taste ofa thing, he will nt can see its color and texture but n sand grasps relative to her own legs and body hhands, But she must leam to perceive the affardances of things for other observers 4s well as for herseli_An affordance is often valid forall the animals of «spe at enable a child to perceive ual sensation; he knows from psychophysics and color to wavelength of light. He may concede that specify surfaces and how they a hhe may boggle at invariant com! lances of the environme ‘more children to perceive the same shape at different poin vation. These are s that enable two children to perceive the common affordance of the solid the different perspectives, the affodance of a toy, for example, Only ld perceives the values of things for others as well s for herself does she begin to be socializedt MISINFORMATION FOR AFFORDANCES ing can here bo be misinformation? According othe ther being devlaped nore perception es rmaton picked up misperception re ‘The brink of a cliff affords falling off; 4 fs not dangerous, but depth-downward-atan-edge device was fy an adequate surface of support, ‘mation. When human infants at the cra ree the dane of she! of gst by sai a oo 'slass door for an open doorway and attempting to walk through t Fi Crate nto the barrio and nes ot speed by {he outow of otal teste inthe aay, or as nicely spect ee mee fs fr ar The oecading edge of the dary were speied td the ems a stil andl oped up srmmetaly nthe nara sanvor at he area ea behavior wat pope) contle, it on the src or “Theto cae re would have saved hi the first a surface of support was mistaken for because the optic eray specified nr Inthe Second cate a barrier was mistaken for iver isin deep trouble. Ifa covered ped. A danger is sometimes hidden— the shark under the calm water and 1 poison ivy is fea ‘A-wildeat may be hard to person, When Kofka asserted that “es that it may lie, More exactly, a thing may not look like wh Nevertheless, however true may be, the basic affordances of the environ- ment are perceivable and are usually perceivable directly, without an excessive amount of learning, The basic properties of the ment that make an affordance are peofied the body ‘commensurate with his of the observer himsel body. SUMMARY tances, surfaces, objects, places, and other animals have affordances they need to The medi fora given animal. They offer benefit or injury, life or death, This is w! be perceived. ties of the environment and the way of life of the animal go together imulation for the physical propert the environmental propert ‘mination of ecological optics. The notion of inv to the motives and needs of an observer and and surfaces of a world provides a new approach to psychology.