ACADEMIC WRITING TI LIU N THI

T MINH THANH CHU TH L HONG

TT NGHIP I HC CHUYN NGNH NG VN ANH

TUYN SINH SAU I HC CHUYN NGNH GING DY TING ANH

NH XUT BN I HC QUC GIA THNH PH H CH MINH - 2009

MC LC
ACADEMIC WRITING TI LIU N THI.......................................................1
SECTION 1:SENTENCE COMPONENTS........................................................2
Prepositions - Prepositional phrases........................................................2
PARTICIPLES - PARTICIPIAL PHRASES....................................................7

LI NI U

Thc t khng phi l sch dy ting ca tc gi ngi nc ngoi no

cng p ng ng v ni dung n tp thi tt nghip i hc chuyn ngnh
Ng vn Anh v thi tuyn sinh sau i hc chuyn ngnh Ging dy ting
Anh Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) theo quy nh ca
Trng i hc Khoa hc X hi v Nhn vn - i hc Quc gia Thnh ph H
Ch Minh.

Ti liu ny ra i nhm (1) p ng nhu cu n tp thi tt nghip i hc

ca sinh vin h ti chc v h chnh quy bng 1 v bng 2 theo chuyn
ngnh ng vn Anh v (2) gip cc anh ch cu sinh vin n tp tuyn sinh
sau i hc chuyn ngnh Ging dy ting Anh.

Ngoi ra, ti liu ny cng c th nm trong th mc sch tham kho gip

(1) hc vin cao hc chuyn ngnh Ging dy ting Anh v (2) cc thy c
theo: kha Bi dng gio vin ti Trng i hc Khoa hc X v Nhn vn i
hc Quc gia Thnh ph H Ch Minh hc thnh cng mn Writing PG trong
chng trnh chnh kha ca c hai h o to sau i hc ny.

gip cc i tng d thi lm quen v chun b tt k thi ca mnh, ti

liu ny c trnh by thnh bn phn:

1) Phn n tp cc thnh phn cu ( components) thng dng

trong vn vit ting Anh trang trng;

2) Phn n tp cu trc c bn ca mt on vn (a paragraph);

3) Phn n tp cu trc c bn ca mt bi lun vn (an essay);

4) Phn gii mt s thi da trn cc thi thc t c dng trong

cc k thi gn y.
 Hy vng rng bn phn trnh by ny cng vi kh nhiu bi tp a dng
v kh v phong ph v chng loi c gi hoc c li gii nh km
minh ha cho phn l thuyt c trnh by s gip cc i tng d thi t luyn
tt hn d c iu kin hay khng th trc tip theo hc cc lp luyn thi chnh
thc.

Thnh ph H Ch Minh, ngy 10 thng 1 nm 2005.

T Minh Thanh v Chu Th L Hong

SECTION 1:SENTENCE COMPONENTS

THE PHRASE

'A phrase is a group of words used as a single part of speech and not containing
a verb and its subject. [Warriner, 1958: 59] These groups of words may be
used not only as verbs but also as adjectives, adverbs and nouns.

Prepositions - Prepositional phrases

1. Prepositions:
1.1. Definition: A preposition is a word that shows the relation
between a noun or a pronoun and other words in a sentence.

I walked to the house/ around the house/ through the house the book by him/
for him/ about him.

In the above examples, prepositions make great differences in meaning

when they link the house with walked, and him with the book.

1.2. Characteristics:

1.2.1. English prepositions may be in different forms.

1.2.1.1. one word prepositions:

aboard below in throughout

about beneath inside to
above beside into toward
across besides like under
after between of underneath
against beyond off until
along but except up
among by on upon
around down outside with
at during over within
before for since without
behind from throug
h

- I am tired of them

- George sat between the two deans.

- He objected to the last paragraph.

- The car stopped at the station.

- The lad stood on a barrel.

- The car coasted into the garage with lights on.

- The girl was sitting against the wall.

- These roses are for you.

1.2.1.2. -ing prepositions:

In addition to the prepositions already mentioned, there is in English a

group of -ing preposition which have a verb as a stem. Here are some of the
most common: barring, concerning, regarding, considering, following,
including, pending, during, etc.:

- He was vague concerning the details.

- Assuming the accuracy of the report, action must be taken at once.

- We WILL DELAY the papers, pending the of arrival of the contract.

Distinguish the -ing preposition from THE -ING VERB.

- ing prep 1. Barring accidents the picnic will begin at eleven.

- ing prep 2. There will be a smoker following the dining car

- ING VERB 3. She IS only FOLLOWING her orders after all.

- ing prep 4. May I have a conference regarding my examination!

- ING VERB 5. He WAS REGARDING the newcomer with curiosity.

- ING VERB 6. CONSIDERING the time, we HAD BETTER STOP now.

- ing prep 7. Considering your loss, the bill WILL NOT BE SENT.

- ING VERB 8. I AM INCLUDING damage to my window on the bill.

- ing prep 9. The entire squad, including the water boy WILL MAKE the trip.

- ing prep 10. This IS the letter concerning their complaint.

1.2.1.3. compound prepositions:

The final group is composed of compound prepositions. These are

relatively numerous and various types. Often it is difficult to say whether a word
group should be considered a preposition or not. Here is a short list of two
types.

Two-word prepositions Prepositions with Noun

together with up at on account of By way of
contrary to as for in spite of In comparison with
ahead of inside of with rega to In reference to
due to aside from in advance of With respect to
 apart from as concerns in addition to In event of
up to because of on behal of For the sake of
out of owing to in place of In case of
away from instead of in I ieu of By means of

Recognize the compound preposition in the following sentences:

1. We arrived ahead of time.

2. The game was cancelled on account of rain.

3. The oldest daughter is up at the camp.

4. Contrary to our expectations, the movie was a delightful spoof.

5. The hoard had a meeting with reference to the new building

6. I want to thank you on behaif_of these refugee

7 .They served rice in lieu of potatoes.

8. I can answer all the questions except for the last

9. In spite of her protestations, Harriet was persuaded to join the guild.

10. The foreman received a letter with respect to alleged violations.

1.2.2. As far as their meaning is concerned, English prepositions are of

two main kinds:

1.2.2.1. Prepositions that have specific meanings, namely the meanings

of the relations that they represent or refer to. Below are a number of their
common meanings:

a. Space may be subdivided into:

+ Location: in the kitchen, under the ground, behind the wall

+ Direction: towards the town, from Leeds to Manchester

b. Time may be subdivided into:

+ Point of time: before the wedding, at nine o'clock

+ Extent of time: for several days, since January

c. Topic: (chilling stories) about ghosts

d. Purpose: (a key) for the opening of the safe

e. Similarity: (a boy) like his father

f. Instrument: with an axe

g. Accompaniment: with a bowler hat

1.2.2.2. Prepositions used without any specific meaning, when they are
attached to particular VERBS, adjectives or nouns.
 - They BLAMED the mess on Jim.

- They BLAMED Jim for the mess.

- I am interested in your_offer.

- She is proud of her children.

- Hes anxious about/for her_safet.

- There is great anxiety about his future

- We have a lot of sympathy for you.

- During the occupation, we had to live in total ubmission to the invaders.

In all these cases the preposition has a purely syntactic relational function
in relating a VERB, adjective or noun to a following object or complement. The
preposition is predictable (i.e. it cannot be replaced by any other preposition),
and so lacking in specific meaning.

2. Prepositional Phrases:
Do not confuse prepositions with adverbs. Prepositions, which introduce
prepositional phrases, are always followed by a nominal.

Compare:

Adverb: She looked up.

Preposition: She looked up the stairs

Adverb: They went inside.

Preposition: They went inside the house

Distinguish prepositions from adverbs.

1. The swimmer waited below

2. The swimmer waited below the dam

3. She liked to sit near

4. She sat near the window.

5. the paint bucket fell off

6. The paint bucket fell off the porch

7. I havent seen him since

8. I havent seen him since yesterday

9. The refreshments came after

10. The refreshments came after the program

2.1. Definition: A prepositional phrase is a group of words beginning with

a preposition and ending with nominal. The nominal which ends the prepositional
phrase is the complement of the preposition that begins the phrase.
- He answered the question with (great) care [prep + noun (phrase)]

- I am interested in swimming. [prep + gerund]/ in learning a foreign language

[prep + gerund phrase]

- Do it for me. [prep + pronoun]

- One can see the airport from upstairs.[prep + adverb]

2.2. Use:

2.2.1. A preposition phrase can be used as an adjectival to modify a noun

or a pronoun.

EX: - the lady in the green dress

- two identical girls with long blond hair

- some of the most common methods

- one of tine two possibly solutions

2.2.2. A preposition phrase can be used as an adverbial to modify:

2.2.2.1. A VERB (when this prepositional phrase tells when, where,how,

how etc. the action of the verb takes place):

- He LIVES in the suburbs.( Where does he live?)

- The train ARRIVED at two o 'clock. ( did the train arrive?)

- The reproduction TAKES PLACE by budding (How does the reproduction take
place?)

- He MISSED the target by a foot. ( How far did he miss the target?)

2.2.2.2. AN ADJECTIVE.

- These shoes ARE too small for comfort.

- If you ARE susceptible to colds, vitamin c helps you resist them.

- She IS very clever at dealing with strangers.

2.2.2.3. ANOTHER ADVERB.

- Never in mililion years WILL he ADMIT defeat.

- Later in the afternoon,the sun WAS NOT so bright, and the sky WAS NOT SO
blue.

2.2.2.4. A WHOLE CLAUSE OR SENTENCE:

- According to me, you'RE quite right.

- In fact the contract IS invalid.

2.2.3. A preposition phrase can be used as an adverbial after the verb BE.
It is called the subjective complement in the sentence:
- The books ARE under the desk-lamp.

- She IS in the kitchen preparing dinner.

- Jack WAS on top of the car.

- HAVE you ever BEEN to Cairo

EXERCISE 1: Underline the prepositional phrases in the given paragraph.

Vitamins are necessary for good health. Vitamin A promotes the

growth of young animals and is essential to the proper development of their

eyes. If you CANNOT SEE in the dard, perhaps you should drink more milk,
which is rich in vitamins. Yellow vegetables like carrots also contain vitamin
A. If you have trouble with digestion or if your appetite IS below normal,
you may need vitamin B. Among the food containing this vitamin are eggs,
green vegetables, and meals. According to my druggist; liver, which contains
vitamin B, IS a safeguard against anaemia. For an adequate supply of this
vitamin, eat plenty of tomatoes. If you are susceptible to colds, vitamin C may
help you resist them. In the spring or during the summer, you CAN GET
vitamin D by a trip to a sunny beach. Vitamin D, derived from sunshine and
found In fish-liver oils, PREVENTS rickets. When you look at a menu, DECIDE
upon a well-balanced meal fortified with vitamins.

PARTICIPLES - PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

1. Definition:
1.1. A participle is a word formed from a verb and used as an adjective or
an adverb.

Participles may occur in different forms:

Active Passive
Present Participle Writing Being written
Past Participle Written
Perfect Participle Having written Having been written

1.2. A participial phrase consists of a participle together with its modifier

(s)and/or its object (s):

Ti y

- The man standing (active present participle) near the front door (adjunct of
place) is Mr. Snow.

of their eyes. If you CANNOT SEE in the perhaps you should drink more milk,
which is rich in vitamins. Yellow vegetables like carrots also contain vitamin A. If
you have trouble with digestion or if your appetite IS below normal, you may
need vitamin B. Among the food containing this vitamin are eggs, green
vegetables, and meals. According to my druggist, liver, which contains vitamin
B, IS a
safeguard against anaemia. For an adequate supply of this eat plenty of
tomatoes. If you are susceptible to , vitamin c may help you resist them. In the
spring or during the summer, you CAN GET vitamin D by trip to a sunny
beach. Vitamin D, derived from

sunshine and found in fish-liver oils,PREVENTS rickets. When you look

at a menu, DECIDE upon a well-balanced fortified with vitamins.

PARTICIPLES - PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

1. Definition:

1.1. A participle is a word formed from a verb and used as an adjective or an

adverb.

Participles may occur in different forms:

1.2. A participial phrase consists of a participle together with its modifieris)

and/or Itsobieciis):

- The man standing near the is Mr. Snow.

tJ

active present participle adjunct of place

- Having translated the, text with great I copied it down.

T7 ' I

active perfect participle do adjunct of manner

2. Usage:

2.1. A present or past participle can be used as an adjective to modify a noun or

pronoun,or to subjective complement in a

sentence, following A LINKING VERB.

ACTIVE PRESENT PARTICIPLES a liv/>7thing a burn/>7 house a

approach/stranger the \eering manager the preced/>7 statement
melt/>7snow taWing leaves the leapr^/dropp/icks

- Th cup GOT broken.

- Some plants are erect, others ARE tracing or

2.2. We use a present participle after VERBS OF PERCEPTION to show something

in occurrence:

- DO you HEAR her s\r\qingfl

- We SAW the enemy approach/>7.

-1 FEEL my heart beating.

2.3. We also use a present participle to show an action happening at the same
time with the action illustrated by THE PREDICATIVE VERB in the sentence:
- The children RAN crying in the street.

- Step by step, they FOLLOWED danc/>7<7.

- Be/>K7 described os an example of gymnosperms. the pines ARE abundant

plants, particularly in colder regions of the world.

In these cases, 'whenand may be added before the

present participle:

Wherjspeak/n about the new project,the lecturer SHOWED a map.

- Whffe working a\ the. farm,the students HELPED the farmers.

2.4. To express an action which has already finished before the one illustrated
by THE PREDICATIVE VERB in the sentence, we use either a past or a perfect
participle.

- Translat ecjinto many_ languages,this book BECAME well-known all over the
world.

- Hav/>7<7 finish ecjmy work,I SAT down to rest.

- Hav/>7<7 been cqrefu[_repai rthe elevator RAN well.

2.5. A participial phrase may be a modifier of a noun or a pronoun:

- The stem ly/>7<7 between two nodes IS an inter-node.

- Frank, tack I go' hard on the fifty-yard line, WAS seriously INJURED.

- He JUMPED over the rope extended across

In most cases, participial phrases are more related to THE PREDICATIVE VERB of
the sentences in which they occur, expressing , time, manner, condition ox
means.

- Being a careless fellow,he FORGOT all about it.

(CAUSE: Why did he forget all about it?)

- Hav/Wff had my breakfast,I WENT to school.

(TIME: When did you go to school?)

- He STOOD on the veranda, listen/>7<7 to the wind.

(MANNER: How did he stand on the veranda?)

- Joking morning_ exercises every day*you CAN IMPROVE your health.

(CONDITION: Under what condition can I improve my health?)

- Runn/>7<7 q!Lthe way, I CAUGHT the express.

(MEANS: How/Bywhat means did you catch the express?)

EXERCISE 2: Number from 1 to 10 on your paper. Make a list of the participles
in the following sentences. After the participle, write the (group) word modified.
Be prepared to tell whether each is a present or a past participle.

1. The radio announcer spoke sadly to the listening audience.

2. His trained voice held them in its spell.

3. T have a distressing news to relate, he told them.

4. Mudville has lost the game; the defeatedieom is in deep disgrace.

5. Pausing briefly, he went on.

6. Overconfident and swaggering,our proud players made one mistake after

another.

7. They swung their bats so recklessly that the opposing pitcher easily struck
them out.

8. Angered,\the few men who tried to reach base never succeeded.

9. Therefore, our fanned victory celebration will not take place.

10. And now, he concluded, an excit word from our sponsor.

GERUNDS - GERUND PHRASES 1. Gerunds:

1.1. Definition: A gerund is a word formed from a verb and used as a noun.

1.2. Usage: Like a noun, a gerund can be:

a. The subject.

Studying certainly KEEPS low grades away. Thesweei singing of birds DELIGHTS
US.

The loud knockingof the door FRIGHTENED him.

b. The subject ivecomplement.

Seeing IS believ/>7.

His favourite pastime IS swimm/>7.

Jack ENJOYS hunt/>7.

You MUST CONTINUE work/>7.

d. The complement of a preposition:

That tool IS USED for drilling.

/ARE computers capableot Tnink/>7<7?

Ill his youth, Henry V W/AS givedrink/and gambl/>7^.

1.3. Notes:
a. Gerunds always end in - ing:hut not all words ending in -ing are gerunds:
they may he present participles or a part of A PREDICATIVE VERB. For instance,
there are three words ending in -ing in the following sentence, hut only one of
them, is a gerund:

Watch/>7<7 the judges in the balcony, Gwen WAS TRYING to win the contest
with her loud singing.

h. A gerund can also he used as an adjective to modify a noun. But it should he

carefully distinguished from a participle:

ACTIVE PRESENT PARTICIPLES I i V ingorganisms the sleeping guard

a drinking horse

The combination of gerund and head noun is also referred to as a

compound noun (ComN, for short). Sleeping car for example.

should he dominated in ComN as in (2):

NP

V-Ger headN

II

(2) the sleeping car

c. A gerund can he a part noun and part verb.

The noun feature is clearly illustrated in the two following cases:

A gerund can be used with a posses

- You MAY RELY ON my coming.

- We DON'T LIKE your qoing away.

- Our working on a collective farm in summer HELPS US in studying many

subjects.

A gerund may be modified by a

case-.

- The problem IS the stud regularly.

- 1 INSIST ON my brother's coming in time.

The verb feature is shown in the two following cases:

A gerund may have a direct object.

-1 LIKE reading books.

-My friend IS veryquickm

A gerund may be modified by an

- 1 LIKE walk ingslowly.

- We CONTINUE doing morning regularly.

2. Gerund Phrases

2.1. Definition: A gerund phrase is a phrase containing a gerund.

2.2.Usage: Like a gerund, a gerund phrase can be used as:

a. The subject.

- Learn/>7ff rules without examplesis useless.

- LiV ing far.from home IS NOT always easy.

b. The sub iect ivecomplement

- His bad habit IS teWina lies.

- The basic job of computers IS process forma

c. The direct object-

- I ENJOY listen/Wffto hev

- It BEGAN rain/>7<7 early m the morning.

d. The complement oi a preposition:

- The farmers -ARE sure of harvest/no pood

- I -AM devoted to brinq//7<7 up my children.

- The idea of breed ing cattle in this region IS progressive.

- He DEVISED a mechanical way of multiply//7ffand dividing.

- The answer IS OBTAINED

by examin/>7<7 the characteristics of various -This equipment WAS USED

many without repaired.

- The abacus CAN BE UNDERSTOOD without know/>7<7 how to

e. The appositive.

- My favourite exercise,play/>7q tennis,IS very beneficial to my health.

EXERCISE 3: After you have listed each gerund in the sentences below, w rile
how each is used: subject (S), direct object (dO), subject/Ve implement(sC),
complement of a preposition (pC).

Many students ENJOY play/>7 g basketball. (play/WydO of The first requirement

of the game IS fast think/>7<7.
(think/W^sC of

Rhythm IS NEEDED for skilful dribbl//7<7- (dribbl/>7<VpC of for)

- Smooth iump/>7<7often HELPS in scoring.

(jump/i^S of hepis) {scoring/pC of

- Precisetim//7ff IS one of the most important abilities

of a good basketball player. (tim/W^S of

INFINITIVES - INFINITIVE PHRASES

1. Definition:

1.1. An infinitive is a verbal consisting of to followed by a verb. Infinitives may

occur in different forms:

1.2. An infinitive phrase is a phrase beginning with an infinitive.

to study a foreign language

active present infinitive noun phrase/dO

to go to the movies with some

tI

active present infinitive pp/adjunct of placepp/adjunct of accompanime to be in

good spirits

active present infinitive PP/complement

to have been built for a lonq

+ I

passive perfect infinitive pp/adjunct of time

2. Usage: Infinitives or infinitive phrases may be used as nouns,

adjectives or qdverbs_.

2.1. As a noun, an infinitive (phrase) can be:

a. The subject.

- To err IS human, to forgive IS divine.

- To travel to Italy by boat WILL BE interesting.

b. The real subject.

- It WILL BE interesting to travel to Italy by

c. The sub ject ive complement (idler A LINKING VERB):

- To question IS to learn.

- He SEEMED to be angry.

- They APPEAR to be in pood spirits.

- The house SEEMED to have been built for

d. Th edirect object.

- They soon AGREED to follow.

- I WANT to master English c. The complement of a preposition:

- Betty WAS about to faint/to fall down the stairs.

1 2 As tin adjective, an infinitive (phrase) can moil'I'v a noun.

- This IS one way to go.

- We NEEDED a guide to lead through the

- This IS a pleasant win drink in hot weather.

z:As an adverb, an infinitive (phrase) can modify: a An adjective:

- My dot! IS too oldtojegrn.

-M i s s J a n e w A s pleased to receive

- They WERE loath to leave this district.

b. A VERB

- She PUT the cake in the oven to bake.

- Sara HAS GONE to invite her aunt

Infinitive phrases are also commonly found in the expressions: TOO + adjective

I + 1 for (pro)noun| + infinitive phrase adjective + ENOUGH I

TOO difficult

[for us/the students] to translate without

easy ENOUGH

EXERCISE 4: In the space beside each sentence, identify the italicized word as a
participle (P), an infinitive (/), or a gerund (G).

_p_ 1. Carmen PREFERRED the reclining chair lor his bad back.

_G_ 2. Doctors BELIEVE that walking IS one of the most beneficial forms. _/_ 3.
The quiet night and bright campfire INSPIRE US to tell ghost stories. _G_ 4. It
ISNT flying that MAKES Elsa anxious but the airline food.

_p_ 5. Scratching\\sback against a tree, the bear LOOKED deceptively harmless.

_/_ 6. To make.the room more cheerful, Alice PAINTED the dark cabinets yellow.

_G_ 7. Observinggorillas mating behaviour IS part of that zookeepers

job.

_/_ 8. During the movie, Bert CONTINUED crunch loudly on his popcorn.

_p_ 9. My brothers receding hairline MAKES him LOOKoXcv than he really is.

_p_ 10. In the drainage ditch, the boys FOUND a wooden crate

dozens of spiders.

EXERCISE 5: Identify the italicized wo in the following paragraph as

a participle (P), an infinitive (/), or a gerund (G).

(1) Having Hephzibah Schleirbech for a name, I HAVE CONE through life as a
kind of handicapped person.(2) Knowing that my name is unusual, I AM patient
with strangers. (3) After all, or

Spelling Hephzibah Schleirbech IS NOT easy. (4) One day ,

excited about a new family car, TRIED to me about it by making a long-distance

telephone call. (5) Not remembering my number, she SPELLED my name over
and over again for the operator. (6) Exhausted by efforts to understand.\ the
operator remarked, It seems to me the number would be easier to remember
than the name. (7) When I AM calling \he dentist, I sometimes get a quick
appointment by my

name to Mary Smith or Jane Jones. (8) Occasionally, however, I FORCET to

answer to Mary or Jane. (9) When this happens, the embarrassed dentist looks
at me strangely. (10) He seems to Im a criminal

using an alias. (11)1 must find another way to change my name. (12) My one
desire is to marry man named John Henry.

I HE CLAUSE

4 A group of words containing a verb and its subject and used as a part of a
sentence is called a clause. [Warriner, 1958: 71]

DISTINGUISHING BETWEEN MAIN AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

A main (or independent) clause expresses a complete thought _nd can stand by
itself as a sentence. [Warriner, 1958: 72]

SENTENCES: - My neighbours HAVE SOLO their home.

- They WILL MOVE to Denver next week.

When combined into one long sentence, these main clauses "ccomc parts of the
sentence:

MAIN CLAUSES: My neighbours HAVE SOLD their home, they WILL MOVE to
Denver next week.
4 A subordinate (or dependent) clause does not express a complete 'nought and
cant stand alone. [Warriner, 1958: 72] A subordinate clause depends on a main
clause to make the meaning complete. SUBORDINATE CLAUSE: Ifshe BAKES a
cake... [What then?]

Subordinate Main Clause

SENTENCE: If she BAKES a cake, we CAN HAVE a party.

' BORDINATE ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

An Adjective Clause is a group of words (containing A FINITE EBB) doing the

work of an adjective. It is usually introduced by a Relative Pronoun or a Relative
Adverb. That is why it is also called a

Relative Clause. Compare:

- He ate the biggest apple. (

- He ate the apple on the green, plate.(

- He ate the apple which he FOUND.

- He is a clever boy. ( )

He is a boy with a love of sport. ( >

-He is a boy who SHOULD DO gregt_ things^some da.

{Adjective

1. The Relative Pronoun agrees in Gender. Number, and Person with its
antecedent, but does not agree in Case. That is, is subject or object of its own
clause. ,

- I saw the man who DID it.

- The mail whom you MET was here yesterday.

- There is the man whose book you FOUND.

- The house which you ASKED for is over there.

- That is the house the top of which CAN BE SEEN over the trees.

2. The clause joined to a previous clause by a Relative Pronoun or a Relative

Adverb may be restrictive or non-restrictive.

2.1. A Restrictive Clause restricts the meaning of the noun qualifies:

- The boy who SITS next to me came late this morning.

- The village which you CAN SEE over there is very old.

2.2. A Non-restrictive Clause does not restrict the meaning of the noun

it qualifies, but only adds some description to the meaning:

- My father, who IS an old sailor',often tells me stories about the sea.

- The boy next to me, who IS very clever, has a brother in another class.

3. 7775/may be used about either persons or things but can only be used

in Restrictive Clauses. The usage of as follows:

3.1. Use that only in Restrictive Clauses. For example, do not say

The island of Hong Kong, that WAS a British colony, lies off the coast of China.
Use which.

3.2. Do not use that too near another that. For example, do not say T think
that that man //75/ asked YOU the question is a politician. Use who.

3.3. Do not use that after a preposition.

For example, do not say I saw the house in that he used to live. Say either: I
saw the house in he used to live.

or: "I saw the house that he used to live in. - The Relative Pronoun when
objective can be omitted:

- Last nihl I heard that piece of music, > LIKE so much .

- He is the most interesting man IVE ever MET.

\ERC1SE 6: Supply the correct relative pronoun where necessary,

explaining why you use each one or why you do not put one in.

The house over there is the one I like best.

I I am sure that he is the youngest president we have ever

had.

The mail came over in the Queen Mary was delivered in

London yesterday.

I never again met the man gave US so much help in Paris.

The tennis racquet, I bought last week, has got one of its

strings broken.

The biggest crowd I ever saw was at the Coronation of King

George VI.

The picture fetched the highest price was painted by a

famous artists.

He was the man painted the picture in the new city hall.

The men he interviewed seemed to have little knowledge of the work he wanted
them to do.

10. He said that he wanted to buy that car he had tried out the
day before.

11. He spent a great deal of time in his garden was four miles

outside the town.

12. All over the country the ground a few days before had been

bare was now bright with flowers.

13. The hills lie to the north are volcanic while those in the south

are limestone.

14. Those proposals you are putting up, are little different from

the ones we turned down last year.

15. He never developed patience _____ is necessary in dealing with

people are slow to understand something.

16. He came of a family prided itself on its age and position.

17. Those wanted to come had to fill in a card they had

to have signed by a Justice of the Peace.

18. Those to invitations were sent were asked to be in their

places by 7 oclock so as to make sure that all would be ready by 8 was the
time _ the procession was due to pass.

19. According to all I have heard, the concert is being

held on Monday should be the best has ever been here.

20. The ship is due to sail tomorrow has the most valuable cargo

on board has ever been sent from this port.

EXERCISE 7: Fill in each blank with a relative pronoun. And rewrite the

given sentences by moving the preposition to the position before the

relative pronoun. For example,

-1 think I know the man whom spoke to.

-1 think I know the man _ to _ you spoke.

1. He is the officer everyone relies on.

2. The subject Professor Moore wrote about is interesting.

3. The speaker _____ we listened to mentioned that matter.

4. The woman you are talking about is here now.

5. The apartment we live in is on the twelfth floor.

6. The paper you wrapped the with was very pretty.

7. The man Alice spoke about teaches English here.

8. The person Mr. Green to answer his questions.

9. The house he was going to in had been bought for him

by an agent.

10.1 disagree with the fact your argument based on.

SUBORDINATE NOUN CLAUSES

A Noun Clause is a group of words (containing /4 FINITE VERB) doing the work
of a noun. It is usually introduced by <3 Conjunctionof which the most common
is .Noun Clauses may be used as the of a verb, usually of the

verb to be. Usually, too, it follows the verb and the pronoun it is used as a
dummy subject:

- It is clear that he IS wrong.

- It is a strange thing that he always COMES late.

- It is unknown whether/if it IS CAUSED by rain or wind.

- It is one of the first axioms of Euclid

that the shortest distance between two points IS a straight When the Noun
Clause comes first, there is no need for the dummy 'Ubject:

- What 's DONE IS DONE.

- What you HAVE iustSAID IS quite true.

- Where he SOES IS no business of yours.

- When I GO DEPENDS on when the train leaves.

- That the problems ARE immense IS obvious.

- That rain MA y FALL in deserts IS true.

- That Einstein IS a great scientist IS understandable.

- That a depression OCCURRED WAS attributable partly to psychological factors.

- That he FAILED to turn up SURPRISED nobody.

- That Columbus WAS an Italian IS sometimes DISPUTED.

- That a tenth p/anet MAY EXIST IS SUGGESTED by discrepancies in the motions

of Uranus and Neptune.

- That the computer revolution IS infancy

frequently ESCAPES c mment.

2. Noun Clauses may be used as the Indirect Object (iO, for short) of A DI-
TRANSITIVE VERB:

- LEND whoever CALLS the bicycle pump in the shed.

- SAVE whoever COMES the trouble of ringing.

- GIVE whatever you THINK best priority.

- She GAVE whomever she MET a warm greeting.

- Jack MADE whoever CAME there the same offer.

3. Noun Clauses may form the irect Objects (do, for short) of the verbs of
SAYING, THINKING, KNOWING, OBSERVING, and DOING (which are in fact
MONO-TRANSITIVE VERBS). They answer the question What?

- He SAID that he WAS FEELING tired. ( What did he say?)

- She THOUGHT that the train ARRIVED at ( What did she think?)

- I UNDERSTAND that nothing IS GOING TO BE DONE.

( What did you understand?)

Other words might introduce N Clauses are who, why

when, how, what.; whether, and if.

- I DID NOT KNOW who he WAS.

- He DID NOT SEE where she HAD GONE.

- DO you UNDERSTAND DO

- They DO NOT REALIZE how we DO

- HAVE you DONE what I TOLD you to do!

- I DONT KNOW if he HAS DONE yet.

Instead of the single conjunctions who. , how, when, etc. we

may use conjunctive adverbial phrases formed with prepositions, which

will often express our meaning more clearly and exactly:

- HAVE you FOUND out at what time the train

- They DID NOT KNOW for how many_ hou he HAD BEEN there.

- He DID NOT KNOW in what district the house COULD

- He KNEW quite well on what business the policeman HAD

- He soon DISCOVERED

which of the hoys ip Class 5HAD BROKEN The window.

- 1 HAD HEARD how often he HAD DONE it,

but\HAD FORGOTTEN exactly how WAS.

Advise. ask, remind. show,reach, and are some common DI

TRANSITIVE VERBS which lake a do subordinate Noun Clause alter n i() pronoun
or noun phrase:

- The teacher ASSURED US that we ARE m no danger.

- I BET you that no one WILL ACCEPT the offer.

- She finally CONVINCED the jury WAS TELLING the

- The police NOTIFIED mv friend that car HAD BEEN FOUND.

- They PERSUADED me that the plan WAS, feasible.

- REMIND your father that we HAVE tonight.

- Experience HAS TAUGHT them a copy IS essentia!

- No one HAS ever TOLD me that I A beautiful.

- WILL you please TELL me whether

- CAN you TELL me howl CAN s WITCH

- PEL ASK someone whom we CAN GIVE to.

- No one CAN ADVISE you what you SHOULD DO.

- I TOED him in what restaurant I WOULD

- He REFUSED TO TELL anyone on whose account he HAD COME to

town.

The do subordinate Noun Clause may also follow its O prepositional phrase
which is usually introduced by to:

- He CONFESSED to me that he WAS extremely alarmed.

-1 POINTED OUT to John that few people WOULD AGREE.

-She SIGNALED to US that she WOULD KEEP quiet.

-We CANT PROVE to the commission that effects ARE NOT harmf.

- The employers ANNOUNCED to journalists

the dispute HAD BEEN SETTLED.

- The consultant RECOMMENDED to the employers

that new salary scales SHOULD BE INTRODUCED.

- The garage EXPLAINED to customers

that the spare parts HAD NOT BEEN DELIVERD.

The do subordinate Noun Clause may be moved to the position after its
compleiTTent,which is in form of an adjective (phrase); its

original position is taken up by the meaningless pronoun

- I FIND it strange that he REFUSES to come.

- 1 CONSIDER it unlikely that the money WILL BE REFUNDED.

4. Noun Clouses may form a complement of a preposition:

- CAN you SEE from where you sit?

- You MUST DO the best with what you HAVE.

- WeD LIKE WORK with whom we CONSIDER the best.

- The parly WILL HAVE TO DRAW from whatever sources CAN -1 strongly
OBJECT to what you HAVE just SAID.

- It all DEPENDS on where you GO.

- We HAVE RECEIVED no news of when the boat LEAVES.

- He HAS no idea of how it WOULD BE DONE.

5. Noun Clauses may be used as an app of a noun phrase the head of which is
an abstract noun such as ; belief, rumour story, news,

etc. Noun Clauses normally specifies of the head noun.

- There EXISTS the belief that his comp a profit.

- Everybody KNOWS

the rumour that Ed's wife FALLS love with his brother.

- The news that the enemy WERE near WAS untrue.

- The story that Eleanor HAD MET with the senator IS NOT unknown.

- The fact that rain MAY FALL in deserts IS widely known/IS true.

- The fact that the problems ARE immense IS obvious.

- The fact that Einstein IS a great scientist IS understandable.

- The fact that a depression OCCURRED

WAS attributable partly to psychological factors.

- The fact that he FAILED to turn up SURPRISED nobody.

- The fact that Columbus WAS an Italian IS sometimes DISPUTED.

- The fact that a tenth planet MAY EXIST IS SUGGESTED

by discrepancies in the motions of Uranus and Neptune.

- The fact that the computer revolution IS infancy

frequently ESCAPES comment.

6. Noun Clauses may be the subject ive after A LINKING VERB:

- That WAS what I THOUGHT too.

- She BECAME what she HAD HOPED.

- She HAS BECOME what she always WANTED TO BE.

- This IS how you SHOULD DO

- Kens belief IS that things CAN'T GET any worse.

- My question IS whether (or not) you WILL PAY for such a loss.

7. Noun Clauses maybe the object complement after a do pronoun

or noun phrase:

- DYE your hair what colour you L

- YOUVE MADE me what I AM.

- We HAVE MADE the club what today.

EXERCISE 8: Identify all the Noun Claus the following paragraph.

What roles do the Noun Clauses play in the sentences involved?

The sight that met our gaze was certainly not a little amusing. Peter sat on the
ground gazing into the cats face with his nose about four inches from it. Turning
his head a little to one side he spoke to the

cat, telling (it that)he loved it but the cat said nothing. Peter therefore
demanded sharply if it heard him. Again he told it loved and

he asked if it didn't love him. This time the cat gave a faint mew. Peter was
better pleased: he called it a jolly old rascal and asked why did not speak to him
at once. Then, putting forward his mouth, he kissed the cat on the nose! He
paused for a moment and then told it again he loved it because he had to take
care of it, and looked after it, and think about it, and see that it didn't die. As he
said this the cat interrupted, mewing two or three times.

SUBORDINATE ADVERB CLAUSES

An Adverb Clause is a group of words (containing a finite verb) doing the work of
an adverb. It is introduced by a

Conjunction. Compare:

- He came yesterday.

-He came on the h of August.

- He came when I ASKED him.

(Adverb of Place)
- Take it to Mr. Smith's house.

- Take it wherever you LIKE.

- He acted strangely.

- He acted in a peculiar

- He acted as if he WERE afraid.

There are times when the Adverb Clause may come before THE ERB it qualifies;
there are other times when the Adverb Clause can nly come after.

Adverb Clauses can be sub-categorized according to the meanings

:ney express:

1. Adverbials of Time have four subcategories within them:

1.1. Adverbia/s of Point of Time tell

jylace,answering the question or what

- I'LL DO when I HA VE time.

- As soon as everyone WAS ready, I GAVE a signal.

- As I WAS GOINS down the road, I MET your friend Tom.

1.2. Adverbia/s of Duration or Extent in Time describe

long an event lasts,answering the question

- The two drivers MUST STAY the police GET there.

- IVE BEEN WORKING here

since I TED from my university.

- AI the tjmeI WAS there, I DID NOT SEE a sign of him.

- While I WAS SITING there, he CAME up to me.

1.3. Adverbia/s of Frequency describe event

occurs, answering the question 'How oftenT or 'How many timesT

- He CALLED on me I ARRIVED.

- My dog COMES whenever I CA

1.4. Adverbials of Temporal Relationship convey the temporal relationship

between two events or states, answering the question

-1 HOPED to pay him a visit before I WENT away. -ILL READ you my letter

after I'VE FINISHED and I SEND away.

- Almost everyone HAD LEFT for home by the we ARRIVED.

2. Adverbials of Place (also called spaed) answer the questions

 Where?or How farT

- He always HIDES where I CAN never REACH.

- r LL JOG as farasI CAN.

- GO as near as you LIKE to him: he does not bite.

- They GO wherever they ARE TOLD.

3. Adverbials of Manner describe the which something

done,answering the question Hor By what wayT

- You OUGHT TO WRITE as I DO.

- When my father IS away, I WILL DO as I

- The dog LOOKS asjfhe WANTED something to eat.

- He BEHAVES asjf he IS COINS TO BE ATTACKED.

4. Adverbials of Comparison compare of state

action relative to another,answering the question

- He DOES it as well as I DO.

- He DOES NOT DO it so well as you DO.

- He DOES it better than I DO.

- It IS as good as I THOUGHT.

- He DID as much as he COULD.

- There ARE NOT so many people here as I EXPECTED.

- Our coach LEFT earlier than it SHOULD HA

- The road SEEMS longer than I THOUGHT.

5. Adverbia/s of Cause and Adverbia/s of Reason answer the

question WhyT Traditionally, has been associated with

a relatively objective statement while reason has implied a more subjective

assessment:

- The old man WALKED slowly his legs ARE bad.

- IVE BEEN WAITING here

as I KNOW you'll certainly come and pick me up.

In the majority of cases, however, it is difficult to judge the level: objectivity and
thus to discern between cause and reason, as with the llowing examples:

- The plan FELL down because it PROVED to be expensive.

6. Adverbials of Contingency, like adverbials of Cause, also answer the question
"Why.However, it is necessary to n te that adverbials of Cause give as a reason
of something which is happening, has happened, or will happen while adverbials
of Contingency give as a reason something which might have happened, or
which may happen [Campbell, 1962. 59]. The first is certain, the second is only
possible or probable.

- They DECIDED to retreat at once

for fear (thatyiest they SHOULD BE CUT from the main force.

- You HAD BETTER NOT SKI T7 the weather IS really bad.

7. Adverbials of Purpose answer the question What forT or

whatpurposeT Notice that 'iorder that is more forceful than

'so that.

- She always WALKS to school

/>7 order that she MAY GET plenty of exercise.

-1 DO it like this so that it MIGHT better.

- I HAVE WRITTEN it very clearly they CAN READ

- He always LEFT the house at eight

//7 orderthathe MIGHT NOT by any chance LOSE the ti

8. Adverbials of Result never consist of may or might.

- He DRANK so much that he' SOOT sto

- My father SMOKED so heavily he GOT lung cancer.

- He JUMPED so high that he easily CROSSED the barrier.

- He WAS so stupid that he COULDN'T PASS his examination.

- He SHOWED such stupidity

that the examiner REFUSED to pass

- That IS so common an occurrence no one NOTICED

- The third couple DANCED so beautifully

that all the examiners A WARDED them the maximal pi

- Such WAS his cleverness

! that he PASSED every examination ea

9. Adverbials of Concession express

the proposition of the rest of the clause or, in the case

adverbials realized as clauses, proposition

main clause.

- Although it 'sGETTING late, I think we ought to finish our less

- However much she DOES, she never seems to have finished.

- He WONT MANAGE it however hard he TRIES.

- They KEPT on swimming (even the weather WAS b

- HeS COMING today

/>7 spite ofthe fact_ that I distinctly TOLD him I didn't want

- I THINK it is a good plan

excepl that MISSED OUT to London.

- Exceplfor the fact that the singing WAS very bad,

it WAS a good concert.

10. Adverbia/s of Condition express the conditions

the Iirpggsitipnof the main clause, including both positive and negative
conditions. They usually answer the question

what condition (s)T

- These people CANNOT OPERATE they RECEIVE support.

- We CAN PLAY as long as it DOESN'T RAIN.

- Supposing the boat CAPSISED, what WOULD you DO?

- ILL HELP you on condition that you DO your lesson.

- You MAY LEAVE right now

provided^ that you WORK overtime tomorrow.

- And if you WERE in the mood, we COULD at least GO.

- If only he HADN'T MADE that m

we SHOULD all BE happy now.

- Now that summer IS here, we CAN GO boating.

XERCISE 9: Identify all the Adverb C in the following sentences. What roles do
the Adverb Clauses tp\w)j in the sentences involved? When it CREW dark.; I
made my way along the road.

2 Since you TOLD me that, I have been unable to think of anything else.

Be sure to stay here until I COME.

- You may take the book tonight you RETURN

tomorrow.
Till I WAS 15 years old, I had never seen a railway train.

I gave it to him on condlloi thaf he DID NOT MAKE a mess of

7. He was quiet as long as I WAS there, but I WENT away he

started making noise.

8. I havent seen him since I CAME back.

9. You had better take someone with you 7/7 way.

10.1 sat waiting till everything WA5 ready.

11. He put on many clothes so that he MIGHT BE warm.

12. He put on so many clothes that he WAS warm.

13. He was such a popular person that IS always BEING ASKED out.

14. Unless he DOES his work, he should not be paid.

15.1 took a good meal before I WENT

for fear (/hat) I SHOULD NOT BE able to get any food there

16. Had_I_reajjzed_ that,I would not have said anything.

17. Since there WAS no one there, I went away as soon I COULD.

18. While I WAS WAITING for him, I asked a passer-by

at what the train LEF1

19. If you THINK so, you should go bef he COMES.

20. Though I DON'T LIKE the plan, I am helping as much I CAN.

21. After I HAD dinner, I went to sleep

although I I ought to keep awake.

22. You may go and play with him when he COMES

on condition that you DO your home lessons tomorrow

23. Except that there IS NOT much to do, I think that it would make a excellent
place for holiday.

24. Dont come unless you HEAR from me.

25. While I WAS quietly sitting reading, he came rushing into my room

as if he HAD some very important news to tell mt

26. If you PRACTICE, you will be able to play tennis much better IC/

All the time I WAS there, he never came to see me

he HAD PROMISED to do so.

' //7 case there IS any trouble about

you had better telephone them that you are coming. . Although thunder and
lightning ARE PRODUCED

lightning waves travel faster than sound waves DO,

so we see the lightning we HEAR the thunder.

. When I first STARTED to play I though that it was so difficult

that I SHOULD never BE able to ; but, nowthatlHA VE HAD more practice,

I can play much better I EXPECTED.

NTENCES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE

Classified according to structure, there are four kinds of ntences: simple,

compound, complex, and compound-complex.

(1) A simple sentence has one main clause and no subordinate clauses. AMPLE
At the end of the day, we GATHERED around the campf ire

to fe//qhost stories.

(2) A compound sentence has > two or more main clauses but no subordinate
clauses.

AMPLE Clyde WANTS to become a lawyer,

and Lucy IS STUDYING to be a welfare worker.

(3) A complex sentence has one main clause and one or more subordinate
clauses.

. AMPLE If you WASH the sweater, it WILL STRETCH.

(4) A compound-complex sentence contains two or more main clause and one or
more subordinate clauses.

AMPLE Since I HAD SEEN him the before, I KNEW he WAS

unhappy, but I DID NOT GUESS that he WOULD GIVE UP s

[Warriner. 195S: 81-82]

EXERCISE 10: Classify the following sentences according to their structure.

1. One day last week while I WAS RIDING a bus , I noticed

two career girls.

2. Not far from me, they were standing in the crowded aisle.

3. Fortunately I was comfortably seated, andl enjoyed listening to their

conversation.

4. One of the girls looked as though she WERE about sixteen years old.
5. Her companion, about two years older, quietly fretted as she TRIED to keep
her balance on the swaying , and she was obviously bored with the long
speeches of her younger friend, who CHA TIERED enthusiastically about 'making
good the big '

6. This ambitious girl talked about her job at a shoe factory, and she

discussed the personality of her boss.

7. Clinging to a narrow strap with one hand and clutching the back of my seat
with the other, the older girl remained silent.

8. Im going to work hard, the first girl continued, I CAN

DESERVE a promotion, for all that I WANT in IS to get

9. Her weary companion finally spoke.

10. All that I WANT is to get a seat.

CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

There are four main kinds of Co-ordinate Conjunctions:

1. The AND type

1.1. And or its substitute is used to add something of the same kind

to what we have already said. The word, phrase, clause which follows and or its
substitute \s what we might expect.

- He was tired and hungry.

- He was both tired and hungry.

- He was pot only tired butalso hungry.

- He was tired as wellas hungry.

- He was tired andalsohungry.

- He was tired and hungry, too.

- The concert was very poor in the middle, but there were interesting items both
at the beginn the end.

- Surely the question can be easily settled when the

employers and the workmen want an early agreement.

- Some boy had only an apple, but he had an orange.

- Julius Caesar was n ot_ only a great genera! a wise

legislator.

1.2. What more (also called what is more), moreover, and

furthermore are used to add an extra fact after two or more

have already been given. Very often it is the most important fact acting as the
climax:

- I don't think the man is suitable for a gardener: he is ;

stupid, and unreliable; what's more,he knows nothing about

gardens.

- He has been judged guilty of murder to death',

whats more,all his land has been taken by the government.

1.3. The parts joined by and or its substitutes must balance each other:

- The guy WAS not_only stupid but also cowa

- Not only \N AS the guy stupid buthWAS cowardly.

- That instrument IS expensive and practically u

- That instrument IS not only expensive practically

useless.

- Not only IS that instrument expensive

it IS also useless.

The BUT type

2.1. But or its substitute is used to add something different from what we have
already said. The word, phrase, clause which follows but or its substitute'^not
what we might expect.

Compare:

- He is stupid and lazy.

- He is stupid but persevering.

- He works hard and gains all the prizes.

- He never works but gains all the prizes.

- He works hard but never manages to gain a prize.

2.2. It is not always possible to put all or any of the following coordinates
instead of but.

- History tells the story of mans life through the ages,

many people dislike it.

- This one costs $10, while the one over there costs only $4.

- William is in the top class

whereas John, who is a year older, is only in class 5.

- The sun is shining, and there are very few clouds;

nevertheless,I am sure that it is going to rain.

- I told them thatldidnt want them to send those parcels;

however,I now think they had better do so.

- There are many people who say that it is more sensible to buy what one
wishes and pay for it afterwards by instalment;

for all that,I prefer to wait and pay for things I buy them.

- The beauty of writing lies not in how many words we know, but In the way we
choose the words we use and how we organize them.

3. The OR type

3.1. Or and its substitutes give two statements of equal value to

choose from: if one is true the other is not.

- If you want, you can

either\NAIK to the next town and TAKE the train from there or HIRE a car here
and (90 the way by road.

- The climate of Britain is neither too hot too cold in winter.

- He never works steadily:

either he WORKS extremely hard or he DOES nothing.

- He has no accomplishments: he can TALK,

(not)PLAY the piano, (not)TELL funny stories, PLAY at cards.

- You MUST LEAVE at once, otherwise yow WILL MISS the train.

-You had better COME yourself or els SEND a friend: it is not enough to send a
letter.

3.2. The parts joined by either...rand must balance

each other:

- He WAS either a rogue ora fool.

- Either \\e WAS a rogue or\\e WAS a fool.

- I HAVE food neither for m for my horse.

- I HAVE food for neither myself n

- The SO type

So and its substitutes are used to add something which follows as a

consequence for the previous part:

- He was born in Athens, so he speaks Greek like a native.

- Singapore lies very near to the equator;

consequently,the weather is very hot all the year round. - He has done very
good work for societ);

he deserves great praivc.

- There is no demand in Shanghai for this make of car;

accordingly,I am not able to give you any order.

EXERCISE 11: SENTENCE TRANSFORMATION

Rewrite each of the following sentences in such a way that it means almost the
same as the original sentence:

Bachelors PREFER red-haired

Girls with red hair ARE PREFERRED BY unmarried men.

A. GERUNDS vs. INFINITIVES

1. Sitting in one place for so long is very uncomfortable.

It is very uncomfortable to sit in one so

2. It will be a lot of fun to go to that party next week.

Going to that party next week will be a

3. Understanding that fellow was very difficult for me.

It was very difficult for me to understand that

4. lYusually takes me forty minutes toschool by bus.

Getting to school by bus usually takes me forty

5. Flying to Caracas, Venezuela took US only eight hours.

It took us only eit hours to fly to Car

B. SUBJECT-VERB INVERSION

6. He will never admit defeat.

Never 'will he admit defeat.

7. We had hard/ybovuw our work when it began to rain.

Hardly had we begun our work when began

8. She had scarcely entered the room when the phone rang.

Scarcely had she entered the room when the phone rang.

9. An individual rarely finds himself sought by both parties

as their presidential candidate, as did General Eisenhower

Rarely does an individual find himself soug by both

as their presidential as

He had no sooner arrived thanhe was asked to leave again.

No sooner had he arrived than he was

He doesn't like Beethoven, either.

Neither does he like Beethoven.

- Hughes owned Las Vegas hotels and movie studio as well.

Not only did Hughes own Las Vegas h hut he also a

The destruction was so great that the South took decades to recover.

So <reat was the destruction that the took

- Most snakes will attack human beings only they are in danger.

1 )nly when in danger will most snakes human

c. REPORTED SPEECH:

STATEMENTS

' You must study hard for the test, the teacher informed US.

The teacher informed US that we had study hard for the

Mr. Anderson said, T have been smoking too much recently.

Mr. Anderson said that he had been smoking too

WH-QUES TIONS

How soon can you pay back the monev? Mr. Jones said to me.

Mr. Jones asked me how_ soon I could pay the

V 'What does the word outfit mean? the student said to the teacher.

The student asked the teacher what the word

YES-NO QUESTIONS

Have you seen that movie yet? Roger asked US.

Roger asked USif/whether {or not)we had seen

Do you understand this lesson? I said to her.

I asked her if/whether(or not) she understood

COMMANDS

21. Show me your drivers license, the policeman ordered.

The policeman ordered me to show

22. The clerk said to US, Dont come back before one oclock.

The clerk told US not to come hack

D. CLAUSES vs. PHRASES

23. Being a careless fellow, he forgot all about it.

Since he was Cl careless fellow, he

24. Having had my breakfast, I went to school.

After I had_ had my breakfast, 1 went

25. He stood in the veranda, listening to the wind.

He stood in the veranda as if he to

26. Taking morning exercises every day, you can improve your health.

If you take morning exercises every you your

27. Runningi\Wthe way to the station, 1 caught the express.

I caught the express by runn inji a the way the

28. After trying twice, Ivan broke the record when he tried the third time.

Ivan broke the record at the third

29. They had a wonderful holiday even the weather was bad.

Despite/In spite of the bad weather,they had a They had a wonderful holiday,
despite bad

They had a wonderful holiday in spite of

30. Considering you r condition, we wont press charges.

Under the circumstances, we wont press

31. He never seemed to have finished anything though he tried hard.

However hard he tried, he never

32. 1 was sick with the flu, but \ still had to study for the test.

Although 1 was sick with the flu,I had the

33. The hair dryer was not working right, I returned it to the store.

Because the hair dryer was not working I

Dan set the table, andhis wife finished cooking dinner.

As soon as his wife finished cooking Dan set the table.

35. I watered my drooping African violets, and they perked right up.
No sooner had I watered my drooping African

than they perked

36. The little boy kept pushing the down button,

but\Q elevator didnt come any more quickly. Although the little hoy kept
pushing the down

the any more

The elevator failed to give a quick answ regardless of

the little boys effort to keep pushing the down button.

7. I never really knew what pain is,

and then\ had four impacted wisdom teeth pulled at once.

I didnt really know what pain is

until I had four at

'. Fred didnt do that unless he had your permission.

If Fred didnt have your permission, do

If he does/^do his work, he should not be paid.

Unless he does his work, lie should n he

- 1 Unless you hurry, we wont be able to catch the train.

We can only catch the train if you hu

Were he here, I would/should ask him.

If lje_were here,/ would/shouldask

-1 If 1 had realized that, I would/should not have said anything.

Had / realized that,I would/sliouldnot have

- shouldhe see me,I will/shall be punished.

If sees me, / will/shall he punished.

44. I did it like that to improve her looks.

I did it like that so that/ln order that she better.

45. They always walk to school in order they may get plenty of exerci

They always walk to school to get

46. He was so stupid that the examiner refused to pass him.

He showed such stupidity that the e refused to pass

47. He is such a popular person that he is always being asked out.

He is so popular that he is always b asked

48. I was too tired to walk any further.

I was so tired that I couldnt walk any further.

49. The nearest service station is 50 miles away.

It is 50 miles to the nearest service

50. i*saw Ted at the party.

It was Ted that I saw at the party.

5 1. Picasso painted Guernica, not Dali.

It was Picasso who painted Guernica,

52. That Sharon s car broke down was unfortunate.

It was unfortunate that Sharons car broke down.

53. My son will be 14 next week.

Its my sons 14'h birthday next week.

54. It is almost unnecessary for me to say that I was upset.

I need hardly say that I was upset.

55. He hardly ever goes to bed before midnight.

He very seldom oes to bed before

56. It is why you want to leave for Africa that I can't understand.

What cant understand is why you want to

57. IYis Alices job to look after new staff.

Alice is responsible for looking after new staff.

5 s It looks as if well have good weather for our trip.

Were likely to have good weather for our trip

It won't make any difference even they offer him more money. Offering him
more money wont make any difference.

This booki which had been translated into many languages,

became well-known all over the world. Having been translated into many lan

this hook over There's no need for you to get so upset.

You don7 need to get so upset.

2.The last time 1 was in Hanoi was last December.

I havent been to Hanoi since last D

\ This text is too difficult for US to translate Without a dictionary.

This text is not easy enough for US to translate a dictionary.

4. The fridge was so heavy that wo couldnt move it.

The fridge was too heavy for US to move.

5. Henry regrettedbuyinq the second-hand car.

Henry wished he had not_bought the

He didnt know where John was, and I didnt either.

Neither of US knew where John was.

They are both worth reading.

Both of them are worth reading.

Y 1 expect (that) she missed the train.

She must have missed the train.

. Did he give you any reason for his behaviour?

Did he explain why he behaved like ?

. I havent heard from Susan recently.

Susan hasnt written to me recently.

71. When he was ten, he could ride a bicycle.

At ten, he could ride a bicycle.

E. ACTIVE vs. PASSIVE

72. You should open the wine about three hours before you use it.

The wine should be opened about three hours before is

73. People thought that some homesteaders]^already settled in Montana, Some

homesteaders were thought t

74. This Speed limit IS TO he introduced gradually.

The authorities ARE TO introduce this speed

75. The damaged ship was being towed into harbour when the towline broke

They were towing the damaged ship int when the brok

76. Someone will HAVE TO be found to take her place.

We will/shall HAYE IQ Usomeone to her

77. No one has changed the curtain for three weeks.

The curtain has not been changed for

78. The doctor should have signed my insu form. My insurance form should have
been signed by the doctor.

F. RELATIVE CLAUSES

79. Those boys walking together are brothers.

Those boys who are walking together are

80. The speaker we listened to mentioned that matter.

The speaker to whom we listened mentio that

81. The paper you wrapped the gifts wi was very pretty. The paper wftji which
you wrapped the gifts was

82. The apartment ijn which we live is on the second floor.

The apartment where.we live is o the

84.1 fail to remember the day on which he was sent to the front.

1 fail to remember the day when he was sent to the front.

* - you look for the time when the procession due to pasd 1 1 you look for the
time during which the procession due to pass'!

ft- - _ e you found out when the train leaved!

- - e you found out at_ what_ time the train leaved!

e soon discover wjwhad broken the window.

She soon discover whfchjof the boys in Class_ 5had broken the window.

w - knew quite well why the train leaved

IHa\ e you found out on what_ business the police had come.

* dont know where the house could be found.

dont know />7 what disjrictthe house could be found.

They did not know how long he had been there.

Tr.ey did not know for how_many hours he had been there!

SECTION 2: PARAGRAPH WRITING

Question 1. What is a paragraph?

According to Oshima and Hogue [1991:16], a paragraph is a basic

unit of organization in writing in which a group of related sentences develops

one main idea.

A paragraph should include a clearly stated topic sentence, which embodies a

topic and a controlling idea.
A paragraph should be unified have unity, it discusses only one topic. A
paragraph should be coherent/have coherence so that the reader can follow its
points of discussion fairly easily.

A paragraph may have a concluding sentence in which the topic,

the controlling idea and/or the main points of discussion within the paragraph
are restated.

PRACTICE 1: Identify the topic and the controlling idea Paragraph 1

Hurricanes, which are also called cyclones, exert tremendous power. (1) These
violent storms are often a hundred miles in diameter, and their winds can reach
velocities of seventy miles per hour or more. (2) Furthermore, the strong winds
and heavy rainfalls that accompany

them can completely destroy a small town in a couple of hours. The energy that
is released by a hurricane in one day exceeds the total energy consumed by
humankind throughout the world one year.

Paragraph 2

(1) In 1944 the United State signed a treaty with Mexico guaranteeing that
country 1.5 million acre-feet of Colorado River water a year. But the big division
of Colorados precious water had occurred in 1922 under the Colorado River ;
signed by the

seven states along the river and the federal government. (2) What makes the
agreement shaky is that (2.1) it is based on an overly optimistic estimate of the
rivers average flow. About 15 million acre-feet of water were originally
apportioned to the states; actually, the average annual supply is only 13.8
million. (2.2) 7/7 the did not take

into account Mexicos right to any Colorado River water at all, so the 1.5 million
acre-feet later guaranteed to Mexico widen the gap between demand and
supply. The Colorado is, in short, overbooked.

Paragraph 3

(1) Albert Einstein, one of the worlds geniuses, failed his university entrance
examinations on his first attempt. (2) Faulkner, one of

Americas noted writers, never finished college because he could not pass his
English courses. (3) Sir Winston Churchill, who is considered one of the masters
of the English language, had to have special tutoring in English during
elementary school. These few examples show that "ailure in school does not
always predict failure in

Paragraph 4

Marie is as beautiful as any (1) Her thick,

wavy, long black hair gracefully falls down to her shoulders and surrounds her
exquisite, diamond-shaped face. (2) A golden suntan usually highlights her
smooth, clear complexion. (3) Her slightly arched chestnut brown eyebrows
draw attention to her deep blue eyes, which remind me of a lake on a stormy
day. Her eyes are large, but not too large, with thick eyelashes. (4) Her nose is
straight and neither loo long nor too short. A small black mole on the left side of
her mouth adds to her beauty. (5) And her mouth! It is a small mouth that looks
delicate

and feminine. (6) Her ups are rather thin, but not too thin; her light lipstick adds
another touch of feminine beauty. When she smiles, which is often, her well-
formed and even, white teeth brighten up her whole face. There is nothing but
extraordinary in the face of Marie.

Question 2. How can we avoid the lack of unity in a paragraph?

To avoid a lack-of-unity paragraph, make sure that each sentence of the

paragraph relates to its topic and develops its controlling idea. If a sentence
does not relate to or develop that idea, it is irrelevant and should be omitted.
[Smalley and Ruetten, 1986: 17]

PRACTICE 2:Make a paragraph unified.

Read the following paragraphs. Underline the topic sentence for each paragraph
and cross out any sentence that does not belong in the paragraph. There may be
one or more irrelevant sentences.

Another problem facing a number of elderly people is

on reduced income. Upon retiring,old people may receive the pension

irom their company or Social Security from the government. The amount of their
monthly checks is often half the amount of the checks they received when they
were employed. retirees find that

ihey can no longer continue the life style that they had become accustomed to,
even if that life style was a modest one. Many find,

paying their monthly^ bills,that there is no money left for a movie or a

dinner out. Of course, sometimes they cant go out because of their health.
Maybe they have arthritis or rheumatism and it is oainful for them to move
around. This can also change their life

style. Some older people, however,discover that the small amount of

money they receive will not even cover their monthly bills. They realize vith
horror that electricity, a telephone, and nourishing food are luxuries hey can no
longer afford. They resort to shivering in the dark, eating cat food in order to
make two ends mee

Paragraph 6

In our prison today, some people are falsely accused of crimes. A solution to
certain kinds of crime, restitution, is becoming more popular and rightly so. It
works like this. If someone is
convicted of defacing or destroying property, he or she is required repaint or
restore the property rather than simply sit in jail a certain length of time. //7
another^example, a person disabling a wage earner

would be made partially responsible for that wage dependents until the wage
earner has recovered. way 0

dealing with this criminal is to make him or her pay a //7 othei

words, restitution requires the criminal to restore the damage to the

person who has been hurt. The criminal contribute something tc society rather
than simply sit in jail, being clothed and fed with the tax dollars of law-abiding
citizens. Perhaps through contributing to society by restitution instead of being
dependent on society by sitting in jail. criminals will he more likely to bec useful,
working members oj

society after they have paid for their crime.

Paragraph 7

Despite their reputation, some workers in American factories take pride in

helping their companies. good is the

14,000 employees of Locheed-Geogia Company who submit ideas to

management to help reduce production costs. In one year, these ideas, ranging
from a new way to recharge a dead battery to a more efficient way to paint
airplane wings, saved the company $57.5 million. Since 1979, employee
suggestions have resulted in savings of over $190

million. While we might think that workers submit ideas in order to Deceive large
rewards, this is not the case. According to President Alex Lorch, the financial
benefit is minimum. The employee frith the best idea each year receives only
$100. The employees, Lorch says, submit ideas because they are motivated a
desire to do a good

vb. Japanese workers, on the other_hand,are generally considered he best

example of workers who are loyal to their company.

Sometimes the cure for a dis-unified paragraph is not as simple as leleting or

moving material. Writers often wander into uncharted territory because they
cannot think of enough evidence to support a topic sentence, feeling that it is
too soon to break into a new paragraph, they move on to lew ideas for which
they have not prepared the reader. When this happens, Be writer is faced with a
choice: Either find more evidence to support the Ipic sentence or adjust the topic
sentence to mesh with the evidence that is [-liable. [Hacker, 1999: 25]

geesHon 3. How can we avoid the lack of coherence in a paragraph?

There are four ways to achieve coherence, the first two ways

olve repeating key nouns and using pronouns which refer back to ynouns. The
third way is to use transitional signals to show how one a. is related to the next.
The fourth way to achieve coherence is to -enge your sentences in logical order.
Three of the common logical krs ... are chronological order, logical division and
order of portance. [Oshima and Hogue, 1991: 39]

PRACTICE 3: Repeat the key noun.

3.1. In the following paragraph, the key noun is never repeated. Replace the
pronoun it with the key noun English wherever you think doing so would make
the paragraph more coherent.

Paragraph 8

English has almost become an international language. Except for Chinese, more
people speak it (=>English) than any other language. Spanish is the official
language of more countries in the world, but more countries have it (=>English)
as their official or unofficial second language. More than seventy percent of the
worlds mail is written in it (=>English). In international business, it (^English)
is used more than any other language, and it is the language of airlines pilots
and air

traffic controllers all over the world. although French used to

be the language of diploma, it (=>English) has displaced throughout the world.

Therefore,unless you plan to spend your life alone on a

desert island in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, it (=>English) a useful language
to know.

3.2. In the following passage about dolphins, replace some of the pronouns with
appropriate singular or plural nouns.

Paragraph 9

Interest in dolphins has increased in the past few years. They (=>Dolphins) are
interesting because they display almost human behaviour at times.(1) For
example,they (=>dolphins) help each other

when they are in trouble. If one is sick, sends out a message, others in

the area swim to help it{=>the sick dolphin). stay with it for days or

weeks until //-recovers or dies. (2) They (=>Dolphins) have also helped

trapped or lost whales navigate their way safely out to the open sea. They
(=>Dolphins) are so intelligent and helpful in fact, that the Wavy is training
them to become underwater bomb disposal experts.

PRACTICE 4: Use consistent pronouns.

In the following paragraph, the pronouns are not consistent.

Correct them to make this paragraph more coherent.

Paragraph 10
An Olympic athlete must be s physically and mentally. (1) First of ! if you hope
F=>he or she hopes) to compete in an Olympic

sport, you (=>he or she) must be physically strong. Furthermore, an

aspiring Olympian must train rigorously for many years. For the most demanding
sports, they train ( =>heor she trains) several hours a day, five or six days a
week, for ten or more years. In addition to being physically

strong, (2) he or she must also be m tough. (2.1) This means

have to F=>he or she has to) be totally dedicated to your or her)

sport, often giving up a normal school, family, and social life. (2.2) Being
mentally strong also means that he or she must be able to withstand the

intense pressure of international competition with its attendant media

coverage. (2.3) Finally, not everyone can win a medal, so they (:=>he or she)
must possess the mner strength to live with defeat.

PRACTICE 5: Use transitions (also called transitional signals).

5.1. Underline the transitions in the following paragraphs:

Paragraph 11

Another difference among the world's seas and oceans is that

the salinity varies in different climate zones. For example, the Baltic Sea

in Northern Europe is only one fourth as salipe as the Red Sea in the Middle
East. There are two reasons for this. (1)/(1.1) First of all, in warm

climate zones, water evaporates rapidly, therefore, the concentration

of salt is greater. (1.2) Second, the surrounding land is dry and,

consequently, does not contribute much fresh' water to dilute the salty

sea water. (2)/(2.1) In cold climate zones, on the other hand, water

evaporates slowly. (2.2) Furthermore, the runoff created by melting

snow adds a considerable amount of fresh water to dilute the saline sea water.

Paragraph 12

The two most impressivethinqs about him were his mouth and

the pockets of his jackets. (1) By looking at his mouth, one could tell

whether he was plotting evil or had recently accomplished it. If he was bent
upon malevolence, his lips were all puckered up, like those of a billiard player
about to make a difficult shot. After the deed was ,

the pucker was replaced by a delicate, unearthly smile. How a teacher who knew
anything about boys could miss the fact that both expressions are masks of
Satan Im sure I dont know. Wallaces pockets were less
interesting than his mouth, perhaps, but more spectacular a way.

12) The side pockets of his jacket bulged out over his pudgy haunches like
burrow hampers. They were filled with toolsscrewdrivers, pliers, files,
wrenches, wire cutters, nail sets, and I dont know what else. In

addition to all this, one pocket always contained a rolled-up copy of

Dopular Mechanics, while from the top of other protruded Scientific

American or some other such magazine. His breast pocket contained, besides a
large collection of fountain pens and mechanical pencils, a picket fence of drill
bits, gimlets, kitchen knives, and other pointed instruments. When he walked,
he clinked and jangled and pealed.

5.2. Step 1: Underline all the transitions in the following paragraphs. Step 2:
Punctuate the transitions if necessary.

Paragraph 13

The women's lib' movement toward greater equality for women has produced
some permanent changes the vocabulary English.

(1) The first change is that new words have been added. (1.1) The

words feminists, sexist,and male for example became

common during the past ten years or so. (1.2) new word is the

title Ms.,which is often used in place of both Miss and (2) A

second change is that sexist titles of many job occupations have been

neutralized. (2.1) A chairman is now a businessman is a 'businessperson, and a

salesman is a . (2.2) Moreover a

mailman is now a 'mail carrierand an stewardess is now a [flight

attendant. (2.3) Finally attempts to give equal treatment to masculine

and feminine pronouns in English have led to the research for a new pronoun
form to replace he (as he/sheor s/he) when referring to neutral

nouns such as the student.In conclusion some of the new words such as

Ms. are quite useful; you can use Ms. to address a woman when you dont know
if she is married. On the other hand the lack of a clear

neutral pronoun can lead to awkward sentence construction.

Paragraph 14 & 15

Genetic research has produced both exciting frightening possibilities. Scientists

are now able to create new forms of life in the laboratory due to the
development of gene splicing. (1) On the one hand the ability +0 create life in
the laboratory could greatly mankind. (1.1) For example because insulin (=>
medical treatment) is very expensive to obtain from natural sources, scientists
have developed

a method to manufacture it inexpensively in the laboratory. (1.2) Another

beneficial application of gene splicing is in agriculture. Scientists foresee the day

when new plants will be developed using nitrogen from the air instead of from
fertilizer therefore food production could be

increased. (1.3) In addition entirely new plants could be developed to feed the
worlds hungry people.

Not everyone is excited about gene splicing however. (2) Some people feel that
it could have terrib consequences. A laboratory accident//" example might
cause an epidemic of an unknown disease

that could wipe out humanity. As a result of this controversy, the

government has made rules to control genetic experiments. many

people feel that these rules are not strict enough even though the scientific
community may feel that they are too strict.

5.3. Step : Fill in each blank with an appropriate transition from the following
list. Use each only once: but, such as, conclusion, for instance, last but not least,
for example, in addition, and however. Step 2: Use correct punctuation.

Paragraph 16

For many years, Japanese consumers have been accepting foreign goods, mainly
because they are very selective and will

>nly purchase high-quality products. Later (1) the

consumer market has been changing. According to a recent article in

The Wall Street Journal, kokusaika, which is defined as

internationalization, is influencing young Japanese consumers, who are very

eager to purchase and enjoy products from countries around the world. The
greater access into the Japanese market has been by the food industry.
Traditionally, the protein staple in Japan has been fish

products, (2) in the last decade or so, the Japanese

have been consuming more beef. In fact, annual per capita consumption

is expected to be about 7 kilos by the mid-1990s. (3)

they have acquired a taste for imported beverages, both of the nonalcohol or
low alcohol varieties, like beer drinks and light wines imported from England,
Germany, Switzerland, the United States, and

Australia. (4) young people, especially women who

are aware of the importance of health and fitness, are eating Western-
style breakfast. (5) they enjoy fruit, milk, and bran-

type cereals imported from the United States.

Not only Western countries but also Asian nations (6)

South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Thailand have been benefiting
from the changing diet of the Japanese consumers.

(7) Japan is importing eels (fish) from Taiwan,

asparagus (vegetable) from Thailand, and mangoes (fruit) from the Philippines.

(8) the Japanese trend toward internationalization

should become even greater as we approach the twenty-first century. It will

increase international trade, which will definitely be advantageous to many
countries of the world.

(2) : but (5): For exa(8): In

(3) : In addition,(6): such as

5.4. Add anstonsto the following paragraph wherever they are appropriate.

Paragraph 17

Dr. Adams, the old grey-haired history teacher I had last semester, is a perfect
example of an absent-minded He

entirely forgot to call the roll or tell US which books to buy on the first day of
class. On the day of our midterm exam, Dr. Adams arrived but had forgotten to
make up the test. He could never remember where he put his wire-rimmed
bifocals. He would often stop in the middle of his lecture and look all over the
desk top for them. A student in the front row always had to remind him that
they were in the left-hand pocket of his baggy sweater. I will never forget the
brilliant lecture he gave on the Ming Dynasty in China on the day that we

were supposed to study the America Civil war.

ANSWER:

Dr. Adams, the old grey-haired history teacher 1' had last semester, is a perfect
example of an absent-minded professor. (1)

example, he entirely forgot to call the roll or tell US which books to buy on the
first day of class. (2) Or, on the day of our midterm exam, Dr. Adams arrived
but had forgotten to make up the test. (3) //7 he could never remember

where he put his wire-rimmed bifocals. (4) he would often stop

student in the front row always had to remind him that they were in the left-
hand pocket of his baggy sweater. (6) Last but not I will never forget the
brilliant lecture he gave on the Ming Dynasty in China on the day that we were
supposed to study the American Civil war.

PRACTICE 6: Arrange your sentences in some kind of order.

Read the following paragraphs and decide which kind of order is used in each:
comparison and contrast, chronological order, order of importance, order of
familiarity, logical division of ideas, etc.

Paragraph 18: chronological order

In the relatively short span of forty-five years, there has been an incredible
evolution in the size and capacities of computers.

Today, computers smaller than the tip of your fingernail have the same
capabilities as the room-sized machines of forty-five years ago. (1) the first
computers were developed around 1945. They were so large that

they required special air-conditioned rooms. (2) About twenty years later, in the
1960s, desk-sized computers were developed. This represented a .gigantic
advance. (3) Before the end of that same decade, however,a third generation of
computers, which used simple

integrated circuits and which were even smaller and faster, had appeared. (4) In
1971, the first microprocessor, less than one square centimetre in size, was
developed. (5) Today, electronic engineers

fiO

predict that even smaller and more sophisticated computers will be on the
market before the twenty-first century.

Paragraph 19:order of importance

World population is increasing an In fact,

according to the United Nations, by the year 2060, the Earth will have 10 billion
people. Governments, particularly governments of developing countries, will face
four major challenges to provide for their expanding populations. (1) The first
challenge will be to provide an adequate

food supply. Hungry, undernourished people lack the energy, the time and the
will to improve their lives. (2) A challenge is

adequate housing.The population needs access to affordable housing to

keep people off the streets. (3) Anothe challenge is to provide

Since rural areas provide only limited job opportunities, many people migrate to
the cities in hopes of finding employment. If employment is not available, these
people quickly become burdens on urban society. (4) The final and most
important challenge is to provide for the

people. As the population increases, more schools will have to be built, and good
teachers and administrators will have to be trained to operate these schools. Not
only do young children need an education, but adults also need training in
various skills and trades that will translate into jobs to benefit themselves and
their countries. //7 , the

challenges of rapid population growth must be met by

education, for without education, there can be no progress.

Paragraph 20: logical division of ideas

Living aboard a space station in orbit around the earth for months at a time
poses problems astronauts' well as for their minds. (1) One major problem is
maintaining astronauts1

physical health. (1.1) Medical treatment may be days or even weeks away as
there may not be a doctor on board, illness such as appendicitis or ulcers,
routinely treated on Earth could be fatal in space because of the delay in getting
to a doctor. Furthermore, (1.2) surgery may be

impossible because blood would float around inside the operating room. Another
(1.3) health problem is the potential for bone deterioration. In

a weightless environment, the body produces less calcium. Astronauts would

have to exercise at least three hours a day to prevent bone loss. (2) A second
major problem is maintaininc astronauts' mental health.

(2.1) Being confined for long periods of time in dark and hostile space will
undoubtedly produce anxiety. (2.2) Loneliness and boredom are other
psychological concerns. (2.3) Finally, how will astronauts let off

steam when interpersonal conflicts develop? It is clear that space- station duly
will require astronauts who i.rc only physically but also mentally strong.

Paragraph 21:order of familiarity

When surnames began appearing in Europe 800 years ago, a

persons identity and occupation were often intertwined. A surname

was a direct link between who a person was and what the person did.

(1) Taylor is the Old English spelling of tailor, and Clark is derived from clerk, an
occupation of considerable status during the Middle Ages because it required
literacy. (2) The names Walker, Wright, Carter, Stewart, and Turner indicate
occupations. A walker was someone who cleaned cloth; a wrightwas a carpenter
or metalworker; a carter was someone who drove a cart; steward was a person
in charge of a farm or estate; and a turner worked a lathe. (3) One of the few
occupational surnames reflecting the work of women is Webster, which refers to
a female weaver.

PRACTICE 7: study the following paragraph, in which one or more sentences are
out of order. Revise the paragraph for greater coherence by arranging the
sentences logical order.

Paragraph 22\ 1-2-3-6-7-4-5

(1) Although riding a bike is economical, it can be hazardous.

(2) Fog example, when I worked in downtown Detroit, I used to ride my

bike to work everyday through rush hour traffic. (3) This meant that the drivers
were either not yet quite awake or angry after a hard Ja\ s work. (4) Once I was
nearly hit by a driver making a risht-hand turn. (5) After that incident, I parked
my bike at home and took the bus to

work. (6) Some of these angry drivers even tried to crowd me off the road. (7)
Others (i.e. Other angry drivers) came close behind me and laid on their horns.

PRACTICE 8: study the two following paragraphs, which lack both unity and
coherence. Rearrange the sentences for coherence and leave out any sentences
that do not belong.

Paragraph 23: 1 2435 (Omit 6-7.)

(1) Watching television is one of the activities I like to do my

spare time (i.e. Saturday and Sunda). (2) I enjoy watching cartoon on

Saturday morning and sports programs on Sunday afternoon. (3) I

watch television during the week (i.e. from Monday to Friday) after I

have finished all my school work. (4) At night, I especially like to watch movies
and situation comedies. (5) If I have lot of homework, I try to arrange my
schedule so that I can watch at least one of my favourite shows. (6) Watching
television is not the only activity I do. (7) One of my otherfavourite activities is
making paper flowers.

Paragraph 24: 1-2-9-3-4-10 (Omit 5--7-8.)

(1) Your dollars seems to stretch a bit further Frank's Grocery

than at & and w. (2) Whenever somebody I know goes to Franks, they

come out with more groceries in hand. (3) Eggs on sale at Franks are

generally priced at fifty-nine cents a dozen, while on sale at G and

w cost sixty-nine cents. (4) Meat on sale at Franks is generally about ten cents
less a pound than meat on sale at G and w. (5) Franks doesnt advertise its
sales much, however. (6) The workers post the newspaper listing the sales in
front of Franks, but G and w is better about advertising its sale items. (7) They
put them on the radio and n the newspaper. (8) They also post sale signs right
over the sale

*ems in the store. (9) Last week, example, Franks had sugar on

sale lor $1.59 for a five-pound bag, G and w also had on sale but cost $1.89 for
the same amount. (10) /4/7/>7 all, Frank's grocery is more

economical thanG and w.

Question 4. What is the role of specific details a paragraph

Specific details would help support controlling Take the "ollowing paragraph as a
typical example:

Paragraph 25

Owing a car can be expensive. (1) you have the purchase

of the car itself. If you get the cheapest new car in the showroom, you will end
up paying about $10,000. Before you can drive the car home, you have to
finance high interest rates and pay a monthly note of around $250. Buying the
car, however, is just the beginning of your expenses.

2) Next,you have to buy gasoline at over a dollar a gallon. If you drive

an average of 100 miles a week and get 35 miles per gallon, you will end up
spending $6 to $10 a week on 2as. That is about $40 a month. (3)

Add to that the expenses you have for maintenance, such as tune-ups

and lubrications, and you have another $ 35 per month. All of these add up to
about $350 a month - a big chunk of anyones !

It is not usually sufficient just to name an example', often it is necessary to

explain the exampleio show how //relates to and supports the generalization.
[Oshima and Hogue, 1991: 106] It would be insufficient to support the topic
sentence of the following paragraph: Tornadoes can be

devastating. by simply stating, Take, the tornado that

hit Wichita Falls, Texas, in 1979. That does not really show that the tornado
was devastating. It is necessary to add an explanation of that example: This
tornado destroyed an entire block of homes and

damaged many other houses and places of business. the

tornado caused the death of over twenty people. The paragraph might conclude
by discussing one or two more examples:

Paragraph 26

Tornadoes can be devastating. (1) Take, the

tornado that hit Wichita Falls, Texas, 1979. This tornado destroyed an entire
block of homes and damaged many other houses and places of business. //7
addition.the tornado caused the death of over twenty

people. (2) More recently, in1982, at least twenty-five tornadoes hit Arkansas,
Texas. Mississippi, and Florida, killing 26 people, injuring

over 300, and causing more than $50 million in property damage. (3) 1984, the
town of Barneveld, Wisconsin, was leveled by a tornado that killed 7 and injured
about 200. Even if not all tornadoes cause such

devastation, if they touch down in populated areas, you can expect

considerable damage.

The explanation of an example does not have to be lengthy. Consider another

example:

Topic sentence: My brother is lazy.

Support: He quit his summer job because he did not want to get up early each
morning.

Three or four additional examples can be used to show that the bother is lazy:

(1) Every time he mows the lawn, he does not bother to mow by the fence
because it is a difficult spot to mow.

(2) Whenever it is his turn to take out the trash, he pretends he is sick so my
other brother has to do it.

3) He refuses to walk to school, claiming that it makes him too tired to work
well, even though he has plenty of energy to play ball after school.

it is not always necessary to give several examples to support the controlling

idea; sometimes one example that is explained in greater detail will suffice to
support the controlling idea. This kind of extended example is useful, not so
much for proving the statement in the generalization but for illustrating it;
therefore, this kind of example is called an illustration. [Oshima and Hogue,
1991: 108-109]

Paragraph 27

Wherever there are great forests, modern methods of insect control threaten the
fishes inhabiting the streams the shelter of the

trees. One of the best known examples of fish destruction the

United States took place in 1955, as a result of spraying in and near Yellowstone
National Park. By the fall of that year, so many dead fish had been found in the
Yellowstone River that sportsmen and Montana fish-and-game administrators
became alarmed. About 90 miles of the river were affected. In one 300-yard
length of shoreline, 600 dead fish were counted, including brown trout,
whitefish, and suckers. Stream insects, the natural food of trout, had
disappeared.

Question 5. Dont you know how to make an outline of a paragraph? Compare

and contrast the two following outlines of the given paragraphs. In what ways
are they different from and similar to each other?

OUTLINE 1

I. TOPIC SENTENCE: Smoking cigarettes can be expensive

the topic the controlling idea

II. SUPPORT:
Support : The price of cigarettes: $ 1.50 per day, $ 547.50 per year. Transition.
But the price of cigarettes is not the only expense

cigarette smokers

Support 2: The hidden/additional expense paid to clean clothing, stuffed

furniture and carpet more frequently.

III. CONCLUDING SENTENCE: Although it is difficult to estimate the cost of this

additional expense, one can see that this hidden expense does contribute to
making smoking an expensive habit.

the restated topic the restated controlling idea

Paragraph 28

Smoking cigarettes can be an expensive habit. (1) Considering that the average
price per pack of cigarettes is seventy-five cents, people

who smoke two packs of cigarettes a day spend $1.50 per day on their habit. At
the end of one year these smokers have spent at least $547.50.

But the price of cigarettes is not the only expense cigarette smokers

incur. (2)Since cigarette smoke has an offensive odour that permeates

clothing, stuffed furniture, and carpet; smokers often find that these items must
be cleaned more frequently than non-smokers do. Although it is difficult to
estimate the cost of this expense, one can see

that this hidden expense does contribute to making smoking an expensive habit.

OUTLINE 2

I. TOPIC SENTENCE:

Smoking cigarettes is hazardous to your health. the topic the controlling idea

II. SUPPORT:

Support 1: Smoking cigarettes can cause CANCER.

Transitiorr. Aside from the most serious and dreaded disease, cancer,

Support 2: Smoking cigarettes also can aggravate or promote OTHER HEALTH

PROBLEMS.

- It increases the discomfort for people with asthma, and emphysema.

- It gives a 'smoker's cough.

- It contributes to bronchitis.

Transitiorr. Finally,

- Cigarette smokers are more susceptible to common colds and flu.

III. CONCLUDING SENTENCE: Whether you get an insignificant cold or the major
killer, cancer, smoking cigarettes is hazardous. Is it worth it?
the restated topic the restated controlling idea

Paragraph 29

Smoking cigarettes is hazardous to your health. (1) Several years ago, a United
States government study was released that linked the intake of tar and nicotine,
found in cigarettes, with the development of CANCER in laboratory animals. The
evidence was so overwhelming that the United States government required
cigarette manufacturers to put a warning on the outside of each package of
cigarettes, which says, Warning: the Surgeon General has determined that
cigarette smoking is hazardous to vour health. Aside from the and

disease, CANCER, (2) cigarette smoking can aggravate or promote

OTHER HEALTH PROBLEMS. For example, smoking can increase the discomfort
for people with asthma and emphysema. It can give one a smoker's cough' and
contribute to bronchitis. recent studies

have shown that cigarette smokers are more susceptible to common colds and
flu. Whether you get an insignificant cold or the major killer, cancer, smoking
cigarettes is hazardous. Is it worth it?

Question 6. 1477/should you learn to outline a paragraph!

Learning to outline will improve your writing for three reasons.

A. It will help you organize your ideas.

B. It will help you write more quickly. c.It will help you improve your grammar.

Improved organization, speed, and grammar make learning to outline well worth
the effort. [Oshima and Hogue. 1991: 34]

Paragraph 30

Although Grants Pass, Oregon, is a fairly small town, it offers

much to amuse summer visitors.(1) Water sports are by far the main

attraction. (1.1) Visitors can go rafting down the Rogue River. They can

go swimming in the Applegate River. Fishing in the area is a popular

activity. (1.2) Lots of people go hunting for wild berries that grow along

the roadsides. (1.3) Campers will find lovely campgrounds that are

clean. (2)/(2.1) There are several nice hotels. (2.2) Tourists can browse

through a number of interesting shops in town, such as antique stores.

One store to visit is the shop thai sells items made from Oregons beautiful
myrtle-wood. (2.3) One fun activity is shopping at the open market where local
folks sell produce in their gardens. (2.4) Grants Pass has a lot of places to eat,
ranging from a low-calorie dessert place to lovely restaurants. Some of these
restaurants offer good food and gorgeous views. As you can see Grants Pass
offers a lot to do summer. If you want to give your family a nice, wholesome ,
try

visiting this charming town.

OUTLINE

I. TOPIC SENTENCE: Grants Pass, Oregon (the topic),

offers much to amuse sum ( controlling

II. SUPPORT:

Support 1: Out-of-town tourists can

1.1. enjoy water sports: - go rafting

- go swimming

- go fishing

Also 1.2. go hunting for wild berries

In addition, 1.3. go camping: camper, campground

Support 2: In-town tourists can

2.1. stay in a nice hotel and relax

2.2. browse through interesting shops

another (fun activity)

2.3. go shopping at the open market

And finally,

2.4. eat in a lot of places, from a low calories dessert place to a lovely restaurant
offering good food and gorgeous view

III. CONCLUDING SENTENCES:

Grants Pass (the 1st restated topic) offers a lot to do in the summer ( 1st
restated controlling idea). If you want to give your family a nice, wholesome
vacation ( the2nd restated controlling idea), try visiting this charming town

(the 2nd restated topic).

Paragraph 31

(1) It started out as a nice enough day. The weather was unusually warm for the
third week in November, so 1 was in a good mood when my mother dropped me
off at school. Everything went as usual that morning-, the classes were boring
and nothing exciting was happening. (2) At noon, I went to the cafeteria for
lunch. While 1 was standing in line with my

friends, I noticed some of the other students were excited about something.
Then a girl in line asked me if I had heard that someone had shot the president.
I was surprised at this news; however, I figured that it was probably just a
minor wound. Suddenly, a voice came over the loud speaker announcing the
president was dead. There was a hush in the cafeteria. Students stopped eating.
No one was moving; it was as if we were all frozen.

3) That afternoon the teachers did not conduct the classes * usual; in

fact, most of the teachers allowed the students to express their feelings about
what had happened. Even my old stodgy English teacher did not conduct class
as usual. She did not give US the exam that she had planned for that day.

4) After school I went home. Fortunately, no one was home, for I wanted to be
alone. Finally, after three hours of containing my emotions, I began to cry. 1
was still crying when my mother arrived home. She came into my room, put her
arms around me, and said, This is a sad day for our country. Yes, November
22, 1963, was a sad day, a tragic day that was beginning of a long difficult
period in American

OUTLINE

I. TOPIC SENTENCE:

November 22, 1963 (the topic),

was a sad day, a tragic day that was the beginning

of a long difficult period in Americ ( controlling

II. SUPPORT:

Support 1: In the mornmq/nn the way to school and later class 1.1.1 was in
good mood.

1.2. Everything went as usual.

Support 2: At no on/in the cafeteria

2.1. Some students were excited about something.

2.2. A girl in line asked if 1 knew that someone had shot the president.

2.3. The presidents death was announced.

2.4. There was a hush in the cafeteria. Students stopped eating.

No one was moving; it seemed as if we were all frozen.

Support 3: In the ai\ernoon/in class again

3.1. The teachers did not conduct the class as usual; most of them allowed the
students to express their feelings about what had happened.

3.2. My old stodgy English teacher.did not give US the exam that she had
planned for that day.

Support 4: Af ter c\ass/back home and at home

4.1. At home alone. I started to cry.

4.2. My mother arrived home, came into my room and said:

Paragraph 32

Our backyard is dominated by a huge old oak tree. The base of the trunk
measures approximately ten feet around. The thick muscular trunk rises solidly
for about eight feet and then separates into four main branches. From these, the
lower -branches spread out horizontally over the ground, reaching into the
neighbors yards. The main branches continue to rise, up and up, where they
compete with each other for air and sunlight. From these heights, the
neighborhood cardinals and blue jays sing to each other, keeping a sharp eye
out for cats. As the birds sway in the wind, they look as if they are riding a ship
across a gently swelling ocean. From these heights, too, it is easy to see

a variety of shrubs and sweet-smelling flowers lining the two long sides of our
rectangular yard, the small walkway along the back of the house, the back fence
that runs along the alley.

OUTLINE

TOPIC SENTENCE: Our backyard (the topic)

is dominated by a huge old oak tree ( controlling idea).

II. SUPPORT:

1. the base of the trunk of the oak tree A

2. the thick muscular trunk of the oak tree

3. the four main branches of the oak tree

4. the lower braches of the oak tree A *

5. from these heights: birds vs. cats

6. from these heights, too: shrubs vs. flowers

7. the two sides of the yard, the walkway, the back fence

Question 7.Where should we put the topic sentence of a paragraph?

'The topic sentence may be the first or last sentence in a paragraph. The topic
sentence may also be the first sentence

of the paragraphsandwich-style'. A sandwich-style is especially helpful to

your reader if the paragraph is very long. The second topic sentence in the
'sandwich-style' paragraph also serves as a concluding sentence. [Oshima and
Hogue, 1991: 20]

3RACTICE 10: Identify the topic sentence and the concluding sentence

in the following sandwich-style' paragraphs.

Paragraph 33
Synonyms, words that have the same basic meaning, do not always have the
same emotional meaning. (1) the words

stingy and frugal both mean careful with money. However, to call a person
stingy is an insult, while the word frugal has a much more positive connotation.
(2) Similarly, a person wants to be slender but not skinny; and aggressive but
not pushy Therefore, you should be careful in choosing words because many so-
called synonyms are not really synonyms at all.

Paragraph 34

Gold, a precious metal, is prized for important

(1) First ofc?//, gold has a lustrous beauty that resistant to

corrosion. Therefore, it is suitable for jewellery, coins, and ornamental

purposes. Gold never needs to be polished and will remain beautiful forever. Fop
example,a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today

as the day it was minted twenty-three centuries ago. (2)

important characteristic of gold is usefulness to industry and science. For many

years, it has been used in hundreds of industrial applications. The most recent
use of gold is in astronauts suits. Astronauts wear gold-plated heat shields tor
protection outside the spaceship. //7 conclusion,gold is treasured not only for
i+s

also for its utility.

PRACTICE 11: Look for a sandwich-s+yle' paragraph. Copy its topic

sentence and its concluding sentence down. What is restated in the concluding
sentence?

PRACTICE 12: Write the topic sentence for the following paragraphs: Paragraph
35

( 1) For example,my father has simply not been able to understand why

Steve can sit for hours, his eyes closed, listening through headphones to hard
rock music. And Steve has stalked out of the room whenever my father has
turned on the radio to one of his favourite melodious love songs. (2) Also,since
that day Steve became a teenager, he and my

Ither have had continual squabble about the chores. Last year, when my father
asked Steve to mow the lawn or clean up the garage, Steve Jsually did the
chores without complaining. Now at the mere mention of -he word lawn, Steve
disappears. (3) for the last six months,

Sieve refused to eat anything but natural grains and raw honey for vcakfasl
while my father scowled uncomprehendingly, eating ditional bacon and eggs.
Indeed, almost every word or action that 'IS passed between Steve and my
father lately has widened the gap ~ understanding between them.

fjtswER: A definite generation gap between my father

and my younger brother, Steve, brothers birthday.

(1) The first factor is overpopulation. Overpopulation puts too much demand on
the amount of land available for growing food. (2) The secondfactor is unwise
use of the land. The cutting down of trees for

firewood\ overgrazing (too many animals eating grass on too little land), and
insufficient crop rotation are examples of unwise land use practices. (3) The
third factor that has led to an increase in the size of

many deserts around the world is continued drought.

ANSWER: The three following factors have combined to cause deserts

to expand ill size in many areas deserts of the world.

PRACTICE 13: Write the concluding sentence for the following paragraphs:
Paragraph 3 7

Another reason students panic during exams that they

suddenly become aware that they have not learned anything semester.

These students spend the semester going to classes, taking notes, and reading
the assigned chapters without ever spending time to review their notes 01-
make sure that they understand the material. As a they do not learn

the material during the term. When the final exam period approaches, they find
themselves overwhelmed with pages of notes they scarcely recognize and
chapters in the book that they do not remember reading.

ANSWER: Since they are faced with the task weeks of

Material in a few hours, is it any wonder that panic?

Paragraph 38

You can reduce gas consumption your car by careful driving and good
maintenance. (1) Dont speed. Gas consumption is about 10 percent higher at
60 miles per hour than at 50 miles per hour and even greater at higher speeds.
Avoid fast stops and starts because they wear your tires out in addition to using
a lot of gas. (2) Check your tire pressure often because under-inflated tires
reduce gas mileage considerably. Get your car tuned up regularly because an
inefficiently operating engine results in inefficient fuel consumption.

ANSWER: Driving carefully and giving your car good maintenance,

you can minimize the money paid for gasoline.

PRACTICE 14: Analyze the following paragraphs.

Paragraph 39

Another reason why I like the beach is solitary atmosphere.

1) At the beach I have no witness but the beach, and I can speak and think with
pleasure. No one can interrupt me and the beach will always be there to listen to
everything I want to say. (2) //7 it is a quiet place to 20

to meditate. Meditation requires solitude. Many times when I am confused about

something I go to the beach by myself, and I find that this is the best place to
resolve my conflicts, solve problems and to think.

Paragraph 40

After more than twenty years on television, are few honours that Sesame street
has not won. The awards are deserved, for Sesame Street is one of the few
shows on television which treat children with respect. (1) Most childrens
programs consist of cheaply made cartoons that are based on the adventures of
a superhero or a video- game character. Unfortunate^.childrens TVs programs
are generally

so poor because quality kids shows do not make the profits which the networks
demand. Both the superhero story and the video-game are easy to slap
together. (2) By contrast,(2.1) the producers of Sesame

Street spend enormous amounts of time and money researching how children
learn. (2.2) Another reason for the low profit is the nature of the

audience. Because children have little money to spend on sponsors products,

each of the networks charges bottom rates for advertising during childrens
programs. (2.3) Sesame a non-profil show, does

not even accept ads. (2.4) And income from the sale Sesame street

products is used to do even better job of producing the show.

Paragraph 41

Years ago, I lived in an old apartment house where I got Htt/e peace and quiet.
(1) Fop one thing,I could hear the constant fights that

went on in the adjoining apartment. The husband yelled about killing his

wife, and she screamed right back about leaving him arrested. (2) [n addition,
the people in the apartment above me had four noisy kids.

Sometimes it seemed as if football games were going on upstairs. The noise

reached a high point when I got home from work, which also happened to be the
time the kids returned from school. (3) If the kids and

neighbours were not disturbing me, / always had one other person to

dependo/7-the superintendent, who visited my apartment whenever he

felt like it. He always had an excuse, such as checking the water pipes or
caulking the windows. But each time he came, I suspected he just wanted to get
away from his noisy family, wtbch occupied the basement apartment. I moved
out of the apartment as soon as I could afford

Paragraph 42
If you do your assignments on time, you may not understand my friend Albert.
Albert is the worlds worst procrastinator. Procrastinators are people who always
put things off. They have problems with deadlines of all kinds. (1) Albert was a
procrastinator at the age of six. The boy next door had a few friends over for
lunch one day. Alberts parents were upset when they learned Albert got there
three hours late. They did the neighbours a favour by taking Albert home at
once. (2) Today, Albert still does everything at the last minute

or even later. He has plans to join Procrastinators Anonymous-when he gets

around to it.

Paragraph 43

As a kid, I never really enjoyed the public (1) First there were all sorts of rules
that prevented me from having as

much fun in the water as possible. (1.1) was that children under the

age of fourteen had to be accompanied by an adult. I didnt like having to beg a

parent or a neighbour to take me swimming every time I wanted to go. (1.2)
Another^ rule was that girls were not allowed in the

water without bathing caps. The required bathing cap was so tight that it caused
a heavy press mark on my forehead. it often gave me a

headache. (2) Second,I wasnt a very good swimmer then. (2.1) Most of

the time I found myself hanging on to the side of the pool. And

whenever I attempted a graceful dive, I ended up doing a belly flop. (2.2)

Finally,many of the kids teased me. Some of them liked splashing

water into my face, which forced me to swallow chlorine and a dead bug

or two. Even worse was the boy who sneaked up behind me all summer

long to dump ice cubes in the back of my swimsuit.

Paragraph 44

A final examination in a course the initiative

to do his or her best work through the course. (1) Students who are only

taking notes and attending classes in order to pass a few short tests will not put
forth their best effort. F some of my friends in

drama, in which there is no final examination, take poor notes, which they throw
awav after each short test. (2) skipping classes also becomes popular. Imagine
the incredible change a final examination would produce. Students would have
to take good and attend all classes

in order to be prepared for the final examination.

Paragraph 45
My cousin Joel completed a course in home repair and offered one day to fix
several things in my He repaired a screen door that squeaked, a dining room
chair that wobbled a bit, and a faulty electrical outlet. That night when I opened
the screen door, it loosened from its hinges. When I seated myself in the chair
Joel had fixed, one of its legs cracked off. Remembering that Joel had also fooled
around with the electrical outlet, I quickly called an electrician and asked him to
stop by the next day. Then I prayed the house would not bum down before he
arrived.

Paragraph 46

My little sister wants to be a country singer when she grows up.

She constantly hums and sings around the house. Sometimes she makes quite a
racket. (1) When she listens to music on the radio,

she sings very loudly in order to hear herself over the radio. (2) And

when she takes a shower, her voice rings through the whole house,

because she thinks nobody can hear her from there.

PRACTICE 15: Choose one of the suggested topics below and write a paragraph
of fifteen sentences in length:

- one problem in your city or country, e.g, one type of pollution;

- one way technology has changed our lives;

- one important quality of a doctor, teacher, architect, engineer, etc.

SECTION 3: ESSAY WRITING

Question lWhat is an essay?

An essay is a non-fiction composition about a limited topic. It

analyzes or interprets information in a personal way. This does not mean that an
essay is about the writer. It could be, but usually it is not. Rather, the sense of
personal involvement comes from the writers thoughts, insights, and values
being used in an analysis or interpretation of a topic. [Dawe and Dornan, 1987:
139]

An essay can also be considered as a piece of writing several paragraphs long. It

develops one centra! written about one topic that is too long and too complex to
discuss in one paragraph. Therefore, the topic must be divided into several main
points, each being discussed in a paragraph. Separate paragraphs must be tied
together by means of an introduction and a conclusion.

Houghton [1984] characterized the formal academic essay as a kind of game in

which the writer, according to the extent to which he or she is familiar with the
rules and is able to use them, seeks to satisfy the demands of the
reader/marker. [As quoted in Hamp-Lyons, 1988: 35]

Therefore, the role of the EAP (English for Academic Purposes) writing teacher is
to prepare students to play this game and win.

Question 2. How many main parts does an essay have? What are they?

An essay has three main parts:

An introduction which usually consists of one paragraph (sometimes two

or more) and which introduces the topic and the centra! idea of

the essay.

A body of two or more developmental paragraphs. These paragraphs

develop various aspects of the topic (in the form of various Stopics) and the
central idea.

A conclusion, which is frequently expressed in form of concluding

paragraph, one that concludes the thought developed in the essay.

Question 3. What is an introductory paragraph? How many parts does it

have? What role does it play in the whole essay?

As mentioned above, an introductory paragraph is the first

paragraph in an essay. It introduces the topic and the central idea being
discussed in the essay. It consists of two parts:

A few general statements the purpose of which is to attract the readers

attention and to give background information on the topic.

A thesis statement that names the topic and the central idea of the

essay and may also state the specific subtopics and/or the method of
organization of the entire paper, that is, it indicates generally how the topic is
going to be developed.

To sum up, an introductory paragraph is like a funnel: very wide at the top,
increasingly narrow in the middle and very small at the neck or bottom.
[Oshima and Hogue, 1991: 79]

Question 4. How general should be the introductory paragraph?

Dont you agree with the following answer given by Smalley and Ruetten [1992:
143]: One way to avoid too general or too far back is to have one key word in
the first sentence reappear in the thesis statement, or if not the word itself, a
synonym of the word or an idea.

*
PRACTICE 1: Study the three following introductory paragraphs. Underline the
word that appears in the first sentence and is restated in the thesis statement.

Paragraph l

Almost everyone looks forward to the weekend. We often make

our plans for the two free days well in advance. Too often, however, the best of
our outdoor plans for the weekend are ruined here in Miami when the weather
clouds up and it rains from Friday evening until

Sunday afternoon. Fortunately, however, the weekend can be saved with a little
bit creativity. Three pleasant ways to spend time during a rainy weekend are to
(1) write letters to old ; (2) read a

mystery novel, and (3) play cards.

Paragraph 2

When we were young, we believed that parents could do no

wrong. Indeed, they seemed to US to be perfect human beings who knew all the
answers to our problems and who could solve any problem that we had.
However, as we grow older, we find that parents mistakes, too.

Paragraph 3

We live in an era where television is the national pastime. Since

the invention of the television set, people have been spending more of their free
time watching television than doing anything else. Many of the television addicts
feel that this particular pastime is not a bad one; indeed, they argue that people
can learn a great deal watching television. I am sure that if you look long and
hard enough, you can probably find some programs that are educationally
motivating. But for the most part, I say that watching telev a waste

Question 5. Where should we place the thesis statement

in the introductory paragraph of an essay? Why?

It is generally a good idea to place the thesis statement at or near the end of
the introductory paragraph to make it interesting and/or

inviting enough for the reader to continue reading [Smalley and Ruetten, 1992:
142]. You should, first of all, introduce the topic of the essay in a few general
statements at the beginning of the introductory paragraph and then state your
opinion about the topic later (of course in the thesis statement). Following such
a way, you may entice the reader to continue after reading the first sentences.
Stating an opinion about something in the first sentence is not usually very
exciting; in fact, if the reader disagrees with the opinion, it may very well
discourage him or her from reading your essay. [Smalley and Ruetten,
1992:142]

PRACTICE 2: Read the three following introductory , each of

which is in scrambled order. Rewrite each paragraph, beginning with the most
general statement first. Then add each sentence in the correct order until the
introduction becomes more specific. Write the thesis statement last.

Paragraph 4:3-2-1-4

(1) The heavy traffic problem can be solved by transit systems from suburbs to
the ciby public transport

systems within the cities,and by forming car pools. (2) Traffic congestion

is caused by the thousands of cars that come into the city from the suburban
areas as well as from the thousands of cars within the city limits. (3) One of the
most serious problems facing most big cities is traffic congestion. (4) This
mammoth problem be resolved before it gets worse.

Paragraph 5:2-3-1-6-4-5

(1) However, in others, the nuclear family is the norm, with only the parents and
young children sharing the same house. (2) People in

different cultures all over the world have different systems for family life. (3) In
most cultures, people live in extended ; in which

several generations share the same house. (4) If this new system becomes
widespread, it could have enormous effects on American society. (5) On the
positive side, living together might reduce the divorce rate in the United States;
on the negative side, it might lead to the eventual disintegration of the family
altogether. (6) In the United States, some people are experiencing with still
another system of family life: living together without marriage.

Paragraph 6:2-3-1-4

(1) Although scientists have experienced with different methods of prediction,

from observing animal behaviour to measuring radio signals from quasars, they
have not proven (2) Earthquakes are

the most destructive natural disasters known to man, in terms of millions of

deaths and billions of dollars in property loss that they cause. (3) Despite these
heavy losses, scientists are still unable to predict earthquakes. (4) This paper
will review the history of the science of earthquake prediction, then discuss each
of the methods in more detail, and finally present data indicating the success-
failure ratios of each method.

Question 6. What is a developmental paragraph?

A developmental paragraph is one of the paragraphs in the body of an essay. Its

function is to explain, illustrate, discuss or prove one aspect of

the topic of the essay (that is, one subtopic). It should include clearly stated
topic sentence. The topic sentence embodies a subtopic and Q controlling idea.
The subtopic of a developmental paragraph is part of

the topic of the entire essay. The controlling idea of a developmental paragraph
echoes or relates to the central idea of the entire essay.
A developmental paragraph should have unity, it discusses only one subtopic. To
make a developmental paragraph , you should

arrange its sentences logically and let one sentence flow to another smoothly
through the use of transiti; those that provide the links between ideas.
Repeating key nouns and using appropriate pronouns, which refer back to key
nouns, are two other ways to maintain the coherence of a developmental
paragraph.

A developmental paragraph may have a concluding sentence in which the

subtopic, the controlling idea and even the main points of discussion within the
developmental paragraph are restated.

PRACTICE 3: Below are thesis statements with two supporting topic sentences
for each. Study the thesis statements and their supporting topic sentences to
determine the logic or principle behind the breakdown. Then fill in a topic
sentence for each.

1. Thesis statement: People gossip for many reasons.

Supporting topic sentences:

a. One reason people gossip is to amuse themselves.

b. Another reason is to feel superior over others.

c.

ANSWER: still another reason is to satisfy their talkativeness.

2. Thesis statement: Smoking cigarettes Supporting topic sentences:

a. Heavy cigarette smoking can cause throat diseases.

b. //7 addition,smoking can damage your lungs.

c.

ANSWER: Last_but not_least,smoking can harm your appetite.

3. Thesis statement:

Jogging isnt the only way to improve your circulation. Supporting topic
sentences:

a. Many have found cycling an excellent aerobic exercise.

b. Another way to improve your circulation is to swim.

c.

ANSWER: Doing morning exercises regularly con improve your circulation.

4 Thesis statement: A foreign student enrolled at an American

university often finds that his or her life is n't such a happy one. Supporting topic
sentences:
a. Firstly, the complex registration procedure is frustrating.

b. Secondly, it is difficult to make friends.

1.t

c.

ANSWER: It also takes him/her a lot of time and a great effort to get good
marks.

Question 7. What are transitions between paragraphs (also called paragraph

transitions) ?In what way do they differ from transitions

within a paragraph?

Transitional signals are important not only within paragraphs but also

retween paragraphs. If you write two or more paragraphs, you need to show:he
relationship between your first and second paragraph, between your second _nd
third paragraph, and so on. [Oshima ana Hogue, 1991: 86]

(See Oshima and Hogue, 1991: 86-89. Also see Smallev and Ruetten, 1992:
164-169; 199-204; 229-230; 261-265; 300-304 and 340-341.)

PRACTICE 4: Identify all the transitions between the developmental paragraphs

in the detailed outline of the following essay.

FLEXTIME

I. INTRODUCTION:

One of the most important changes that management has made in industry in
recent years is the scheduling of flexible work hours for their employees.
Workers are given the option of choosing when they will work. This allows them
more leisure time for family and fun. Flextime has obvious advantages for both
the workers and management although it may not be practical in all types of
businesses.

II. BODY:

Supporting topic sentence 1:

The first advantage is increased production per work hour.

Supporting topic sentence 2:

A second advantage is that factory workers are happier.

Supporting topic sentence 3:

In addition to increased output and worker ,

factory managers report that absenteeism has declined.

Supporting topic sentence 4:

Although flextime hag produced^ these

some mdustries, it is not as advantageous types of businesses.

III. CONCLUSION:

7b summarize, flextime has resulted in increased production and happier

workers who are less likely to miss work and it works well in manufacturing and
retail industries. It works less in service industries such as the restaurant and
health care industries.

; i CTLCE4: Fill in the blanks with appropriate transitions and

expressions of cause and effect. Pay careful attention to the punctuation given.

CAUSES OF TEENAGE SMOKING A thirteen-year-old boy, standing in the

doorway of his school,

:fs on a cigarette. He holds it carefully, like an adult, yet in plain - w. He looks

around to make sure that the other guys are watching. If u ask how long he has
smoked, you will find that he started when he as eleven. By now, he is an
addicted smoker. If you ask him why he

mokes, he will probably say that he enjoys it. (1) you

nder if that is really the reason. It seems to me that the causes for leenage
smoking are more complex. More specifically, they have more 'D do with the
ambiguous role of teenagers in society. Teenage smoking

fc (2) by personal insecurity, a desire to be

jdults, and peer pressure.

The (3) cause of teenage smoking is the personal

r security young people often feel. They are at a difficult age. They

re no longer children, (4) the ways in which they have

haved in the past are inappropriate. On the other hand, they are not

et adults; (5) , they do not know the ways of the adult

orld. This conflict can (6) feelings of insecurity.

) , if children want attention from their parents or a toy

r sweet, they can cry to draw attention to their desires. For teenagers,

(8) , crying will be labelled childish and they will be

told to act their age. Often, (9) the teenager does not

know how to act his or her age. (10) teenagers do not

know what to do, they often turn to smoking as a way to hide their nervousness
and insecurities.

As we have just seen, teenagers need to learn how to behave as adults. They of
course realize this and spend time emulating adults.
(11) they try to adopt more adult attitudes and manners.

They pay attention to their dress and the opposite sex. One thing which young
teenagers perceive as very adult is smoking cigarettes. Perhaps a boy sees his
father and older brother smoke. He thinks of his father as

a man and (12) he wants to be a man like his father.

he starts to smoke, (13) beginning a habit that most

adults know is unhealthy.

While it is true that teenagers are attempting to become adults, this

effort is often not fully conscious. (14) they often see

the adults closest to them, their parents and teachers, as enemies.

(15) , they turn to their peer group for support. We

are all familiar with the teenagers who want to look, act, and dress exactly like
all of the other teenagers in their peer group. This peer

group can exert (16) pressure (17)

often teenagers do things in groups that they would not normally do. One

of these things is smoking cigarettes. Imagine a group of guys playing pool

together after school. One says to the others, Im going to buy a pack of
cigarettes. Do you want to smoke one with me? the peer

pressure here is (18) great (19)

most normal boys will succumb.

We can see that personal insec; desire to be ,

and peer pressure can cause many teenagers to start something which they may
regret. It is really unfortunate that cigarette smoking, particularly when started
at an early age, is so addictive.

Question 8. What is a concluding paragraph?

According to Oshima and Hogue [1991: 82], a concluding paragraph 'consists of:

1. a summary of the main points, or

a restatement of your thesis in different words, and

2. your final comment on the subject, based on the information you have
provided.

Here, Oshima and Hogue insist on your introducing any concluding paragraph
with a transition signal. Smalley and Ruetten [1992: 151], on the other hand,
emphasize that a conclusion should not... up a new topic.

PRACTICE 6: Thesis statements, their supporting topic sentences, and

conclusions follow. Study each conclusion to determine if it logically concludes. If
the conclusion is not appropriate, write the reason it is not good in the space
provided. If the conclusion is appropriate, simply write logical in blank.

1. ;

Thesis statement: Watching television a waste of

Supporting topic sentences'.

(a) It is a valuable educational tooI.

(b) It provides entertainment to cheer US up.

(c) It provides something our family can have in common to discuss.

Conclusion:

Critics of television will continue to put down the boob tube. But, because of its
educational valueentertainment , and

pro vision of things we can discuss together, our family is going to continue
watching television for a long time, and so should others. Indeed, watching
television is a good way to spend ones

2.

Thesis statement:

In order to make a good impression at a job interview, should prepare well for
the interview.

Supporting topic sentences:

(a) The first thing you should o is plan your auwers to the possible questions
the interviewer might ask.

(b) Then you should carefully plan and prepare what are going to wear.

(c) Finally, you should make sure you arrive on time.

Conclusion:

As you can see, it is necessary to be prepared for the job

interview. Having the gnswers ready, and

being on time can all help to make a good impression on the interviewer. If you
follow these steps, you will find yourself sitting behind the desk at the coveted
job in no time at all.

3.

Thesis statement: My reasons for coming to state University

centre round the services it provides at a reasonable price.

Supporting topic sentences:

(a) State university offers a superior program in my major.

(b) //7 addition,the university has high quality academe resources.

(c) State also offers quality student services.

(d) The recreational activities make state even better.

(e) Last but not least,the tuition fees at state are quite reasonable.

Conclusion:

The challenge of a diversified^ qnd_excellent

acgdemic_ resources, the student services,the recreational activities. and the

low tuition are the reasons I decided to come to state University. I really think I
made a wise decision. If you are looking for a quality education at a reasonable
price, then consider state as a place to enrol.

4.

Thesis statement: Communicating in a foreign language

can create some embarrassing misunderstandings. Supporting topic sentences'.

(a) Mispronouncing words can lead to real embarrassment.

(b) Misunderstanding what someone said to you can create amusing problems.

(c) Misusing vocabulary words can really make you blush.

Conclusion:

Everyone who speaks a foreign language is bound to have misunderstanding

from time to time. What you need to do is go to the laboratory as often as you
can to improve your language skills. The people there are very nice and they will
help you with your grammar your grammar and pronunciation.

Question 9. What do you know about essay outlining? Consider the following
outlines of a number of essays given by Smalley and Ruetten [1992]. Do you
agree with or object to these outlines? Dont you have any other suggestions?
Can you name the type of essays that each of the outlined essays belongs to?

THE LASER: THE SOLUTION TO MANY PROBLEMS

I. INTRODUCTION:

The laser (the topic) has a variety of applications ( central idea),making it one of
the most important inventions in the last quarter of century for improving our
quality of life.

II. BODY:

Developmental paragraph 1:

Topic sentence 1: One important( the controlling idea) field in which

the laser has many applications is communications {the subtopic I). Support:
The laser light signals
(la) are now being used to transmit telephone calls.

Transition: An additional advantage is that...

(1 b) will also be able to transmit video telephone conversations in the future.

Developmental paragraph 2:

Topic sentence 2: Another,perhaps less known {the controlling idea) field in

which lasers are helping improve the quality of life is metrology the science of
measurement {the subtopic Support: The extremely straight, narrow laser beam
(2a) can be used to align parts of a structure being built.

(2b) can also position the parts on an assembly precisely.

(2c) has also been used to measure remote distances,

e.g. the precise distance from the Earth to the Moon. (2d) can finally be used to
measure the drifts of the Earth's plates.

Developmental paragraph 3:

Topic sentence 3: Probably the most vital ( controlling idea)

application of the laser is in th Q fie of medicine (the subtopic Support:

(3a) Doctors use laser knives:

- for some general surgery because they cut sharply and because the beam
seals off the blood vessels that it severs, thus reducing blood loss considerably.

- in eye surgery to spot-weld detached retinas to the back of the

eye.

(3b) A less significant but more curio use of the laser is

to remove tattoos.

III. CONCLUSION:

The use of the laser is numerous. It is being used in the fields of medicine,
communications and metrology (three restated subtopics), as we have seen.
There are many problems the laser helping to solve-, the laser (the restated
topic), if wisely used, can be a saving device (the restated central idea).

The Laser: The Solution to Many Problems

Like most people, for many years I remained frightened of the laser, perceiving
it as a deadly device capable of enormous destruction. I recall a scene in a
James Bond movie, in which Bond, who

was lied to a table, was nearly sliced in half by a laser beam. Since then, other
films and television shows have fuelled my fear of the laser by showing mad
scientists who wanted to take over the world threatening to use huge laser
devices to wipe out towns and strategic defence areas. Although the laser does
have tremendous potential for destruction my unreasonable fear of the laser is
fading. In recent years, scientists have

found that the laser has a wide variety , making it one of the most important
inventions in the last quarter of a century for improving our quality of life.

One important field in which the laser has many applications is

communications. Scientists have found that the laser beam can transmit human
voices; as a result, telephone companies are now using laser light signals to
transmit telephone calls through extremely small cables that are capable of
carrying many more transmissions than the standard telephone cables. An
additional advantage is that these systems using the

laser light signals will also be able to transmit video telephone conversations in
the future.

Another,perhaps less known field in which lasers are helping

improve the quality of life is metro; which is the science of measurement. The
extremely straight, narrow laser can be used +0 align parts of a structure being
built; it can position the parts on an assembly line precisely. The laser beam has
also been used to measure remote distances, for example, the precise distance
from the Earth to the

Moon. And finally,the laser can be used to measure the drifts of the

Earth's plates. This measurement, along with other data, can help in the
prediction of earthquakes.

Probably the most vital application of the laser is in the field of medicine. Lasers
have been devised that cut razor sharp; /77 fact

scientists have developed a laser knife that doctors can use for surgery. These
knives are now used for some general surgery because they cut sharply and
because the beam seals off blood vessels that it severs, thus reducing blood loss
considerably. The laser has also been used in eye

surgery to spot-weld detached retinas to the back of the eye. A significant but
more carious use of the laser in medicine is to remove tattoos. Whereas before
tattoos were virtually impossible to remove without considerable difficulty and
pain, now they can be removed relatively painlessly.

When Dr. Theodore H. Mainan got the first laser to work in July of 1960, what
uses it would have were unknown; in fact, he called it a multimillion dollar
solution in search of a problem. As we have seen, the use of the laser is
numerous.It is being used in the fields of medicine, communications and
metrolog; as we have seen. But I have just touched down upon some of the
applications of the laser; there are many, many more, not to mention in the
areas of defence and space travel. What should be apparent by now is that there
are many problems the laser is helping to solve and that the laser, if wisely
used, be a life-saving device.

I. INTRODUCTION:
Their considerable differences (the topic) in ; personality.; and attitude toward
( subtopics) reflect the

differences between Eastern and Western cultures central idea).

II. BODY:

1. Nhn and Hng differ front each other in looks.

(thecontrolling idea)the subtopic 1)

la. Like the majority of oriental , Nhn looks an early

twentieth-century intellectual.

- is short and small

- has a full moon-shaped face, smooth white skin and small arms and feet

- always likes to wear formal, traditional clothes, e.g. the traditional black gown,
white pants and black silky headband

lb. //7 contrast toN hon,Hng looks more an American boxer.

- is tall, muscular and big-boned

- is marked by a straight-built body and a long and angular face

Unlike N hail,Hng has strong feet and arms as well as hairy, large and full
shoulders and chest.

Unlike Nhn, too,Hng likes to wear comfortable T-shirts and

jeans or sports clothes. He prefers stylish Western style suits at a formal

occasion.

2. Nhn and Hng a/so differ in personality.

(the controlling idea) (the subtopic 2)

2a. Nhn provides a good example of piety and tolerance.

- His name means patience.

- He has the smile of an ancient Chinese philosopher that Western people can
never understand. He always smiles.

- He likes books, ofcourse,and literature and philosophy.

- He likes to walk in the moonlight and think.

- He also enjoys drinking hot tea and singing verses.

2b. Hng, on the other hand,does not set a good example of

traditional respectful behavio for his brothers and sisters.

- Hng is strong, self-cantered and independent.

- His name means strength, but his strength is self-cantered.

As a result, unlike Wian,Hng only smiles when he is happy.

When he talks to people, he looks at their face. - impolite

Like many American youths,Hng loves his independence more

than he loves his family. He wants to move out of our house and live in an
apartment by himself. He is an individualist. - selfish

3. My bothers differences^ do not end with looks_

Concerning their attitudes toward (the subtopic they are as different as the
moon and the sun ( the controlling idea). 3a. Nhn is concerned with spiritual
values. He is affected by Confucian, Taoist and Buddhist theories. He believes
that man should get out of the competitiveness of life and should not depend on
material objects.

Therefore, he never tries hard to make money to buy conveniences.

3b. //7 contrasty to Him II, Hng is affected by the Western

theories of real values. He believes that science and technology serve human
beings and that the West defeated the East because the West was further
advanced in these fields.

Therefore, there exists competition between man and nature and between one
person and another for different conveniences. Consequently, he always works
hard to make his own money to satisfv material needs.

III. CONCLUSION:

-1 cannot say which one of my brothers is wrong or right.

-1 am lucky to inherit both sources of thought from my two brothers.

My Two Brothers

No two people are exactly alike, and my two older brothers, Nhn and Hng, are
no exceptions. When I think of them, I think of Rudyard Kiplings words:

East is Ea

West is West Never the

Even though they have the same parents, their considerable differences in looks;
personality; and attitude toward life reflect the

differences between Eastern and Western cultures. the

oriental men, Nhn is short and small, and has a full moon-shaped face. His
smooth white skin and small arms and feet make him look somewhat delicate.
Nhn always likes to wear formal, traditional clothes.

example, on great holiday or at family rice celebrations, Nhn appears in

the traditional black gown, white pants and black silky headband, all of which
make him look like an early twentieth-century intellectual.

//7 contrast to Nhn, Hng, who is his younger brother by ten years,

looks more like an American boxer. He is tall, muscular and big-boned.

He is built straight as an arrow and his face is long and angular as a Western
character. Unlike Nhan,Hng has strong feet and arms; and

whereas Nhn has smooth skin, Hungs shoulders and chest are hairy,

large and full. UnjikgNhn too,Hng likes to wear comfortable T-shirts

and jeans or sports clothes. At a formal occasion, instead of wearing formal

clothes, Hng wears stylish Western style suits.

Nhn and Hng also differ in personality. I dont know how my

father selected their names correctly to reflect their personalities. Nhns name
means patienc and his patience is shown in his smile.

He has the smile of an ancient Chinese philosopher that Western people can
never understand. He always smiles. He smiles because he wants to make the
other person happy or to make himself happy. He smiles whenever people speak
to him, regardless of whether they are right or wrong. He smiles when he
forgives people who have wronged him. Nhn likes books, of course,and
literature and philosophy. He likes to

walk in the moonlight and think. Nhn also enjoys drinking hot tea and singing
verses. //7 short. Nhn is the son who provides a good example

of filial piety and tolerance.

Hng, on the other hand,does not set a good example of traditional respectful
behaviour for his brothers and sisters. His name

means strength, but his strength is self-cantered. As unlike

Nhn, Hng only smiles when he is happy. When he talks to people, he looks at
their face. Because^of this,my eldest brother Nhn considers

him very impolite. As one mighty expecHng does not like philosophy

and literature; instead, he studies science and technology.

Nhn enjoys tea and classical verses, Hng prefers to take sun baths and drink
Coca-Cola while he listens to rock and roll music.

American^ youths, Hng is independent; //7 fact he loves his

independence more than he loves his family. He wants to move out of our house
and live in an apartment by himself. He is such an individualist that all the
members in my family say that he is very selfish.

My bothers' differences (to noder,d with and personality.

Concerning their attitudes toward they as different as

moon and the sun.My eldest brother Nhn concerned with spiritual

values. He is affected by Confucian, Tao St and Buddhist theories. These

theories consider that the human life is not happy. Therefore, if a

man wants to be happy, he should get out of the competitiveness of life and
should not depend on material objects. example, if a man is not

anxious to have a new-model car, he does not have to worry about how

to make money to buy one. Or, if he does not have a car, he does not

have to worry about the cost of gas. My eldest brother is deeply affected by
these theories, so he never tries hard to make money to buy

conveniences.

In contrast to Nhn, my brother Hng believes that science and

technology serve human beings and that the west defeated the east because the
west was further advanced in these fields. Therefore, each

person must compete with nature and with other people in the world in order to
acquire different conveniences, such as cars, washing machines, and television
sets. Hng is affected by the Western theories of real values, consequently, he
always works hard to make his own money to

satisfy his material needs.

In accordance with the morality of the culture of my country, I cannot say which
one of my brothers right or wrong. I do know

that they both want to improve and maintain human on this earth. I am lucky to
inherit both sources of thought from my two brothers.

ATTITUDES TOWARD MONEY

I. INTRODUCTION: People's attitudes toward money

(the topic) ( idea)

II. BODY:

Developmental paragraph 1:

1.1. Topic sentence:

The misers seem almost obsessed with the idea of saving.

(the subtopic 1)( controlling idea)

1.2. Support:

1.2.1. The misers

- accumulate money in banks and in the house.

- deprive themselves of many things and most live miserably in order to hoard
their wealth.

1.2.2. A good example of the misers is my ninety-year-old neighbor.

Developmental paragraph 2:

2.1. Topic sentence:

The spenders cannot seem to hold on money.

(the subtopic 2)(

2.2. Support:

2.2.1. The spenders

- have a tendency to spend too much on too many unnecessary things. They are
often too generous, making elaborate gifts to friends and family.

Transition: others

- like to gamble, and this can also be destructive if it turns into a vice.
Transition: Many spenders do not necessarily throw their money away but

-they give it to charities for good causes, simply because they enjoy giving.

2.2.2. My uncle Mario is a big spender.

Developmental paragraph 3:

3.1. Topic sentence: The economizers(the subtopic 3) are practical people who
spend ,

usually making use of a budget ( controlling idea).

3.2. Support:

3.2.1. The economizers

- can enjoy more and various material things and activities due to their careful
utilization of funds.

- spend in moderation and save in moderation for their future retirement and the
education of their children.

3.2.2. Parents are usually the best economizers, e.g. my mother. Transition. In
conclusion,

III. CONCLUSION:

- Economizers ( the restated subtopic 3) are what most of US are having to be

in the 1980s in order to face the acute problems of inflation, shortages, and low
salaries in this nation and to survive in the future.

- The misers and big spenders {the restated subtopic 1 2) will modify their
extreme attitudes toward money (the restated topic) and convert into
economizers.
Attitudes toward Money

Americans these days are very concerned with economy. It seems more people
have to learn to spend less and to spend wisely due to the hard times we are
experiencing. However, people's attitudes toward money differ. Some attitudes
toward money are reflected by the following three types of people.

The misers accumulate money in banks if their income is large, or in the house
stuffed in mattresses or under the living room rug if they are low-income people.
They seem almost obsessed with the idea of saving. The misers deprive
themselves of many things and most live miserably in order to hoard their
wealth. My ninety-year-old neighbor, having

gained the sympathy of neighbors, often colleeted groceries and money from
them. She dressed shabbily and lived in an old deteriorated house. After her
death it was discovered that this old woman had left thousands of dollars to the
church and other organizations. She left nothing to her family.

The spenders are people who cannot seem to hold on money.

They have a tendency to spend too much on too many unnecessary things. They
are often too generous, making elaborate gifts to friends and family. Credit cards
in some spenders hands are often dangerous weapons. They become addicted
to using them only to regret it later when the bills come in and they are unable
to pay. spenders like to

gamble, and this can also be destructive if it turns into a vice. Man

spenders dp nof necessarily throw_ their money 3way but give it to

charities for good causes, simply because they enjoy giving. My uncle Mario is a
big spender. He makes over $25,000 a year but he never has any money in his
savings account because he spends his entire pay- check each week on
necessities and luxuries. Last week he spent $5000 on a new moped, not
because he needed one, but because he thought it would be fun to own one. As
a result of his spending, every year in April he has to borrow money to pay his
taxes because he has spent it all.

The economizers are practical people who spend , making use of a budget.They
can enjoy more and various material things

and activities due to their careful utilization of funds. They spend in moderation
and save in moderation for their future retirement and the education of their
children. Parents are usually the best economizers. My mother who budgets our
money, resists the temptation to buy things we do not need and cannot afford.
Instead, she makes a point of saving a certain amount of money from each of
my fathers paychecks. As a result, we always have some money in the bank for
emergencies and for education expenses. When my brother started college, we
had the money to pay for his tuition and books.

In conclusion, economizers are what most of US have to be in the 2000s. The

acute problems of inflation, shortages, and low salaries in this nation are forcing
US to become economizers. It is the only way to be if we are to survive in the
future. Hopefully, the misers and big spenders will modify their extreme
attitudes toward money and convert into economizers.

PROFICIENCY EXAMINATIONS WHO NEEDS THEM?

I. INTRODUCTION:

International students should be considered as special cases. The composition

proficiency requirements as now stated (the topic)

should not apply (the central idea).

II. REASON: The case of international students at an American

university is indeed special

First,most international students are using English as their second language.

They need more time to write a composition.

Ill

Furthermore, the composition proficiency exam is biased against

international students. It counts grammar errors, which often have nothing to do

with meaning, e.g. an participle vs. an infinitive as the complement after verbs.

Therefore,international students should not be judged so severely

on grammar errors, but should be judged more on* the quality of their

ideas.

III. REFUTATION:

1 a. My opponents' first argument

My opponents might argue that international students need the level of English
proficiency indicated by the exam to get through their other courses such as
math, science, history, psychology, etc. in American universities.

lb. My first refutation- This is not just true.

- First,75% of international students are majoring in math and

science. Their professors do problems on the board or demonstrations in the lab.

No English composition skills are

necessary.

- Fop further proof,multiple-choice tests, not essay tests, are given

in most introductory courses.

2 a. My opponen ts' second argumen t

Perhaps one may argue that the proficiency requirements are not necessary for
American students, either.

2b. My second refutation- Here I must point out several things.

- First,because most native speakers rarely study composition thoroughly in high
school, they really need a thorough study of it at the college level. On the other
hand,many international students

have studied composition in their own language quite thoroughly in high school.
If they passed high school, they can already express themselves well in their
first language. So, further practice in composition is not necessary.

- Furthermore, in terms of future use, American students might

need to write well in English for their careers. most

international students will not need English for their careers when they go back
home; they will use their own language.

IV. CONCLUSION: The case of international students at American universities is

special.

- They are using a second language.

- Furthermore, the level of proficiency required on the test is

not necessary for most students to pass their courses.

1 would propose that the standard used to judge international student papers
(the restated topic) be relaxed or done away the restated central idea).

Proficiency Examinations who needs them?

Im so frustrated! These were the words of a friend of mine the other day, and
international students on an F-l visa studying at this university. Although he is a
junior in electrical engineering and doing

11

well in his engineering courses, he has again failed the English

Departments proficiency examination in composition. And he is not the

only one. I know several international students who can pass differential

calculus with no-problem, but cannot seem to get out of freshman

English, you must be able to write a 500-word essay in fifty minutes with

no more than two major errors and five minor errors. While most

native speakers of English manage to do this after two or three Q

semesters of freshman English, non-native speakers have a much more difficult

time. The reason for this is obvious. Non-native speakers needs to spend some
of their fifty minutes looking up new vocabulary words.

carefully going over grammar constructions, and looking everywhere for a

missing third-person s. While international students may have some more
original ideas than native speakers, they may fail for superficial grammatical
reasons. This seems very unfair to me. It seems clear that international students
should be considered special cases, and therefore the composition proficiency
requirements as now stated should not apply.

The case of international students at an American university indeed special.

First,most international students are using English as

their second language. When it comes to writing a composition, international

students using a second language require more time than native speakers.
International students must spend part of their precious fifty minutes looking up
words, checking over grammar constructions, and rephrasing tricky idioms.
Furthermore, the composition proficiency

exam is biased against International students. As you know, it counts grammar

errors, which often have nothing to do with meaning. A good example of this is
the complement after verbs. Often international students have very good ideas
and concentrate on expressing them. Then they fail the test because they use an
ing participle instead of an infinitive. For most American speakers of English,
the complements after verbs are automatic; they do not have to think about
them at all. Even if native speakers do not have very good ideas, they can still
pass

the test because they do not make any grammar errors. Therefore, it

seems to me that international students should not be judged so severely on

grammar errors; but should be judged more on the quality of their ideas.

My opponents might argue that international students need the level of English
proficiency indicated by the exam to get through their other courses. They fear
that international students will fail their math, science, history, psychology
courses if they cannot write compositions. This is just not true. 75% of
international students

are majoring in math and science. In these classes, professors do problems on

the board or demonstrations in the laboratory. Virtually no English composition
skills are necessary. I can give

several more examples, like my friend above, who are proving every day that
they can do very well (As and Bs) in their math and science courses without
having passed the composition test. It seems clear that international students do
not need to write English as well as my opponents think they do. But what about
history and psychology courses, courses that normally require a certain amount
of writing skills? Here, too, I can easily show that the proficiency level demanded
on the test is not necessary. On the sophomore level, most introductory courses
in history courses in history and psychology are mass lecture courses in which
multiple choice tests, not essay tests, are given. As Ions as

international students can read the textbooks and tape record the lectures, they
can most likely pass these courses with no more writing than a circle around the
correct letter. The level of proficiency that the composition test requires is
simply not necessary for most international students to pass courses in an
American university.
Perhaps one may argue that the proficiency requirements are not necessary for
American studentseither. here I must

point out several things. First part of the point of writing composition is

to express oneself well in language. Since English is the first language for most
Americans, they will surely need to have this skill in their native language. And
because most native speakers rarely study composition thoroughly in high
school, they really need a thorough study of it at the college level. (Of course, if
they have studied it in high school, they can generally pass the test with no
problem.) On the

hand, many international students have studied composition in their own

language quite thoroughly in high school. If they passed high school, they can
already express themselves well in their first language. So,

further practice in composition is not necessary. in terms of

future use, American students might need to write well in English for their
careers. But most international students will not need English for

their careers when they go back home; they will use their own language.

Since ihey have studied composition in high school, they are most likely
adequately prepared in composition skills.

It seems clear, then, that the case of international students at American

universities is special. They are using a second language, and this fact should be
taken into consideration when the English Department reads the final proficiency
tests. Further, since the level of proficiency required on the test is not necessary
for most students to pass their courses, I would propose that the standard used
to judge international student papers be relaxed or done away After all, if
students can show that they can pass their other courses, why should the
university block their way with superficial but often iimiountable barriers?

PRACTICE 7: Make a detailed outline to show how the ideas of each of the
following essays are organized. These are, in fact, sample essays from previous
final examinations for candidates of B.A. in English.

The Advantages and Disadvantages of Attending Evening Classes

Working during the day and going to school in the evening is becoming more
and more popular in Vietnam these days. People have to work to support
themselves and their family; however, in order to work efficiently and earn some
more money to meet their own and other family members ever-increasing
needs, they have to renovate" their previous knowledge and skills to meet the
demanding requirements of the labour market. I do the same, looking forward to
receiving m\ B.A.

in English. From what I have been experiencing in the in-service training section
of the University of Social Sciences and Humanities, I am getting aware of a few
advantages and disadvantages of attending evening classes.
There is no doubp that evening dosses provide me with

opportunities to improve my English. This language is a must at my workplace,

where I have to communicate with other people via this international language
either orally or in written form.

The second advantage of attending evening classes is I con work

during the day. It is impossible for me to quit my job to pursue some further
study because I am a significant bread-winner/wagc-earner of my rather big
family. But I do know that it is dangerous to stay academically unchanged for a
decade or so, i.e. I have to refresh my knowledge to cope with all the demands
at work or else I will be fired sometime.

Attending evening classes also makes me always young and lively.

The atmosphere of a school and its own requirements force me to forget

something unpleasant usually found at work. I love such an atmosphere all my
life.

Although I highly appreciate theadvantaqes of attending evening classes, I really

suffer from its unavoidable disadvantages. Firstly, I

often feel tired after a long day of hard work. Consequently, I can hardly

study enthusiastically in the evening. If the teacher of a given subject is

experienced enough to inspire something in me and draw my attention to his or
her lessons, I am all right with the subject; but if this is not the case, I have to
struggle hard with the subject myself and only when I am lucky enough can I
manage to pass it. Usually, I cannot avoid having to take the second
examination for that subject.

Secondly,attending evening classes means I have to go along the

crowded streets of Ho Chi Minh City during the rush ;

especially from 5:00 to 5: 30 p.m. And I am always in a hurry, being frightened

of being late for school. If the weather is favourable, it is still acceptable to go to
school after work; but during the rainy season, skipping a few, or even a
considerable number of, class meetings is unavoidable. As a result, I cannot say
sure how well I have acquired the minimal knowledge for a required course.
Never can I say I have a sound knowledge of the English language!

Lastbut not least,attending evening classes means I usually come

back home rather late and fail to have dinner together with other members of
my family. And this is really bad. I need a B.A. in English but I do love and need
my family very much, too. I feel regret at neglecting my duties at home just
because I am a full-time worker and a part-time student at the same time.

In spite of these disadvantages, I keep on studying what I consider as crucial for

my present job and my future career. I cannot

wait until everything is all right to start my evening courses. I have to do the
best with what I have right now. I enjoy the advantages of attending evening
classes, and I am readv to accept its disadvantages, following an English saying:
Take the bad as well as the good. It is real life!

- //until

Is Ho Chi Minh City a much better place to live in today than 10 years ago?

The Vietnamese proverb t lnh chim u, which means wherever there is

good soil, there are flocks of birds coming to settle down, shows that people
tend to move to a place in which they can live and make money in a fairly easy
way. Ho Chi Minh City is one of the biggest cities in the south of Vietnam, which
provides people with a great number of various jobs; therefore, people from
many different parts of the country keep on moving to this city, hoping to find
out their paradise. For those who have been living in this city for a long time,
more than 10 years for example, their used-to-be paradise is getting worse and
worse. Sharing these native citizens viewpoint, I strongly disagree with the
flattering statement that Ho hi Minh City is a much better place to live today
than 10 years ago.

Pollution s the /Zrg/thing that makes Ho Chi Minh City a worse place

to live in. The layout of Ho Chi Minh City was established only for its five
hundred thousand residents more than 100 years ago. Its drainage system has
been overbooked to drain for a city of over seven million people

nowadays. Consequently, the so-called the pearl of the Far East is getting more
and more polluted. Water pollution only part of the pollution

facing all the dwellers of this biggest city Vietnam. The air pollution

here is no less serious. Thousands of factories are still located inside this city
and keep on releasing poisonous smoke. Various means of transportation,
especially millions of motorcycles, do contribute to the ever-increasing air
pollution in HCM City.

The second thing that makes Ho Chi Minh City a worse place to

live in is its high cost of living. Nowhere else in Vietnam do you have to pay such
great sums of money just to lead a rather simple and really humble life. Food,
public utility, means of transportation, tuition fees, accommodation and a variety
of private services such as tailoring, hairdressing, renovating, etc. here are all
much higher than the so-called standard legal income of the majority of the city
dwellers. Consequently, they have to struggle hard to make their two ends
meet. They dont usually have time to enjoy themselves. In other words, a great
number of these city-dwellers just earn enough money to be physical beings, not
emotional or spiritual beings.

Its increasing crime and disorder a[so makes Ho Chi Minh City

a worse place to live in today than ten years ago. A number of the city dwellers,
especially young illiterate guys of lower social classes, cannot earn their living
legally. They allow themselves to rob or steal an\ thing
they can to satisfy their needs, irrespective of how serious the consequences of
their frightening acts are. It is impossible for anyone who dares to live in Ho Chi
Minh City to get rid of the lack of safety and order resulting from the above-
mentioned kind of crime. In other words, the city dwellers have to face their
fate/destiny every minute in their life.

To tell the truth, I was born and grew up in Ho Chi Minh City and I

am old enough to witness the tremendous, multi-faceted changes and social

reforms here. However, I can hardly say that I love my hometown very much
because I am afraid that it does not deserve my love. Up to now, I have been
trying my best to work hard and lead a simple but respectable life here. I do not
dare to break any official law or well- established social rule. And I often jeer
sarcastically at myself, saying how foolish I am in such a crazy, disorderly
environment. Probably, you do not approve of my pessimistic perspectives; but
that is me!

'/ - li n/, rj/ian/i

What have Gained from University Education

No country can afford to neglect the education of its citizens. Primary,

secondary, and tertiary education provides anyone with knowledge and skill,
both being of equal values in todays human life. Attending a university, I have
learned to study by to think

clearly.; to express what I want to say in a precise and condense

manner; and to work well thanks to the knowledge and experience accumulated
through my training at university.

My first benefit from tertiary education is to learn

something by myself. As you may know., self-study is a must at university. In

addition to attending various classes, I have to prepare for any of them: do a lot
of reading, finish all the required exercises and/or assignments, make reports,
do research, take part in seminars, etc. These activities gradually build up my
habit of self-study. This habit allows me to work independently and creatively in
whatever field I choose to get involved in because I am able to gain further
knowledge and skill through my own study.

Attending a university, I have also learned how to think clearly

and express myself briefly and precisely. Time is a crucial factor influencing all
aspects of modern life. More and more people lead their lives in the fast lane. To
save my time, I have to think as clearly and critically as I can. To save the
precious time of the receiver of my message whom I have an opportunity to
communicate with, either orallv or in the form of any written document, I always
try my best to guarantee that what I say is brief, relevant, and clear enoueh to
be understood immediately. In other words, I force myself to provide m\ listener
or reader with as much information as needed in such a V. a\ that both my
energy and his/her time and effort can be saved.
Last buf not_least I highly appreciate the knowledge and I

have acquired through a variety of courses at my university. Such knowledge

and skill make me really competent at my work in particular and get me ready
for my long and hard struggle against all the other difficulties and challenges in
my own life in general. Graduating from a university, I have been well equipped
with a good education which a great number of Vietnamese youths have ever
dreamed of and aimed at. Such an education is the required invaluable
foundation for me to climb up to higher and higher strata in society.

People may hold different views on education: it is only a waste of time to some
while to others it is one of the inevitable/necessary factors strongly influencing
their success or failure in life. I belong to the second group/type, highly valuing
what tertiary education brings to me. Therefore, it deserves my great efforts to
meet all its requirements, the initial requirements of any well-educated person.

Nowadays the general standard of living in Vietnam is improved considerably;

therefore, Vietnamese people especially young ladies, begin to take great care of
their looks. That is why fashions play a much/far more significant role in our
Living in the center of

the south of Vietnam, the ladies from Ho Chi Minh City have a wide range of
clothes to select from: aodais, jeans and T-shirts, blouses and skirts, dresses,
trouser-suits, etc.

Generally speaking, pieces of aodai are highly appreciated on special and/or

foniml occasions such as celebrations of national

holidays, academic conferences, professionally artistic contests, the traditional

Vietnamese Tet, wedding receptions, etc.

On /ess formal but more common occasions, todays women may

choose western stylish clothes such as trouser-suits or dresses.

In a trouser-suit, a lady may look business-like at work. And she seems really
charming to entertain her guests at home, being decorated by a fashionable
dress or by a lovely blouse and a well-formed skirt. Her feminine features are
really strengthened by the western style of selecting clothes.

On informal occasions, young ladies often appear in jeans and a

comfortable T-shirt. It is much/far more convenient for them to move around in

a (super)market or any kind of shops. Light and neat clothes are also suitable
for picnics, barbecues or other friendly social outdoor gatherings. These clothes
really make all the members of the sex of 'beauty lively and attractive.

There is no doubt that f ashions do contribute to making our todays

life more beautiful and meaningful. All women, especially young ladies,
have a wide range of clothes to choose from. They may choose whatever is the
most suitable on a particular occasion or for a particular purpose. In addition to
their general knowledge, professional training, unique personality, working
experience, etc., their clothes play a significant role in leading todays women to
success both at work and at home.

Reducing Traffic Accidents

It is believed that the number of the people who have died in traff ic accidents is
much higher than that of the people who nave died of cancer or any other
disease. In Ho Chi Minh City, the problem of traffic accidents is really serious.
The following measures should be taken to reduce seriousness/to minimize the
consequences of this problem.

Firstly,the system of the main streets in Ho Chi Minh City must

be improved or upgraded. It is awful to move along the streets of Ho Chi Minh

City because most of them are in bad condition and some are full of holes, either
big or small. In addition, during the rainy season many streets are flooded with
water after a heavy rain. If we are not careful enough, we easily hit other people
or fall off our bike or motorbike.

Secondly, law-breaking and drunken should be

punished strictly. These law-breaking and drunken riders/drivers are the devils
of the street: they operate their motor vehicle at (a) high speed and sway from
one side/curb of the street to the other whenever they feel excited. There is no
doubt that one of the main reasons of serious traffic accidents is the riders or
drivers carelessness and lack of self-control.

Las[ but_not least, calling for every citizen's obeying traffic laws

is crucial. The city dwellers awareness of the necessity to obey traffic laws is
quite low; consequently, they travel along the streets without paying close
attention to traffic lights and other signals. Quite often, motor-cyclists occupy
the lane(s) for cars and other four-wheel motor vehicles while taxi drivers speed
up, forcing the riders/drivers of other vehicles to give way to them. It takes a lot
of time and energy to draw the attention of anyone who does travel along the
streets in Ho Chi Minh City to the well-established traffic laws here in particular
and to make each of the city dwellers a law-abiding citizen in general. But it is
worth it!

//7 conclusion,we are all overwhelmed by the increasing number of

the traffic accidents in Ho Chi Minh City nowadays. It is time to upgrade the
whole system of the main streets this city and apply efficient measures both to
punish those who break traffic d

call for every citizen's consciousness of obeying these V

whenever he/she travels along the street in this city. The sooner these
suggestions will he taken into account, the traffic

accidents happening in Ho Chi Minh City

' (lin/i

Th # ^ 'h ^ ik:k 'h '2' 'k % 'k ^k 'k

Qualities of a Good Teacher

Teachers play an important part in training children, teenagers and even people
in their early maturity. Some qualities that are crucial for determining a teacher
as good are (1) the teacher's sound knowledge his/her major and its related
fields; (2) certain devotion to and great

love for his/her students and (3) his/her to inspire the

students' passion for studying either or out of class.

There is no doubt that knowledge a must for a good teacher. In

addition to his/her professional kno, the teacher need enlarge his/her general
knowledge on culture, society, humanity, psychology, methodology, politics,
history, etc. to provide his/her students with what they need to know, satisfy
their curiosity and meet their requirements in any case.

Another quality that a good teacher should have is his/her

devotion to and great love for those who him 'sir' or her 'madam' in class.
Generally speaking, the students are not mature enough to behave properly.
They are sometimes really stubborn.

Consequently, the teacher has to learn how to handle the students troubles in a
gentle and affectionate manner. He/she should pay adequate attention to the
students and know how to keep calm in any situation so that he/she can give the
students some advice when they are in need or help them distinguish the right
from the wrong.

Last_ but not least,a good teacher always succeeds in inspiring

his/her students' passion for studying both under his/her guidance in class and
out of class by themselves. I highly appreciate this third quality because of its
undeniable value. It is not always easy to provide his/her students with all the
required knowledge in class; therefore, a good teacher can manage to make the
students motivated enough to carry on their active and successful self-study at
home. Obviously, teaching his/her students how to study independently,
creatively and effectively is what a good teacher must do in any academic
setting.

//7 conclusion,to be a good teacher, anyone who devotes

himselfTherself to the coinage of a succession of young generations must keep

on working really hard to enlarge his/her and general as well as professional
knowledge, to accumulate experience how to

deal with his/her students properly and to be able to inspire the students the
true love, the increasing hope and the ever-lasting enthusiasm to reach higher
and higher levels of education in their life.
*

Many decades ago, women rarely went to work outside their house. Instead,
they usually stayed at home and did the housework. Nowadays, women still play
the role of a housewife but more and more women, especially the young ones,
attend a school, get some training

and become a member of the national work force. There is no doubt that

it is not easy for any of them to have two jobs at the same time-one at work
and one at home. In other words, it is almost impossible for them to be an ideal
wife, a devoted mother and a competent employee at the same time. Therefore,
it is quite often that they have to choose between their career and their family
life. The paper/This essay is about the problems facing today's women. These
problems not easy to solve at all.

The women of the first type I would like to mention here usually

stay single. In other words, they may be successful at work and earn enough
money to support themselves and even their relatives; however, they are
considered as the ones who lose, not win at all, in the battles for love, for
marriage and for the so-called common life. They lead an unusual life - the life
of a spinster. Their society accepts them for humanitarian reasons; but, to tell
the truth, these never-married women have never been accepted emotioifally.
And this is my own destiny.

Those of the second type face their own problems: they have to

depend on their husband financially, and almost certainly they suffer from the
lack of up-to-date pieces of information on social life, competition at work,
recent changes and reforms in community, etc. All of these prevent them from
being a hearty friend, an attractive lover or a reliable comrade. In other words,
in spite of their devotion to bringing up their children, taking great care of their
husband and doing almost all of the housework, these ideal housewives are still
in danger of failing to go along with their husband and of being betrayed
emotionally and even sexually. Some of my former friends at high school are
nothing but the second-class citizens both in the society and right in their
household.

The women of the third type are both lucky and unlucky in their

own ways. On the one hand,they are lucky enough to get married and to

be able to give birth to at least one child. In addition, they do not belong to the
unemployed or the so-called housekeepers. Together with their husband and
child(ren), they can build up a common life that all human beings have ever
been aiming at and dreaming of. On other

they suffer from doing two jobs simultaneously. It is extremely painful for any
woman to combine her successful married life to her established professional
career. My elder sister is a typical example of the third type of women. She has
almost no time even to sleep! And sometimes I wonder whether it is worth it.

The eighth of March is famous as a day for all the women in the world in general
and in Vietnam in particular. That special day contributes to reminding anybody
of the real problems facing todays women. Although we, as women, have been
trying our best with what we have in life, we do need some more help and great
sympathy from you-those who belong to the fraternal world.

SECTION 4: SAMPLE ESSAYS

from Previous Entrance Examinations for Candidates of M.A. in TESOL

Topic 1: How can you help your students enlarge their vocabulary?

Outline:

WAYS TO HELP STUDENTS ENLARGE THEIR VOCABULARY

I. INTRODUCTION:

- There exists necessity of helping students enlarge their vocabulary in foreign

language learning.

- Thesis statement. Teachers can offer assistance to students

their vocabulary learning and vocabulary expansion central

idea)in the following ways (the topic).

II. BODY:

Developmental paragraph 1

1.1. Topic sentence: Teachers can controlling idea) by

raising students' awareness of the importance of vocabulary learninq and

expansion ( the subtopic

1.2. Support:

- Not all students are aware of the importance of having a wide vocabulary in
English language learning; some may emphasize structures (grammar) over
words

- One needs words, not only grammar, to get ones message across; for
example, one c an produce a grammatically incorrect sentence but still can make
oneself understood.

- Students must realize the importance of knowing the vocabulary of the

language they are learning so that they can try to learn and enrich their
vocabulary.

Developmental paragraph 2

2.1. Topic sentence: Second,teachers can help students enrich their

vocabulary (thecontrolling ideby teaching words in context

(the subtopic 2).

2.2. Support:

- English words often have more than one meaning; the meaning of words is
decided by the context.

- Words should not be presented to students in isolation; they should be

presented in meaningful contexts.

- Students then can rely on the context as a clue to the intended meaning of the
word in question.

- Students can also remember the meaning of the word more easily if they learn
it in a clear context.

Developmental paragraph 3

3.1. Topic sentence: Moreover,teachers can promote students

vocabulary learning and expansion ( by teaching

words in relation to other words {the subtopic

3.2. Support:

- Teachers have to present words in a network established by such language

phenomena as sense relations, word formation and collocation, e.g. specific
words such as red, blu should be related to the generic term colour,words like
happy should be compared with

happily, happiness, unhappy, unhappi and words like

book should be extended to notebook, textbook and combinations like headache,

earache, should be identified

as opposed to illegitimate ones like eye ache or throat ache.

- Teachers can present vocabulary in categories of words depending on

topics, for example, happy can be taught alongside with other words referring to
human emotional states like glad, and

depressed.

- All this will increase the number of words students learn and acquire.
Developmental paragraph 4

4.1. Topic sentence: One more thing that teachers can do to help

students to widen their vocabulary ( th controlling is to train them

in dictionary using skills {the subtopic

4.2. Support:
- Dictionaries can serve as the best source of reference to students outside the
classroom; therefore, they should be trained in dictionary using skills.

- Teachers can first recommend a good English-English dictionary.

- Teachers can then design some activities to show students how to use the
dictionary they have recommended; in this way students can get used to the
symbols, abbreviations used in the dictionary and learn how to choose the most
appropriate meaning of a word from a range of meanings listed in the dictionary.

III. CONCLUSION:

- //7 conclusion,these are just a few ways (the restated topic)

in which teachers can help their students enlarge vocabulary

0 restated central idea).

- With the help and guidance from the teacher, students can first discover the
value of vocabulary learning and expansion in language learning and then
develop strategies to increase their vocabulary (final comments).

Essay:

Ways to Help Students Enlarge Their Vocabulary

It is a self-evident truth that a good command of a language requires a

knowledge of both its grammar and vocabulary as structural patterns serve as
building blocks that hold lexical items together. Therefore, in addition to
teaching grammatical rules, English teachers must help their students enlarge
their vocabulary. This win not come as a daunting task to language teachers if
they know that they can offer assistance to their students in their vocabulary
learning and vocabulary expansion in the

following ways.

Teachers can first help by raising students' awareness of the

importance of vocabulary learning and expansion. As can be seen, not all

students are fully conscious of the necessity of having a wide

vocabulary of English. Some students may emphasize the acquisition of linguistic

structures over that of vocabulary because the former, in their opinion, can help
them operate effectively in English. However, it is not difficult to find cases in
which it is words, not grammatical structures that help one get his message
across. For example, a speaker can still make himself understood even though
he produces a grammatically incorrect sentence like Yesterday I meet mine old
friend. Therefore, language teachers should give priority to making students
aware of the important role that vocabulary plays in language learning. Only
when students realise the significance of knowing the lexis of a language will
they make effort to learn words and increase their vocabulary.

Second,teachers can help students their vocabulary by

teaching words in context. The reasons for this technique are not difficult to
understand. For one thing, English words often have more than one meaning
and it is the context, the environment in which a word occurs with other words
that will decide which meaning of the word is intended. Lexical items should thus
not be presented to students i n isolation; they should be presented in clear and
meaningful contexts so that students can work out which sense of the word
concerned is used. For another thing, students will get into the habit of guessing
the meaning of new or unknown words from context, a badly needed skill for
their vocabulary expansion. It is because when they first encounter new
vocabulary items students will reiy on the context as a clue to their i ntended
meaning. In this way the meaning or use of the word will be retained longer in
their mind.

Moreover, teachers can promote students vocabulary

expansion by teaching words in relation to other words. It is highly

recommended that specific words such as yellow should be

related to the generic term colour, that words like happy should be compared
with happily, happiness, un and ,

that words like book should be extended to textbook and

handbook and that acceptable combinations like stomach-ache should be

identified as opposed to illegitimate ones like ache or throat ache. In other
words, teachers do not simply teach certain words as discrete lexical items;
teachers have to present words in a network established by such language
phenomena as sense relations, word formation and collocation. An additional
teaching tip is that teachers can present vocabulary in categories of words
depending on topics. Teachers can ask students to keep a notebook to record
words in different sections for different themes or topics so that they can
develop their vocabulary systematically. In this sense, students not only learn,
for example, a single word happy but several connected forms like

unhappily and unhappiness and other words referring to human emotional states
like glad, pleased, sad,and depreThis will certainly lead to a

massive increase in the number of words students learn and acquire.

One more thing that teachers ca do to help to widen

their vocabulary is +0 train them in dictionary using s.hlls. Naturally,

teachers can not provide students with all the word's they need. So

dictionaries will serve as their best source of reference outside class time. And
that is the reason why students should be given practice in using dictionaries.
Teachers can start by recommending a good bilingual dictionary such as an
Oxford or Cambridge or Longman learners dictionary. Certainly, a monolingual
dictionary has a role to play but an English - English dictionary would expose
learners more to the language. As learners dictionaries often define more
complex words by means of simpler words, students can get at the meaning
without switching back to their mother tongue. What is more, as easy and
familiar words are used to explain new words, the former are recycled, thus
facilitating students comprehension and acquisition of the latter. Then teachers
can spend some of their class time showing students how to use the dictionary
they have recommended. For example, they can set exercises in which students
have to look up some new words from their reading or listening texts. This will
force them to get to know the symbols and abbreviations used in the dictionary
and to choose the most appropriate meaning of the words from a range of
meanings listed in the dictionary.

//7 conclusion,these are just a few ways in which teachers can help

their students enlarge their vocabulary. It is hoped that with the help and
guidance from the teacher, students can first discover the value of vocabulary
learning and expansion in language learning and then develop strategies to
increase their vocabulary.

tf/tff' //l

Outline:

THE BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF GAMES ON LANGUAGE LEARNING

I. INTRODUCTION:

- Some misconceptions about the use of games in language teaching: a waste of

time, a time-filler.

- A thorough understanding of the merits of games will help.

- Thesis statement In fee/the use of games (the topic) proves to be Cl good idea
because of its following to

teaching and learning of foreign languages (

II. BODY:

Developmental paragraph 1

1.1. Topic sentence:

First gomes (the topic) can inc of student

and pa(

1.2. Support:

- Games are often played in pairs or teams, so they create good conditions for
pair work and group work to take place.

- As pair work and group work provide students with more opportunity to use
the language, games intended for groups of two or more than two students can
increase student talking time.

- Any increase in student talking time is significant because it contributes to

students language competence.

Developmental paragraph 2
2.1. Topic sentence:

Second,games (the topic) can and increase

(i the controlling idea),a vital factor to students* success in language

learning.

2.2. Support:

- Games are capable of involving students if they are entertainina. intriguing and
challenging.

- Moreover,nearly all learners enjoy playing games or want to have fun while
studying regardless of their age or level.

- To play games students have to learn to rely on themselves and cooperate

with their friends; it is through self-reliance, cooperation and joint learning that
students feel interested in the lesson.

- Interest is a main part of motivation, so it can be concluded that games can

provide motivation to students.

Developmental paragraph 3

3.1. Topic sentence:

Most importantly,games (the topic) practice any of

the four skills at any level of ability or in any stage of the teaching process

(the controlling idea).

3.2. Support:

- A great number of games have been designed for students at different levels,
from elementary to advanced.

- These games are intended for the practice of the four skills, namely reading,
speaking, listening and writing.

- Games can be used at any stage in language teaching and learning as warm-
up activities or activities aimed at accurate reproduction and controlled or free
practice.

- What is more important, games create meaningful contexts for language

practice: students have to read, listen, speak and write for a clear purpose.

III. CONCLUSION:

//7 conclusion,the analysis above shows that language games (the

restated topic) make significant contributions to students learning a foreign

language (the restated central idea).

Essay:

The Beneficial Effects of Games on Language Learning

Games have long been used in foreign language teaching but some teachers and
students may still view them with suspicion. They may think that games are just
a waste of time or just a means of filling in, for example, the last fifteen or ten
minutes of a class period. However, a

thorough understanding of the relative merits and uses of language games will
dispel such misconceptions. In fact, the use of games proves to be a

good idea because of its following major to the teaching

and learning of foreign languages.

First,games can increase the amount of student practice and

participation. As games are often played in pairs or teams they create favourable
conditions for pair work or group work to take place. Since these two forms of
student grouping provide students with more opportunity to use the language
(with students initiating their turns-at-talk instead of waiting for them to be
nominated by the teacher) it is right to say that games intended for groups of
two or more than two students can increase student talking time. As far as
second or foreign language acquisition is concerned, any increase in student
talking time, big or small, is significant because it will help develop students
language competence.

Second,games can generate and increase motivation, a vital factor to

students success in language learning. A common reason for the use of games
in language teaching is that they are an effective way to interest students.
Indeed, games are capable of involving students if they are entertaining,
intriguing and challenging. And nearly all learners enjoy playing games or want
to have fun while studying regardless of their age or level. T 0 p lay g ames s
tudents have 10 r ely 0 n t hemselves a nd c ooperate among themselves. It is
the principle of self-reliance, cooperation and joint

learning that awakes and maintains students interest in the lesson. As interest
is a main ingredient of motivation it can be concluded that games contribute
much to providing motivation to-students. And of course, once students are
highly motivated, they will likely study better.

Most importantly, games give m any of the four

skills at any level of ability or ill any stage of the process. It is true

that a library search will yield a great number of games that have been designed
for students at different levels from elementary to advanced. Moreover, these
games are intended for the practice of the four skills, namely reading, speaking,
listening and writing. In addition, games can be used at any stage in language
teaching and learning as warm-up activities or activities aimed at accurate
reproduction and controlled or free practice. Some well-known or commonly
used books of games are Games series compiled by Jill Hadfield for three
different levels: elementary, intermediate and advanced; Games and
Games, both by Charles and Jill Hadfield directed at intermediate to advanced
learners of English; Play Ga with English Heinemann series including games,
puzzles and quizzes for beginners and pre-intermediate learners. What is more
important, games create meaningful contexts for language practice. Initially,
students have to make sure that they understand the rules of the game. This
requires reading or listening comprehension of the instructions as set out in the
book or explained by the teacher. Subsequently, students have to discuss with
their friends to solve the problem presented' by the game. They have to use the
language

they are learning to express their opinions and to exchange ideas to reach their
goal. Most of the time, their communication is based on an information gap or
opinion gap, thus replicating real life communication. Games are therefore said
to provide meaningful practice as students have to read, listen, speak and write
for a clear purpose.

//7 conclusion, the analysis above shows that language games

significant contributions to students The

value of language games lies not onlv in the great number of games that have
been invented or in the variety of levels they serve but in the useful and
purposeful language practice they provide. That is why teachers should make
optimal use of games in their language teaching to increase students' work and
motivation and to offer them meaningful practice. Provided that teachers can
select or design and organize good games in terms of language and type of
participation, they will achieve these worthy aims.

Topic 3: Is it true that one who is good at English grammar can write

well in English?

Outline:

ACQUISITION OF GOOD WRITING SKILLS REQUIRES MORE THAN

MASTERY OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR

I. INTRODUCTION:

- The teaching and learning of writing has provoked much discussion about the
question of how to write well in English.

- Some people may think that a good knowledge of English grammar is

enough.

- Thesis statement As w_be ana belowthe acquisition of good writing skills

(the topic) requires just a good command

of the grammatical system of English but a wide lexical knowledge,

a thorough understanding of the topic given and a repertoire of organizational

skills (thecentral idea).

II. BODY:
Developmental paragraph 1

1.1. Topic sentence: Aparf frvrna good knowledge of English

grammar, one needs to demonstrate a broad lexical knowledge (

controlling idea) in a good piece of writing (the topic).

1.2. Support:

- Knowing English grammar is not enough; if one just knows grammar, he may
produce grammatically correct but semantically inappropriate sentences.

- A good writer must be able to manipulate structures and select words

- That is to sa,accuracy is just as important as vocabulary selection in effective

writing.

Developmental paragraph 2

2.1. Topic sentence: Next,one needs to rely on ones general and/or knowledge
to develop the topic given depth (the idea) to produce an original piece of
writing (the topic).

2.2. Support:

- Grammar helps to shape the form of a piece of writing and ideas decide the
content.

- The best way for the writer to achieve his purpose is to ensure that the content
of his paper is excellent.

- So the writer has to make the most of his knowledge: his general knowledge,
his knowledge of current affairs or his specialist knowledge to come up with
brilliant ideas that can attract and maintain readers attention; these areas of his
knowledge are by nature different from his knowledge of grammar.

Developmental paragraph 3

3.1. Topic sentence: //7 addition, one needs to know a number of generally

called organizational skills( the controlling idea) which are essential

for the production of a fine piece of writing (the top id).

3.2. Support:

- The production of a piece of writing requires a number of so-called

organizational skills like planning, paragraphing, drafting, editing, proofreading;
each has a role to play in the process of writing.

III. CONCLUSION:

In general,the mastery of the writing skill (the restated topic)

demands different areas of knowle as

knowledge and specialist knowledge and in

addition to that of grammar (the restated idea).

Essay:

Acquisition of Good Writing Skills Requires More than Mastery

of English Grammar

In the English language teaching writing is called a productive skill because it is

concerned with the production of the language. The teaching and learning of this
specific skill has provoked much discussion about the question of how to write
well in English. Some people may think that a good knowledge of English
grammar is sufficient to enable them to achieve a high level of competence in
written English. However, this is a s errev. cat

simplistic view. As willbe analyzed^ below,the acquisition of good

writing skills requires not just a good the

system of English but a wide lexical kn,a thorough understanding

of the topic given and a repertoire of organizational

Apart from a good knowledge of English grammar, one needs

demonstrate a broad lexical knowledge in a good piece of writing. There is an

element of truth in the fact that grammar rules help to generate sentences.
However, if the writer has no real understanding of the lexis of the English
language and just applies the grammatical rules mechanically, he will run the
risk of producing grammatically c orrect but semantically inappropriate or
anomalous sentences. To use the English language with clarity and precision, he
needs to know what words mean literally and figuratively, what words can
collocate and how words, though synonymous, are different from each other in
subtle ways. Therefore, the writers ability to manipulate structures and his word
choice are both needed for the appropriate use of 1 anguage. For example, while
one can write Sony, I can't make it in response to a friends invitation he must
formulate his refusal to a business partner more formally I

not be able to be there.In other words, structural accuracy is just as

important as vocabulary selection in effective writing.

Next one needs to rely on ones general and/or specialist knowledge to

develop the topic given in depth to produce an original piece of writing. If

one's mastery of English grammar can partly help shape the form of a piece of
writing, it is the ideas presented that decide the content. A good writer does not
write merely to reach the word limit (within the time limit); he must write to
achieve his purpose, whether to narrate a story, to describe someone or
something, to discuss a topic, to inform or to persuade the reader. The best way
for him to do this is to ensure that the content of his paper is excellent. He is
therefore expected to exploit whatever kind of knowledge he has acquired, be it
his general knowledge, his knowledge of current affairs or his specialist
knowledge to come up with brilliant ideas that can attract and maintain readers
attention. As the writer is not in direct contact with readers and cannot therefore
get direct feedback from them, he cannot afford to be vague. He has to
elaborate his ideas or explanations to get his message across, leaving no scope
for misunderstanding or interpretation of any type. This makes an enormous
demand on the writer indeed. So in his treatment of the subject assigned, the
writer has to draw on the above mentioned areas of his knowledge, which are by
nature different from his knowledge of English grammar, to search for
worthwhile ideas and arguments.

//7 addition,one needs to know of called

organizational skills which are essential for the production of Q fine

piece of writing. Viewed as a process, writing involves the following major skills.
The skill of much use during the first stage is that of planning. Before starting
off, the writer has to envisage how he would like: J about his writing
assignment. He has to take into consideration .. the

resources he has at his disposal (such as time, vocabulary, language structures,

his understanding of the topic) to make a detailed plan as to how to turn out the
end product: a letter, a story, a description, a report, an essay, a term paper,
etc. Next comes the skill of much importance here, the skill of paragraphing.
After a brainstorming session in the planning stage, the writer may have hit on
many ideas and now it is time for him to select and organize those that are
really relevant to the topic under discussion. The organization of ideas requires a
clear understanding of the discourse structure of the target language, which is
English in this case. Here the non-native writer is expected to go beyond the
realm of grammar to explore the realm of discourse. For example, he needs to
acquaint himself with a variety of genres or styles produced by native writers so
that he knows what is expected of him when he wr'tes in English. Besides, the
skill of structuring discourse is often coupled with the skill of using liking devices.
It is because ideas must not only vbe grouped together but also developed in
logical and coherent paragraphs. Then the skills of drafting, editing and
proofreading come into play. The writer has to work on his draft to revise his
ideas and check for spelling and punctuation. Only when all the necessary
changes have been made can the writer be sure that his end product is ready for
publication'.

In general, writing is not an easy skill to get even to native speakers

of English. As can be seen above, the mastery of the skill demands different
areas of knowledge suck as world knowledge and specialist knowledge and
organizational that

grammar. Thus a wide knowledge of English grammar is a necessary condition,

not the only necessary and sufficient condition for the acquisition of the writing
skill. A high level of written English can only be achieved when one puts huge
efforts in building up his knowledge of the areas mentioned above.

(Am (r

Topic 4: Should all errors made by foreign language learners be corrected

at any cost?

Outline:

OVERCORRECTION SHOULD BE AVOIDED AT ANY COST

I. INTRODUCTION:

- Error correction may be a difficult task to language teachers because it

requires decision-making about what, to correct.

- One approach to error correction insists that all errors made by learners should
be corrected at any cost.

- Thesis statement. However,a close examination will reveal that this

approach to error correction (the topic) will do more

harm than good ( the central idea).

II. BODY:

Developmental paragraph 1

1.1. Topic sentence: The first reason is that

teachers will undermine students confidence (

if they correct student mistakes the time (the

1.2. Support:

- Overcorrection will discourage students.

- While speaking, students will lose concentration and forget what they want to
say if they are interrupted to have their mistakes corrected.

- Students will feel a sense of failure or defeat when they see their piece of
written work covered with red corrections and comments from the teacher.

- So teachers over emphasis on accuracy at the expense of fluency or

comprehensibility has a demotivating effect on students.

Developmental paragraph 2

2.1. Topic sentence: The second reason is that overcorrection (the I

fails to focus students on genuine errors ( controlling

2.2. Support:

- Teachers may think that all incorrect forms produced by learners are
dangerous and need to be fixed but not all mistakes or errors need to be treated
in the same way.

- Errors or mistakes made by language learners fall into two categories:

unfortunate mistakes and genuine errors.
- Unfortunate mistakes result from mere confusion, from lapses of memory,
from slips of the tongue or the pen, etc; these can be tolerated because given
time and help or guidance from the teacher and friends, learners can remedy
these mistakes themselves.

- Genuine errors reflect students lack of knowledge about the target language;
these errors show language areas which are difficult to students and they should
be addressed immediately.

Developmental paragraph 3

3.1. Topic sentence: The last and also the most reason is that

teachers who are in favour of constant error correction ( topic) fail to realize that
mistakes are a part of

learning( the controlling idea).

3.2. Support:

- Unrealistic to expect student output to be faultless; even native speakers make

mistakes all the time.

- Teachers have to accept the fact that mistakes made by learners are
inevitable.

- Moreover, not all mistakes are regrettable and should be avoided; some are
evidence that learning is taking place; so mistakes are a natural part of learning.

III. CONCLUSION:

- //7 summary, error correction is an area in which teachers can offer

direct service to students. However do students a grave

disservice( the restated central instead if they insist on overcorrection (the

restated topic).

- Remedial work done by the teacher should highlight important mistakes to

encourage students to use the correct form; teachers should be sensitive enough
to leave some errors alone, especially those that are evidence of learning taking
place; such an attitude to errors on the part of the teacher will boost students
confidence and overcome their fear of making mistakes (a summary of major
points).

Essay:

Overcorrection Should Be Avoided at Any Cost

Error correction may prove to be a difficult task to language teachers because it

involves decision-making about what to correct, when to correct, how to correct
and how much to correct. Several approaches to correcting student errors have
been suggested. One of them holds that all errors made by learners should be
corrected at any cost. On the surface, this approach

seems to be of much benefit to students. a close examination will

reveal that this approach to error correction do students more harm than good.

The first reason is that teachers students if

they correct student mistakes all the time. It is not difficult to realize the
emovatng effect of thisovercorrection. Perhaps there

more disconcerting or intimidating to students than to be interrupted every time

they make a mistake in oral practice. Distracted and discouraged in this way,
they may forget what they intend to say or feel that they will never be able to
say anything right. The damage that over written correction does to students is
no less serious. Most students will feel a sense of failure or defeat when they see
their piece of written work covered with red corrections and comments from the
teacher. Only very few well-

motivated students will not lose heart in this case. Thus the teachers over
emphasis on accuracy at the expense of fluency or comprehensibility has a
detrimental effect on students indeed. It goes against the principle of language
teaching that part of the teachers job is to support and encourage students, not
to discourage or demotivate them.

The second reason is that overcorrection to focus on

genuine errors.Apparently, teachers who tend to overcorrect think that all

incorrect forms produced by learners are dangerous and need to be fixed.
However, their indiscriminate treatment of student errors may backfire because
students may not understand what is worth correcting. There are many kinds of
errors or mistakes and if all the errors or mistakes are picked up and dealt with,
students will assume that they are of equal importance. In reality, some of the
inaccuracies produced by learners are just unfortunate mistakes resulting from
mere confusion, from lapses of memory, from slips of the tongue or the pen, etc.
Given time and help or guidance from the teacher and friends, learners can
remedy these mistakes themselves. In contrast, genuine errors reflect students
lack of knowledge about the target language. For example, they do not know
what the correct form or word should be or they believe that what they are
saying or writing is correct. In other words, these errors are clear indications of
problem areas to students and as such they should be addressed immediately if
teachers do not want ihem to persist and hinder learning in the long run.

The last_and a/so the most important reason is that teachers who are in favour
of constant error correction to realize that are a

natural and important part of learning. If teachers insist o n putting right

anything incorrect in students oral and written communication, they will over
time reinforce the false belief that mistakes of any type are something to be
feared and should be avoided at any cost. However, in so doing, they ignore a
very basic fact that even native speakers, those who are supposed to have a
good, if not perfect, command of the language, make mistakes all the time. The
main reason is that communication, oral or written, is a complex activity. To
process the language people have to simultaneously make use of several
language systems such as syntax, lexis, phonology. They also need to draw on
their communicative competence to use the language appropriately. It is
understandable why any instance of using the target language is quite
challenging to learners. It is therefore quite unrealistic to ask learners speech or
written work to be faultless. So teachers have to be open to the fact that
mistakes made by learners are natural and inevitable. What is more important,
not all mistakes are regrettable and should be condemned; they have a role to
play too. As an expert in language teaching puts it, mistakes are sometimes
healthy proof that learning is taking place. It may sound strange but it is true.
A telling example can be found when students are adventurous enough to
experiment with the structure or the word or the sound they have just learned
instead of sticking to the safe old one. In this case the students' brave attempt
should be encouraged rather than thwarted.

//7 summary, error correction is an area in which teachers can offer direct
service to students. However,they will d0 their students a grave

disservice if they i nsist on 0 vercorrection. The i mplication for foreign language

teaching is that remedial work done by the teacher should highlight important
mistakes to encourage students to use the correct form

to improve their performance. Moreoveteachers should be sensitive

enough to tolerate some errors, especially those that are evidence of learning
taking place. Such an attitude to errors on the part of the teacher will have
positive effects on students the most important of which is to boost their
confidence and overcome their fear of making mistakes.

T/uf ){<<)

Topic 5: The goal of teachers who use the Communicative Approach is to have
students become communicatively competent. While this has been the stated
goal of many of the other methods, in the Communicative Approach the notion
of what it takes to be communicatively competent is much expanded. State the
reasons why you are for or against the above idea.

Outline:

THE NOTION OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE AS EXPANDED IN

THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

I. INTRODUCTION:

- The Communicative Approach appeared in the late 1960s and has gained

much popularity since then.

- Most of its value lies in its expansion of the notion of communicative

competence.

- Thesis statement The Communicative Approach expands the notion

of communicative competence (the topic) a way that no

other method is able to( the central idea).

II. BODY:
Developmental paragraph 1

1.1. Topic sentence: First,the Communicative Approach highlights the

fact that understanding language functions ( subtopic 1) is an important aspect (

the controlling idea) of communicative

competence (the topic).

1.2. Support:

- The Communicative Approach is not the first to put forward the idea of
teaching a second/foreign language for communication but the first to advocate
the learning of language functions to gain communicative competence.

- For example, Direct Method tries to establish a direct link between the target

language and meaning; the Audio-Lingual Method insists on mastery of

structural patterns; only the Communicative Approach emphasizes not only on
linguistic forms and meanings but also on functions.

- The Communicative Approach claims that students must understand language

functions because language is used for performing a variety of functions.

- Learners need to know that a function can be realized by different forms or

that a form can serve different functions; therefore they must choose the most
appropriate form to fulfil the function intended.

Developmental paragraph 2

2.1. Topic sentence: The Communicative Approach emphasizes that

the ability to use language appropriately ( subtopic 2) is

another essential aspect ( the con idea) of communicative

competence (the topic).

2.2. Support:

- Grammatical competence and lexical knowledge are not enough to enable

students to use language appropriately.

- Some variables that decide the appropriateness of language use: purpose of

interaction, role relationships between conversational participants, topic and the
shared knowledge between them.

- To use language appropriately, language users have to consider the social

situation they are in: who thev are talking to, what they are talking about,
when, where, and why they are talking.

Developmental paragraph 3

3.1. Topic sentence: The Communicative Approach also points out that

the ability to develop strategies that can ensure effective

communication he subtopic 3) is indispensable part controlling idea) of
communicative competence (the topic).

3.2. Support:

- The Communicative Approach places special emphasis on the process of

negotiating meaning.

- To be successful, communicators have to employ different strategies to make

themselves understood as well as to understand their interlocutors.

- A wide range of communicative strategies: initiating and maintaining

communication, sharing and clarifying information, repairing, redirecting and
terminating communication.

III. CONCLUSION:

- The concept of communicative competence (the restated topic)

as defined by the Communicative Approach is very broad (the restated central

idea).

- It embraces three fundamental dimensions: the to use

linguistic means to realize a variety functions, the

to use language appropriately with due consideration of the social context in

which communication takes place and the to

develop strategies to manage the negotiation of meaning ( rest a ted sub

topics).

Essay:

The Notion of Communicative Competence as Expanded in the

Communicative Approach

In the English language teaching methods come and go but few can establish
themselves firmly in the field. The Communicative Approach is one of those few
exceptions. It has gained much popularity since its advent in the late 1960s.
Most of the value of this approach lies in the fact that it

expands the notion of communicative competence such a way that no other

method is able to.

First,the Communicative Approach highlights the fact that understanding

language functions is an important aspect communicative competence.

This can be clearly seen in the following comparison. The Direct Method, the
Audio-Lingual Method and the Communicative Approach are similar in that they
all aim at teaching language for communication. However, each of them has its
own way to achieve its goal. While the Direct Method tries to establish a direct
link between the target language and meaning by immersing students in a rich
sample of the structural and lexical items being taught and the Audio-Lingual
Method insists on mastery of structural patterns through imitation and
repetition, the Communicative Approach stands out with its emphasis not only
on linguistic forms and meaning but also on functions. It claims that as language
is used for performing a variety of functions such as apologizing,requesting, an
understanding of language functions is really necessary. Learners need to enow
that a function can be realized by different forms or that a form can serve
different functions. What is important, learners must draw on this knowledge to
choose the most appropriate form to fulfil the function ntended. So, though the
Communicative Approach is not the first to put forward the idea of teaching a
second/foreign language for communication, t is definitely the first to advocate
the learning of language functions to Jain communicative competence.

The Communicative Approach emphasizes that the ability to use language

appropriately is another essential aspect of communicative

competence. The principle applied here is that grammatical competence and

lexical knowledge are not enough to enable students to operate efficiently in the
target language. They must be able to use the language appropriate to the
speech event they find themselves in. Some variables that decide the
appropriateness of their language use are the purpose of their interaction, the
role relationships between them, the topic they are engaged in and the shared
knowledge they have. In other words, by considering who they are talking to,
what they are talking about, when, where, and why they are talking, speakers
know what words to use. And of course, the ability to use language appropriately
helps to distinguish skilled communicators from unskilled ones.

The Communicative Approach points out that the ability to

develop strategies that can ensure effective communication is indispensable part

of communicative competence. As the

Communicative Approach views language as a vehicle for communication the

process of negotiating meaning receives much attention. Engaged in oral
communication, speakers not only have to make themselves understood but also
have to interpret the listener's intention correctly. To do this they need to
employ a number of strategies to make sure that communication can take place
smoothly. These strategies cover a wide range, from initiating and maintaining
communication, sharing and clarifying information to repairing, redirecting and
terminating

communication. Obviously, successful communicators must be able to devise

strategies that suit them as well as the social context they are involved in.

It can be concluded that the concept of communicative competence as defined

by the Communicative Approach is broad indeed. It embraces three fundamental
dimensions: the ability to use linguistic means to realize a variety of language
functions, the ability to use language appropriately with due consideration of the
social context in which communication takes place and the ability to develop
strategies to manage the negotiation of meaning. This specification of
communicative competence is the hallmark of the Communicative Approach
because it cannot be found in the theoretical framework of any other method of
or approach to language teaching.

(fut -'Jhi yf )(<<)I)(/

Topic 6: The advantages and disadvantages in teaching English to adult

learners in the current situation in Vietnam

Outline:

THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES IN TEACHING ENGLISH

TO ADULT LEARNERS IN THE CURRENT SITUATION IN VIETNAM

I. INTRODUCTION:

- The demand for English language learning in Vietnam is great.

- Adult learners of English form a special group.

- Thesis statement. Due to some of their characteristics the teaching of English

to adult I earners (the topic) lias some advantages and disadvantages as follows
(thecentral

II. BODY:'

Developmental paragraph 1

1.1. Topic sentence: The first advantage(the controlling idea) is that

adult learners have some degree of extrinsic motivation

(the subtopic

1.2. Support:

- Adult learners study English because they want to or they need to.

- They all have some sort of extrinsic motivation.

- They are easier to teach when they bring some motivation to the classroom.

Developmental paragraph 2 1

2.1. Topic sentence: The second advantage controlling idea) is that adult
students can transfer those study and learning strategies they have acquired.
their first language to their study of English (the subtopic

2.2. Support:

- Adult learners have gained some basic skills and higher-order skills in their
mother tongue like reading, summarizing, describing, analyzing, synthesizing,
hypothesizing, speculating, etc.

- They also have some strategies for learning.

- Now they can transfer these skills and strategies to their study of English.
Developmental paragraph 3
3.1. Topic sentence: One more advantage controlling idea) is that

adult learners can make use of whatever kind of knowledge they have
accumulated in their own language (the subtopic '3.2. Support:

- Adult learners have extensive experience of using a language, which is their

mother tongue so they can remember the new language system better by
making use of what they know about their own language.

- Adult students also have life experience, world knowledge and specialist
knowledge; this knowledge can help them a lot when they have to read about or
discuss complex or controversial topics in English.

Developmental paragraph 4

4.1. Topic sentence: The first disadvantage controlling idea) is that

English learning makes a strong demand on adult learners terms of time {the
subtopic 4).

4.2. Support:

- Difficult for adult students to make time for study: they have commitments in
life; they have to study after work.

- Therefore they cannot spend as much time as they should to study.

Developmental paragraph 5

5.1. Topic sentence: Anotherfactor that can interfere with or even impede adult
students learning English {the controlling idea) is their fear of failure and
frustration with lack of progress {the subtopic

5.2. Support:

- Some adult learners are successful people at their work place; they are afraid
of failure in studying English.

- They may not give themselves enough time to achieve their goals or they may
set themselves unrealistic goals.

- Adult intermediate and advanced students, those who already know a lot, may
feel that they do not make any progress.

Developmental paragraph 6

6.1. Topic sentence: [n_ addition,the lack of well-qualified teachers

and the poor physical conditions of the classrooms at some English language
centres {the subtopic 6) can be damaging to student the controlling idea).

6.2. Support:

- At some schools and centres teachers are untrained or inexperienced,

delivering boring or uninteresting lessons, the physical conditions and resources
for learning are just basic or poor.

- As a result.; student expectations are not satisfied.

III. CONCLUSION:

- //7 genera! this analysis of the current teaching context for aduk learners of
English in Vietnam in general and of the characteristics: f the group of learners
in particular shows the advantages

disadvantages( the restated central that adult students have

in their English study (the restated topic).

- Both teachers and students need to find ways to maximize the advantages and
minimize the disadvantages (final comments)

Essay:

The Advantages and Disadvantages in Teaching English to Adult Learners

in the Current Situation in Vietnam

A brief look at the current English language teaching and learning context in
Vietnam will show that the demand for English learning is very great. This is
clearly seen in the multitude of institutions and centres that offer English courses
as well as in the great number of learners who go to English classes. Among
these learners adult learners form a big special

group. Due to some of their characteristics the teaching of English to

this group of adult I earners has some advantages and disadvantages

as follows.

The first advantage is that adult I have some degree of

extrinsic motivation. They may study English for a variety of reasons but they all
do so because they want to or need to. For some students, the motivation may
be in the form of integrative motivation because they wish to integrate
themselves into the culture of an English-speaking country like Britain, America,
Canada or Australia. For others, the motivation is instrumental in the sense that
the mastery of the English language is seen as an instrument that can bring
them a better job or position. When these

adult students go to class with some motivation they are easier to teach than
those who bring no motivation to the classroom.

The second advantage is that adult students can transfer those

study skills and learning strategies they have acquired in their first language to
their study of English. Unlike children and adolescents, adults are autonomous in
someway. They have finished their studies or have undertaken at least some in
their own language, so they must have gained some basic skills like reading,
summarizing, identifying and applying formulae and information and such critical
thinking skills as analyzing, synthesizing, hypothesizing, speculating, etc.
Moreover, they may also have some well-established strategies for learning.
Therefore, the English language teacher can make his job easier by creating
conditions for adult s tudents t o reactivate t hese s tudy s kills a nd 1 earning s
trategies a nd apply them to their study of a new language.

One more advantage is that adult learners can make use of

whatever kind of knowledge they have accumulated in their own language. Again
this advantage cannot be seen in other groups of learners like children 'and
adolescents. First, adult learners have extensive experience 0 f u sing a 1
anguage, w hich i s t hei: m other t ongue. N ow t hat they start learning
English, they can remember the new language system better by making use of
what they know about their own language. It is not uncommon to see learners
comparing and contrasting their first lansucce with the foreign language they are
learning to find out areas in which the

two languages are different or similar so that they can learn the new language
more quickly. Second, adult students life experience, world knowledge and
specialist knowledge can contribute much to their learning a foreign language. It
can help them a lot when they have to read about or discuss complex or
controversial topics in English. So the English teacher can engage adult learners
more easily if he knows how to tap the knowledge they have gained over time.

On the contrary, there are some disadvantages to the teaching of English to

adult students as well. Th is that English

learning makes a strong demand on adult I in terms of time.

As a matter of fact, it is really difficult for adult students to make time to learn
English. As most institutions and centres teach English in the evening adult
students have to study after work. Three one-hour-and-a-half sessions or three
three-hour sessions a week seem not to add up to a lot of time but not all adult
students can manage to set aside that much time for study purposes. The simple
reason is that they a 11 have their own lives to live outside the classroom or
they all have other commitments in life than learning English. As a result, some
students fail to invest as much time and effort in learning as they should. Of
course, teachers will have difficulty in monitoring the performance and progress
of those students who cannot attend class regularly.

Another factor that can interfere with or students

learning English is their fear of failure and frustration with lack of

progress. As can be seen, some adult students are very successful professionals
or have a high status at their work place. And now, at school they are just
normal students coping with tasks, assignments, examinations, etc. As they
have been successful in their career, they do not want to fail to achieve t heir d
esired g oal o f m astering E nglish. They may t herefore p ut themselves under
unnecessary stress if they do not give themselves enough time to achieve their
goals or if they set themselves unrealistic goals. Other students may be hard on
themselves in a different way. For example, adult intermediate and advanced
students, those who already know a lot, may find progress difficult to perceive.
In this case, the teacher has more work to do: they must help these students
get the level of challenge right or view success in a broader sense.
//7 addition,the lack of well-qualified teachers and the poor

physical conditions of the classrooms at some English language schools and

centres can be damaging to student Currently, in

Vietnam a great number of institutions and centres provide English courses and
they range from universities and their satellite centres, joint-venture centres,
privately-owned centres to privately-run home-based classes. Such proliferation
of schools and centres is useful in the sense that it offers students a wide variety
of programs to choose from. However, because of a lack 0 f q uality c ontrol, t
he r eality o f s ome s chools and centres may fall short of student expectations.
Some teachers are untrained or inexperienced, delivering boring or uninteresting
lessons; the physical classroom conditions and resources for learning, are just
basic. All:h:s

cannot of course supply students in general and adult students in particular with
any intrinsic motivation, a crucial factor for successful language learning.

In general.this analysis of the current teaching context for adult

learners of English in Vietnam in general and of the characteristics of this group

of learners in particular partly reflects the increasing need for English language
learning and mainly shows and

disadvantages that adult students have in their English study. Both teachers and
students need to be aware of these findings of the analysis so that they can find
ways to maximize the advantages and minimize the disadvantages. Only in this
way can teachers deliver quality English language programs for students to
benefit from.

('/ill 7

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