AERODYNAMICS OF TURBINES
by
Dr. William E. Thompson
Vice President
Turbo Research, Inc.
West Chester, Pennsylvania
Willia m E . Th o mpso n is t he Vice
Preside n t of Turbo Research Inc .
He i s res ponsible f o r all activities i n
th e a rea o f fluid mecha n ics including
turbo mach inery aerod yn a mic per
for mance. He h a s also worked for
Drexel Institute of Techn olog y as a n
associa te professor o f mechan ical en
gin eering, and a t Cornell A erona uti
cal Laboratories as a principa l m e
c ha n ical e ngineer.
He received a B .S. degree in mec han ical engin eerin g
from Carnegie Institute of Techn olog y i n 1967, a M .S.
degree in mecha n ical engineering fro m Un iversity of
Michigan in 1949, and a Ph .D. degree in mechanical
engineering fro m Illin o is Institute o f Techn ology in 1958.
He is a membe r of several professional socie ties .
He is a lso a registered professional engineer in t he s tate
of New York, and h as several pub lications in t he a rea
of compresso rs and turbines .
A BSTRACT
The transform a t i o n between w o rk and other forms
o f energy i s accomplished i n turbomach i nery. The abil
ity o f a turbine t o produce w o rk when h a n dl i n g a c om
pressible f l u i d and when taking either i ts axial or r a d i a l
c o n fi g u r a t i o n i s presented for the u s e r o f the equ i pm e n t
r ather t h a n the designer o r research worker.
The basic conservation principles o f m ass, l i n e a r
m om e n t u m, energy, and angular momen t u m i n thei r
steady, o n e-dimens i o n a l form a r e s u m m a r ized; t h e f i g
u res of m e r it o f t urb;ne stage perfor m a n c e i n c l u d i n g
efficiency, reaction and reh e a t a re defined a n d i nfer
related. Correl a t i o n of l osses w i th perfor m a n c e p a r a m e
ters i s presented f i r s t f o r the O\'er-all s t age. Then the
S o derberg c o r relation i s provided for h a n d l i n g t h e axia l
s tage, c o m p o n e n t b y c omponent , a n d t h e Bens o n c o r re
l a t i o n is i ntroduced for use with a r a d i a l s t age. A n
e x a m p l e l i s ts a l l o f the p arameters a n d flo w c o n d i t i o n s
w hi c h c a n b e predicted for a prospective d e s i g n o r evalu
ated f o r a n e x i s ti n g u n i t of h a r d w a re.
INTRODUCTION
Turbomachinery is commonly used to b r i n g a b o ut
t h e transformation b e t ween work a n d o t h e r f o r m s o f
energy i n c l u d i n g i nternal, potential, a n d k i netic energy,
a n d t o a much lesser e xtent, h e a t. As a transformer o f
energy, t u r b o m ac h i n er y plays a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n i n
d u s t r i al p rocesses a n d s y stems. I t i s t o the d es ign e r a n d
operator o f s u c h s y s tems, w h o m u s t be a b l e t o set realis
t i c specifi c a t i o n s a n d v e r i fy achievable perfo r m a n c e, t h a t
t h i s p a p e r i s d irected.
90
The appa r atus i n w hich the transformation from
w o rk t o the o ther energy forms takes place i s called a
p u m p w h en handling i n c o m p ressible fluids a n d a c o m
presso r when h andlin g c o m p ressible flu i d s. C o nversely,
the t r a n s formation o f the v a r i o u s energy forms i n t o w o rk
occurs i n a turbine regardless o f the c o mpress i b i l i t y o r
i n c o mpressibility o f t h e w or k i n g fluid. W e shall b e
concerned only with t u r b i n e s h a n d l i n g compressible
flu i d s in this paper.
The production of w o r k b y a t u r b i n e depend s u p o n
i ts a b i l i t y t o f i r s t p r o d u c e t h e n reduce the a n g u l a r m o
ment u m o f the working f l u i d. Where a large mass flow
i s h a ndled b y the t u r b i n e, the a n g u l a r m o m e n t u m c h a n ge
can be c a r ried o u t a t essen t i a l l y a c o n s t a n t r a d i a l posi
lion from the rotor a x i s o f r o t a t i o n; s u c h a c o nfigura
tion is a n axial turbine. However, where only a small
mass flo w i s avail a b l e t o t h e t u r b i n e, a r ed u c t i o n i n b o t h
tangent i a l veloci t y componen t a n d r a d i a l posi t i o n o f t h e
flu id i s n ecessary t o realize the greatest p o s s i b l e a n g u l a r
momen t u m change; the r es u l t i n g c o n figu r a t i o n i s a n
i n w ard r a d i a l flow t u r b i n e. A f t e r c o n s i d e r i n g the con
cepts which are applicable i n general t o b o th turbine
t yp es, w e shall develop t h e l o s s c o r rela t i o n s i n parallel
for t h e axia l a n d radial t u r b i n e.
S i n c e every effor t h a s been m a d e t o m ake the paper
self-co n t a i n ed, the s u bject h a s been c i r c u m sc r ibed. An
accou n t o f the perfor m a n c e, design methods a n d p r oce
d u res, research efforts a n d u nsolved p r oblems w o u l d
comprise a m o nograph o r b o ok o n e a c h t u r b i n e t ype.
As a c o ns i s tent c o n t i n u a t i o n of the w o rk on axi a l t u r
b i n es, t h e book by Horlock 1 i s recommended t o the read
er. No c omparable book exis t s o n the radial t u r b i n e
b u t t h e m o nograph b y M i z u m achi:! i s s uggested.
DESCRIBING EQUATIONS
We begin w i th t h e desc r i b i n g e q u a t i o n s. The p r i n
ciples o f t h e conservation o f mass, l i n e a r a n d a n g u l a r
momentum, and energy d e s c r i b e the flu i d flo w phe
nomena i n turbomac hi n e c o mp o n e n ts. The f o rm u l a t i o n s
of t h e s e p r i n ciples a re o f t e n m i sleadi n gl y c a l l e d the gov
erni n g equations even t h o u gh, o f c o urse, they exert n o
i n fluence o n the fluid d y n a m i c events.
A general v i e w w i t h n omenCl a t u r e of a n element o f
a turbomachine passage i s s h o w n i n F i g u r e l. A c o m
plete l i s t o f the n om en c l a t u r e u sed i n t h e paper appears
in sec t i o n I. In Figure l, the passage is o r i en ted w i th
respect t o a cylindrical c o o r d i nate system ( r , {), z I. The
u n it vector i n the r-di rection i s i , r o t a ti n g i 90 in the
positive fJ-d irec t i o n locates j. Perpendic u l a r t o t h e p l a n e
formed b y i and j i s the u n i t v ec t o r k i n t h e z-d i rectio n ,
sh o w n p o s i t i v e i n the figu re. R o t a t i o n o f the t u r b o m a
c h i n e r o t o r t akes place a b o u t t h e z-axis a n d i s c o n s idered
positive in the sense o f p o s i t i v e fJ. A flu i d particle p
 A E R ODY N A M I C S OF T U R B I N E S
Shrolld .Surfou
Mt!ridian Plan
Blade - fa - 8/ode Plane
L Rofofton at Anf!ular vtocify, JZ
Figure 1. Flow A long a Surface of Revolution in a
Turbomachine.
located a t a radius R b y the radius v ec t o r r from the
o rigin moves w i th the velocity c. The components of
the velocity i n the th ree coordinate d i rectio n s a r e u , v, w ,
respectively. H o w ev er, t h e s e velocity componen t s are
usually replaced b y a m o re conven ien t group i n t h e t u r
b o m ac h i n er y c o n t ext. The tangen tial o r blade-to-blade
component o f c i s d e n o ted c , a n d the meri d i o n al c om
p o n en t o f c, w h i ch i s the resul t a n t o f u a n d w, i s d e n oted
Cm Then u i s used t o denote the rotor tangent i a l veloci t y
a t the poin t i n question ( u =I= c,l a n d w i n d icates t h e
p a r ticle veloci t y relative t o a coord i n a te system r o t a t i n g
w i th t h e angular v e l o c i t y o f the r otor. F i n a l l y , n i s a
u n i t vector positive i n the sense of being o u t ward d r a w n
from t h e s u r face t o w h i ch i t i s perpend i c ular. Thus, a t
the i n l e t station ( 11, n 1 i s parallel t o c 1 b u t o f opposite
sense while a t ( 2 I, n , a n d c , are parallel a n d o f the same
sense.
The form u l a t i o n of the conservat i o n of mass princi
p l e i s summarized i n Table la. We d o not look at d is
crete particles b u t rather at a c o n t i n u u m o f p a r ticles
Table la . Conservation of Mass Principle (Con tinuity
E quation ).
91
c o m p ri s i n g the system m o v i n g t h r o u gh the t u r b o m ac hi n e
passage. T h e mass of t h e s ystem i s d efi:',.fl b y eq. ( l).
The c o nservation of mass o f t h a t s y stem i s expressed
b y eq. ( 2 I. The c o n d i t i o n s o f the s y st e m m o v i n g
through t h e passage are t h e n related t o c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e
f l o w as observed from a fixed p o s i t i o n b y m e a n s o f
Reynolds T r anspor t Theorem. Appli c a t i o n o f t h i s theo
rem results in eq. (31 which i s a u seful, i ntegral for m u
l a t i o n o f t h e principle. T h e p r i n c i pl e i n t h e f o r m o f a
d i fferent i a l equ a t i o n appears i n eq. ( 41 w he r e a n a p
p r o p r i a t e form of Green's Theorem r el a t i n g area a n d
v o l u m e i ntegrals w a s u se d t o first m o d i fy e q . ( 3 I . The
simplification to steady, o n e-dimensi o n a l f l o w i s most
important t o our prese n t i nterests. F o r steady flow,
c h a nges w i th respect t o time d o n o t occ u r ( i J ut = 0 I ;
for o n e-d i mensional flow, c h a n ges i n f l o w c o n d i t i o n s
occur o n l y i n t h e d i re c t i o n o f flow. The second i n tegra l
i n eq. ( 3 I c a n then b e evalu ated w i th t h e resul t s h o w n
i n e q . ( 5). T h e useful forms, e q . (31, 141 a n d (51 a r e
e a c h o f t e n called the c o n t i n u i t y equation.
The reader m u s t realize t h a t the equ a t i o n s i n Table
l a do n o t constitute a d e r i v a t i o n of eq. ( 5 I but they are
a r em i n d e r o f the i m p o r t a n t ideas beh i n d t h e existence
o f eq. ( 5). A more c omplete exp l a n a t i o n a n d d e r i v a t i o n
c a n b e f o u n d in the basic referenc e b ooks b y Shapi ro\
Daily a n d Harleman\ Owczarek\ and T h o mpson11 The
commen t s apply equally t o the other p a r t s of Table l.
A s u m m a ry o f the p r i n c i pl e of c o n se r v a t i o n o f
linear m omentum appears i n Table lb. After defi n i n g
the m o m e n t u m of the s y s tem i n e q . ( 61, w e s e e th a t i t
can b e c h a n ged b y the application o f b o d y a n d s u r face
forces. Th e principle is expressed in eq. ( 7 I a n d is jus t
Newt on's second law o f m o t i on. The i n teg ral form f o r
fixed c o o r d i na tes i s g i v e n i n e q . ( 8 I w h ere an i m p o r tant
simplification has been i n trod uced. S urface forces a rise
from the application o f s tress t o the s u rface. S u c h s tress
i s, in general, both n o rm a l (pressu re I and tan gen t i a l
( shear) t o the surface. H e r e the s h e a r s tress i s o mi t te d
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
f"" Dllt'dimniot7o/, .:stNqy rofafiona/ fl"' aiM! stJmliM,
ar /rrofafiMol f!tJif H.roofhDUf f,'elt/ ..
I c7z r j !J + j on.sft1t1f (to)
1 'lt .. h " = h. 1 (If)
T able lb . Conservation of Linear Momen tum Principle
(E quations of Motion ).
92 P R OC E E D I N G S OF T H E F I R S T T U RB O M A C H I N E R Y S Y MP O S I U M

as a consequence o f assu m i n g n egligible viscosity o f the

(;e)
working f l u i d, a n d o n l y a s u rface force due to the pres
s u r e appears i n eq. I 8 I . Nonetheless, viscosity i s a t the
basis o f the existence o f losses in turbomachine p assages.
We s h a l l r ei n troduce t h i s effect a t a l a ter p o i n t i n this
paper b y using loss coeffic i ents which m o d i fy the results
o f i n v i sc i d flow calculatio n s. The d ifferential form of
the equations o f m o ti o n i s given by eq. I 9 ) a n d i s often
c a lled E ul er's equation. Once aga i n applyi n g the c o n d i
t i o n s o f steady, o n e-d i mensio n a l flow, i n tegration o f eq.
I 8 I res u l ts i n Berno u ll i's equ a t i on , eq. no I. It is v a l i d
for b o t h r o t a t i o n a l f l o w a l o n g a streamli n e a n d i rrota (21)
t i o n a! flow throughout t h e flow field. If o n e assumes
isentropic flow ( ds = 0 I, the i ntegral i n eq. ( 1 0 ) be
comes the enthalpy and the Ber n o u l l i constant is s y n o n y

/;!ex<.) i)r;; c)da Jjr;,n.k)rn;>c) aa}

m o u s w i th the stagn atio n en thalpy.
The c o n servatio n o f energy principle i s outlined in =
+

Table 1 c, where the energy o f t h e system i s defined by /, A2

eq. ( 1 2}. The p r i n c i ple is w ell k n own as the first law wi#t (i'xZ)k R and jRdn 'I'' )<Ia I'< II if;.
.; R;.

o f thermodynamics where t h e c h a n ge o f energy o f the A

system i s the n e t effect o f the h e a t and work transfers,
eq. ( 13 I . Referred to a fixed observer, w e have eq.
( 1 4a} and after a considerable c a lc ulation, this becomes
eq. I 1 4b}. It i s then conven ient t o group a l l the volume
i ntegrals a n d write the d i fferent i a l form eq. ( 1 51. Now
ass u m i n g no h e a t o r work t r a nsfer together w i t h steady ,
one-d i m e n s i o n a l flow, w e o b t a i n t h e s i m p l i fi ed d ifferen
tial form eq. ( 1 6} whi c h is i nterpreted t o b e the p ro du c t
of the m a gn i tu d e o f the velocity a n d t h e d i rec t i o n a l
derivative o f t h e Berno u l l i c o n s t a n t i n the d i rection o f 1.,.
mceh
. h..
- - 1101 12 (, r; - R;';,) I
_
(13)
the f l o w . S i n ce the v e l o c i t y i s n o t zero, the change o f
A A
t h e Berno u lli constant a l o n g a streamli n e m u s t b e zero. for a furbine, "i > - hen< h., > h0z
Integr a t i n g eq. ( 1 6 } , w e c a n o n l y conclude t h a t the stag A A
nation enthalpy i s constant along a streamline, eq. ( 17). -'<;"i < :, h"'" h0: >h.,

Table ld. Conservation o f A ngular Momentum Princi

ple (Moment of Momentum ).
(it)

The form o f eqs. ( 1 4} and (15 } w a s developed w i th

(fW/St) .._ (!) a v i e w to y i el d i n g eq. ( 1 7 I . The reader is advised t h a t
r"'
m a n y f o r m s o f t h e energy e q u a t i o n a r e devel o p a ble f o r
o th e r p u r p oses a s i s e v i d e n t i n the b o o k s referred t o
{/411) a b ov e. O u r p u r p ose i n o b t a i n i n g e q . ( 1 7} w a s t w o fold.
Unde r the assum p t i o n s ident i fied above, the energy e q u a
t i o n a n d Ber n o u l l i's equ a t i o n o f m o t i on are n o t i n d e
pendent a n d u n i q u e results, b u t rather o n e a n d the s a m e
t h i n g. On the other h a n d , as p o i nted o u t i n the i nt r o
(U6) d u c t i o n , i t i s the p urpose o f turbomachi n e r y t o effect t h e
transformation betwee n w o r k and other f o r m s o f energy.
T h u s in a rotor passage o r in a turbomachine stage w h i c h
(!5)
i n c l u d es a r o t o r passage, t h e w o r k t e r m will n o t b e z e r o ,
the consequenc e o f w hi c h i s t o cha n ge the v a l u e o f the
for one- dl'wi-n:sionaf, sf.ttadf /lao> o>-ifh no heaf or work fran!/ Bern ou l l i constant o f the flow UJX>n p assage thro u gh the
r o t o r.
- z S'h, (I The l a s t o f the c o n servation p r i n c i p les i s c o n cerned
w i th a n gu l a r momentum ( moment o f m o m e n t u m) and
i s s u m m a rized in Table 1 d. The a n g u l a r m o m en t u m of
(t7) t h e system, eq. ( 1 8) i s just the m omen t o f the l i n e a r
m o m e n t u m o f t h e system, e q . ( 6 } . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e
talid alt>t1j a .sfrttall'llin; h. i:s sfagntthOn ttnfha/p.f m oments o f the body a n d s urface f o rces, w e a dm i t t h e
possib i l i ty o f mecha n i c a l m oments o r t o r q u es , a s a r e
Table lc. Conservation o f Energy Principle (First Law e n c o u ntered i n t u r b o m a c h i n e applic a t i o n s, h a v i n g a n e f
o f T hermo dynamics). fec t o n o r b e i n g a f fected b y the a ngular m o m en t u m
 AERODY N A M I C S OF TU R B I N E S 93

change o f the system, eq. ( 1 9 ) . To a fixed observer, 4

the r es u l t is eq. ( 20 ) . 3 2

Up t o this poin t w e h a v e attempted t o p r esent the

summaries in the parts o f Table 1 w i th a certain sym
metry. I t i s not possible t o carry that idea any further
in the p resent example. The angular momentum princi
p l e i s u s u a l l y u sed for o n e o f t w o p u rp oses. Had the
full stress tensor been i n c l u ded in the linear momentum
equ a t i on , the conserv a t i o n o f angular mometum could
have been used to s h o w t h a t that ten s o r must be sym
metric, a res u l t which has c o nsequences in t h e study o f
viscosity a n d t h e constit u t i ve equations o f t h e w o rki ng
f lu ids. Such considerat i o n s are outside the scope of the
p resent paper. Of more immediate i m p o rtance i s the use
o f the angular momentum equation t o c o m p u te the torque
o r mecha n i c a l work transfer o f a turbomac hi n e in which
the angular m o mentum o f the flowi n g fluid i s changed.
__ ....
..
Axis of Rofafion
In eq. ( 20 ) , the res u l t a n t m o m e n t of the b o d y force,
the s urface force a n d the mecha n i c a l torques i s a vector
quantity w i th components actin g abou t the three co _ o rdi
Figure 2b . A xial Turbin e S tage Configuration .
uate a xes. The components a b o u t the axes in the i and
j directions are simply equ i l i br ated b y the bearin gs of a
turbomac hi n e rotor. The m oment a b o u t the z-ax i s, the Where R va ries over the cross-sec ti on, as a t both t h e
axis of rotation of the r o t o r, i s capable o f producing a inlet and e x i t o f an axi a l t u rb i n e rotor, a root-mean
w or k transfer across the b o u n d ar i es o f the machin e. The square value o f R i s o ften used but n o generally accepted
remainder o f Table 1d i s devoted t o calc u l a t i n g th is custom seems to exist. Aga i n if R i s the constan t t i p
torque a n d the mechanical w or k transfer which res u l ts . radi us t h e n flR = u a n d flRc11 = uc". Remember, h o w
ever, th a t o n ly a spec i a l average leads t o t h i s attractive
T h e componen t o f the moment a b o u t the z-axis i s
resul t .
w r itten i n general i n e q . ( 2 1 I . A fter appl y i ng the sim
p l i ficatio n s o f steady, o n e-d imensional flow, eq. ( 22 ) is The mech a n i c a l energy o r work t e r m for the e n e r g y
easily obtained and is known as Euler's T ur bine Formula. equ a t i o n m a y be calculated b y d i viding the produ c t o f
The circumflex over the product "flv denotes a "sui table" the torque a n d the a n g u l a r velocity b y the m a s s f l o w
average. Consistent w i th the one-dimensional calcula rate. S u bs ti t u t i n g t h i s resul t i n the energy equation for
t i o n s i n c o n n ection w i th the previous conserva t i o n equa adiabatic flow I n o h e a t transfer) results i n eq. ( 23 ) ,
l ions, v (or c 11) i s considered constant over the c ross which together with t h e momen tum equation eq. ( l l)
section. Where R is also constan t a s at the d i scharge and the c o n t i n u i ty equa t i on, eq. I 5), is a basic tool o f
of a r a d i a l compressor i mpeller, n o problem a r ises. one-d imens i o n a l aerodyn amic an alys i s o r syn thesis.

lc,
It should be n o ted that the w o r k calc u l a ted by eq.
( 23 I co rresponds t o the energ y actually yielded by t h e
w o r k i n g fluid b u t i s d i m i n i sh ed b y th ree s m a l l parasite
losses before delivery as shaft w or k b y the turbine. R o t o r
1 -
d i s k friction retu rns a s m a l l a m o u n t o f the w o r k as h e a t
Sfo
to the d o w n s tream f l o w w h i l e s e a l and bea r i n g friction
dissipates a small a m o u n t of the w or k w h ich i s lost from
the system .
.3 ---
F IGCRES O F MERIT
Shroud Jurlace
Stage Con figuration
4 dz
Before p r oceedi n g to s u m m arize the v a rious defin i

__
_ I lions o f e fficiency, r e a c t i o n , e t c . a n d to sh ow their i n ter
rel a ti o ns, we have assembled in Figure 2 sketches o f the
physical c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f both a radial and an a x i a l
t u r b i n e stage, the s tage b l a d i n g a n d velocity diagra m s
as w e l l a s a n enthalpy-e n t r o p y d i agram o n w h i c h t h e
s t a g e flow processes c a n b e tr a ced. Corresponding s t a
tions (l), (2 t, ( 3 ) , a n d (4 t a r e s h ow n i n Figures 2 a
a n d 2 b f o r each t u r b i ne t ype. Stations ( l ) a n d ( 2)
designate stator o r n ozzle i n le t and exit respectively w h i l e
stations ( 3 ) a n d ( -1- I spec ify r o t o r i n l e t a n d e x i t respec
lively. Other n o menclature a n d terms are clearly sh o w n
Figure 2a. Radial Turbin e Stage Configuratio n . on t h e figure.
94 PROCE E D I N G S OF T H E F I R S T T U R B O M A C H I N E R Y S YMPOS I U M

angles i s c alled the blade camber w h i l e the sum o f the

"''
gas a ngles a b o u t a blade describes the turning o f the
flow and is called the d eflection. Express i o n s f o r these
terms for both stator a n d rotor are i n c l ud e d in Figure 2c.

.Stvfor b
S tage h-s Diagrams
(!'louie)
Perhaps the m o s t important diagram for d e sc r i b i ng
the flo w phenomena i n a turbine stage a t o u r present
level o f o n e-d i m en s i o n a l flow a nalysis a n d l o s s c orrela
tion i s the enthalpy-entropy d iagram for t h e s t a ge shown
in Figure 2d. Station n umbers o n this d i a g r a m c o i n c i d e
w i th t h o s e o n the p r e v i o u s parts o f Figure 2. T w o l i n es
deno ti n g the flow p r o cess a r e shown even t h o u gh, o f
c o urse, o n l y o n e process takes place. The t o p l i n e c o n
n ec t s stagnation c o n d i ti o n s a t t h e several statio n s while
the l o w e r line d en o tes the static conditio n s. Notice that
t h e s a m e entropy va l u e i s applicable t o b o th s t a t i c and
stagna t i o n condi t i o n s a t a given station. A l s o n ote that
a n actual p rocess term i n a tes i n a n u n p rimed s t a t i o n n u m
Roft.t
ber w h i l e the same p rocess u n d e r ideal isen t r o p i c c o n
d i ti on s w ou l d have termi n a ted a t the s t a t i o n designated
b y the c o r respond i n g s i n gl e p r imed n u mber.

Isent ro pic Efficiency and Reaction

There are n umerous p a r ameters by w h i c h t h e a b i l i t y
.5 fofor ' /nod,(', 1. a It(' - , is > 0 whtm 0(/ > r<,; of a t u r b i n e t o c o n v e r t energy i n to mech a n i c a l w o rk c a n
lJIVItJftDI'f; Is otz - z
' be judged. A s a group t h e y m a y be design a te d figu res
Def/ecf,on, s = ot1 .,. o<z r' Com f! -= e</ + z' of meri t and we shall guard against allowi n g t h e g r o u p
Rofo,-. /ncid,nce, t.i- z -f-14'; i,. >a "' ;Sz > (i./ to b ec o m e t o o l a r ge.
Devuotton, ,S4' - ,S4-
Dt!fi.cttofl, r f!J - ,S4- ; Combe", 9,. f%.' + ;84' A s u m m a r y of the formulations of t h e f igu res o f
m e r i t i s g i v en i n Table 2 . Eqs. ( 24 ) , ( 25) a n d (2 6)
Figu re 2c. Stage NomencW.ture and Velocity T riangles . c o m p r i se t h e defini t i o n s of the stator o r n ozzle effi c i e n c y,

W i th l ittle eff o r t , F i g u r e 2c c a n be imagined appl i c a

h
b l e t o b o t h r a d i a l a n d a x i a l tur bine types. In each case
the gap between stations ( 21 and ( 3 1 i s exaggerated to
acco m m o date t h e velocity d iagrams. Two o f t h e m a n y
b l a des i n b o t h t h e s t a t o r a n d the r o t o r a r e s hown i n t h e
figure. T o t h e l e f t , t h e geometry o f the b l a d e profile
is illustrated. T h e s t a t o r blade angle a' is measured
between a line t a ngen t t o the c amber l i n e a t the blade
edge and t h e d i re c t i o n p a r allel t o t h e rotor axis ( th e b c

m e r i d i a n l i n e) . T h e r o t o r blade a ngle measured rela

t i ve t o t h e m o v i n g b l a d e i s deno te d f3 and again meas
u re d between c a m be r line tan gent a n d meridian l i n e.
Other profile d i m e n s i o n s a n d a n gles are shown. To the
r i gh t , t h e geome t r y o f the gas flow over the blade profile
is ill u s t r a ted. The gas velocity c m akes an angle a a t
the stator blade edge a n d i s measured w i th respect t o
the merid i an l i n e. T h e gas r el a t i v e velocity w m akes
a n a n gl e f3 a t t h e r o t o r blade edge and i s meas ured w i th
respect t o the m e r i d i a n l i n e. Other componen ts o f t h e
g a s v eloci t y a n d t h e r o t o r tangen t i a l velocit y are s h o w n
o n the v el o c i ty d i agra m s.
T h e d i s ti n c t i o n b e t w ee n the b l a d e a n gl e a n d t h e gas
a ngle a t t h e s ame station h a s been empha s ized above
because a d iffere n c e at t h e blade l e a d i n g edge, s a y , o f Vaneles.s Space
the gas flo w d i re c t i o n a n d the blade camber l i n e resul t s
i n f lo w a t incidence a n d a l o s s occurs. A t t h e blade Sfafor (Noc le)
t r a i l i n g edge, similar m i s a l ignment i s called a deviation.
T o complete the n omenclature t h e sum o f the blade Figu re 2d. h-s Diagram fo r Turb in e Stage P ro cess .
 PROCE E D I N G S OF T H E F I R ST T U R B O M A CH I N E RY S Y M P O S I U M 95

- h:
Eff/(/Mcy,.
I
a ho4
Noult 'JN li :a (U) in the r o t o r in comparison t o t h e expansion across the
1101 - h,;t
stage. The e xpress i o n f o r the reaction i n eq. ( 29) i s
then rec o g n ized i f the entering veloc i t y co a n d t h e leav
Rotor Efficimcy .. htJJ- hot
fu)
17K I
<
..
d ing velocity c1 are a p p r o x i m a tely equal t o each o th e r
hol- h04*
a n d considered s m a l l w i t h respect t o c.1
Turb1iu Staft! hiM - ""

-'- . (2
/sllfropic cffidency.. 'lr e
1101- he-f.'
Polytro pic Efficiency and Reheat
In T a b l e 2b, the defi ni t i o n o f the figures o f m e r i t
o f a t u r b i n e s t a g e are c o n t i n u ed. A n i n c remen tal e n t h al
p y d r o p dh,, occurs across a "small" s t age and with t h i s
(27)
t h e s m a l l s ta ge efficiency i s defi n ed i n eq.' ( 3 1 ) . If t h e
s m a l l stage effic i ency i s c o n s t a n t for a l arge n u mber o f
hoi - "' . "I - "J' +
hiM - ho.f.' - 11o
-
11.1
i n c rements i n a t u r b i n e s tage, i n tegr a t i o n th r o ugh o u t t h e
hoi - ho4 "4 - ho ho4 - ho 11o4 - 11o<l- stage y i elds eq. \32 ) w h e r e the c o n s ta n t efficiency a p
p l i c a b l e a c r o s s the s t a g e i s c a l l e d t h e p o l y t r o p i c effi
I ..!- +
h04 - h.t ( 1101 - 11.t' - f) (18) c ienc y. Comparing terms in eq. ( 32 ) leads t o eq. ( 33 )
7r 7R hoJ - h o "4 - 11.1 where n i s t h e poly tropic exponen t used to relate t h e
p ressu r e a n d t h e temper a t u r e i n the a c t u a l expansi o n
hoJ - hJ (J 'lz + (hoJ- ho4) - fhoJ - ho4) process. Eq. ( 34 I, rel a t i n g the p o l y t r o p i c effi c i e n c y to
hoJ - ho4 hoJ - ;,, the i sen tropic efficiency u s i n g the s t a ge p ressu r e r a t i o,
(hD.J - "'+) - (J'it i s f o u n d w i t h a l i t tl e algebraic m a n i p u l a t i on .
I - ., f _,. (Z9)
hoJ - hu Whereas t h e ass u m p t i o n o f s t r a igh t, paralle l c o n
s t a n t pressure l i n es o n the h-s d i agram l e d t o e q . ( 30 ) ,
..!.. r)(t - 1)
It '/ll
+ (t- (Jo) the reten t i o n o f their slightly d i verging c h aracteristic
leads t o the s t age o r turbine reheat fact o r. The r a t i o o f
t h e s u m o f t h e i ncrement a l isen tropic enthalpy d r o ps
Tab le 2a . Figures o f Merit: Isen tro pic Efficiency a nd through the m a n y "sma l l" stages t o a s i n gl e isen tropic
Reactio n .
(.Jt)

the r o t o r efficiency a n d the stage isentropic efficiency

d7;
respec t i vely. The s t a t i o n p o i n ts a t w h ic h t h e en thalpy is
T. 'ls (.!..:!.
1 .)!if!._
fJ
evaluated are t h o se shown i n Figure 2d. The stage
isentropic efficiency i s often called the stage adiabatic
efficiency. The thermodynamic basis for making s u c h
a defi n i t i on o f s t a g e efficiency i s d iscussed by Horlock1
( Ch a p te r 1 ) . {12)
7PT (jl)
In general, t h e slope o f t h e c o n s t a n t pressu r e l i n es Po
on the d iagram is i nversely proportio n a l t o the absolute
( '
-- ) ( fl-1)
temperature for any gas. Such l i n es c u r v e upward and 1-1 fl
d iverge s l i gh tl y a t i n c reasin g entropy. If a p rocess d oes
not enc o u nter either a l a r ge pressu r e c h a n ge o r a l arge
Si11ce
entropy c h a n ge, then it i s a n acceptable appr o x i m a t i o n 'lr c -1
t o a s s u m e tha t t h e constan t p r essu r e l i n es are straight 1 - (.E!f:.)
Pot
T
and parallel. The approximation in eq. ( 27) i s m a d e
on t h i s basis a n d m a ni pulation o f the enthalpy d i ffer
ences p roduces eq. ( 28 ) w h er e the stage and r o t o r effi (J-1)
ciencies are identi fiable. Expan d i n g one o f the terms
in eq. ( 28) y i el d s eq. ( 29) in w hich t h e d egree o f reac
tion o f the t u rb in e s tage is defined. Put t i n g it all to
gethe r results i n eq. ( 30 ) , a remarkab l y simple rel a t i o n
between stage, n ozzle a n d r o t o r effi c i ency and t h e reac
tion o f t h e stage.
Nozzle a n d r o t o r efficiencies h a v e been defined t o
yield t h e simple rel a t i o n eq. ( 30). Their defi n i ti o n i s
identical o r nearly identical t o many appearing i n t h e
l iteratur e. Ori gi n al l y t h e reaction o f a stage w a s ex (35)
pressed in terms o f the pressu r e when fluid flow condi
tions were essen ti ally incompressible. Now it i s ap
propriate to u s e enthalpy w i th compressi b l e fluids. The
react i o n expresses the r a t i o o f static enthalpy change i n
the r o t o r (h.1 - h1) t o t h a t over the s t a ge (ht - h1). It Table 2b . Figures of Merit: Polytro pic E fficien cy and
really describes the portion of the expa n s i on taking place Re heat.
96 PROCE E D IN G S OF T H E F I R S T T U R B OM A C H IN E R Y S Y M P O S I U M
e n t h a l p y d r o p o v e r t h e whole stage i s defined as t h e
reheat fact o r, see eq. ( 3 5 I . R el a t i n g the i se n t r o p i c d r o p s
t o t h e actual changes by m e a n s o f t h e efficiency, the
reheat factor m a y be expressed a s the ratio o f t h e isen
t r o p i c t o t h e poly tropic turbine stage efficiency, eqs. (351
a n d ( 36 I . S i n ce the c o n s t a n t p ressu r e l i nes d iverge a t
greater entropies, t h e s u m o f t h e small s t a ge isen tropic
enthalpy d rops w il l be somewhat l a rger t h a n t h e s i n gle
o ver-all isentropic change from the i n i t i a l c o n d i t i on s over
t h e same p ressure i n terval. Hence, t h e rehea t fact o r i s
s o m ewh a t greater t h a n unity. Consequently, t h e t urbi ne
isentropic efficiency i s somewha t greater t h a n the t u r
b i n e polytropic efficiency. In a n y even t, s i n c e the poly
t r o p i c efficienc y is less than u n i ty, eq. 1331 also shows
th a t t h e poly tropic exponen t i s greater t h a n the r a t i o o f
t h e spec i fi c h e a ts of t h e gas h a n d led b y t h e t u rbine.
Flu id Mechan ics of a Turbin e Stage
M a n y o f the ingredients for a one-d i m e n s i o n al flu i d
mecha n i c a l analysis or syn thesis o f a t u r b i n e stage are
now at hand. These include t h e equ a t i o n s o f c o n t i nu i ty
eq. ( 5 I , m o t i on eq. ( ll I , energy eq. I 1 7 I , c o nversio n
b e tween angu l a r momen t u m a n d w o rk eq. ( 23 I , and the
v a r i o u s defi n i t ions and in terrelations between efficiency,
react i o n and reheat jus t s u m m a rized. Occa s i o nally some
a d d i t i o n a l k n owledge o f basic compressi b l e flu i d d y
n a m i c s m a y be needed i n c a r r y i n g o u t a s tage analysis,
k nowledge w h ich we w ill n o t be able t o r e v i e w here.
Reference t o Morlock's work 1 is suggested f o r those i n ter
ested in a x i a l t u rbi nes. R a d i al turbines do n o t enjoy
a s m a t u re a developmen t as a x i a l t u r b i n es and no s i n gle
reference b o o k can be i d e n t i fied. H o w e ve r, a fairly
complete acco u n t may be c o ns tructed from r e ferences 2,
a n d 7-1 8.
However, o n e importan t p oi n t rem a i n s a n d the bal
ance o f this paper i s given t o i ts consideration. Refer
ring t o Figu re 2d, it wi l l b e n ecessary t o determine con
d i ti o n s a t station ( 2 I from ( 2' I , a t ( 3 I from ( 2 I , and
a t ( 4) from ( 4' I in order t o c o m plete a n e v a l u a t i o n o f
t u r b i n e stage performance. T h e s e t h ree s t e p s establish
actual flow c o n d i t i ons i n place o f the ideal using c o r re
l a t i o n s of t h e n ozzle l oss, th e i n ci d ence loss a n d t h e r o t o r
passage loss respectively.
CORRELATION OF TCRBINE E FFICIENCY WITH
FLOW CONDITIONS AND STAGE CONFIGURATION
Before w e consider t h e c orrelat i o n o f l osses i n the
i n d i v i d u a l elemen ts of a t u r b i n e s t age, we recogn ize a
gen eral correl a t i o n of s t a ge performance w it h flow con
d i t i o n s and s t age con figu rati o n first suggested b y Balje.lfl
M o r e recently, Balje and Bin sl ey," ass u m i n g t h a t n i n e
i ndependen t v a r i a bles w o u l d a d equa tely describe the
t u r b i n e s t age performance, used t h e m e t h o d o f d i m e n
s i o n a l analysis t o obtain t h e s i x d i mensionless p arameters
l i sted in Table 3. Balje11' found prev i o u s l y t h a t effi
ciency was p r i m a r i l y a fun c t i o n of spec i fi c speed a n d
spec i f i c d i a m e ter; this i s s ho w n i n Figu re 3 w h i ch i s
a d a p ted from Figure 1 5 o f reference 1 9. T h e remai n i n g
p arameters m u s t a t least be accoun ted for.
Whi l e d imensional a n a l y s i s s uggested a Mach n um
b e r i n fluence i n general, experience i n d i c a tes t h a t the
c ruc i a l c o n d i t i o n i s i n t h e relative flow a t t h e rotor i n l et.
If t h e relative velocity exceeds the s o n i c s peed, then
Table 3 . Dimen s io n less P ar ameters for Balje Stage Per
for man ce Correla tion .
shock w a v e patterns are created i n the blade passage
resulting i n r a p i d l y i n c reasing l osses. Figure 3 is l i m i t
ed, therefore lo M * w.J < 1. S i n c e thi s allows some sligh t
ly supers o n i c c o n d i t i o n s i n the absolute flow, s a y a t tht
stator exit, it i s n ot a s t ringent requi rement f o r i n d ust rial
mach inery. The i n fluence of t h e r a t i o of speci fi c heat
i s n o t read i l y e v i d e n t i n references 19 and 20. Where il
i s men t i oned a t a l l i n reference 1 9, y = 1.4, t h e v a l ut
for gases c o m prised o f d ia t o m i c m olecules. T h e s ma ll
variation o f y w i t h tempe r a t u re will a ffect the efficiency
t o the e xten t o f 2 t o 4'/t perhaps b u t t h a t i s w i t h i n lht
precision o f the c o r rel a t i o n, Figu re 3. The l arge v ar i a
t i o n i n y c o m es w i th t h e a t o m i c structure o f t h e gas.
Vavra,1 for e x a mp l e, p oi n ts o u t the great performanct
d ifferences enc o u ntered when h a n d l i n g helium in n uclear
power s y s tems. For such a m o n a t o m i c gas, y = 1.66
However, t h e effect s o f l a rge y a n d the small m ol ec u l ar
w eigh t h av e n o t been s ufficien tly i s o lated t o assign tht
c o n t r i b u t i o n of each in m o d i f y i n g the d iagram v alues oJ
Figure 3.
Of m o r e c o m m o n i n fl u ence i s t h e effect o f t h e rna
c h i n e Rey no l d s n u m ber, Re'. Comparing Figures 1
a n d 1 6 o f reference 1 1) shows t h a t the rad i a l a n d axi a
t u r b i n e correlat i o n s a r e qui te s i m i l a r for N, > 10 anc
a d equately r e presen ted b y our F i g u r e 3 for Re * = 106
Th e i n fluence of Re * on design p o in t stage effic i ency il
described in F i g u r e 4 w h ere at Re * = 10'1, the referenc(
v a l u e of the i sen t r o p i c efficiency is the d i agram v alu(
from Figure 3. If, after usi n g t h e stage spec i f i c spee(
a n d specif i c d ia m e te r to determ i n e the efficiency, th(
machine R ey n o l d s n umber Re' =1= 10'1, t h e d i a g r am e ffi
c i ency should b e m o d i fied as a f u n c t i o n of N, a n d Re '
from Figu re 4. An elaboration o f t h e Rey n ol d s n u m be1
effect appears in reference 22, and add it i o n a l speci fi(
i n forma t i o n is s h o w n in F i g u re 3 of referenc e 27 ( par
B) .
A w o r d qua li fyin g the u s e of t h e N,D, c o rrelat i or
i s desirabl e. While s i m i l a r i t y a n a l y s i s f o r c o r relatin1
compress i b l e flu i d d y n a m i c phenomena dates from lht
1 930's, Cordi e r:l was perh aps t h e fir s t t o show that bes
p erformance of m an y t u r b o m ac hi n es p l o t ted o n N. - D
c oordin ates p r o d uced a l o c u s o f p o i n ts a p p r o x i matin1
t h e r i d ge l i n e o n t h e efficiency c o n t o u r m a p of F igure 3
Shepherd1' gave t h e m e t h o d a n d model w h i c h Balje111 anc
 A E R O DY N A M I C S OF T U H B I N E S
/o
8
'
3
\)
1\J
I
.8
"'
.3
3. N,D" Diagram fo r Tu rb in e .Stage. Efficiency is Nl a total-to -total basis ; tha t
.1tagnation con dit ions . Diagram values a rc s uitab le fo r m 1u:h in e Reyno lds n wnb a Re "
Balje and Hinsley" u;:;ed i n devel o p i n g t h e details for t h e
turhomachinery applicatio n . Boret-l h a s earefutly eval
u aterl t h e basis o n which such d i mtn;;i o n a l analy;;is is
made a n d referenc e 25 'give;, an idea o f t h e extent t o
w h i c h s u c h w o r k can be carried. Vav ra1 c r i t icizes t h e
approach b y c i t i n g perfo rmance o f actua l t u r bomach i n e
u n i ts w hich grea t l y exceeds the d i a gram \'al u es . T h i s
d o es n o t d iscr('d i t either the method o r Figure :3 b u t
o n l y Pmphasizes t h a t each user m u s t assemb l e h i s o w n
d a t a f r o m experipnce a n d rnai n ta i n t h e d i a gram up-t o
d ate. In sec t i on G , t h e example o f r ad i a l t u rb i n e stage
syn thesis w as c a r ried o u t partially based on t h e /1/JJ,
correl a t i on o f s tage efficiency.
LOSS MECHANISMS
In formation o n the flow processfs i n t h e i n d i v id u a l
elements o f a turbine stage i s sufficient l y c o m plete that
l os" mechanisms m av be described and actual flow con
d i t i o n s correlated wi th respect to appa ren t l y b a s i c param
eters. In t h i s sec t i o n t h e mechanisms wil l h e iden t i fied
an d referen ces where the correlations were formu l a t ed
will be tabul a ted. In ihe next sect i o n , a procedure as
con s i s ten t as c a n be devi"ed at thi time, w i ll he presen t
ed for aseerl a i n i n g the actual flow c o n d i t i o n s based o n
t h e i d e a l c o n d i t i o n s f o r b o t h an a x i a l t u r b i n e stage a n d
a r ad i a l tur b i n e. When t i m e and kn o w ledge a l l o w , t h e
elemen t-by-elemen t a n a l y s i s o f sec t i o n F i s l o b e pre-
97
t-
1:C 8;o4
it is relat e d to in let a wl
1 0".
ferred to the o ver-a l l correl a t i o n o f s taw perfo rmance
gtven i n ;;;e ction D.
A xial Turb in e Loss Me ehan ism s
Losses i n a n a x i a l t u r b i n e l atre passage a r e assoc i
a ted w i th the b l a d e profi le, t h e passage s i d e w a l l o r end
>1 a l l, seco n d a r y f l o w , blade t i p r u n n i n g clearnnee, flow
i n c i d ence t o the blade !<:"a d i n g ' ed ze, and d i s k friction.
T h e blade profile los i s due i o b iU!Hlary lu yer g r o w t h
i n the d irec t i o n o f f l o w . T h e l oss i s o n e o f s t a 'in a t i o n
pres:;ure d u e t o a loss o f m omen t u m o f the v i s c o u fluid.
The boundary l ayer t,!!'Cm th, h e n c e l o::;s, very m u c h de
pend on the profile shape and the pressure gr a d i e n t to
which the flow i s subjected. T h e loss c oeffici en t r es u l ts
from averagi n g t h e l oss s u ffered in th e b o u n d a r y l a y e r
over a l l t h e flow i n t h e p a s s age. T h e endwal l l oss i s
agai n d u e t o a l o s s o f m o m en t u m i n t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r
b u t i t i s dear t h a t nei t h er t h e prt'ssure grad i e n t n o r t h e
flow d i rect i o n t o which t h e e n d w a l l flo w i s s ubjePtcd i s
t h e s a m e as t h e p r o f i l e flow . Des p i t e t h i s, the same loss
c o efficien t i s often used for both. M o r e s u i t a b l y, the
endwall loss i s c o m b i n ed w i th !he secondarv f l o w loss.
Adi acent blade profiles produce b o t h the ;lesi red e x i t
H o w con d i t i o n s a n d a pressu r e grad i e n t across t h e pas
s a ge from pressure s u r face t o s u c t i o n s u r face. On oppo
s i t e sides o f t h e same blade t h e d ifferent p ressu r e d i s t r i
b u t i on s produce the blnde l o ad i n g. Across t h e fio w
H8 P R OC E E D I N G S O F' T H E F I R S T T U R B OM A C H IN E R Y S Y MP O S I U M

,__
__ ,....
--
/I

v r-r-Ns =
/0

v - .... _L -- - - --

fo
\:
-;oo
/ ----
-
--
'-'\
-
r-- -

-- r--Ns; /oo

;7
...
.
v
O.f / ;) ,/15 /o
--

v Ax/a/ Flou 7i. rt ine

-- -
-Radia ll Fie 1.1)- irz,, b/ne

0.8 j
f?
'

l.l.

" - --

VI
O.J '/ _, -----

4 6 8 2 :2 4
z !0

Machine Reynolds Number

Figure 4. Influen c e of Reyno lds Nu m b er o n Turb i n e Stage Efficien cy .

passage, t h e p r e:<s u r e grad ient i n duces a componen t o f
flow from the h i;;he r t o t h e l ower p re,;su re regio n s w h i c h
i s o ften i d en t i fied a s t h e sec o n d a r y f l o w . lt. i s s y n o n y
m o u s w i th a t hree-d i m e n s i o n a l b o u n d a r y layer, i s s ubject
to complicated separ a t i o n phenomena a n d results i n the
appearance o f v or t i c i t y in t h e e x i t How. Mec h a nically,
the end o f t h e m o v ing ( ro t o r I blades i s free o f t h e shroud
casing. Pressure d ilferences across t h e blade thicknes s
.
t h e n i n d uc e leakage flow s t h r o u gh the dearance space.
Pressure l os, t u r b u lence a n d i n terference w i t h the pri
m a ry passage flow c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e t i p clearance loss.
S hock-free flow at t h e leadi n g edge of t h e blade occurs
w h en the gas angle a n d the blade a ngle c o i n c ide. \Vhen
the gas angle v a ries from this c o n d i t ion, a component of
t h e velocity perpend i c u l a r t o t h e c a m b e r l i n e i s p a r t i a l l y
o r wholly d i ss i p a ted a s a l oss in k i n e t i c energy. F i n ally,
in the dose clearan c e b e t ween r o t or d i s k a n d c a s i n g
d i ap h r agm, t h e entrapped flu i d i s d r a gged a b o u t b y the
rotor a n d viscous d is s i pa t i o n becomes a power l oss.
The mecha n i s m s described a b o v e h av e been r e c og
n iz e d a n d c o nv e r ted i n t o correl a t i o n s o f t h e s e v e r a l l o s ses
whereby e i t h e r t h e e n t halpy o r t h e s t a gn a t i o n pressu re
at t h e a c t u a l exit c o n d i ti on s i s rela t ed t o t h e s a m e p r o p
e r tv 1d1ich w o ul d h e obtained a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f a n
i s e;1 t r o pic p r ocess. F o r t h e a x i a l t u r b i n e s t a ge, t h e refer
tcnces where t h e correlations m a y h e f o u n d a r e g i v e n i n
Table ;{..
Radial Turbine Loss ]'v!echanisms
T h e passages i n a r a d i a l t u r b i n e stage s uffer losses
o f t h e s a m e n a t u r e a s t h e axial s t age. As m e n t i o n ed
p r e vi ously, t h e r a d i a l t ur b i n e does n o t enjoy t h e s a m e
m a t u r i t y a s y e t as t h e a x ial, hence n o t b o u11d a r y l a y e r
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s b u t r a t h e r p ipe o r c h a n n e l fri c t i o n l o s s
effect s a r e the basis f o r t h e n ozzle passage a n d t h e r o t o r
passage loss c o r r el a t i o n s. T h e r o t o r b l a d e i n c i d e n c e a n d
t h e d isk f r i c t i o n g i v e r i s e l o losses i d e n t i c a l t o t h e a x i a l
 A E R O D Y N AM I C S OF T UR B I N E S 99

c o n figurat ion. Th e rotor d i s c harge loss i s w o r t h a sep Correlation orc/vd..s elluf of.- doe.s flof includ:
arate n ote. I n a s i n gl e s tage machin e, t h e rotor d i s Sptce - chon/ rofio, -'lb
charge loss, associated w ith t h e u nrecoverable k i n etic
l<tynoltl., nvm btu; R.:n rratli"f edfl! flt<lcnes$
energy o f t h e exit flow, i s o ften i s ol ated from the stage
performance and the isentropic efficiency is given o n a Asput rotio, H/h Sfa99u iJ"fle
t otal-to-static basis. Where t h e discharge k i n et i c energy Tltiekntss r11tic, t,.,xll
i s r ecoverable a s i n a m u l t i stage machi n e, the total-t o
8/odinJ f6'omefrJ, or &
total basis f o r the efficiency i s u sed.
The c o r relations of the r a d i a l turbine loss mecha
i) /Jeter mit .$fH1<- &ltDrd ratio fo whidt GO'rt!laftt>rl opplies ..
n isms appear in the l i terature a s given in Table 4. Of optimum

all investigators, only M i z u m achi2 approaches t h e n ozzle

a n d rotor passage l osses w it h a n account o f p r o fi le, end
w all, a n d s ec o n d a r y effects. He then combines the re
s uits into a n equ i valent passage loss c oefficient.

LOSS CORRELATIONS
ff( b
'J, j
1/JG
Numero u s attempts h a v e been made to assemble c o r iii) Colculafe 1 * ( R'll) j(i + !')(o.97S + o o7S j:[)
relations o f t h e m a n y loss effects i nt o a n o ver-all stage
performance prediction method. We w i l l p resent t h e
.,.her Reh 1'2 Cz/1, f;az
Soderber g32 correlation for the a x i a l configuration b e
cause o f its simplicit y a n d u n u s u a l abil it y t o predict ac h (2Hs eos2 )/(s cosK2 + H)
t u a l results. T h e c orrelat io n h a s been applied b y S ten
n i n gaa an d e v a l u ated b y Horlock, 1 Amann a n d Sheri
dan,34 Lenherr a n d Carter,3 a n d Brown30 a l l o f whom
give i t a s l i g h t p referenc e over t hat o f Ainley a n d Mathie
son.37 It m u s t b e said, h o w ever, t h at the l a tter correla v) C ol<ulafe oduti/ lldpc.nf en#rolpy
t i o n i s much m o r e elaborate a n d d irected at t w o-dimen
s i on a l design rather than the p u rp o ses o f this paper.
(.Sf)
The Soderberg a x i a l turbine loss correl a t i o n i s s u m
m arized i n T a b l e 5 . The correl a t i o n i s strictly applicable Tab le 5. Soderberg A xial Turbine Los s Correlatio n .

t o conditions o f a n o p t i m u m s p ace-c h o r d r a t i o g i v en b y
eq. ( 37). T h e departure o f actual b l a d i n g geometry
5onda,..f Whtl
tndNIII/ FltW Rdol' lip Disk
from this condition s h o u l d b e c hecked. A loss coefficient
Author {)4rc lle f Las.s Lu l"culf" (J'"e F,.tcftotf f i s d eter m i n ed from Figure Sa as a f u n ct io n o f t h e gas
------
deflect i o n a n d t h e blade m a x i m u m t h ic kness. T h e effects
Da/t,, "''e tffw IS
of Reyn ol d s n u m be r and a s pect r a t i o are n ext i ntroduced
Mt1111f,Mt11'.11Dif Ifill 1#
in eq. ( 38 ) . Fina l l y e i s m o d ified f o r a n incidence loss
Hv/ock lfU I using Figure 5b. The resultin g loss c oeffic i en t t h e n
1141/, 8Nolt ,, I m akes i t p o s s i b l e t o estimate t h e actual p r o c es s endpoint
a.q. ,.. 26 enthalpy from t h e isentropic v a l u e as s h o w n i n eq. ( 39)
S.IJ#, "-'t /f(.li T

Noule Rclf.Ji" lloh:ltl' llolor

#flht!41
l)ik
/
AufhrH' l<lfli Rf P.uJtJft ltelt/trfft.e Psstlft! 9( Ft-tc..fu::J/11 /
81.!1 ifS2 X /
().
/
TtlfftifSO, lfH II ro? L/.:
Mt .. lllfiQCIJi tfSII z t, QX 1= 0.1 -7 ./ lo. "
,,..
Dadf,N 18
-::: ::;_ v -
l(nDI'$c.lf/td ,,, II
;;;:-
II
- _:::::; ::::=
H''"' rer, ,.,,

F11fr111,, l'lllJJ,.b4t.l
1'/(.!i 14

B.rtj B"'"leJ' If zc
0
0 2c 4c 6o 8o {tJO IZc:'> /4c
Kodflt"S If" ..,
s,,!JOII 1'/7<> JD
, Oe/lcfton (dfl'1rus)

Figure Sa. Ent halpy Loss Coe fficient for Use Wit h t he
Table 4. Identification o f Loss Mechanis m s . Soderberg Correlation .
 100 P ROCEE D I N G S OF T H E F IR S T TUR B OM A C H I N E R Y S YM P O S I U M

{ort"/afton mclud.s etfed of.

/.3
Non;/.- pa$.sa9e.
Rctor blade iHcidence

Rofor passa9e ;,.1t:ltu:'1in9 {lu.it:t friction, det/I''OHce, di>k

frid.on

i) Odermine noetlf! lo5s coeffic<ent 5H from F'f IDa

/.2 or ute .Yr = o.l

I'Ltm 'IX/t =0./ s enfl1olpj

ii) Calculate a<fuol noilele endpo,nf

() (4o/

'<\0.2
"""'
o.1s
/.1

25
>
,()
-i: /

1::3 /o.o


(fat 2;:12 t) - '(_.,..
/.0 s (4!)
'- (). 0
" 2 (3J

-4o -2o 0 2o 4c o Bo (42)

lndtlence (o<1 - tJ<./)

Figure Sb . Influen ce of In cidence on t he So derberg
Loss Correla t ion .
llthtrE mk. o. 48 (Bemat, t'/7o)
ml< o. 44-Z (Pufral, efal. t'ftU)
a n d illu s t r ated on Figu r e 2d. A s u b sequent c o r rect i o n
o f stage efficiency d u e t o b l a d e tip clearance i s presen ted
ambiguously i n the litera ture and i s n o t s h o w n h e r e. (44)
I t m u s t be realized t h a t t h e Soderberg procedure applies
t o o n e passage. Where b o th stator a n d rotor passages
Table 6. Benson Radial Turb in e Loss Correlatio n .
occu r in a stage, the procedure must be applied twi c e.
Di x o n 1;, suggests that t w o forms of eq. ( 381 be u sed,
one for r o tors, one for s t a t o rs but t h i s is c o n fi rmed b y enthalpy, eq. ( 421 . T h e basis f o r t h e r o t o r p assage loss
n o o t h er a u t h o r. Finally eq. I 391 i n v o l v e s t h e actual coefficien t i s the w o rk o f F u t r a l a n d W asser b a uer; l!l t h e
exit v e l o c i ty w h ich usu ally can n o t b e determined u n t i l analysis o f the exper i m en tal d a t a i n references 1 3 a n d 30
the enthalpy i s kn own. Clea rly then s o l u t i o n o f eq. ( 391 leads to very s i m i l a r v alues o f the p a rameter i n eq. ( 431 .
r equi res i teration over t h e p r ocess calc u l a t i o n s b u t i n t h e The f i n a l endpo i n t enthalpy a t t h e r o t o r e x i t i s a g a i n
w r iter's experience con vergence i s achieved i n t h e sec
ond, at most t h i rd l o o p.
Correlation of the loss effects i n a r a d i a l t u r b i n e
s t age i s m u c h l e s s complete and has b e e n s ubject t o f a r
l e s s c r i t i c a l evaluation t h a n t h a t o f t h e a x i a l t u r b i n e.
Reports o f t hree i m p o r t a n t experiment a l p r ograms deal
ing w i th radial turbines exi s t; the D.I.G.T. w o rk i n Eng
l a n d,1.au t h e Japanese i n dustrial program,1x a n d t h e O.IZ ....._
NAS A space power package program i n t h e USA o f r--
......
w h i c h t h e w or k of reference 1 3 i s p a r t. O f t h e s e t h r e e .......
programs, Benson:m presen ts a consistent l o s s correlation r---
a t t h e level of the present a t i o n o f t h i s paper. The pro
0.04
cedu r e i s s u mmarized in Table 6.
A n ozzle l o ss coeffi c i e n t is first determi n ed from 0
Figure 6a a s a function o f the discharge Mach num b e r. 0.18 o.zz o.Ztf> o.Jc o.i14 o.:1B o.42 o. a.5c
Th e a c t u a l n ozzle endpo i n t enthalpy c a n b e determined c2j02 , 1'/ol:ele Mach Nvm!Jer
i teratively b y eq. ( -t.O 1 . Figure 6b t h en y i el d s t h e r o t o r
i n c i d en c e loss c oeffi c i e n t w hich c o m b i n ed w i t h t h e actual Figure 6a. Nozzle E n t h a lpy Loss Coeffic ien t for t he
gas angles i n eq. ( 4 1 ) leads t o the a c t u a l r o t o r i n l e t Benson Correla t io n .
 A E R OD Y N A M I C S OF TLTR B I N E S 101

HEFERENCES
0.o

t
L J. H., A xial Flo w Bu tt e r w orth
a n d Co., Ltd., London ( 1 966!.
2. Mizumachi, N., "A Study of Rad i a l

5'.o stitute o f Ind u s t r i a l lJniveritr. o f

i Dec. 1 958 I (En glish t r a n slation: ln d u s t ry Pro
-;... gram Report No. H'-t/6, Uni ve r s i t y o f M i c h i gan,

"'
.....
Ann Ar b o r \Nov. 1 9601 ; c opy o b t a i n a b l e from
\1 library ) .
4.o
.3. Shapi ro, A. H., The DJna mcs a n d Thermodyna mics
1\J of t:ompressible Fluid Flow , Vol. L T h e Honald

I l
Press Co. 0 953 ) .
If)
') 3.o ,j., Daily, J. \V'., Harleman, D. R. F., Fluid Dyn a mies ,
c

l- -
Addison-Wesley Publish i n g Inc., ( 1 066 ) .
""-.
1\.J 5. Owczarek, .1. Introduction to Fluid !ec han ics,
Interna t i o n a l Tex t b o o k C o., ( 1968 1 .
2.o
<;u
6. Thompson, P. A., Compressible -Fluid Dyn amics ,

\ J
;:; J\kGraw-HiH Book ( l 1)7]).
7. Balje, 0. E., "Co n t ri bution !o the Problem of De
... s i gning R a d i a l Turbomu c h i nes," ASME Transac
/.o tions , 7-t. pp. -:151-172 0952 I .
'
1/
1\
a. Jamieson, A. W. "The Had i a l T u r b i n e,"

l/
9, Gas Turbine Prin ciples a n d Practic e, D.
""- Noslra n d Co., lnc. \ 1 955 i.
0
'). Shepherd, D. Principles of Turb o nwchin ery, T h e
8o 4<? 0 -&
Mar:millan Co. El56i.

lr/ Rafor /nodence 0z -;E./) 1 0. Wallace, F. "Theoret ic a l Assessment o f t h e Per-

fonnance Characteristics o f Inw a rd Rad i a l Flow
Figure 6b . Rotor Inlet Shock Loss for t he Benson Turbines," Proceedings, lns t . of liie clwn ical Engi-
Correla tion . n eers , 1 pp ():i l -%2 ( 195H).
1 1. Knoernschild, E. JVL "The R a d i a l T u r b i n e f o r Low
Specific S peeds and Low Velo c i t y Faet ors," Journal
d ete r m i ned i te r a t i vely by eq. ( lt i. Note thal r el a t i v e
Engineering for Power, .ASME Transactions, fi3A ,
velocities, w , a r e u sed i n the rotor correlation.
pp 1 -8 ( ])6]).

STAGE ANALYS IS OR SYNTHESIS 1 2. Hiett, G. F., a n d Joh n s t o n , I. H., "Experiments Con

In d r a w i n g t h i s presentatio n of t u r b i n e aerodynamic
performance including losses t o a close, it w i l l he helpful
t o s h o w a tabulation i n '>hic. h the resulb of svnthesis ' of
a radial t u r b i n e stage are given i n detail. o n l y results
are shown i n Tahle 7 a n d these m a y prove a g u i d e to t h e
conscien t i o u s w o rker i n applyi n g h i s knowledge of com
pressihle flu i d d v namics together w i th the loss c o r rela
t i o n s s h o w n i n t h i s paper. At the left top o f t h e table i s
i ncluded the i nformation n ecessary t o begin t h e calcu!a
lion. At the t o p right are over-all stage p arameters
w h i ch eome out o f the procedu re w h i l e t h e flo w c o n d i
t i o n s calculated f o r the four s t a t i o n s in the t u r b i n e
c o m p r i s e the r em a inder o f the table.
Results such as shown in Table 7 and as are v i elded
by all o f t h e c o rrelatious i n troduced in t h i s paper are t o
b e designated on-design-point c o n d it i o n s f o r t h e t u r b i n e
s tages considered. S o m e o f t h e flu i d mecha n i c calcula
t i o n s for on-design-point est i m ates are illustrated in ref
erences :3H and 39. Jt w as p o inted o u t b y Bens o n'10
t hat his correlation a8 weH as t h at o f reference 1.3 w a s
very u s e f u l i n o ff-design-point est i mates o f stage p e r
formance as well b ut such predict io n s are o utside the
scope o f t h i s paper.
cerni n g the Aero d y n a m i c Perfo r m an c e o f Inw a r d
Flow R ad i a l Turbines," Proceedings , lns t . of Me
dwnical Engineers , 178, p a rt .'3i, pp 2B--J.2 ( 1 %.') ) .
1 3. Futral, S. M., Wasserhauer, C. A., "Off-design Per
formance Predi c t i o n w i t h Experimental Veri fication
fo r a R a d ial-i n fl o w T u r b i n e," Report TND-262 1 ,
NASA ( Feb. 1 965;.
IL Wilson, D. G., Jansen, W., "The A er od y n a m i c and
Thermod y n am i c Desi gn o f C r y o ge ni c R a d i at-in fl o w
Expanders," Paper 65-W'A 'PID-6, ASME ( No v.
l %51.
1 5. Dixon, S. L., "Ha d i a l F l o w T u r b i n es," Cha pter 8,
Fluid illechanirs , Th e r modyna mics of Turbom a
chinery, Pergamon Press ( 1 966 ) .
1 6. Jansen, W., Qva!e, E. B., "A R a p i d lVIeth o d for
Predictin g the Off-design Perfor m an c e of Hadi a l
i n flow T u r b i n es," Paper 67-WA./GT-3, ASME ( No v.
1 %7).
1 7. Vavra, M. H., '"R ad i a l T u r b i n es," Pt. '1,, A GA RD
VKI Lecture Series on Flow in Turbin es ( Series
::f:/::61, Von Karman Institute for Flu i d Dynamics
( March 1 968 ) .
102 PROCE E D I N G S OF T H E F I R ST T U R B O M A C H I N E R Y S Y M P O S I U M

S f AG f P AR AM E T F R S

"1 A S S F l f lW RAT E { L P M / S Ef } 0 . 469 SP H T l P R E SS l i FT 2 / SfC2-0 R ) 6 q 0 3 ,,'

I NL T S TA G TEP lOR I 20 10 . 0 R AT I O O F S P E C f i= I C HEAT S 1. 331
J NL F T S TA G PRE SS ( P I A I 3C.QO TUR B l N E l" A C H NO 0 . 7 19
G .&S C 0 N S ! H 2 I S E C 2 - ll P I 1 7 1 6 . 47 T UR B I N E R E YN O L D S N O 93 3 9 8 6 .
S fA G F S 'fil P R E S S !:' A H r 1 .9 3 1 I S F T PO P I C WOR K C BT U / L B M I 8 4 .. 0 1
N OZ l l F I N L ET M AC H ! 0 C ., l 0 0 AC T UAL WORK OUT ( T U / L B I 6 9 . '5 2
R OT O R I A BS F L CW A NG L E I OEG I 1 9 .98 I SEN S TAGE F. F F ( TO T TO TOT I o. 82 75
M P'H M U I"I Sl T P f ll C T O P O . B "i O NOZ Z l F F F F I C I F N CY 0 ., 8 5 0 9
R OT O R OUT '\ 8 S FL OW fi N G l f ! OE G l 9L O C R O TO R E F F I C I E NC Y 0 ., 8 8 3 9
R OT O R CUT BL A D E F CGF f! N SL E ! D EG ) 90 .00 O E GR fF n f R E AC T I O N o . 5 1 79
R nT OR O UT R l= l CP [ i M I\ C H N f' 0 . '5 1 5 N O N O l l l E Bl A D E S 12
R OT O R fl U T HU A !; ! M E T E R ( I I\. } 2 .000 N O Z Z L E 6l b D E l E NG T H I I ) ' 2 t l
SPEC I F I C S PHD 6 '3 . 3 0 2 S l I P F A C TO P o . 8 56
S P E C I F T f. n i A E T E R 1 . 6 84 N IJ R OT O R Il l A O E S 16
OT O R S P H D ! P P I-1 1 "i B o o n . c R O TO R T i P B L A D E A NGLE ( OE G ) 90. 80
P O TOR f[P O I A MFT E A 1 1 1 5 .640 RQTOP D I AMET FQ RATI O 1. 737

F L C W C fl ND I T I C N S N O l ll F N O Z Z L F. R O T OR P OTOR
') T A T I 'J 'J I N ( l } OUT P l I I\! 0 1 f\ U T ( 4 )

S T li G PRESSUR E CPS I I 3 0 . '1 0 2 9 . 74 2 9 .. 5 2 1 1) . 9 5

S TA G TE MPE R A TURE ( nR I 201 0 . 0 2010.0 2 0 1 0 .. 0 1 7 '5 7 .. 9
ST 'G E 'll T H A L P Y H l T U I L R NI ) 5 54 . 2 2 554. 22 5 5 4 ,; 2 2 ttf3 4 . 1 0
CH N U MR F P ( S T AG ) 0 . 100 0 .582 0 . 605 0 . 219
STAG S 1 UN D V E l OC I T Y ! F T / S E C } 2 1 4? . q 2 l 4 2 . CJ 2 l4 2 . q ? 00 4 . 0
STAG Of N S i T Y f l 8 M / FT l 0 . 1) 4 l 5 O . I1 3 Q CJ 0 . 0 396 o . 0 2 4 '5
P F" S S U R F ( PSJ A I 3 0 . 70 2 3 . '11 8 22 . 97 1 '5 . 1 4
T F "1 P E R I\ T U R F I ') P l 2 0 06 . 7 1 8 97 . 3 1 8R 8 .4 l 7 35 . 3
E N T H AL P Y ! B TU / l A M ) 553 .31 52 3. 16 520. 71 4 7 f! . 4 8
M A C H N ! J MR F P ( STATf C l 0 . iOO 0 . 59 9 0 . 624 0 .280
S OU ND V r t O C I T Y ( FT / SEC I 2 t4 l . l 20 8 2 . 0 2 0 1 1 .. 1 l Ci 9 l .. l
OENS ITY ( l B M/ F T 3 t 0 .0413 0 . 0 3 36 o . 0 32 R O. C216
!) V N I\ M T C V I SC O S I T Y l L R M / F T - SF C ) ? 9 7 E -O "i 2 . 8 6 E -0 5 2 . 5 E- 0 5 2 . 1 0 f- 0 5
C P I T I C l S O U I\I fl V != UK I T Y ( FT / S EC I 1 9 8 4. 9 1 9R4. 9 1 98 4 . q 1 8 '5 6 .
M A S S FL OW R A T E ( L R / S FC I 0 . 469 0 . 46 9 0 . 4 (-) 9 0 . 4 69
110 l l l t-'1 F F L O W P A T F. ( F n 1 S E C I u . 35 9 1 3 .. 9 7 9 1 4 . 2 R4 1 q .. c n o

NO Z Z l E Y N L F T C f A ..! E T f R ! I N I 1 () . 0 7 4
NOl l l E F X H D I A M F H R l PH '5.. 9 2 2
l P E l l f: R lNL FT f) f A ' F T E R ( IN ) 5 . 64 0
B U I. O E FXI T , HUR O I 11 "' q F PI IN) 3. 246
8ll\ D E t X I T S H R O U D D I A METER ( J N) 3 . 246
P A S S A G E W l O T H f PH 0 . 29q 0 . 299 0 . 2 86 0. 5 04
C P O S S- S I: C T I C N A R F A O N ') 9 . 182 4 . 8 79 4 . 640 5 . 135

A R S O L U T F V H f: C H Y , c I F T I S EC ) 2 1 4. l 1 247. 1 1 295 . 4 558.3

P R j f)H rt A l V F L C C i T V , u n = r t s s:: c 1 1 42 7 . 3 8 21. 5
R H AT I V E HOC T TY , w { F T/ SEC ) 48 9 . 7
S H R C I JO P F L .II T I V E v n o r n v , w s f F T / S E C ) 9 9 3 .. 3
cn= t !I TT V E C P I T I C A L M i\ C H N U M B F R 0 . 247 0 .. 5 3 5

A B S O LU T f F L CW A NGL E I D EG I '5 6 . 1 0 1 9. 2 p: . 98 qo. oo

D L A TI VE F L OW ANGL E , S H Q OU O ( DE G I 64 . 87 3 4. 2 0
R El A T I V E F L nW A G l E , HUB ( DE G . 64 .. 8 7 34 . 20

E N T R OP Y GA IN ! ST AG ) 1 2 .. 731 131 .. 335

Table 7. Exam ple: Radial Turbine Stage Synthesis .

 A E R O D YN A M I C S OF T l' R B I N E S 1 03

1 8. \Vat a n a b e, L .Mahi m o , T., " Effect o f S o d erberg, C. H.. Lnpuhlished R ep o r t , G a s T u r b i n e

Dimen s i o n a l o f Impellers o n Perform- Laboratory, JVHT ( l1Jl9 i .
ance Characteristic;; of a Had i a l-in fl o w T u rb i n e,"
S te n n i n g. A. o f T u r b i n es f o r H i a:h
Journal E ngineering for Pmnr, ASME Transac-
tions, pp B l. - 1 02 ( 1 ()71 ) .
E n ergy Fuel, Low Power O u t pu t " R e
p o r t 79, Dyna m i c Analysis and C o n t r o l Laboratory,
1 0. Baije, 0 . "A S t u d v o n Criteria and M IT ( 1 ()5:3 1 .
I'vfatehi n g o f Turhomachi n es : Part A - S i m il a r i t y :H. Amann, a n d Sheridan, D. C., "Compa r i s o n s o f
!:\elat i o n s a n d Desi gn Criteria o f Turbines," Journal, S o m e A n a l y t ic a l and Experim e n t a l Correl a t i o n s o f
Engineering for Power, liSlv!E Transaction s , B.tA , A x ial-fl o w T u r b i n e Efficiency," Paper 6 7
pp 8:1-102 ( 1 962 ) . 6 , ASM E ( Nov. l %71.
20. Bal j e, 0 . E., Binsley, R. "Turbine Performance Lenherc F. A. "Correl11tion o f T u r
Pred i c t i o n : Optimi z a t i o n U5i n ;: Fluid Dyn a m i c Cri bine Blade Total-Pressure-Lo ss Coeffi c i e n t s Deri ve d
teri a," R e p o rt R -6805, Roeketdvne Div.. North fr o m Aeh i evable S t a ge E f fi c i e n c v Data." 68-
American Avi a t ion, Inc. 1 Dee. l 966 i ( NT IS AD- WA (
A S M E 1.1)68 1 . " .

61.2767 ) .
Brown, L. "Axial Flo w C o mpres s o r a n d T u r b i n e
2 1 . Vavra, M. "Basic Elements for Advanced De
Loss Coeffic i en ts: A Com p a r i s o n o f Several Param
signs of R a d ial-flo w Compressors." A dvanced Com
eters," Journal, Engineering for Power, A SME
pressors , Lec t u re Series #;\f), AGARD-NATO ( Aug.
1 070 ) .
Transactions, p p 1 93-2 0 1 1 1 ()72 ) .
2 2 . Reynoftls lVwn ber Sym posium, Journal, Engineering :n , D. M a t h i es o n, G. C.
Performance Estimation f o r A x i al ''
foi ASME Transactions, pp 225-2')8
1 1 964. ) . R a n d M 2974, Aero n a u t i c a l Research C o u n c i l
( 1 %7 ) .
Cordi,>.r. 0 .. " Al:ml i chkeitsbed i n :;:ungen fii r S tr om
u n rr;:;maeh i n en," Brenn stoff, Wrm ; Kraft, 5, pp 3B. R. "Preilietio n s o f o f Ra-
l:i'l-:31.0 ( ] 953 1 ; see also VDl Bericht, 3, pp 85-88 d i a l Gas T urbi nes i n A ut o m ot i v e T u r b oc h a r "''ers." .

( l <) ;).') .
,
2 k Bor eL ''Cha r ad('ri s t ic Dimens i onless
Turbomachi n es," lf'ater Pown, 19. pp 4/H-4r)8
( ] 96 T l ; 20, pp 27-:;2 ( 1%B l .
25. Wislicen u s, G. F . , "Tu rh o m ac hi n er y Desi gn De
scribed by S i mi l a r i t y Considerations," S y mposium,
F l u i d Mechan ics and Desi p1 of Turbomaehinery,
Pen n s y l v an i a S t a l e U n i versity ( Au g. FJ70 \ ; to he
published in NASA S P.
26. Baljc, 0 .
"Axial Cascade Tec h nology and A p
pli c a t i o n t o Flow Path Design,' ' foumal, Engineer
ing for Power, ASME Transaction.>, 90A , pp 30t).
HO ( 1 968 ) .
Balje, 0 . E., Bin s ley, R. L ., " A;;; i a l Turbin(' Per
formam:e Eva l u a ti on," .foumal, Engineering for
Power, A SlvlE Transactions, 90A , p p JH -360
( 1963 ) .
28. Daily, J. W., Neee, R. E., ''Chamber J)imension
Effects o n I nd u ced Flow a n d Frictional Hesistance
of Enclosed Hot al i ng Disks," Jonnwl of Basic Engi
neerin g, A SME Transactions, 82D, pp 2 1 7-232
( 1960 , .
1\:Tann, R. W., Muston, C. A., "friction on
Blarted Disks in Hou i n gs as a Fundinn o f Heynolds
Number. Axial and Radial Clearance and Blade
Aspect R a t i o and Solidity ," Journal of Basic En{!i
n eering, A SiJ;JE Transactions. 83 D, pp 7 1 ().723
( 11)61 ) .
.)0. Benson. R . ' A Review o f !\l!thods for Assessing
Los>< Coeffi c i e n ts i n Radial Gas Turbines," I n terna
tiona l ]ou m al of /1!/ech an ical Sciences, 1 2, p p 1)05-
032 ( 1 ()70 ! .
:n. R o d uers. C .. " E ffieiencv and Performance C h a r ac
, .
teris tics o f R a d i al T u r b ines," Paper 66075 1, S A E
Oct . ( 1 ') 6 6 I .
Paper 7 l "GT-66, ASME ( Ma rd1 1 97 1 1 .
for :VJ. S c heel, L. F., C l i n e, H. E. "Tech ..
n ol o g y f o r Cent r ifugal C o mpressors," 71-
P ET-24., ASME ( Sept 1 97 1 ) .
NOMENCLATURE
A eross-ec t i o n a l area
a area
s o n i c v el o c i ty hn!?'ed o n l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s
s o n i c v el o c i t y b a s e d o n c r it i c a l c o n d i t i on s,
i .e., c o n d i t i o n s where l o c a l velocity jus t equa l s
;; o n i c velocity, thus where c '= a c= a ,
b blade length ( see Figure 2 c )
c absolute veloci t y
c vecto r o f t h e absolu t e flu i d v el o c i t y F i g-
ure l )
Cm component o f absolute f l u i d velocity m m e
r i d i o n al pla n e
component o f absolu te f lu i d veloci ty perpen
d ic u l a r ! o m e ri d i o n a l plnne
speci fi c h e a t a t c o n s ta n t pressu r e o f flo w i n g
flu i d
specific h e a t at constant v o l u m e o f flowin g
fluid
h y d r a u l ic d iameter ( see T a b l e 51
speci fi c d iameter ( see Table 3 I
d i ameter
shroud d i a meter ( see F i g u r e 2a I
h u b d i ameter ( see F i g u r e 2 a )
E energy o f sy-stem ( see T a b l e l c )
104 PHOCE E D I N G S OF T H E F l H S T T C RB 0 1'I A C H I N E R Y S Y M P OS I V M

e i n ternal energy ( thermod y n am i c property ) v volume o f con trol v o l u m e

r v ec t o r force v volume

g gravitatio n al acceleration w w ork transfer w i th respect to the s y s t em

ii angular m omen t u m o f system Table ld l w rel a t i v e flu i d velocit y
lit, isentropic w o rk extraction ( = h o t - h o 1 ) componen t o f t h e r el a t i v e flu i d vel o c i t y i n
meri d i on a l p l a n e
l! blade h e i gh t
u , componen t o f the rel a t i v e flu i d per-
h enthalpy ! thermody n a m i c property 1
pen d i c u l a r t o meri d i o n a l p l a n e
i, J, k u n i t vectors i n the c o o r d i n a t e d i rec t i o ns ( see
s h o c k loss coefficien t ( see Figure 6h I
Figure 1 l
stat o r gas a n gle l see Fi)!Ure 2 c I
i incidence \ Ree Figure 2c )
Blator blade angle ( se e Fi g u r e 2e )
blade c h o r d ( see Fi gure 2c l
{3 rotor gas a n gle 1 see Fi,gure 2c I
Ji m omen t
{3' rotor blade angle ( see figure 2 c )
M mass o f sy;,tem ( see Table 1 a )
'Y s t a gger angle ( see Figure 2e )
Jf * ,. relat i v e M ac h n u mber based o n c r i t i c a l c o n
d i ti o n s y ratio nf spec i fi c heats
"
m mass flow rate Table l a ) 0 blade ( ee F i g u re 2 a l
N, specific ( see Table 3 ) 0 devi a t i o n I see Figu re 2c )
N rotative speed energy ./ u n i t m ass I ;:ee Table l c }
n p o l ytropic exponent deflec t i o n I s e e Figu re 2 c I
;; o u tw a r d d r a w n u n i t n ormal v ec t o r \ S('C n ozzl: \ s t a t o r l efficiency ( see Table 2 a 'l
u re 1 ) rotor efficienty Table 2 a )
p l i n e a r momentum o f s y s tem I see Table 1 b ) t u r b i n e s ta;.;e i sen tropic efficiency Table
p pressure ( thermody n a m i c proper l y '! 2a i
volume flo w rate o r capacity mall efficiency ( see Tahle 2 b )
Q
Q h e a t transfe r >< i t h respect to t h e s ystem t u rb i n e stage poly t r o p i c efficiency ( see Table
2b )
R r a d i u s from a x i s o f ro t a t i o n ( e e Figure l l
camber ( see Fi gure 2e )
Re" m a ch i n e Reynolds n umber ( see Table ;>, I
R e 11 R ey n o ld s n umber based o n passage h y d ra u l i c d y n a m i c viscosity
d i ameter ( see T a b l e 51 l oss c odficient based o n enthalpy Table
Ru reheat factor ( see Table 2 b ) 51
r r a d i u s vector l ,;ee Figure l ) n ozzle l oss coeff ieient ( see Figure 6a "l
r degree o f react i o n o f turbine stage ( see Table rotor loss coefficien t ( see Table 6 )
2aj
den>.ity thermod y n a m i c property l
r, -!J, z o r th o go n al, cylindrical c o o r d i n a t e sy,;tem ( see
Figure l ) g,rav i t a t i o n al p o ten t i al
s s u r face area o f control volume n r o t o r a n ;wlar vel o c i t y ( see F igure 1 1
s coordinate a l o n g s treamlin e
\1 Yect o r o prator 1. o::: iJ ' (J r T + 1 1r ii /(j{) T
s entropy I thermodynamic property I + il . r)z k i

s blade p i tc h or spacin g ! Figure 2c l ln l o g a r i t h m to base e

r torque
S ubscr i p ts
T tempera t u r e I thermodn1amic property )
1 , 2, 3, 4 t u r b i n e s t a ge s t a t i o n n u m bers I see Figure 2 )
time
blade thickness ( see Figure 2 c 1 local stagn a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s h i c h a re ob
tma.r 0 v,

t a i n e d when
u blade o r rotor tip velocity
5 stator
u, v, w components o f c in the three c o o r d i na te d i
rectio n s ( see Figure 1 I r rotor