Solutions Manual PDF

1
1.X.1
(a) This smooth sailing ships motion constitutes motion with a constant velocity.
(b) Orbital motion does not constitute motion with a constant velocity; Moons direction in space continually changes.
(c) Tennis balls, and other projectiles, do not move with constant velocity.
(d) A velocity can have a magnitude of zero, so this is indeed motion with a constant velocity. The important thing is that
the velocity isnt changing.
(e) A person on a Ferris wheel experiences a continual change in direction regardless of the Ferris wheels speed, and
regardless of whether the wheel is turning at a constant rate or a variable rate.
1.X.2
(a) The balls direction changes, so thats evidence of a significant interaction.

(b) The baseballs direction changed, so thats evidence of a significant interaction.
(c) The satellites direction in space continually changes, so thats evidence of a significant interaction.
(d) There is no evidence of significant interactions in this case.
(e) The particles changing direction is evidence of a significant interaction.
1.X.3
(a) Changing velocity (in this case, the velocitys magnitude) indicates a net interaction.
(b) Changing velocity (in this case, the velocitys magnitude) indicates a net interaction.
(c) Changing velocity (in this case, the velocitys direction) indicates a net interaction.
(d) There is no sign of a net interaction.
(e) There is no sign of a net interaction.
1.X.4
(a) This statement is correct.

(b) This statement is incorrect.
(c) This statement is incorrect.
(d) This statement is correct.
(e) This statement is incorrect.
(f) This statement is incorrect.
2
1.X.5
(a) This statement is incorrect.
(b) This statement is incorrect.
(d) This statement is correct.
(e) This statement is correct.
1.X.6 Three numbers (signed) are needed to specify a 3D position vector.
1.X.7 One number (signed) is needed to specify a scalar.
1.X.8
r
2 2 2
|~r| = rx + ry + rz
q
2 2 2
|~r| = (3) + (4) + (1) m

|~r| 26 m 5.10 m
1.X.9 A vectors magnitude corresponds to the length of the arrow used to represent the vector. Its impossible for an arrow
to have a negative length. Therefore, a vector cannot have a negative magnitude.
1.X.10 Within the framework of vector algebra, adding a vector and a scalar is not defined, and therefore has no meaning.
Therefore, the correct answer choice is (d). (NOTE: There is a mathematical language, called geometric algebra, used by
some physicists in which adding vectors and scalars is not only defined, but also useful. However, this text does not use
geometric algebra.)
1.X.11 Within the framework of vector algebra, dividing a scalar (or anything else for that matter) by a vector is not defined,
and therefore has no meaning. (NOTE: There is a mathematical language, called geometric algebra, used by some physicists
in which dividing by vectors is not only defined, but also useful. However, this text does not use geometric algebra.)
1.X.12 Simply multiply each component of ~a by f .

3
f~a = (3) h0.03, 1.4, 26.0i

f~a = h0.09, 4.2, 78.0i
1.X.13 Simply divide each component of ~r by 2. Note that this is equivalent to multiplying ~r by 21 .
h2, 3, 5im
~r/2 =
2
~r/2 = h1, 1.5, 2.5im
1.X.14 The magnitude of 3~v will simply be three times the magnitude of ~v.
r
2 2 2
~
3v = |3| |~v| = 3 vx + vy + vz
q

~ 2 2 2
3v = (3) (2) + (3) + (5) m/s

~
3v = (3) 38 m/s 18.5 m/s
1.X.15 Any vector ~a and its opposite ~a will always have the same magnitude.
1.X.16
h0, 6, 0i h0, 6, 0i h0, 6, 0i

= q = = h0, 1, 0i
|h0, 6, 0i| 2 2 2 6
(0) + (6) + (0)
1.X.17 ~a = h400, 200, 100im/s2 . First, we need the magnitude of ~a.
r 2 2 2
|~a| = ax + ay + az
q
2 2 2
|~a| = (400) + (200) + (100) m/s2
|~a| = 458 m/s2
Now we need to get the direction a.

4
~a
a =
|~a|
2
h400, 200, 100i
m/s

a = 2
= h0.873, 0.437, 0.218i
m/s
458

1.X.18 If ~b and ~a are equal, then they must have equal components. So by must be 7.
1.X.19 If ~r1 and ~r2 are equal, then they must have the same magnitude and the same direction. However, these two vectors
have different directions so they are not equal even if they have the same magnitude. Note that the familiar expression equal
and opposite often seen referring to vectors in introductory physics textbooks is inherently oxymoronic; it contradicts itself.
Two vectors cannot be equal if they have opposite directions. Two vectors can indeed have equal magnitudes and opposite
directions though, and this is the correct way of articulating the relationship.
1.X.20 ~F1 = h300, 0, 200i and ~F2 = h150, 300, 0i
r 2 2 q
2

~
2 2 2
F1 = F1,x + F1,y + F1,z = (300) + (0) + (200) = 361 N
r 2 2 2 q

~ 2 2 2
F2 = F2,x + F2,y + F2,z = (150) + (300) + (0) = 335 N
D E q 2 2 2
~
F1 + ~F2 = F1,x + F2,x , F1,y + F2,y , F1,z + F2,z = (450) + (300) + (200) = 577 N

~ ~
F1 + F2 = 361 N + 335 N = 696 N

In general, it it not the case that ~F1 + ~F2 and ~F1 + ~F2 are equal. The only time it is true is when ~F1 and ~F2 have the

same direction.
D E D E
~ = 3 103 , 4 103 , 5 103 and B
1.X.21 A ~ = 3 103 , 4 103 , 5 103 so this is again very straightfoward.
(a)
D 3 3 3
E D 3 3 3
E
~ +B
A ~ = 3 10 , 4 10 , 5 10 + 3 10 , 4 10 , 5 10
= h0, 0, 0i
Note that technically, writing A

~ +B
~ = 0 is incorrect since the right hand side is a scalar and the left hand side is a
vector.
(b)

~ ~
A + B = 0
5
(c)
r

~ 2 2 2
A = 3 103 + 4 103 + 5 103
7071
(d)
r

~ 2 2 2
B = 3 103 + 4 103 + 5 103
7071
(e)

~ ~
A + B 14142
So here we have two vectors, neither of which has zero magnitude but when theyre added together, the resultant
has zero magnitude. The magnitude of the sum of two vectors is not in general equal to the sum of their individual
magnitudes.
1.X.22 ~F1 = h300, 0, 200i Nand ~F2 = h150, 300, 0i Nso this is again very straightfoward.
~F + ~F = h300, 0, 200i N + h150, 300, 0i N

1 2
= h450, 300, 200i N

~F ~F = h300, 0, 200i N h150, 300, 0i N
1 2
= h150, 300, 200i N

~F ~F = ~F1 ~F2
2 1
= h150, 300, 200i N
1.X.23
(a) This statement is correct.

(b) This statement is correct.
(d) This statement is incorrect.
(e) This statement is correct.
1.X.24 ~ri = h3, 2, 5i m at ti and ~rf = h6, 4, 25i m at tf .

6
(a)
~r = ~rf ~ri = h6, 4, 25i m h3, 2, 5i m

= h9, 2, 20i m
(b) t = tf ti = 10 : 02 10 : 00 = 00 : 02 = 120 s
1.X.25 ~ri = h3, 0, 7i m at ti and ~rf = h2, 0, 8i m at tf .
~r = ~rf ~ri = h2, 0, 8i h3, 0, 7i m

= h1, 0, 1i m
1.X.26 Lets arbitrarily call the unknown unit vector a.
a = hcos 160 , cos 20 , 0i

= h0.940, 0.342, 0i
1.X.27 Lets arbitrarily call the unknown unit vector s.
s = hcos 130 , cos 40 , 0i

= h0.643, 0.766, 0i
1.X.28

80
cm
1m 1min

= 0.00267 m/s
5min
100
cm
60 s
1.X.29
(a) The average velocity of the tennis ball is

7
~r
~vavg =
t
~rf ~ri
=
tf ti
h9, 2, 8i m h5, 7, 2i m
=
0.7 s 0.2 s
h4, 5, 6i m
=
0.5 s
= h8, 10, 12i m/s
(b) Average speed is defined as:
distance traveled
average speed =
t
In general, this is not the same as |~vavg |. However, if the direction of motion of the object does NOT change
during the time interval, then
average speed = |~vavg | (if direction of ~v stays the same)
In this case, we assume that during a small time interval, the balls velocity is approximately constant and therefore,
average speed = |~vavg |

q
2 2 2
= (8) + (10) + (12) m/s
= 17.5 m/s
(c) The direction of the average velocity is given by its unit vector
~v
vavg = avg
~vavg

h8, 10, 12i m/s

=
17.5 m/s
= h0.46, 0.57, 0.68i
1.X.30
(a) The average velocity of the spacecraft is

8
~r
~vavg =
t
~rf ~ri
=
t
h325, 25, 550i m h200, 300, 400i m
=
5s
h125, 275, 150i m
=
5s
= h25, 55, 30i m/s
(b) Average speed is defined as:
distance traveled
average speed =
t
In general, this is not the same as |~vavg |. However, since the spacecrafts direction of motion is presumably constant
during this time interval
average speed = |~vavg | (if direction of ~v stays the same)

q
2 2 2
= (25) + (55) + (30) m/s
= 67 m/s
(c) The direction of the average velocity is given by its unit vector
~v
vavg = avg
~vavg

h25, 55, 30i m/s

=
67 m/s
= h0.37, 0.82, 0.44i
1.X.31
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t

< 0, 0, 0 > +( 3 105 , 2 105 , 4 105 m/s)(9.7 s 9.0 s)

=
= ( 3 105 , 2 105 , 4 105 m/s)(0.7 s)

= 2.1 105 , 1.4 105 , 2.8 105 m

1.X.32
The velocity of the baseball is
9
~r
~v =
t
Note that you cannot simply solve for t because you cant divide a vector by a vector. Thus, to solve for t, write the
velocity in component form.
x
vx =
t
y
vy =
t
z
vz =
t
Use any of the components of the velocity to solve for the time interval. For example, using the x-component of the baseballs
motion gives
x
vx =
t
x
t =
vx
x2 x1
=
vx
18 m 3 m
=
30 m/s
15 m
=
30 m/s
= 0.5 s
Check your answer by using the other components. You should get the same result, for example
y
vy =
t
y
t =
vy
y2 y1
=
vy
17 m 7 m
=
30 m/s
10 m
=
20 m/s
= 0.5 s
1.X.33
10
The average velocity of a particle is its velocity during a finite time interval and is calculated as the particles displacement
divided by the time interval. It is in the direction of the displacement of the particle during the time interval. It does not tell
you anything about whether the particles velocity was constant during the time interval or whether it changed in magnitude
or direction during the time interval. A car that makes one lap around a track has zero average velocity during one lap
because its displacement is zero. However, it certainly was moving and was perhaps speeding up or slowing down during the
lap.
Instantaneous velocity of a particle is its velocity at an instant of time. It is calculated as the average velocity of a particle
during a time interval in the limit that the time interval approaches zero. In other words, it is the derivative of the particles
position as a function of time. The instantaneous velocity of a particle is tangent to the particles path at a single location
(i.e. point), thus it defines the direction of motion of the particle at an instant. On a graph of x-position vs. time, the
instantaneous x-velocity of the particle at an instant t is the slope of a line tangent to the graph, at that instant.
1.X.34
The velocity of the comet is tangent to its path, in the direction of motion. Thus, the correct arrows are:
location 1 : a
location 2 : h
location 3 : g
location 4 : f
location 5 : e
1.X.35
Acceleration is defined as
~v
~a =
t
The direction of velocity is not given in the problem; therefore, assume that the motion is in the +x-direction.
h25, 0, 0i m/s < 0, 0, 0 >

~a =
5s
= h5, 0, 0i m/s2
Thus, the magnitude of the acceleration of the car is
|~a| = 5 m/s2
The magnitude of the acceleration of a falling rock is approximately 10 m/s2 . The magnitude of the cars acceleration is half
the magnitude of the acceleration of a falling rock.
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1.X.36
~r(t) = < 3 + 5t, 4t2 , 2t 6t3 >
d~v
~v(t) =
dt
= < 5, 8t, 2 18t2 >
d~v
~a(t) =
dt
= < 0, 8, 36t >
To calculate ~v at t = 0, substitute t = 0 into the expression for ~v(t).
~v(0) = < 5, 0, 2 >
To calculate ~a at t = 0, substitute t = 0 into the expression for ~a(t).
~a(0) = < 0, 8, 0 >
The constants in the function for ~r should have units so that if t is in seconds, for example, ~r might be calculated in meters
or kilometers, or some other unit for position. Then, we would know the units for velocity and acceleration as well.
1.X.37
For |~v| << c,
~p = m~v
|~p| = m |~v|
= (65 kg)(10 m/s)
= 650 kg m/s
1.X.38
The electrons momentum is
12

1
~p =
r
m~v
2

|~
v|
1 c2
31

(9.1 10 kg)( 0, 0, 2 108 m/s)
= r
(2108 m/s)2
1 (3108 m/s)2
31

(9.1 10 kg)( 0, 0, 2 108 m/s)
= q 2
1 23
0, 0, 2.4 1022 kg m/s

=
The magnitude of its momentum is
|~p| = 2.4 1022 kg m/s
1.X.39
~p and ~v have the same direction, so the comets velocity is also in the direction of arrow b.
1.X.40
Since |~v| << c, use
~p = m~v
~p
~v =
m
h0.9, 0, 22.5i kg m/s
=
4.5 kg
= h0.2, 0, 5i m/s
~rf = ~ri + ~vt

= < 0, 0, 0 > +(h0.2, 0, 5i m/s)(2 s)
= h0.4, 0, 10i m
1.X.41
Since |~v| << c, use
13
~p = m~v
~p
~v =
m
h4500, 0, 3000i kg m/s
=
1300 kg
= h3.46, 0, 2.31i m/s
~rf = ~ri + ~vt

= h94, 0, 30i m + (h3.46, 0, 2.31i m/s)(17 s 12 s)
= h94, 0, 30i m + (h3.46, 0, 2.31i m/s)(5 s)
= h94, 0, 30i m + h17.3, 0, 11.6i m
= h111, 0, 18i m
1.X.42
(a) Sketch a picture showing the ball before the collision with the wall and after the collision with the wall, like those shown
in Figure ?? and Figure ??.
pi
Figure 1: The initial momentum ~pi
(b) Sketch the change in momentum vector by drawing the initial momentum and final momentum vectors tail to tail and
then sketching the change in momentum vector from the head of the initial momentum vector to the head of the final
momentum vector, as shown in Figure ??.
~p = ~pf ~pi
= m~vf m~vi
= m(~vf ~vi )
= (0.057 kg)(h48, 0, 0i m/s h50, 0, 0i m/s)
= (0.057 kg)(h98, 0, 0i m/s)
= h5.6, 0, 0i kg m/s
14
pf
Figure 2: The final momentum ~pf
pf pi
pf
Figure 3: The change in momentum ~p.
Note that the change in momentum points to the left, which is consistent with the sketch in Figure ??.
(c)

|~p| = ~pf ~pi

= m ~vf m ~vi

= m(~vf ~vi )

= (0.057 kg)(48 m/s 50 m/s)

= (0.057 kg)(2 m/s)
= 0.11 kg m/s
Note that in general, |~p| =

6 |~p|, as is evident in this example.
1.X.43
15
(a)
~p = ~pB ~pA
= m(~vB ~vA )
23
D 4
E D 4
E
= (6.4 10 kg)( 2.5 10 , 0, 0 m/s 0, 0, 2.5 10 m/s)
23
D 4 4
E
= (6.4 10 kg)( 2.5 10 , 0, 2.5 10 m/s)
D 28 28
E
= 1.6 10 , 0, 1.6 10 kg m/s
(b) Sketch a picture showing Sun and the momentum of Mars at locations C and D, like the sketch in Figure ??.
Sun x
C
pC D
pD
z
Figure 4: The momentum of Mars at C and D.
(c) Draw the change in momentum vector by sketching the momentum at C and the momentum at D tail to tail. The
change in momentum is the vector drawn from the head of the momentum at C to the head of the momentum at D, as
shown in Figure ??.
Note: ~p in Figure ?? points up and to the right, towards Sun.
1.X.44 Draw a sketch of the situation, like the one shown in Figure ??.
(a)
~p = ~pf ~pi
= h7, 0, 12i kg m/s h0, 0, 10i kg m/s
= h7, 0, 2i kg m/s
~pk is the z-component in this case since ~pi was in the z-direction. So,
~pk = h0, 0, 2i kg m/s
16
pD
pC
Figure 5: The change in momentum vector.
pf
pi
Figure 6: Sketch of puck and momentum vectors
(b) ~p is perpendicular to the +z axis which is the component of ~p that is in the y-z plane, in this case.
~p = h7, 0, 0i kg m/s
1.X.45
(a) and (b) are true because (a) the speed of light is the same in all reference frames and (b) light will be blueshifted for
observers in the spaceship that is moving toward the light beam. Note that the color of the light will shift toward shorter
wavelengths (the blue end of the visible spectrum) for an observer moving toward the light source (or vice versa). Thats
what is meant by the word blueshifted.
1.X.46
17
(a) 1. The velocity of a bird changes as it flies through the air, due to interactions with Earth and air.
2. The velocity of a gymnast changes as she does a routine on the uneven bars due to interactions with Earth and the
bars.
(b) 1. The temperature of coffee in a cup on a desk changes due to interactions with the cup and air.
2. The temperature of the air in a car changes due to interactions with the car (such as its windows) and Sun (radiation).
(c) 1. The shape of the space capsule Genesis changed as it collided with Earth, because its parachutes did not deploy.
(See http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap090705.html for a picture of the capsule.) This change of shape was due to its
interaction with Earths surface (a contact force).
2. The shape of an atom (its electron cloud) changes as a result of its electromagnetic interaction with other atoms
when bonded in a molecule.
(d) 1. A free neutron decays into a proton, an electron, and an antineutrino due to the weak nuclear interaction of quarks
within the neutron.
2. A positron and an electron annihilate each other and produce photons, due to the weak nuclear interaction of the
positron and electron.
(e) 1. When a laptop sits on an inclined laptop stand, one might expect the laptop to slide off the stand (with a changing
velocity) due its gravitational interaction with Earth. However, it remains at rest with no net interaction. Thus, the
laptop stand interacts with the laptop, exactly balancing the gravitational force by Earth on the laptop.
2. Suppose that water in an aquarium has a constant temperature. One expects the water to cool due to interactions
with air and glass around the aquarium. The fact that there is no net interaction means that there must be a source
of thermal energy, such as an electric heating coil in the water, that heats the water.
1.X.47
(a), (b), (d), (e) are observations that give conclusive evidence of an interaction.
Note that (c) is not by itself evidence of an interaction. An object can move with constant velocity if it has no interactions
with its surroundings or if there is no net interaction with its surroundings, meaning that all interactions balance one another.
1.X.48
(b), (c), (d), (e), and (f) show evidence of an interaction. In the case of (b), its speed changes (and therefore its velocity
changes). In the case of (c) through (f), its direction of motion changes (and therefore its velocity changes).
(a) has a constant velocity and therefore has no net interaction with its surroundings.
1.X.49
The persons in cases (b) and (d) will observe motion that appears to violate Newtons first law because their reference frames
are accelerating relative to Earth (which can be assumed in these cases to be an inertial reference frame). In cases (a),
(c), and (e), the persons velocity (relative to Earth) is constant, and therefore, the persons reference frame is an inertial
reference frame where Newtons first law will be valid in all experiments.
1.X.50
(a), (c), and (d) are correct. Using a spaceship far from any large objects (like stars, planets, etc.) is a useful thought
experiment because it doesnt make contact with anything (such as air or a track or a road, for example) and doesnt interact
gravitationally with anything since the gravitational force is quite weak for interactions with objects that are very far away.
18
1.X.51
Nothing interacts with the spaceship after its thrusters are turned off; therefore, according to Newtons first law, its velocity
4
will remain constant, and the spaceship will continue with the same speed of 1 10 m/s in the same direction as it had
when its thrusters were turned off.
1.X.52
The ball remains at rest (nearly); therefore, its velocity is constant. Thus, the net force on the ball must be zero. Since we
know that Earth exerts a downward gravitational force on the ball, there must be something exerting an upward force on
the ball so that the net force on the ball is zero.
1.X.53
While you are walking and holding the book, the ball moves with a constant velocity (relative to an observer who is standing
at rest). When you stop, the ball continues moving with a constant velocity as it rolls across the book because there is no
net force on the ball to change its velocity, until it rolls off the book and then the net force on the ball is the gravitational
force by Earth which changes its velocity as it falls.
1.X.54
All of these statements are true. Equal vectors must have equal components and the same direction (i.e. unit vector).
1.X.55
~a is a vector because of the arrow symbol above the variable.
1.X.56
(b) and (c) are vectors. (d) is a vector component and has properties of a vector and can be treated as a vector though it is
technically a vector component when written in this form.
1.X.57
|~v| is a scalar.
1.X.58
(a), (c), (d), and (f) are all vectors. Note that in the case of (f), a scalar times a vector is a vector.
1.X.59
(a), (c), and (d) are all vectors. Multiplying a vector by a scalar results in a vector. Dividing a vector by a scalar also results
in a vector.
19
1.X.60
8 106 , 0, 2 107 m/s

~v =
q
2 2 2
|~v| = (8 106 ) + (0) + (2 107 ) m/s
7
= 2.2 10 m/s
1.X.61
(a) The magnitude of a vector is indicated by the length of the arrow representing the vector. The arrows that have the
same magnitude as ~a have the same length as ~a. Counting gridlines shows that |~a| = 10 units.
Vectors ~c, ~e, and ~f also have a length of 10 units.
To calculate the magnitude of ~b, first determine its components. Then apply the Pythagorean theorem.
q
~ 2 2 2
b = (7.1) + (7.1) + (0)
= 10 units
Thus, ~b has the same magnitude as ~a. In the same way, you can verify that ~d also has the same magnitude as ~a.
(b) To be equal, the vectors must have the same magnitude and direction. The only vectors equal to ~a are ~c and ~f.
1.X.62
For each vector, begin at the tail of the vector and count the gridlines to the right or left and the gridlines up or down to get
to the head of the vector. These are the x and y components. The results are:
~a = h5, 3, 0i m
~c = h6, 9, 0i m
~g = h10, 3, 0i m
1.X.63
No, it is not a meaningful value. A scalar cannot be added to a vector.
1.X.64
(a) See Figure ??

20
!p
Figure 7: Vector ~p.
(b)
~p = h7, 3, 0i
= h7, 3, 0i
It points to the right and downward, as shown in Figure ??.
!p
Free Plain Graph Paper from http://incompetech.com/graphpaper/plain/
!p
Figure 8: Vector ~p.

21
1.X.65
2h2, 6, 3i m = h4, 12, 6i m
Therefore, (a) and (c) are true. (b) is false because multiplying a vector changes its magnitude (i.e. length of the arrow) but
NOT its direction. Both vectors have the same direction, thus the same unit vector.
1.X.66
(a) To measure the x-component of the vector, begin at the tail of the vector and count gridlines horizontally from the tail
to the head of the vector. In a similar way, count gridlines vertically from the tail to the head of the vector to get the
y-comopnent. As a result, ~a = h4, 3, 0i.
(b) ~b = h4, 3, 0i
(c) This statement is true. ~a and ~b have the same components.
(d) ~c = h4, 3, 0i
(e) Yes, this is true. h4, 3, 0i = h4, 3, 0i
(f) ~d = h3, 4, 0i
(g) This statement is false. ~c = h4, 3, 0i = h4, 3, 0i =

6 h3, 4, 0i
1.X.67
(a) ~d = h6, 3, 2i m
(b) ~e = ~d = h6, 3, 2i m = h6, 3, 2i m
(c) Take the position of the tail of the vector and add the vector ~d.
h5, 2, 4i m + h6, 3, 2i m = h11, 1, 6i m
(d) Take the position of the tail of the vector and add the vector ~d.
h1, 1, 1i m + h6, 3, 2i m = h5, 4, 3i m

22
1.X.68
f~a = (2.0)(h0.02, 1.7, 30.0i)

= h0.04, 3.4, 60i
1.X.69
(a) The vector ~f is shown in Figure ??.
Figure 9: Vector ~f
(b)
2~f = < 4, 8, 0 >
The vector 2~f is shown in Figure ??.

(c) The vector 2~f has twice the magnitude (length) as ~f.
(d) The vector 2~f has the same direction as ~f.

(e) Free Plain Graph Paper from http://incompetech.com/graphpaper/plain/
~f/2 = < 1, 2, 0 >
The vector ~f/2 is shown in Figure ??.

23
Figure 10: Vector 2~f
Figure 11: Vector ~f/2
(f) The vector ~f/2 has half the magnitude (length) as ~f.
(g) The vector ~f/2 has the same direction as ~f.
(h) Yes, multiplying a vector by a scalar changes its magnitude.

24
(i)
a~f = 3~f
Thus, a = 3.
1.X.70
This vector points in the x direction, so no calculation is needed. The unit vector is < 1, 0, 0 >.
1.X.71
For vector < 2, 2, 2 >,
< 2, 2, 2 >
unit vector = q
2 2 2
(2) + (2) + (2)
< 2, 2, 2 >
=
12
= < 0.58, 0.58, 0.58 >
For vector < 3, 3, 3 >,
< 3, 3, 3 >
unit vector = q
2 2 2
(3) + (3) + (3)
< 3, 3, 3 >
=
27
= < 0.58, 0.58, 0.58 >
Note that its direction is the same as the vector < 2, 2, 2 > because

3
< 3, 3, 3 > = (< 2, 2, 2 >)
2
and multiplying a vector by a scalar changes its magnitude, but not its direction.
1.X.72
|~a| is
q
2 2 2
|~a| = (400) + (200) + (100) m/s2
= 458 m/s2
25
Its unit vector is
~a
a =
|~a|
q
2 2 2
(400) + (200) + (100) m/s2
=
458 m/s2
= < 0.87, 0.44, 0.22 >
Thus,
~a = (458 m/s2 )(< 0.87, 0.44, 0.22 >)
1.X.73
A picture of ~g is shown in Figure ??.
!g
Figure 12: Vector ~g
(a)
q
2 2 2
|~g| = (4 m) + (7 m) + (0 m)
= 8.06 m
(b)
~g
g =
|~g|
h4, 7, 0i m
=
8.06 m
= < 0.50, 0.87, 0 >
26
(c) A picture of g is shown in Figure ??.
!g
g
Figure 13: Vector g
It has the same direction as ~g but has a length of 1.
(d) One should expect to get the original vector ~g. Lets verify:
|~g| g = (8.06 m)(< 0.50, 0.87, 0 >)

= h4.0, 7.0, 0i m
exactly as expected. Free Plain Graph Paper from http://incompetech.com/graphpaper/plain/
1.X.74
(a) The position of the proton is the vector from the origin to the location of the proton. In this case,
3 1010 , 3 1010 , 8 1010 m

~r =
(b)
q
2 2 2
|~r| = (3 1010 m) + (3 1010 m) + (8 1010 m)
= 9.1 1010 m
27
(c) Its unit vector is
~r
r =
|~r|
3 1010 , 3 1010 , 8 1010 m

=
9.1 1010 m
= h0.33, 0.33, 0.88i
1.X.75
(a)
magnitude = 9.5
direction = < 0, 0, 1 >
< 0, 0, 9.5 > = (9.5)(< 0, 0, 1 >)
(b)
magnitude = 679
direction = < 0, 1, 0 >
< 0, 679, 0 > = (679)(< 0, 1, 0 >)
(c)
q
2 2 2
magnitude = (3.5 103 ) + (0 ) + (3.5 103 )
= 4.9 103
< 3.5 103 , 0, 3.5 103 >

direction =
4.9 103
= < 0.71, 0, 0.71 >
< 3.5 103 , 0, 3.5 103 > = (4.9 103 )(< 0.71, 0, 0.71 >)
(d)
q
2 2 2
magnitude = (4 106 ) + (6 106 ) + (3 106 )
= 7.8 106
< 4 106 , 6 106 , 3 106 >

direction =
7.8 106
= < 0.51, 0.77, 0.38 >
< 4 106 , 6 106 , 3 106 > = (7.8 106 )(< 0.51, 0.77, 0.38 >)
28
1.X.76
< 3, 3, 3 >
unit vector = q
2 2 2
(3 ) + (3 ) + (3 )
< 3, 3, 3 >
=
27
= < 0.577, 0.577, 0.577 >
The edges of the cube make up the +x, +y and +z axes. As a result, one can use the direction cosine to get the angle the
vector makes with any axis. Since the vector is along the diagonal of a cube, then it makes the same angle with respect to
each axis.
Choose an axis, for example the x-axis. The direction cosine is
x-component of the vector

cos(x ) =
magnitude of the vector
x-component of the unit vector
=
1
= 0.577
Take the inverse cosine of both sides, with your calculator in degree mode.
x = cos1 (0.577)
= 55
1.X.77
Calculate the magnitude of each vector using
r 2 2 2

~ =
vector vectorx + vectory + vectorz
If the magnitude of the vector is 1 (or close to 1 considering that the numbers are rounded), then it is a unit vector.
(a) magnitude = 1. Its a unit vector.

(b) magnitude = 0.5. Its NOT a unit vector.
(c) magnitude = 1/3. Its NOT a unit vector.
p

(d) magnitude = 0.82. Its NOT a unit vector.
(e) magnitude = 3. Its NOT a unit vector.

(f) magnitude = 3. Its NOT a unit vector.
(g) magnitude 1. It is a unit vector.
29
(h) magnitude 1. It is a unit vector.
1.X.78
(a), (b), and (c) are true. If two vectors are equal, then they have the same magnitude, direction, and vector components.
1.X.79
(a) A picture of the baseball, tennis ball, and their position vectors is shown in Figure ??.
baseball
!
B
!
T
tennis ball
Figure 14: The baseball, tennis ball, and their position vectors.
(b) See Figure ??.
(c) B
~ = h3, 5, 0i m
(d) See Figure ??.
(e) T
~ = h3, 1, 0i m
(f) Think of the phrase final minus initial. The relative position vector of the tennis ball relative to the baseball points
from the baseball (initial) to the tennis ball (final). It is shown below in Figure ??.
(g) Starting at the tail of ~r, count the number of gridlines horizontally (x) and vertically (y) to get to the head of ~r. Thus,
~r = h6, 6, 0i m.
(h)
~ B
T ~ = h3, 1, 0i m h3, 5, 0i m
= h6, 6, 0i m
30
baseball
!r !
B
!
T
tennis ball
Figure 15: The position of the tennis ball relative to the baseball, ~r.
(i) Yes, ~r = T ~ Examine the answers to parts (g) and (h).

~ B.
(j) Solve for T

~ and B
~ algebraically.
~ = ~r + B
T ~
~ =T
B ~ ~r
(k) Free Plain Graph Paper from http://incompetech.com/graphpaper/plain/
q
~ 2 2 2
B = (3 m) + (5 m) + (0 m) = 5.8 m
q
~ 2 2 2
T = (3 m) + (1 m) + (0 m) = 3.2 m
q
2 2 2
|~r| = (6 m) + (6 m) + (0 m) = 8.5 m
(l)

~ ~
T B = 3.2 m 5.8 m = 2.6 m

(m) T B is the magnitude of ~r which is 8.5 m. Thus, the answer is NO. 2.8m 6= 8.5m; therefore,
~ ~

~ ~ ~ ~
T B 6= T B
31
1.X.80
The position of object 2 relative to object 1 is
~r2 rel. to 1
= ~r2 ~r1
= h5, 2, 0i m h3, 2, 0i m
= h2, 4, 0i m
This points to the right and upward toward the top of the page. This is consistent with the picture shown in Figure ??.
6m
2
r2
0
r2 r 1
r1
2
4
4 2 0 2 4 6m
Figure 16: Sketch of ~r2 rel. to 1
The position of object 1 relative to object 2 is
~r1 rel to 2 = ~r1 ~r2

= (~r2 ~r1 )
= h2, 4, 0i m
= h2, 4, 0i m
~r1 rel to 2 is opposite ~r2 rel to 1 . It points downward and to the left, as shown in a rough sketch in Figure ??. (Note: this sketch
corresponds to the previous sketch though it is not exact.
1.X.81
(a) A sketch of the given vector ~r is shown in Figure ??.
~r = h4, 13, 0i m h9.5, 7, 0i m

= h5.5, 20, 0i m
32
r2

x
r 1 r2

r1

Figure 17: Sketch of ~r1 rel to 2
9.5,7,0
4,13,0
Figure 18: A sketch of the given vector.
The resulting vector points down and to the left, which is consistent with the picture.
(b)
q
2 2 2
|~r| = (5.5 m) + (20 m) + (0 m)
= 20.7 m
21 m
33
1.X.82
(a)
~rtree rel. to head

= ~rtree ~rhead
= h25, 35, 43i m h12, 30, 13i m
= h37, 5, 30i m
(b)
q
2 2 2
|~r| = (37 m) + (5 m) + (30 m)
= 47.9 m
48 m
1.X.83
(a)
~rplanet rel. to star

= ~rplanet ~rstar
D 10 10 10
E D 10 10 10
E
= 4 10 , 9 10 , 6 10 m 6 10 , 8 10 , 6 10 m
D 10 10
E
= 10 10 , 17 10 , 0 m
(b)
~rstar rel. to planet

= ~rplanet rel. to star
D 10 10
E
= 10 10 , 17 10 , 0 m
D 10 10
E
= 10 10 , 17 10 , 0 m
1.X.84
(a)
~rplanet rel. to star

= ~rplanet ~rstar
D 10 10 10
E D 10 10 10
E
= 1 10 , 8 10 , 3 10 m 6 10 , 5 10 , 1 10 m
D 10 10 10
E
= 7 10 , 13 10 , 4 10 m
34
(b)
q
10
2 10
2 10
2
~rsp = 7 10 + 13 10 + 4 10 m

10
= 15.3 10 m
11
= 1.53 10 m
11
1.5 10 m
(c)
~r
rsp = sp
~rsp

D 10 10 10
E
7 10 , 13 10 , 4 10 m
=
15.3 1010 m
= < 0.46, 0.85, 0.26 >
1.X.85
~rfrom electron to proton = ~rproton ~relectron

= < xp , yp , zp > < xe , ye , ze >
= < (xp xe ), (yp ye ), (zp ze ) >
~rfrom proton to electron = ~relectron ~rproton

= ~rfrom electron to proton
= < (xp xe ), (yp ye ), (zp ze ) >
= < (xe xp ), (ye yp ), (ze zp ) >
1.X.86
~r is the displacement of a particle. It is also referred to as the change in the position of the particle.
t is a time interval. It is also referred to as the change in the clock reading t and is the time elapsed on the clock.
1.X.87
~ri = h0.2, 0.05, 0.1i m
~rf = h0.202, 0.054, 0.098i m
6
t = 2 10 s
35
(a)
~r
~vavg =
t
~rf ~ri
=
t
h0.202, 0.054, 0.098i m h0.2, 0.05, 0.1i m
=
2 106 s
h0.402, 0.104, 0.002i m
=
2 106 s
D 5 4 3
E
= 2.01 10 , 5.2 10 , 1 10 m/s
(b) Average speed is not always equal to the magnitude of average velocity, except if the object moves in a straight line
without changing directions. Assume this is the case for the neutron, then only in this special case

average speed = ~vavg

q 2 2 2
= 2.01 105 m/s + 5.2 104 m/s + 1 103 m/s
5
= 2.08 10 m/s
1.X.88
~ri = h15, 8, 3i m
~rf = h20, 6, 1i m
t = 0.1 s
~r
~vavg =
t
~rf ~ri
=
t
h20, 6, 1i m h15, 8, 3i m
=
0.1 s
h5, 2, 2i m
=
0.1 s
= h50, 20, 20i m/s
1.P.89
(a)
~v = h20, 90, 40i m/s
~ri = h200, 300, 500i m
~rf = h380, 2310, 660i m
~r
~vavg =
t
36
You cannot divide vectors, so

~r
t 6=
~ravg
You may use

~ravg

t =
~vavg

Or you may write the velocity in component form and use any one of the components. For instance,
x
t =
vavg x
This method gives

xf xi
t =
vavg x
380 m 200 m
=
20 m/s
= 29 s
(b)
~r = ~rf ~ri
= h380, 2810, 660i m h200, 300, 500i m
= h580, 2610, 1160i m
q
2 2 2
|~r| = (580 m) + (2610 m) + (1160 m)
= 2914 m
(c)
|~r|
|~v| =
t
2914 m
=
29 s
= 100 m/s
(d)
~v
v =
|~v|
h20, 90, 40i m/s
=
100.5 m/s
= < 0.2, 0.9, 0.4 >
37
1.X.90
~r
~vavg =
t
~rf ~ri
=
t
~rf ~ri = ~vavg t
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t
1.X.91
t1 = 12 s
~ri = h84, 78, 24i m
~v = h4, 0, 3i m/s
t2 = 18 s
t = t2 t1
= 18 s 12 s
= 6s
~rf = ~ri + ~vt

= h84, 78, 24i m + (h4, 0, 3i m/s)(6 s)
= h84, 78, 24i m + h24, 0, 18i m
= h108, 78, 6i m
1.X.92
~ri = h7, 21, 17i m

t = 3s
~vavg = h11, 42, 11i m/s
yf = ?
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t

= h7, 21, 17i m + (h11, 42, 11i m/s)(3 s)
= h7, 21, 17i m + h33, 126, 33i m
= h26, 147, 16i m
So yf = 147 m.
38
1.X.93
(a) From t = 6.3 s to 6.8 s:
t = 6.8 s 6.3 s
= 0.5 s
~ri = h3.5, 9.4, 0i m
~rf = h1.3, 6.2, 0i m
~r
~vavg =
t
h1.3, 6.2, 0i m h3.5, 9.4, 0i m
=
0.5 s
h2.2, 3.2, 0i m
=
0.5 s
= h4.4, 6.4, 0i m/s
(b) From t = 6.3 s to 7.3 s:

t = 7.3 s 6.3 s
= 1.0 s
~ri = h3.5, 9.4, 0i m
~rf = h0.5, 1.7, 0i m
~r
~vavg =
t
h0.5, 1.7, 0i m h3.5, 9.4, 0i m
=
1.0 s
= h4, 7.7, 0i m/s
(c) The best estimate for ~v at t = 6.3 s is the average velocity during the smallest possible time interval that includes
t = 6.3 s. Thus, the time interval from t = 6.3 s to 6.8 s gives the best possible estimate in this case for the instantaneous
velocity at t = 6.3 s.
(d) Assume that the bees average velocity between t = 6.3 s and 6.33 s is approximately constant. From t = 6.3 s to 6.33 s:
t = 6.33 s 6.3 s
= 0.03 s
~ri = h3.5, 9.4, 0i m
~vavg h4.4, 6.4, 0i m/s
~r
~vavg =
t
~r = ~vavg t
= (h4.4, 6.4, 0i m/s)(0.03 s)
= h0.132, 0.192, 0i m
39
1.X.94
~ri = h50, 20, 30i m

~rf = h53, 18, 31i m
t = 0.1 s
~r
~vavg =
t
~rf ~ri
=
t
h53, 18, 31i m h50, 20, 30i m
=
0.1 s
h3, 2, 1i m
=
0.1 s
= h30, 20, 10i m/s
1.X.95
D 3 3 3
E
~ri = 3 10 , 4 10 , 8 10 m
D 3 3 3
E
~rf = 1.4 10 , 6.2 10 , 9.7 10 m
ti = 18.4 s
tf = 21.4 s
t = 21.4 s 18.4 s
= 3.0 s
~r
~vavg =
t
~rf ~ri
=
D t 3 3 3
E D 3 3 3
E
1.4 10 , 6.2 10 , 9.7 10 m 3 10 , 4 10 , 8 10 m
=
D 3 3 3
E 3s
1.6 10 , 2.2 10 , 1.7 10 m
=
D 3s E
2 2 2
= 5.33 10 , 7.33 10 , 5.67 10 m
1.X.96
40
(a)
~ri = h0.02, 0.04, 0.06i m

~rf = h0.02, 1.84, 0.86i m
t = 2 s
6
= 2 10 s
~r
~vavg =
t
~rf ~ri
=
t
h0.02, 1.84, 0.86i m h0.02, 0.04, 0.06i m
=
2 106 s
h0, 1.8, 0.8i m
=
2 106 s
D 5 5
E
= 0, 9 10 , 4 10 m/s
(b) Now, for this time interval of 5 s, the initial position of the electron is its position at the end of the previous 2 s
interval.
~ri = h0.02, 1.84, 0.86i m

t = 5 s
D 5 5
E
~v = 0, 9 10 , 4 10 m/s
~rf = ~ri + ~vt

D 5 5
E 6
= h0.02, 1.84, 0.86i m + ( 0, 9 10 , 4 10 m/s)(5 10 s)
= h0.02, 1.84, 0.86i m + h0, 4.5, 2i m
= h0.02, 6.34, 2.86i m
Another way to solve it is to consider the total time interval of 2 s + 5 s = 7 s. In this case, ~ri is the electrons
position at the beginning of the 2 s interval.
~ri = h0.02, 0.04, 0.06i m

t = 5 s
D 5 5
E 6
~rf = h0.02, 0.04, 0.06i m + ( 0, 9 10 , 4 10 m/s)(7 10 s)
= h0.02, 0.04, 0.06i m + h0, 6.3, 2.8i m
= h0.02, 6.34, 2.86i m
which agrees with the same answer obtained using the 5 s time interval.
1.P.97
41
(a)
~r
~vavg AB =
t
~rB ~rA
=
t
h22.3, 26.1, 0i m < 0, 0, 0 >
=
1.0 s 0.0 s
= h22.3, 26.1, 0i m/s
(b) From t = 1.0 s to t = 2.0 s, assuming it travels with a constant velocity of h22.3, 26.1, 0i m/s,
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t

= h22.3, 26.1, 0i m + (h22.3, 26.1, 0i m/s)(2.0 s 1.0 s)
= h22.3, 26.1, 0i m + h22.3, 26.1, 0i m
= h44.6, 52.2, 0i m
(c) ~r at point C is h40.1, 38.1, 0i m which is not the same as what we predicted. We assumed constant velocity when making
our prediction; however, in reality the velocity was not constant, but was decreasing in both the x and y directions.
An approximation of constant velocity is only valid for small time intervals. For this projectile, t = 1.0 s was not a
small enough time interval to reasonably assume constant velocity.
1.P.98
ti = 6s
tf = 10 s
~ri = h6, 3, 10i m
~rf = h6.8, 4.2, 11.2i m
~r at t = 8.5 s = ?
Assume that the butterfly travels with a constant velocity. Calculate its velocity.
~r
~vavg =
t
~rf ~ri
=
t
h6.8, 4.2, 11.2i m h6, 3, 10i m
=
10 s 6 s
h0.8, 1.2, 1.2i m
=
4s
= h0.2, 0.3, 0.3i m/s
42
Now calculate its position at t = 8.5 s, if it starts at t = 6.0 s.
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t

= h6, 3, 10i m + (h0.2, 0.3, 0.3i m/s)(8.5 s 6 s)
= h6, 3, 10i m + (h0.2, 0.3, 0.3i m/s)(2.5 s)
= h6, 3, 10i m + h0.5, 0.75, 0.75i m
= h6.5, 3.75, 10.75i m
1.X.99
(a) and (e) are correct.
(a) is correct because momentum and velocity are proportional and therefore have the same unit vector and the same direction.
(e) is correct because in the limit as t approaches zero, the displacement vector becomes tangent to the path. Since momen-
tum is proportional to velocity which is proportional to displacement, then instantaneous velocity (and thus instantaneous
momentum) is also tangent to the objects path.
1.X.100
The approximate formula for momentum may be used for (a), (b), (c) and (e) because in all of these cases, the object or
8
particle is moving with a speed much less than 3 10 ms . In case (e), the electrons speed is one-hundredth the speed of
light. If a highly precise calculation is not needed, then even in this case, the approximate formula for momentum may be
used.
As a rule of thumb, if an objects speed is less than about 10% of the speed of light, then the approximate formula may be
used, except in cases where high precision (i.e. many significant figures) is needed.
1.X.101
(a) is a scalar.
(b)
1
= r
2
|~
v|
1 c2
The minimum value of occurs when the speed of the object is zero. Then = 1.
(c) The minimum value of is when the objects speed is a low value (i.e. zero).
(d) There is no maximum value of because as the objects speed approaches the speed of light c, becomes infinite.
(e) becomes large for large speeds, i.e. speeds close to the speed of light. Note that speed cannot become arbitrarily
large. The maximum possible speed is the speed of light. However, approaches infinity as the speed approaches the
speed of light.
(f) 1 for low speeds.

43
1.X.102
|~v| << c therefore
|~p| = m |~v|
= (0.155 kg)(40 m/s)
= 6.2 kg m/s
1.X.103
27
mproton = 1.67 10 kg
|~p| = m |~v|
m |~v|
= q
2
1 |~vc2|
27 8
(1.67 10 kg)(0.88)(3 10 m/s)
= q
2
1 (0.8c)
c2
27 8
(1.67 10 kg)(0.88)(3 10 m/s)
= p
1 (0.8)2
19
= 7.35 10 kg m/s
1.X.104
Note: |~v| << c
m = 0.4 kg
~v = h38, 0, 2i m/s
~p = m~v
= (0.4 kg)(h38, 0, 2i m/s)
= h15.2, 0, 10.8i kg m/s
q
2 2 2
|~p| = (15.2 kg m/s) + (0 kg m/s) + (10.8 kg m/s)
= 18.6 kg m/s
44
1.X.105
m = 155 g
= 0.155 kg
1 m/s
|~v| = (100 mph)( )
2.2369 mph
= 44.7 m/s
Note: ~v << c
|~p| = m |~v|
= (0.155 kg)(44.7 m/s)
= 6.93 kg m/s
1.X.106
m = 1000 kg
1 m/s
|~v| = (500 mph)( )
2.2369 mph
= 224 m/s
Note: ~v << c
|~p| = m |~v|
= (1000 kg)(224 m/s)
5
= 2.24 10 kg m/s
1.X.107
~p = h4, 5, 2i kg m/s
q
2 2 2
|~p| = (4 kg m/s) + (5 kg m/s) + (2 kg m/s)
= 6.7 kg m/s
1.X.108
31
melectron = 9.11 10 kg
|~v| = 0.95c
45
|~p| = m |~v|
m |~v|
= q
2
1 |~vc2|
m(0.95c)
= q
2
1 (0.95c)
c2
m(0.95c)
= p
1 (0.95)2
31 8
(9.11 10 kg)(0.95)(3 10 m/s)
= p
1 (0.95)2
22
= 8.31 10 kg m/s
1.X.109
31
melectron = 9.11 10 kg
|~p| = m |~v|
m |~v|
= q 2
1 |~vc2|
m(0.9999c)
= q
2
1 (0.9999c)
c2
m(0.9999c)
= p
1 (0.9999)2
31 8
(9.11 10 kg)(0.9999)(3 10 m/s)
= p
1 (0.9999)2
20
= 1.93 10 kg m/s
1.X.110
(a)
27
|~v| = 0.99c
If |~p| m |~v|, then

27 8
|~p| = (1.67 10 kg)(0.99)(3 10 m/s)
19
= 4.96 10 kg m/s
46
(b) Since |~v| is not small compared to c,

|~p| = m |~v|
m |~v|
= q 2
1 |~vc2|
m(0.99c)
= q
2
1 (0.99c)
c2
m(0.99c)
= p
1 (0.99)2
27 8
(1.67 10 kg)(0.99)(3 10 m/s)
= p
1 (0.99)2
18
= 3.52 10 kg m/s
(c)
18

~p 3.52 10 kg m/s
correct =
~papprox
4.96 1019 kg m/s
= 7.1
Thus, the approximate calculation for the momentum of the particle is about 7 times too small.
1.X.111
m = 1.6 kg
~p = h0, 0, 4i kg m/s
(a)
|~p| = 4 kg m/s
(b)
~p
p =
|~p|
= < 0, 0, 1 >
(c)
|~p| = m |~v|
|~p|
|~v| =
m
4 kg m/s
=
1.6 kg
= 2.5 m/s
47
1.X.112
|~v| = 0.9996c
1
= q
2
1 |~vc2|
1
= q
(0.9996c)2
1 c2
1
= p
1 (0.9996)2
= 1250
1.X.113
31
melectron = 9 10 kg
|~v| = 0.996c
v = < .655, 0.492, 0.573 >
(a)
1
= q
v|2
|~
1 c2
1
=
1 (0.996)2
= 11.2
(b)
|~v| = 0.996c
8
= (0.996)(3 10 m/s)
8
= 2.988 10 m/s
(c)
|~p| = m |~v|
31 8
= (11.2)(9 10 kg)(2.988 10 m/s)
21
= 3.0 10 kg m/s
(d)
~p = |~p| p
48
Since ~p is proportional to ~v, then their unit vectors p and v are the same. Thus,
21
~p = (3 10 m/s) < 0.655, 0.492, 0.573 >
D 21 21 21
E
= 1.97 10 , 1.48 10 , 1.72 10 kg m/s
1.X.114
|~p| = m |~v|
|~p|
= 0.85c
m
Thus,
|~v| = 0.85c
|~v|
q
2
= 0.85c
1 |~vc2|
2
|~v|
v|2
|~
= (0.85c)2
1 c2
!
2
2 2 |~v|
|~v| = (0.85c) 1 2
c
2 2
|~v| = (0.85c)2 (0.85)2 |~v|
2 2
|~v| + (0.85)2 |~v| = (0.85c)2
2
|~v| (1 + 0.852 ) (0.85c)2
=
2 (0.85c)2
|~v| =
1 + (0.85)2
0.85c
|~v| = p
1 + (0.85)2
= 0.65c
1.X.115
(a) Draw a sketch of the situation, like the one shown in Figure ??.
Sketch the change in momentum vector by drawing the initial and final momentum vectors tail to tail and drawing the
change in momentum from the head of the initial momentum to the head of the final momentum, as shown in Figure
??.
49
pi
pf
Figure 19: Momentum vectors before and after the collision.
pf pi
Figure 20: The change in momentum of the ball.
~vi = < vx , 0, 0 >

~vf = < vx , 0, 0 >
~p = ~pf ~pi
= m(~vf ~vi )
= m(< vx , 0, 0 > < vx , 0, 0 >)
= m(< 2vx , 0, 0 >)
= < 2mvx , 0, 0 >
The change in momentum is in the x direction which is consistent with the picture.
(b)

|~p| = ~pf ~pi

= m ~vf m ~vi

= mvx mvx
= 0
50
Note |~p| =
6 |~p|.
1.X.116
In going all the way around, in one revolution, ~pf is the same as ~pi . Thus, |~p| = 0.
In going half a revolution (180 ), sketch ~pi and ~pf at opposite sides of the circle, as shown in the example in Figure ??. (You
may choose any two points on the circle, as long as they are on opposite sides of the circle. Also, you may assume that the
merry-go-round is rotating clockwise. Your choice of points or direction of rotation does not affect the final answer for the
magnitude of the change in momentum.)
rotation
Figure 21: The initial and final momenta of the child for half a revolution.
To find the change in momentum, sketch ~pf and ~pi tail to tail. ~p is the vector from the head of ~pi to the head of ~pf . See
Figure ??.
Figure 22: The change in momentum of the child for half a revolution.
As you can see, ~p = 2~pf . Thus,

51

|~p| = 2 ~pf

= 2m ~vf

= 2(50 kg)(5 m/s)

= 500 kg m/s
1.P.117
(a)
~pBC = ~pC ~pB

= h2.55, 0.97, 0i kg m/s h3.03, 2.83, 0i kg m/s
= h0.48, 1.86, 0i kg m/s
~pCD = ~pD ~pC

= h2.24, 0.57, 0i kg m/s h2.55, 0.97, 0i kg m/s
= h0.31, 1.54, 0i kg m/s
~pDE = ~pE ~pD

= h1.97, 1.93, 0i kg m/s h2.24, 0.57, 0i kg m/s
= h0.27, 1.36, 0i kg m/s
~pEF = ~pF ~pE

= h1.68, 3.04, 0i kg m/s h1.97, 1.93, 0i kg m/s
= h0.29, 1.11, 0i kg m/s
(b) To sketch ~pBC , sketch ~pC tail-to-tail at the location of ~pB and sketch ~pBC from the head of ~pC to the head of ~pB .
Do this for each of the other vectors as well. The results are shown in Figure ??.

(c) ~pBC is greatest because both px and py are greatest (in magnitude) for the interval from B to C.

1.P.118
(a) Below is a sample program. Note that the initial position of the ball is at the left side of the origin. The line
scene.autoscale=0 turns off autoscaling so that the camera will not zoom while viewing the simulation. The statement
rate(100) is used to slow down the animation.
52
p
C p
D
p pD !p D
C ! !pDE
B
!pBC CD
!pE E p
E
B
!pC
Figure 23: The change in momentum between successive points along the path of the projectile is drawn at each location.
1 from __future__ import d i v i s i o n

2 from v i s u a l import
3
4 b a l l=s p h e r e ( pos =( 1 ,0 ,0) , r a d i u s =0.1 , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )

5
6 s c e n e . a u t o s c a l e =0
7
8 vx =0.4
9 v=v e c t o r ( vx , 0 , 0 )
10
11 dt =0.01
12
13 while 1 :
14 rate (100)
15 b a l l . pos = b a l l . pos + v dt
(b) In the sample program below, the wall is placed at x = 1.1 m and the width of the wall is 0.2 m. This places the
surface of the wall at x = 1 m. Use an if statement to detect the moment that the ball crosses x = 1 m. Note that
the position of the ball refers to the location of the center of the ball; therefore, one must check whether the surface of
the ball crosses x = 1 m.
At first you can put numbers into the if statement. However, its best to use attributes of the ball and wall, such as
the radius of the ball and size of the wall, in your if statement. This way, if you change the location of the wall or the
radius of the ball, your simulation will still work.
3

5 w a l l=box ( pos = ( 1 . 1 , 0 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 0 . 2 , 1 . 0 , 1 . 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
6
8
9 vx =0.4
10 v=v e c t o r ( vx , 0 , 0 )
11
12 dt =0.01
13
14 while 1 :
15 rate (100)
53
17 i f b a l l . pos . x + b a l l . r a d i u s > w a l l . xw a l l . s i z e . x /2 :
18 v = v
(c) To make the velocity change at a constant rate, for instance, you must make the velocity change by a constant dv
during each time step. Thus, update the velocity inside the while loop.
In the following example, the x-velocity changes with each time step. The constant, 2 m/s2 in this example, specifies
the change in velocity per second and is called the x-acceleration of the object. Basically, it tells you that the x-velocity
will increase an amount 2 m/s in each second. Since dt is less than a second, the change in the x-velocity during one
time step is 2dt.
3

5
7
8 vx=0
9 v=v e c t o r ( vx , 0 , 0 )
10
11 dt =0.01
12
13 while 1 :
14 rate (100)
15 v . x = v . x + 2 dt
If you start the ball from rest, its easy to see that the objects velocity is changing. However, if the initial velocity is
not zero and if the x-acceleration is small, say 0.1 m/s2 in this example, then the change in velocity is not perceptible.
In the following example, the initial x-velocity is 0.2 m/s and the x-acceleration is only 0.1 m/s2 .
3

5
7
8 vx =0.2
9 v=v e c t o r ( vx , 0 , 0 )
10
11 dt =0.01
12
13 while 1 :
14 rate (100)
15 v . x = v . x + 0 . 1 dt
One can hardly notice that the ball is accelerating.
(d) In VPython, use the graph package to create a graph and plot a function on the graph. You will need to create a new
variable t that is the clock reading (i.e. time). Add a statement to update the clock reading after each time step, using
t = t + dt. The following program plots x vs. t for the object.
54

3 from v i s u a l . graph import
4

6
8
9 vx=0
10 v=v e c t o r ( vx , 0 , 0 )
11
12 dt =0.01
13 t=0
14
15 xGraph=g d i s p l a y ( x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' , y t i t l e= ' x (m) ' , x =400 , y=0, width =400 , h e i g h t =200)
16 x P l o t=g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )
17
18 while 1 :
19 rate (100)
20 v . x = v . x + 2 dt
22
23 x P l o t . p l o t ( pos=(t , b a l l . x ) )
24
25 t=t+dt
You will notice that the graph of x vs. t is quadratic (i.e. a parabola).
(e) The previous program can easily be modified to plot x-velocity by simply editing the plot statement. Its also a good
idea to change the graph labels, names of the objects, and plot color to reflect that its a graph of x-velocity vs. time.
4

6
8
9 vx=0
10 v=v e c t o r ( vx , 0 , 0 )
11
12 dt =0.01
13 t=0
14
15 vGraph=g d i s p l a y ( x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' , y t i t l e= 'v_x (m/ s ) ' , x =400 , y=0, width =400 , h e i g h t =200)
16 v P l o t=g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan )
17
18 while 1 :
19 rate (100)
20 v . x = v . x + 2 dt
22
23 v P l o t . p l o t ( pos=(t , v . x ) )
24
55
25 t=t+dt
You will notice that in this case, the x-velocity vs. time graph is linear.
1.P.119
(a) In the following program, the initial position of the object is in the lower, left quadrant and moves with a positive
x-velocity and positive y-velocity.
3
4 b a l l=s p h e r e ( pos =( 1 , 1 ,0) , r a d i u s =0.1 , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )

5
7
8 v=v e c t o r ( 0 . 4 , 0 . 4 , 0 )
9
10 dt =0.01
11
12 while 1 :
13 rate (100)
(b) Increasing the x-velocity and keeping the y-velocity the same makes the object move at a smaller angle with respect to
the +x axis. It also increases the speed of the object.
Increasing the y-velocity and keeping the x-velocity the same makes the object move at a larger angle with respect to
the +x axis. It also increases the speed of the object.
(c) In the following example, upon colliding with the wall, the x-velocity of the ball reverses direction, but its y-velocity
remains constant. Note that the if statement checks to see if the position of the surface of the ball is greater than the
location of the surface of the wall, and when this occurs, reverses the x-velocity of the ball.
3
4 b a l l=s p h e r e ( pos =( 1 , 1 ,0) , r a d i u s =0.1 , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )

5 w a l l=box ( pos = ( 1 . 1 , 0 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 0 . 2 , 1 . 0 , 1 . 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
6
8
9 v=v e c t o r ( 0 . 8 , 0 . 4 , 0 )
10
11 dt =0.01
12
13 while 1 :
14 rate (100)
16 i f b a l l . pos . x + b a l l . r a d i u s > w a l l . xw a l l . s i z e . x /2 :
17 v . x = v . x
56
1.P.120
The program will need a counter that counts up to N and then creates a sphere at the position of the object. When creating
the sphere, its necessary to reset the counter to 0 so that it can count up to N again. An example is shown below. The
counter variable is n.
3

5
7
8 v=v e c t o r ( 0 . 2 , 0 , 0 )
9
10 dt =0.01
11 N=100
12 n=0
13
14 while 1 :
15 rate (100)
17
18 n=n+1
19 i f n==N:
20 s p h e r e ( pos=b a l l . pos , r a d i u s =0.1 , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
21 n=0
1.P.121
Here is a sample program that meets the requirements. Note that part (f) should be done by manually editing the parameters
in part (c).
3
4 # The s c e n e . mouse . g e t c l i c k ( ) s t a t e m e n t c a u s e s t h e program t o pause

5 # u n t i l t h e u s e r c l i c k s t h e mouse . This i s handy f o r s e e i n g each
6 # p a r t o f t h e program i n s u c c e s s i o n .
7
8 # Problem 1 .P. 1 2 1
9
10 # part (a)
11 b b a l l = s p h e r e ( pos=v e c t o r ( 5 ,2 , 3) , r a d i u s =0.5 , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )
12 s c e n e . mouse . g e t c l i c k ( ) # pause u n t i l mouse i s c l i c k e d
13
14 # part ( b )
15 ba = arrow ( pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , a x i s=b b a l l . pos , c o l o r=c o l o r . g r e e n )
16 s c e n e . mouse . g e t c l i c k ( )
17
18 # part ( c )
19 v b a l l = s p h e r e ( pos=v e c t o r ( 3 , 1 ,3.5) , r a d i u s =0.5 , c o l o r=c o l o r . b l u e )
57
21
22 # part (d)
23 va = arrow ( pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , a x i s=v b a l l . pos , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan )
25
26 # part ( e )
27 vb = arrow ( pos=b b a l l . pos , a x i s=v b a l l . pos b b a l l . pos , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
29
30 # part ( f )
31 # The problem a c t u a l l y wants you t o e d i t t h e b a s k e t b a l l ' s p o s i t i o n and
32 # v o l l y b a l l ' s p o s i t i o n ab ov e .
33
34 # part ( g )
35 print " b a s k e t b a l l ' s p o s i t i o n i s " , b b a l l . pos
36 print " v o l l e y b a l l ' s p o s i t i o n i s " , v b a l l . pos
37 print " w h i t e arrow ' s t i p i s a t " , v b a l l . pos
38 print " w h i t e arrow ' s t a i l i s a t " , b b a l l . pos
1.P.122
(a) Begin your program in VPython with import statements. Then, create a box to represent the track. By default in
VPython, x is horizontal, y is vertical (i.e. toward the top and bottom of the screen), and z is out of (and into) the
plane of the computer screen. This is important for getting the dimensions and orientation of the track correct.
3
4 t r a c k=box ( pos = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 2 , 0 . 0 5 , 0 . 1 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . g r e e n )
(b) The track is at y = 0 and has a height of 0.05 m. Thus the top surface of the track is at y = 0.025 m. You must place
the cart above y = 0, otherwise, it will be hidden by the track.
3

5 c a r t=box ( pos = ( 0 , 0 . 0 5 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 0 . 1 , 0 . 0 4 , 0 . 0 6 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
(c) The y position of the bottom of the cart must be 0.01 m greater than the top surface of the track which is at y = 0.025 m.
Since the carts height is 0.04 m, then the center of the cart must be at y = 0.01 m + 0.02 m + 0.025 m = 0.055 m.
The x position of the left end of the track is x = 1 m. The carts length is 0.1 m. Thus, the x-position of the cart
must be at x = 1 m + 0.05 m = 0.95 m. Change the initial position of the cart to these values.
3

5 c a r t=box ( pos = ( 0 . 9 5 , 0 . 0 5 5 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 0 . 1 , 0 . 0 4 , 0 . 0 6 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
(d) Define a variable v for the initial velocity of the cart.

58

3

6
7 v=v e c t o r ( 0 . 2 , 0 , 0 )
(e) In the following example, the rate() statement is used inside the while loop to slow down the animation.
3

6
7 v=v e c t o r ( 0 . 2 , 0 , 0 )
8
9 dt =0.01
10
11 while 1 :
12 rate (1000)
13 c a r t . pos = c a r t . pos + v dt
(f) Change the position of the cart to the right side of the track, and make its x-velocity negative.
3

6
7 v=v e c t o r ( 0 . 2 , 0 , 0 )
8
9 dt =0.01
10
11 while 1 :
12 rate (1000)
(g) The cart will travel at an upward angle (+y direction) if vy is positive or at a downward angle (y direction) if vy is
negative. Try using ~v = h0.2, 0.1, 0i m/s with the cart starting at the left end of the track, for example.
3

6
7 v=v e c t o r ( 0 . 2 , 0 . 1 , 0 )
8
9 dt =0.01
10
11 while 1 :
12 rate (1000)
59
(h) To show a trail, define the trail as a curve, preferably with the same color as the cart. Then, inside the while loop,
append the position of the cart to the trail. See the example below for the proper syntax in VPython.
3

6
7 v=v e c t o r ( 0 . 2 , 0 , 0 )
8
9 dt =0.01
10
11 t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=c a r t . c o l o r )
12
13 while 1 :
14 rate (1000)
16 t r a i l . append ( pos=c a r t . pos )
You may want the cart to stop when it reaches the end of the track. In this case, add an if statement inside the while
loop that checks to see if the right edge of the cart has exceeded the right edge of the track or if the left edge of the cart has
exceeded the left edge of the track, and if so, break out of the loop. Here is an example.
3

6
7 v=v e c t o r ( 0 . 2 , 0 , 0 )
8
9 dt =0.01
10
11 while 1 :
12 rate (1000)
14 i f ( c a r t . pos . x + c a r t . s i z e . x /2 > t r a c k . pos . x + t r a c k . s i z e . x / 2 ) \
15 or ( c a r t . pos . x c a r t . s i z e . x /2 < t r a c k . pos . x t r a c k . s i z e . x / 2 ) :
16
17 break
The / in the condition of the if statement in the above example is used to signify that this is a multiline statement. It was
added in this case to make the code more readable, but typically the condition of the if statement is on one line.
1.P.123
(a) It helps to place the ice just below y = 0 so that you can put the puck at y = 0 and not have it hidden by the ice. Here
is an example program that creates a 5 m long and 5 m wide piece of ice. The puck is placed in one corner.
3
4 i c e = box ( pos =(0 , 0.05 ,0) , s i z e = ( 5 , 0 . 1 , 5 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )

5 puck = c y l i n d e r ( pos = ( 2 . 4 , 0 , 2 . 4 ) , a x i s = ( 0 , 0 . 0 4 , 0 ) , r a d i u s =0.1 , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )
60
(b) Set values for the position of the puck to put it in one corner of the ice. Any corner is fine.
(c) Define a vector for the velocity and give it an x-component and z-component. For example, use v=vector(1,0,-1).
(d) Use a rate() statement to slow down the animation. An example program showing the puck move in the +x and -z
direction is given below.
3
4 i c e = box ( pos =(0 , 0.05 ,0) , s i z e = ( 5 , 0 . 1 , 5 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )

5 puck = c y l i n d e r ( pos = ( 2 . 4 , 0 , 2 . 4 ) , a x i s = ( 0 , 0 . 0 4 , 0 ) , r a d i u s =0.1 , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )
6
7 v=v e c t o r (1 ,0 , 1)
8
9 dt = 0 . 0 0 1
10
11 while 1 :
12 rate (100)
13 puck . pos = puck . pos + v dt
1
2.X.1 Let ~pi = h1.5, 1.2, 0.7i kg m/s and ~pf = h1.6, 0.9, 1.1i kg m/s. The change in momentum is just ~pf - ~pi .
~p = ~pf ~pi
= h1.6, 0.9, 1.1i kg m/s h1.5, 1.2, 0.7i kg m/s
= h0.1, 0.3, 0.4i kg m/s
2.X.2 The net force on a system is always the vector sum, or superposition, of the individual forces acting on the system.
~F = h40, 70, 0i N + h20, 10, 0i N

net,sys
= h60, 60, 0i N
2.X.3 This problem is best solved using simple ratio reasoning. Changing the forces magnitude by a factor of two, for the
same duration, must also change the resulting change in momentum. Halving the force must halve the change in momentum.
So |~p| = 1.5 kg m/s.
2.X.4 Let the object (whatever it is) be the system. Were given that ~Fnet,sys = h0.5, 0.2, 0.8i N and t = 2 min = 120 s
(dont forget to express t in seconds!).
(a) We have to calculate the impulse as follows:
~p = ~Fnet,sys t
= (h0.5, 0.2, 0.8i N) (120 s)
= h60, 24, 96i kg m/s
Note that this is (must be!) the same value we would have gotten had we known both ~pf and ~pi .
(b) Remember that impulse and change in momentum are merely two different words for the same quantity. This quantity
can be called impulse if it is calculated from the net force and its duration. It can also be called change in momentum
if it is calculated from the initial and final momenta. Names aside, it is the same quantity in both cases!
2.X.5 Let the system consist of the hockey puck. Assume there are no significant interactions on the system other than from
ice and air (we can treat them as one net interaction), and this interaction was constant while it existed. Were given that
~pi = h0, 2, 0i kg m/s.
(a) If the puck comes to a stop, its final momentum must be zero. Therefore ~pf = h0, 0, 0i kg m/s. The impulse, or change
in momentum, is merely ~p = ~pf - ~pi = h0, 0, 0i kg m/s - h0, 2, 0i kg m/s = h0, 2, 0i kg m/s.
(b) We know ~p and t so we can calculate ~Fnet,sys using the momentum principle.
~p = ~Fnet,sys t
~F ~p
=
net,sys
t
~F h0, 2, 0i kg m/s
=
net,sys
3s
2

~F = 0, , 0 N
net,sys
3
2
2.X.6 This is a straightforward application of the momentum principle. Let the system be the puck, and assume the only
significant interaction on the system is with the hockey stick.
~p = ~Fnet,sys t
~pf ~pi = ~Fnet,sys t
~pf = ~pi + ~Fnet,sys t
~pf = h10, 0, 5i kg m/s + h0, 0, 2000i N (0.004 s)
~pf h10, 0, 13i kg m/s
Note that the pucks x and y components of momentum didnt change because the net force had no components in those
directions.
2.X.7 Were given that ~vi = h25, 0, 15i m/s, ~vf = h10, 0, 18i m/s, and mcar = 1000 kg. Let the system consist of the car,
and lets assume non-relativistic speeds.
(a)
~psys = ~pf ~pi

~psys mcar ~vf mcar ~vi

~psys mcar ~vf mcar ~vi
~psys (1000 kg) (h10, 0, 18i m/s h25, 0, 15i m/s)
~psys (1000 kg) (h15, 0, 3i m/s)
D 4 3
E
~psys 1.5 10 , 0, 3 10 kg m/s
(b) Remember that impulse and change in momentum refer to the same physical quantity, so the answer is the same as
above.
(c)
~psys
~F =
Dt
net,sys
4 3
E
1.5 10 , 0, 3 10 kg m/s
~F =
net,sys
3s
~F
D 3 3
E
net,sys
= 5 10 , 0, 1 10 N
2.X.8 This is another straightforward application of the momentum principle. Let the system consist of the particle and
assume non-relativistic speed.
~psys = ~Fnet,sys t
~pf ~pi = ~Fnet,sys t
~pf = ~pi + ~Fnet,sys t
~pf = h10, 0, 0i kg m/s + (h6, 3, 0i N) (0.1 s)
~pf h9.4, 0.3, 0i kg m/s
3
2.X.9 Apply some straightforward reasoning rather than complicated mathematics. For the first hour of the trip, youll
travel 50 km. Neglect the duration of the change from 50 km/h to 100 km/h; either you hit the gas pedal hard (not good!) or
you have a car that accelerates quickly (preferable). During the next two hours of the trip, youll travel 200 km. Youll travel
a total of 250 km during three hours. By definition, your average velocity will be vavg,x 2503km/h
h 83.3 km/h. This isnt
equal to the arithmetic mean of the initial and final velocities because the force that caused the change in velocity wasnt
constant for the three hour duration. This, in turn, means that the magnitude of the velocity could not change linearly.
NOTE: text has 50 km/h.
2.X.10
t = 10 s
~vi = h30, 0, 0i m/s
~vf = h40, 0, 0i m/s
Since ~v is changing at a constant rate,
vix vf x
vavgx =
2
30 m/s + 40 m/s
=
2
= 35 m/s
x
vavgx =
t
x = vavgx t
= (35 m/s)(10 s)
= 350 m
2.X.11
During each time interval, px = 10 kg m/s.
(a) False, because px 6= 0
(b) True, because px = 10 kg m/s is constant, i.e. it is the same during each successive 1-second time interval.
(c) False, because px is constant.
(d) False, because px is constant.
2.X.12
4
~

Fspring = ks |s|

N
= (11 )(0.025 m)
m
= 0.275 N
This is the magnitude of the force on the spring by the hand. This is also the magnitude of the force on the hand by the
spring.
2.X.13
L0 = 0.17 m
~

Fspring = 250 N

L = 0.84 m
(a)
~

Fspring = ks |s|

~

Fspring

ks =
|s|
250 N
=
(0.24 m 0.17 m)
N
= 3570
m
(b)
~

Fspring = ks |s|

N
= (3570 )(0.17 m 0.15 m)
m
= 71 N
2.X.14
L0 = 0.15 m
(a)
~L = h0, 0.11, 0i m
5
0.15 m
0.11 m
Figure 1: A sketch of the situation
(b)
~

L = 0.11 m
(c)
~L
L = ~

L
= < 0, 1, 0 >
(d)
s = ~L L0

= 0.11 m 0.15 m
= 0.04 m
~F = ks sL
on hand by spring
N
= (95 )(0.04 m) < 0, 1, 0 >
m
= h0, 3.8, 0i N
~F = ~Fon hand by spring

on spring by hand
= h0, 3.8, 0i N
= h0, 3.8, 0i N
2.X.15
6
x
5 kg
Figure 2: A picture of the situation
Draw a sketch of the situation.
~

Fgrav on object by earth = mg

N
= (5 kg)(9.8 )
kg
= 49 N
~F = h0, 49, 0i N
grav on object by earth
2.X.16
~

Fgrav on object by earth = mg

~

Fgrav

m =
g
1N
=
9.8 kg
N
= 0.1 kg
2.X.17
L0 = 0.2 m
N
ks = 8
m
m = 0.06 kg
For the third time step of t = 0.1 s

7
yi = 0.159 m
viy = 0.236 m/s
piy = 0.0141 kg m/s
~

L = 0.159 m
~

s = L L0
= 0.159 m 0.2 m
= 0.041 m
Fspring,y = ks s
N
= (8 )(0.041 m)
m
= 0.328 N
Fgrav,y = mg
N
= (0.06 kg)(9.8 )
kg
= 0.588 N
Fnet,y = 0.26 N
pf y = piy + Fnet,y t
= (0.0141 kg m/s) + (0.26 N)(0.1 s)
= 0.0119 kg m/s
pf y
vf y =
m
0.0119 kg m/s
=
0.06 kg
= 0.198 m/s
yf = yi + vavg,y t
Use vavg,y vf y for small t.
yf = yi + vf y t
= (0.159 m) + (0.198 m/s)(0.1 s)
= 0.139 m
8
2.X.18
The initial velocity in step 2 was upward and its final velocity was upward. As a result, its y-displacement was upward.
The effect of the downward force was to decrease the y-velocity of the object. As a result, its final y-velocity was less than
its initial y-velocity. That is, it slowed down. But because its average velocity was upward during the time interval, it still
had an upward displacement.
2.X.19
(c) 0.5 cm is reasonable if doing the calculation by hand. Since the spring is stretched 5 cm, a small enough time step
should be chosen so that |~r| in one time step is significantly less than 5 cm but reasonably large to not require too many
calculations.
2.X.20
(a). For a computer calculation, extremely small t can be used. However, if it is too small, the computer will take a very
long time to complete all necessary calculations and numerical errors will compound.
For a period of 4333 days, 1 day is sufficiently small. A t of 0.01 s is too small, as it will require too may calculations for
one orbit.
As a general rule, for periodic motion like an orbit, a thousandth of a period (0.001 of 4333 days in this case) is sufficiently
small.
2.X.21
~vi = h0, 0, 10i m/s

m = 163 kg
~F = h0, 0, 35i N
net
t = 60 s
~rf = ?
~pf = ~pi + ~Fnet t

= m~vi + ~Fnet t
= (163 kg)(h0, 0, 10i m/s) + (h0, 0, 35i N)(60 s)
= h0, 0, 1630i kg m/s + h0, 0, 2100i kg m/s
= h0, 0, 3730i kg m/s
~pf
~vf =
m
h0, 0, 3730i kg m/s
=
163 kg
= h0, 0, 22.9i m/s
9
If ~Fnet is constant,
~vi + ~vf
~vavg =
2
h0, 0, 10i m/s + h0, 0, 22.9i m/s
=
2
= h0, 0, 16.5i m/s
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t

= < 0, 0, 0 > +(h0, 0, 16.5i m/s)(60 s)
= h0, 0, 90i m
2.X.22
(yf yi ) is negative because the +y direction is defined to be upward, away from the Earth. Because the ball falls, its final
position is less (or, rather, below) its initial position. Thus, its y-displacement (yf yi ) is negative.
~F is negative because the +y direction is defined to be upward and the gravitational force of the Earth on the ball is
net y
downward, in the -y direction. Written as a vector,
~F =< 0, mg, 0 >

grav
g is the magnitude of Earths gravitational field near the surface of Earth; therefore, it is always written as g = +9.8 kg .
N
Magnitudes are always positive.
2.X.23
(a)
m = 0.02 kg
yi = 4m
yf = 0
viy = 0
t = ?
vf y = ?
10
1 Fnet,y 2
yf yi =
viy t + t
2 m
1 mg

yf yi = 0 + t2
2 m
1
yf yi = 0 + (g) t2
2
1 N
4 m = (9.8 )t2
2 kg
s
2(4 m)
t =
9.8 kg
N
= 0.90 s
(b)
mvf y = mviy + Fnet,y t
F
vf y = viy + net,y t
m
mg
vf y = 0+ t
m

N
vf y = (9.8 )(0.9 s)
kg
= 8.8 m/s
2.X.24
(a)
~ri = h9, 0, 5i m
~vi = h10, 13, 5i m/s
~F = ~Fgrav =< 0, mg, 0 >
net
t = 0.6 s
~pf = ~pi + ~Fnet t

m~vf = m~vi + ~Fnet t
~F
~vf = ~vi + net
t
m
< 0, mg, 0 >
~vf = h10, 13, 5i m/s + (0.6 s)
m
N
= h10, 13, 5i m/s + (h0, 9.8, 0i )(0.6 s)
kg
= h10, 13, 5i m/s + h0, 5.88, 0i m/s
= h10, 7.12, 5i m/s
11
(b) For constant ~Fnet ,
~vi + ~vf
~vavg =
2
h10, 13, 5i /mps + h10, 7.12, 5i m/s
=
2
= h10, 10.06, 5i m/s
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t

= h9, 0, 5i m + (h10, 10.06, 5i m/s)(0.6 s)
= h9, 0, 5i m + h6, 6.036, 3i m
= h15, 6, 8i m
(c) At maximum height, vf y = 0, so ~vf = h10, 0, 5i m/s at max height.
Fnet,y
vf y = viy + t
m
N
0 = 13 m/s + (9.8 )(t)
kg
13 m/s
t =
9.8 kg
N
= 1.33 s
(d) Max height occurs at t = 1.33 s; find yf .
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t

yf = yi + vavg,y t
v + v
yf = 0+ t
iy fy
2
13 m/s + 0

yf = (1.33 s)
2
= 8.65 m
12
(e) At ground yf = 0; the ball is initially kicked from the ground at yi = 0. Use
1 Fnet,y 2
yf yi = viy t +t
2 m
mg 2
1
0 0 = viy t + t
2 m
1
0 = viy t gt2
2
1
gt2 = viy
t

2
2viy
t =
g
2(13 m/s)
=
9.8 kg
N
= 2.65 s
Note: this is twice the time at the peak.

(f) Find vf y when it hits the ground.
Fnet,y

vf y = viy + t
m
mg

= viy + t
m

= viy gt
N
= 13 m/s (9.8 )(2.65 s)
kg
= 12.97 m/s
Note: it is symmetric. The ball left the ground with a y-velocity of 13 m/s, so it returns to the ground with a y-velocity
of 13 m/s. Thus vavg,y = 0.
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t
~vi + ~vf
= ~ri + t
2
h10, 13, 5i m/s + h10, 13, 5i m/s

= h9, 0, 5i m + (2.65 s)
2
= h9, 0, 5i m + (h10, 0, 5i m/s)(2.65 s)
= h9, 0, 5i m + h26.5, 0, 13.25i m
= h35.5, 0, 18.25i m
Note: the y-displacement is 0 since the ball left the ground (y = 0) and returned to the ground (y = 0). Thus, we
simply need the x-displacement and z-displacement. The x-velocity and z-velocity are constant since Fnet,x = 0 and
Fnet,z = 0. Thus,
xf = xi + vx t
= 9 m + (10 m/s)(2.65 s)
= 35.5 m
13
and
zf = zi + vz t
= 5 m + (5 m/s)(2.65 s)
= 18.25 m
Which is consistent with what was calculated above.
2.X.25
(a) The system was the student on the left.

(b) Fnet,y = 0 and Fnet,z = 0.
(c)
px
Fnet,x =
t
or
pf x = pix + Fnet,x t
(d) The initial speed (6 m/s) and displacement of the student (5 cm) were estimated quantities used to calculate t.
(e) The net force on the student was calculated using the Momentum Principle. The force exerted by the right student on
the left student was calculated from net force and superposition. The free-body diagram and the fact that Fnet,y = 0
and Fnet,z = 0 were used to show that Fnet,x was equal to the force on the student on the left due to the other student.
F
(f) F = 21000 N and Fgrav = mg = (60 kg)(9.8 kg )
N
600 N, thus Fgrav = 35. The force due to the collision was about 35
times the students weight.
2.X.26
The object is moving in the +x direction, but we are not given any information about the change in velocity. Without
knowing the change in velocity, we cannot know the change in momentum, nor the net force. All of these choices are possible.
None of them are false.
2.X.27
~F = h18, 47, 23i N

1
~F = h20, 13, 41i N

2
~F = ~F1 + ~F2
net
= h18 20, 47 13, 23 + 41i N

= h2, 34, 18i N
14
2.X.28
~p is in the direction of the net force on the puck. Thus, ~p is in the direction of arrow (e).
2.X.29
The system is the truck.
~pi = h65000, 0, 0i kg m/s

~pf = h26000, 0, 0i kg m/s
t = 4.1 s
~F ~p
=
net
t
~pf ~pi
=
t
h26000, 0, 0i kg m/s h65000, 0, 0i kg m/s
=
4.1 s
h39000, 0, 0i kg m/s
=
4.1 s
= h9510, 0, 0i N
2.X.30
Same answer as 2.X.26 but with y instead of x.
2.X.31
Cart B.
~pA = 0 so ~Fnet on A = 0.
~pB is to the left, so ~Fnet on B is to the left.
~pC is to the right, so ~Fnet on C is to the right.
2.X.32
(b),(c),(d),(e),(g) are correct.
In (a), ~F must be the net force ~Fnet .
In (f), v must be a vector ~v.
In (h), the equation is not correct, nor is it the correct definition. See part (e) for the correct definition of momentum.
In (i), vavg must be a vector ~vavg .
In (j), Fnet must be a vector ~Fnet .
2.X.33
15
~pi = h8, 0, 0i kg m/s

t = 0.13 s
~pf = ?
~F = h7, 5, 0i N
net
~pf = ~pi + ~Fnet t

= h8, 0, 0i kg m/s + (h7, 5, 0i N)(0.13 s)
= h7.09, 0.65, 0i kg m/s
q
2 2 2
~pf = (7.09 kg m/s) + (0.65 kg m/s) + (0 kg m/s)

= 7.12 kg m/s
2.X.34
ti = 16 s
tf = 16.2 s
m = 4 kg
~vi = h9, 29, 10i m/s
~vf = h18, 20, 25i m/s
~F = ?
net
~F ~p
=
net
t
m~v
=
t
m(~vf ~vi )
=
t
(4 kg)(h18, 20, 25i m/s h9, 29, 10i m/s)
=
(16.2 s 16.0 s)
(4 kg)(h9, 9, 35i m/s)
=
0.2 s
= h180, 180, 700i N
2.X.35
Assume motion in the +x direction.

~vi = h0.990c, 0, 0i m/s
~vf = h0.994c, 0, 0i m/s
16
~pi = m~vi
m~vi
= r
2
|~vi |
1 c2
m < 0.99c, 0, 0 >
= q
2
1 (.99c)
c2
m < 0.99c, 0, 0 >
=
1 0.992
(1.7 1027 kg) < (0.99)(3 108 m/s), 0, 0 >
=
1 0.992
= < 3.58 10 18
kg m/s, 0, 0 >
(1.7 1027 kg) < (0.994)(3 108 m/s), 0, 0 >

~pf =
1 (0.994)2
p
= 4.63 10 , 0, 0 kg m/s
18

impulse = ~Fnet t
= ~p
= ~pf ~pi
= 4.63 1018 , 0, 0 kg m/s 3.58 1018 , 0, 0 kg m/s

= 1.05 1018 kg m/s
2.X.36
Newtons first law and second law refer to the net force on the system. If you pull the sled in the +x direction at constant
velocity, the forces in the x-direction on the sled are the force on the sled by you in the +x direction and the force on the
sled by snow (friction) in the -x direction. When added together, these forces sum to zero and the net force on the sled is
zero, thus satisfying Newtons first and second laws.
Fon sled by friction Fon sled by you
Figure 3: The force vectors cancel

17
2.P.37 This problem can be confusing. With respect to the shuttle (i.e. in the shuttles frame of reference), the astronaut has
no momentum. With respect to Earth (i.e. in Earths frame of reference), however, she does, and this momentum changes
as she and the shuttle orbit Earth.
(a) See Figure 4.
(b) See Figure 4. Note that the only force on the astronaut is the gravitational force on her due to Earth.
(c) See Figure 4.
(d) See Figure 4. Note that only the momentums direction has changed.
(e) Objects in space dont float. The astronaut appears to do so because both she and the shuttle are in a state of free fall
around Earth, subject to the same gravitational field strength. As they attempt to literally fly off on a tangent, they
fall the same distance toward Earths center. Thus, the astronaut never hits the shuttles floor.
!p2 !p
!p1
!p1
!
F2 !p2
!
F1
Figure 4: Astronaut as seen in Earths frame of reference
2.P.38 This is a straightforward application of the momentum principle. Choose the system to consist of the proton; the
only significant interaction with the system is due to the HCl molecule. Further, assume non-relativistic speed so we can use
Newtons expression for momentum. Since the net force only has an x component, we should not expect the protons y or z
components of momentum, and thus velocity, to change.
18
~psys = ~Fnet,sys t
~psys,f ~psys,i = ~Fnet,sys t
~psys,f = ~psys,i + ~Fnet,sys t
msys ~vsys,i + ~Fnet,sys t
~vsys,f
msys
27
D 11
E 14
(1.673 10 kg) (h3600, 600, 0i m/s) + 1.12 10 , 0, 0 N (3.4 10 s)
~vsys,f
(1.673 1027 kg)
D 24 24
E
5.64 10 , 1.00 10 , 0 kg m/s
~vsys,f
1.673 1027 kg
~vsys,f h3370, 600, 0i m/s
Note that the protons position didnt enter into this calculation.
2.P.39 Choose the system to be just the spacecraft and its contents. This choice of system obviously doesnt include thruster
exhaust gases. The only significant interaction with the system comes from the thruster exhaust. A popular misconception is
that air is needed for rockets to work; this is not true. Lets assume non-relativistic speeds so we can use Newtons expression
for momentum. Lets also treat the spacecraft and its contents as a particle to which we apply the momentum principle.
We need to apply the momentum principle to see how the systems momentum changes during the thruster burn. Lets also
neglect the loss of mass while firing the engine (due to exhaust).
Notice that the net force is in the +x direction. As a result, vy does not change. It will remain constant. Only vx will change.
~psys = ~Fnet,sys t
~psys,f ~psys,i = ~Fnet,sys t
~psys,f = ~psys,i + ~Fnet,sys t
Msys ~vsys,i + ~Fnet,sys t
~vsys,f =
Msys
5
D 3
E D 4
E
(1.5 10 kg) 0, 20 10 , 0 m/s + 6 10 , 0, 0 N (3.4 s)
~vsys,f =
(1.5 105 kg)
D 5 9
E
2.04 10 , 3.00 10 , 0 kg m/s
~vsys,f =
(1.5 105 kg)
D 4
E
~vsys,f = 1.36, 2 10 , 0 m/s
Now we know the systems (spacecrafts) velocity at the end of the burn. Find the position of the spacecraft after the burn.
Since the net force on the spaceship is constant, use the arithmetic average of the velocity.
19
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t

~vi + ~vf

= ~ri + t
2
4
E D
D 4
E
0, 2 10 , 0 m/s + 1.36, 2 10 , 0 m/s
= < 1.2 104 , 1.5 104 , 0 > m + (3.4 s)
2
= < 1.2002 104 , 8.3 104 , 0 > m
Note that the x-displacement x is very small. The spacecraft barely moved in the x-direction. This is because t and the
x-acceleration (Fnet,x /m) are very small.
After the burn, the spacecrafts momentum (and thus velocity) is constant (since the net force on the spaceship is zero), and
its position after one hour of coasting can be calculated.
~rf = ~ri + ~vt

D 4
E
~rf < 1.2002 104 , 8.3 104 , 0 > m + 1.36, 2 10 , 0 m/s (3600 s)
D 4 7
E
~rf 1.69 10 , 7.21 10 , 0 m
Notice that the final velocity after the burn has a very small x-component (in comparison to its y-component). As a result,
during one hour, it has a much greater y-displacement than x-displacement.
2.P.40 The momentum principle is applicable to this problem provided we use Einsteins expression for a particles momentum
rather than Newtons expression. If we know the net force on a particle and the particles change in momentum, then the
momentum principle gives us the duration of the interaction. Take the system to be the electron. The only significant
interaction with the system is that of the particle accelerator. Assume the particles initial and final momenta are in the
same direction.
1 1 31 1 31
~psys,i = melectron ~vi r (9.109 10 kg) 0.93c (9.109 10 kg) 0.93c

1 0.93
r
2 2 2
|~vi | 1 (0.93c)
1 c2 c2
22
6.91 10 kg m/s
1 1 31 1 31
~psys,f = m ~vf r (9.109 10 kg) 0.99c (9.109 10 kg) 0.99c

1 0.99
r electron
2 2 2
|~vf | (0.99c)
1 c2
1 c2
21
1.92 10 kg m/s
If the initial and final momenta are in the same direction, then the difference in their magnitudes is equal to the magnitude
of their difference.
20
(a) Now we can apply the momentum principle.
~psys = ~Fnet,sys t

~psys

t =
~Fnet,sys

21 22
1.92 10 kg m/s 6.91 10 kg m/s
t
2 1012 N
10
t 6.15 10 s
(b) Since the net force on the system is assumed constant, we can approximate the particles average velocity as the
arithmetic mean of the initial and final velocities.

~vavg 0.96c

|~r| ~vavg t

8 m
10
|~r| 0.96 3 10 (6.15 10 s)
s
1
|~r| 1.77 10 m 18 cm
2.P.41 Choose the system to be just the ball.
(a) Do the following calculations for the early time interval:
~r
~vavg,early
t
~r
~pavg,early m~vavg,early m
t
3 h0.08, 0.04, 0.02i m
~pavg,early (2.7 10 kg)
0.02 s
~pavg,early h0.011, 0.005, 0.003i kg m/s
(b) Now do the same calculations for the late time interval:
~r
~vavg,late
t
~r
~pavg,late m~vavg,late m
t
3 h0.02, 0.36, 0.02i m
~pavg,late (2.7 10 kg)
0.02 s
~pavg,late h0.003, 0.049, 0.003i kg m/s
(c) Now use these two results to get the average net force.
~psys ~pavg,late ~pavg,early

~F = =
net,sys
t t
~F h0.008, 0.044, 0i kg m/s

net,sys
2s
~F h0.004, 0.022, 0i N
net,sys
21
2.P.42
m = 240 kg
ti = 20.7 s
~ri = 4.3 103 , 8.7 102 , 0 m

~pi = 4.4 104 , 7.6 103 , 0 kg m/s

~F = 7 103 , 9.2 102 , 0 N

net
Define the system to be the space probe.
(a) At t = 20.9 s,
~pf = ~pi + ~Fnet t
= 4.4 104 , 7.6 103 , 0 kg m/s + ( 7 103 , 9.3 102 , 0 N)(0.2 s)

= 4.4 104 , 7.6 103 , 0 kg m/s + 1.4 103 , 1.86 102 , 0 kg m/s

= 4.26 104 , 7.79 103 , 0 kg m/s

(b)
~pf
~vf =

m
4.26 104 , 7.79 103 , 0 kg m/s

=
240 kg
= h177.5, 32.4, 0i m/s
~pi
~vi =

m
4.4 104 , 7.6 103 , 0 kg m/s

=
240 kg
= h183, 31.7, 0i m/s
~vf ~vi
~vavg =
2
h183, 31.7, 0i m/s h177.5, 32.4, 0i m/s
=
2
= h180, 32, 0i m/s
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t

= 4.3 103 , 8.7 102 , 0 m + (h180, 32, 0i m/s)(0.2 s)

= 4.3 103 , 8.7 102 , 0 m + h36, 6.4, 0i m

= 4.34 103 , 8.64 102 , 0 m

22
2.P.43
m = 5 kg
~F = h29, 15, 40i N
net
t = 4s
~vf = h114, 74, 112i m/s
~vi = 0
Define the system to be the rock.
~F ~p
=
t
net
m~v
=
t
~F t = m~v
net
~F t = m~v m~v
net f i
m~vi = m~vf ~Fnet t

~F
~vi = ~vf net
t
m
h29, 15, 40i N

= h114, 94, 112i m/s (4 s)
5 kg
= h114, 94, 112i m/s h23.2, 12, 32i m/s
= h91, 106, 80i m/s
2.X.44
(1) The system is the box. Forces on the system are the gravitational force on the box by Earth and the (contact) force
on the box by your hands.
(2) The system is you and the box. Forces on the system are the gravitational force on you and the box by the Earth and
the (contact) force by the floor on you, assuming you are standing on the floor.
(3) The system is you, the box, and Earth. During the short time interval of the lift, there are no significant forces on the
system.
2.X.45
(a) vx is negative and increases toward zero, meaning that it becomes less negative as the cart slows down. There is no
graph that demonstrates this motion. Graph (2) is close, but in graph (2), the object reaches zero velocity and then
speeds up as it travels to the right.
(b) vx is positive and increases. This is graph (6).

23
(c) vx is negative and constant. This is graph (3).
(d) vx is negative, decreases in magnitude until vx = 0, then increases and is positive. This is graph (2).
(e) vx is zero and constant. No graphs depict this motion.
(f) vx is positive and decreases. No graphs depict this motion. Graph (5) is close, but it shows the objects velocity
decreasing to 0, and then the object speeds up in the -x direction.
(g) vx is positive, decreases to 0, and then becomes more negative (i.e. increases in the -x direction). This is graph (5).
(h) vx is negative and becomes more negative as the cart speeds up. This is graph (1).
(i) vx is constant and positive. This is graph (4).
2.X.46
N
ks = 40
m
~

Fon spring = 2N

L = 18 cm
L0 = ?
~

Fon spring = ks |s|

= ks L L0

~

Fon spring

L L =

0
ks
2N
=
40 mN
= 0.05 m
= 5 cm
L = L0 + 5 cm
= 18 cm + 5 cm
= 23 cm
2.X.47
~

Fgrav = mg

N
= (10 kg)(9.8 )
kg
= 98 N
24
On a 20 kg mass,
~
N
Fgrav = (20 kg)(9.8 )

kg
= 196 N
2.X.48
When doing an iterative calculation, it is desirable to have a small t so that |~r| is small. A small enough |~r| is (d)
1 109 m, which is 0.1 of the distance from the Sun. (a) 1 102 m is too small as it would take too many calculations to
see the comet move a distance of 9 1016 m. On the other hand, (b) and (c) are too large since one would not be able to
ascertain anything about the orbit of the comet.
2.X.49
(a) 1 second would be 12 the period of the oscillation; thus, no information about the motion during an oscillation could be
obtained. All other choices of t are reasonable, with smaller t like 0.01 s being best for a computer calculation.
2.X.50
(a) If we assume a constant net force, then

~vi + ~vf
~vavg =
2
Assume motion is in the +x direction.
~vf = h8, 0, 0i m/s

~vi = h0, 0, 0i m/s
h0, 0, 0i m/s + h8, 0, 0i m/s
~vavg =
2
= h4, 0, 0i m/s
(b)
~r
~vavg =
t
~r = ~vavg t
= (h4, 0, 0i m/s)(3 s)
= h12, 0, 0i m
|~r| = 12 m
(c) Assume direction of motion is the +x direction.
~vi = h18, 0, 0i m/s

~vf = h0, 0, 0i m/s
t = 4s
25
Assume a constant net force, then

~vi + ~vf
~vavg =
2
h18, 0, 0i m/s + h0, 0, 0i m/s
=
2
= h9, 0, 0i m/s
(d)
~r = ~vavg t
= (h9, 0, 0i m/s)(4 s)
= h36, 0, 0i m
|~r| = 36 m
2.X.51
(a) t = 3 h :
x = vavg,x t
mi
= (30 )(3 h)
h
= 90 mi
t = 1 h :
mi
x = (60 )(1 h)
h
= 60 mi
xtotal = 90 mi + 60 mi
= 150 mi
ttotal = 4h
xtotal
vavg,x =
ttotal
150 mi
=
4h
mi
= 37.5
h
(b) The arithmetic mean velocity is

vix + vf x
vavg,x =
2
30 mi
+ 60 mi
= h h
2
mi
= 45
h
26
(c) The arithmetic mean is only accurate in the case of constant net force. However the velocity of the car in this case is
constant for 3 h, briefly increases, and is then constant for 1 h. The net force, therefore, is zero for 3 h, briefly non-zero,
and then zero for 1 h. It is definitely not constant throughout the motion.
2.X.52
~ri = h0.06, 1.03, 0i m

t = 0.7 s
~vavg = h17, 4, 6i m/s
yf = ?
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t

= h0.06, 1.03, 0i m + (h17, 4, 6i m/s)(0.7 s)
= h0.06, 1.03, 0i m + h11.9, 2.8, 4.2i m
= h12, 3.83, 4.2i m
Thus, yf = 3.83 m is the height of the ball 0.7 s after it leaves your hand.
2.X.53
(a) px starts at zero, briefly increases in the +x direction, and then steadily decreases to zero as the cart slows to a stop.
The graph that depicts this motion is graph (2).
(b) px starts at zero and steadily increases until it quickly decreases when it is caught. This is shown in graph (4).
(c) While pushed, px briefly increases. After being released, px decreases to zero (as the cart slows to a stop) and then
increases in the -x direction (i.e. becomes more negative) as it speeds up while traveling in the -x direction. This is
shown in graph (1).
2.X.54
(a) After releasing the cart, the force in the cart (friction) is constant and in the -x direction. This is shown in graph (6).
The frictional force on the cart becomes zero when the cart stops.
(b) The force by the air on the cart (resulting from the turning fan) is constant in the +x direction. A large force by your
hand on the cart is in the -x direction when stopping the cart. This is shown in graph (7).
(c) After the initial push in the +x direction, the force by air on the cart (due to the turning fan) is in the -x direction.
This is shown in graph (5).
2.X.55
(a) The cart starts at the origin (x = 0) and slows down due to friction until it stops. Then its x-position remains constant
at some positive value of x. This is depicted in graph (9).
27
(b) The slope of x vs. t increases in the +x direction until the cart is caught and then x is constant. This is shown in graph
(12).
(c) The slope of x vs. t is initially positive, then decreases, then goes to zero (when vx = 0), then becomes negative and
increases (becomes steeper) until the cart is caught. Presumably the cart returns to where it started. This is depicted
in graph (10).
2.X.56
(a) The net force is the gravitational force on the ball by Earth, and is directed downward toward Earth.
(b) Only the y-component of the momentum of the ball changes.
(c) The x-component of the momentum of the ball is constant because Fnet,x = 0.
(d) The y-component of the momentum of the ball changes at a constant rate because Fnet,y = mg and is constant.
(e) The z-component of the momentum of the ball is constant because Fnet,z = 0.
v +v
(f) vavg,y = iy 2 f y is accurate because Fnet,y is constant.
2.P.57
~v = 20 m/s

i
i = 50
(a) Sketch a picture showing the trajectory of the ball, like the one shown in Figure 5.
vi
x
Figure 5: A sketch of the trajectory of the ball
Use direction cosines to write ~vi as a vector.
vix = ~vi cos x

= (20 m/s) cos 59

= 10.3 m/s
28
viy = ~vi cos y

= (20 m/s) cos (90 59 )

= (20 m/s) cos 31
= 17.1 m/s
Define i to be when the ball is kicked and f when it hits the ground.
yi = 0
yf = 0
Use
1 Fnet,y 2
(yf yi ) = viy t + t
2 m
1 mg

0 0 = viy t + t2
2 m

= 1 gt2
viy
t
2
2viy
t =
g
2(17.1 m/s)
=
9.8 kg
N
= 3.9 s
(b) Fnet,x = 0 therefore vx is constant.
x
vx =
t
x = vx t
= (10.3 m/s)(3.49 s)
x = 35.9 m
(c) In this case, the motion is symmetric. Thus, the time when the ball is at its peak is 12 the time it takes to leave the
ground and return to the ground. Thus, tpeak = 21 (3.49 s) = 1.75 s. The y-velocity of the ball at its peak is zero.
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t

yf = yi + vavg,y t
v + v
yf = yi + t
fy iy
2
0 + 17.1 m/s

= 0+ (1.75 s)
2
= 15 m
2.P.58
29
~ri = h9, 0, 6i m
~vi = h11, 16, 6i m/s
(a) ~vf after t = 0.5 s? According to the momentum principle, with the system defined to be the ball.
~pf = ~pi + ~Fnet t

~F
~vf = ~vi + net
t
m
< 0,
mg, 0 >

~vf = ~vi + t
m

~vf = ~vi + < 0, g, 0 > t
N
= h11, 16, 6i m/s+ < 0, 9.8 , 0 > (0.5 s)
kg
= h11, 16, 6i m/s + h0, 4.9, 0i m/s
= h11, 11.1, 6i m/s
(b) ~vavg = i 2 f gives the most accurate result for the average velocity because ~Fnet is constant. The arithmetic mean is
~v +~
v
exact in this case.
(c)
~vi + ~vf
~vavg =
2
h11, 16, 6i m/s + h11, 11.1, 6i m/s
=
2
= h11, 13.6, 6i m/s
Note that vx and vz are constant since Fnet,x = 0 and Fnet,z = 0.
(d)
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t

= h9, 0, 6i m + (h11, 13.6, 6i m/s)(0.5 s)
= h9, 0, 6i m + h5.5, 6.8, 3i m
= h3.5, 6.8, 9i m
(e) vy = 0 at its highest point because this is a "turning point" in the y-direction. When an object changes direction, vy
must be zero at the instant it changes directions. In terms of calculus, y is a maximum at the balls highest point.
vy = dy
dt must be zero since the derivative of a function at its maximum is zero.
30
(f)
mvf y = mviy + Fnet,y t
mg

vf y = viy + t
m

N
0 = 16 m/s + (9.8 )t
kg
(g)
16 m/s
t =
9.8 kg
N
= 1.63 s
(h)
viy + vf y
vavg,y =
2
16 m/s + 0
=
2
= 8 m/s
yf = yi + vavg,y t
= 0 + (8 m/s)(1.63 s)
= 13 m
2.P.59
m = 1.5 kg
~vi = h5, 8, 0i m/s
~ri = < 0, 0, 0 >
(a) Sketch a picture of the motion as shown in Figure 6.

At the peak, vf y = 0. Thus
~vpeak = h5, 0, 0i m/s

31
x
vf
vi
Figure 6: A sketch of the motion
(b)
~pf = ~pi + ~Fnet t

~F
~vf = ~vi + net
t
m
F
vf y = viy + net,y t
m
mg
vf y = viy + t
m

vf y = viy gt
N
0 = 8 m/s (9.8 )t
kg
8 m/s
t =
9.8 kg
N
= 0.816 s
(c) Since ~Fnet is constant,
~vi + ~vf
~vavg =
2
h5, 8, 0i m/s + h5, 0, 0i m/s
=
2
= h5, 4, 0i m/s
(d)
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t

= < 0, 0, 0 > +(h5, 4, 0i m/s)(0.816 s)
= h4.1, 3.3, 0i m
32
(e) The motion is symmetric in this case. The total time will be 2(tpeak ) = 2(0.816 s) = 1.63 s. Alternatively, use the fact
that vf y = viy = 8 m/s
vf y = viy gt
N
8 m/s = 8 m/s (9.8 )t
kg
8 m/s + 8 m/s
t =
9.8 kg
N
= 1.63 s
Which agrees with what was obtained by calculating 2 times the time interval to reach the peak.
(f)
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t
Note: vavg,y = 0, so one only needs to consider the x direction.
xf = xi + vavg,x t
= 0 + (5 m/s)(1.63 s)
= 8.2 m
(g) Because of symmetry,
vf y = viy
= (8 m/s)
= 8 m/s
(h) Sketch a picture of the vector, as shown in Figure 7
vi
viy
x
vix
Figure 7: A sketch of the vector and components

33
Use direction cosines

v
cos x = ix
~v
qi
~v = 2 2 2
(5 m/s) + (8 m/s) + (0 m/s)

i
= 9.43 m/s
5 m/s
cos x =
9.43 m/s
x = 58
(i) Sketch a picture of ~vf when the ball hits the ground.
vfx
x
vfy
vf
vf x = 5 m/s
vf y = 8 m/s
Due to symmetry, x is the same as what was calculated for ~vi when the ball was released, except that now it is below
the x-axis. Thus,
x = 58
2.P.60
Case (1):
Assume the ball is released from a height of 6 m from the floor at an angle of 45 . Find the initial speed needed to make the
free-throw.
Sketch a picture with a coordinate system, like the one shown in Figure 9.
vix = ~v cos

x
i
= ~v cos 45
i
~v
= i
2
34
yf =3 m
yi=2 m x f =4.3 m
x i =0
x
vi
viy
x
vix
Figure 10: Initial velocity vector and components
~v

viy = i
2
= vix
Since = 45 . Write
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t
In component form.
xf = xi + vavg,x t
and
yf = yi + vavg,y t
35
The x-velocity is constant since Fnet,x = 0, so
xf =
xi + vix t
~v
!
4.3 m = 0 + i t
2

(4.3 m) 2
t = ~v

i
This equation has 2 unknowns. Thus, analyze the y-direction.
yf = yi + vavg,y t
v + v
= yi + fy iy
Substitute
Fnet,y
vf y = viy + t
m
mg
= viy + t
m

= viy gt
(viy gt) + viy

!
yf = yi + t
2
1
yf =
yi + viy t gt2
2
~v
!
1 N
3 m = 2 m + i t (9.8 )t2
2 2 kg
~v

1 = i t 4.9t2
2
This equation also has 2 unknowns. However, we now have 2 equations with 2 unknowns. They are:

(4.3) 2
t =
~v i
and
~v

1 = i t 4.9t2
2
Use substitution to solve, or use the solve() function on a TI calculator. The result is
t = 0.821 s
~v = 7.41 m/s

i
36
Check that the result is correct by using the initial speed and time interval to calculate the final position of the basketball
and see if it matches the hoop.
v = ~v cos 45

ix i
= (7.41 m/s) cos 45

= 5.24 m/s
Since = 45 ,
viy = 5.24 m/s
~vi = h5.24, 5.24, 0i m/s
~F
!
~vf = ~vi + net
t
m
< 0, mg, 0 >
= ~vi + t
m

= ~vi + < 0, g, 0 > t
N
= h5.24, 5.24, 0i m/s + (h0, 9.8, 0i )(0.821 s)
kg
= h5.24, 5.24, 0i m/s + h0, 8.05, 0i m/s
= h5.24, 2.81, 0i m/s
Note vf y is negative as it should be for a ball traveling downward into the basket.
~vi + ~vf
~vavg =
2
h5.24, 5.24, 0i m/s + h5.24, 2.81, 0i m/s
=
2
= h5.24, 1.22, 0i m/s
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t

= h0, 2, 0i m + (h5.24, 1.22, 0i m/s)(0.821 s)
= h0, 2, 0i m + h4.3, 1.0, 0i m
= h4.3, 3, 0i m
Score! Thats the position of the basket.

Case (2):
Choose a different angle, say = 60 . Then,
vix = ~vi cos 60

~v

= i
viy = ~vi cos (90 60 )

= ~vi cos 30

3
= ~vi
2
37
Follow the same procedure. You will get

8.6
t =
~vi
and

3
1= ~vi t 4.9t2
2
Solve for t and ~vi and they are

t = 1.15 s
~v = 7.50 m/s

i
Check to see if they give the correct final position of the ball.
vix = (7.50 m/s) cos 60

= 3.75 m/s
viy = (7.50 m/s) cos 30

= 6.5 m/s
~vi = h3.75, 6.5, 0i m/s

~vf = ~vi + < 0, g, 0 > t
N
= h3.75, 6.5, 0i m/s + (h0, 9.8, 0i )(1.15 s)
kg
= h3.75, 4.77, 0i m/s
~vi + ~vf
~vavg =
2
h3.75, 6.5, 0i m/s + h3.75, 4.77, 0i m/s
=
2
= h3.75, 0.865, 0i m/s
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t

= h0, 2, 0i m + (h3.75, 0.865, 0i m/s)(1.15 s)
= h4.3, 3.0, 0i m/s
Score! Note that it was a high-arching shot, thus viy was greater and t was greater than for the 45 shot. But both shots
make it into the hoop.
38
2.P.61
Typically such throws are at a small angle, less than 45 . Probably 30 is a good estimate. If the ball is caught at the same
height that it is thrown, then yf = 0 and yi = 0.
To find the time interval that it is in the air, use
1 Fnet,y 2
yf yi = viy t +t
2 m
1 mg

0 0 = viy t + t2
2 m

1
0 = viy t gt2
2
1
viy
t
= gt
2
2
2viy
t =
g
Use
viy = ~vi cos y

= ~vi cos 90 30

= ~v cos 60

i
2 ~vi cos 60

t =
g
There are two unknowns, so consider the x-direction. vx is constant because Fnet,x = 0. Thus,
xf =
xi + vavg,x t
xf = xi + ~vi cos 30 t

30 = 0 + ~vi cos 30 t

~v =
30
i
cos 30 t
2|~
v | cos 60
Substitute t = i
g .
~v =
30
i

2|~
v | cos 60
cos 30 i
g
2
~v 30(g)
=
i
2 cos 30 cos 60
2
~v 30(9.8)
i
=
2 3 1
2
2
2
~v 30(9.8)
i
=
3
2
s
~v =
30(9.8)

i 3
2
= 18.4 m/s
39
2 ~vi cos 60

t =
g
2(18.4 m/s) 12
=
9.8 kgN
= 1.88 s
Double check that our calculations are correct using
xf = xi + vx t
= 0 + |~v| cos 30 t
= (18.4 m/s) cos 30 (1.88 s)
= 30 m
exactly as expected.
Because the motion is symmetric (yi = 0 and yf = 0), the time interval to the peak is 1
2 the total time which is 12 (1.88 s) =
0.94 s. Also, vf y = 0 at the peak.
The height after t = 0.94 s is
yf = yi + vavg,y t
v + v
= yi + t
iy fy
2
~v cos 60 + 0
!
yf = 0+ i
(0.94 s)
2
(18.4 m/s) cos 60
= (0.94 s)
2
= 4.3 m
This is the peak height above where the ball was released.
2.P.62
First, sketch a picture of the situation.
6 frames of video corresponds to 5 time intervals, with each time interval being 1
30 s = 0.033 s. The first frame is at t = 0.
The average velocity of the flower pot is
y
vavg,y =
t
yf yi
=
t
Where t = 5( 30
1
s) = 5
30 s= 1
6 s
1.87 m
vavg,y =
6 s
1
= 11.2 s
40
y=0 Window
yf = 0.852.2 m=1.87 m
This is the only information that can be ascertained from the given information.
Suppose that the first frame occurs when the flower pot is released from rest. Then,
viy = 0
Fnet,y

vf y = viy + t
m
mg

= viy + t
m

= viy gt
N 1
= 0 (9.8)( s)
kg 6
= 1.63 m/s
Then,
viy + vf y
vavg,y =
2
0 1.63 m/s
=
2
= 0.815 m/s
Which is much smaller than the measured value of 11.2 m/s.
There are two possible conclusions: (1) the flower pot fell from a much greater height than the fourth floor or (2) The flower
pot was thrown downward with an initial y-velocity much greater than 0.
41
We can calculate the initial y-velocity at the top frame of the video.
vf y = viy gt
N 1
= viy (9.8 )( s)
kg 6
= viy 1.63 m/s
vf y viy = 1.63 m/s

vy = 1.63 m/s
Since vavg,y = 11.2 m/s then,
1.63
vf y = 11.2 m/s m/s
2
= 12 m/s
1.63
viy = 11.2 m/s + m/s
2
= 10.4 m/s
Thus, the flower pot either fell from a greater height or was thrown downward with an initial y-velocity no greater than
10.4 m/s downward.
2.P.63
There are two regions to consider.
(1) in between the plates where ~Fnet =< 0, +F, 0 > and is constant.
(2) after leaving the plates where ~Fnet = 0 and ~v is constant.
Calculate y in region (1) and y in region (2). Add them together for the total y. Define yi = 0 to be the vertical
position of the electron before going through the plates.
In region (1),
Fnet,y
vf y = viy + t
m
F
= viy + t
m
F
= 0+ t
m
42
viy + vf y
vavg,y =
2
yf yi = vavg,y t
v + v
y = t
iy fy
2
0+ m t
F
= t
2
1F
= t2
2m
To know t, use the x-motion. Since Fnet,x = 0, vx is constant and is v0 .
x = vx t
d = v0 t
d
t =
v0
Substitute to get y for region (1).
1F
y = t2
2m
!2
1F d
=
2m v0
Now for region (2),

The velocity is constant and is
F
~v =< v0 , t, 0 >
m
where t = v
d
from region (1). Thus,
0
F d
~v = < v0 , ,0 >
m v0
y = vavg,y t
F d
= t
m v0
Where t is the time interval in region (2).

To get t in region (2), use the x-motion. Note that vx = v0 throughout the motion since Fnet,x = 0.
x = vavg,x t
L = v0 t
L
t =
v0
43
Substitute into the expression for y.

! !
F d L
y =
m v0 v0
F dL
y =
m v02
The total y-displacement across regions (1) and (2) is

!2
1F d F dL
ytotal = +
2m v0 m v02
F 1 2
= ( d + dL)
mv02 2
Notice that the dimensions on each term are the same.

force distance2
mass speed2
So that gives us some confidence. Now, check that the units result in meters.
N m2 kg sm2
m2
=
2 = m
kg ms22 kg m
s2

So the units do give meters which is correct.
2.P.64
Just after release, yi = h and viy = 0.
Just before hitting the floor, yf = 0.
To find t, use
1 Fnet,y 2
yf yi = viy t + t
2 m
1
mg 2
0h = 0+ t
2 m
1
h = gt2
s2
2h
t =
g
For vf y , use the momentum principle applied to the system of the ball.
Fnet,y
vf y = viy + t
m
mg
= 0 + t
m
s
2h
= g
g
44
Note that vf y is negative as expected.

The results for t and vf y do not depend on the mass m. As a result, if you drop two balls with the same mass m, they
will hit the floor at the same time and with the same velocity, as long as air resistance is negligible since we assumed that
~F = ~F in this problem.
net grav
2.X.65
(a), (c), and (e) are correct.
(b) is incorrect because 0.1 m/s is 10 cm/s which is much too small.
(d) is incorrect because t can be calculated by estimating the distance compressed during the collision.
2.P.66
m = 2200 kg
viy = 40 m/s
y = 0.06 m
vf y = 0
Define the system to be the safe. Draw a free-body diagram like the one shown in Figure 12.
Fground
Fgrav
Figure 12: A free-body diagram of the safe
Assume that ~Fground is constant as the safe is slowing down due to the collision.
Apply the momentum principle.
~F ~p
=
net
t
~pf = < 0, 0, 0 >
~pi = m~vi
= (2200 kg)(h0, 40, 0i m/s)
= h0, 88000, 0i kg m/s
45
To calculate t, assume constant net force. Then,
~vi + ~vf
~vavg =
2
h0, 40, 0i m/s+ < 0, 0, 0 >
=
2
= h0, 20, 0i m/s
y
vavg,y =
t
y
t =
vavg,y
0.06 m
=
20 m/s
= 0.003 s
This is such a small time interval that the approximation of constant net force is reasonable. Any error from this approximation
would be small.
The principle of superposition gives
~F = ~Fground + ~Fgrav
net
= ~Fground + < 0, mg, 0 >

N
= ~Fground + < 0, (2200 kg)(9.8 ), 0 >
kg
= ~F + h0, 221560, 0i N
ground
Substitute into the momentum principle.
~F ~p
=
net
t
~pf ~pi
~F + h0, 21560, 0i N =
ground
t
~F < 0, 0, 0 > h0, 88000, 0i kg m/s
+ h0, 21560, 0i N =
ground
0.003 s
~F + h0, 21560, 0i N = 0, 2.93 107 , 0 N

ground
~F = 0, 2.93 107 , 0 N 0, 2.156 104 , 0 N

ground
= 0, 2.93 107 , 0 N

Note that ~Fgrav << ~Fground so we could have neglected ~Fgrav during the collision.
2.P.67
46
vi
m = 2500 kg
vix = 24 m/s
vf x = 0
x = 0.72 m
(a) Assuming constant ~Fnet during the collision, then,
vix + vf x
vavg,x =
2
24 m/s + 0
=
2
= 12 m/s
(b)
x = vavg,x t
x
t =
vavg,x
0.72 m
=
12 m/s
= 0.06 s
(c) Define the system to be the truck. The only significant force on the truck during the collision is the force by the wall.
47
Apply the momentum principle.

~F ~p
=
net
t
~F ~p
=
by wall
t
~pf ~pi
=
t
< 0, 0, 0 > m~vi
=
t
(2500 kg)(h24, 0, 0i m/s)
=
0.06 s
= 1.0 106 , 0, 0 N

~

Fby wall on truck = 1.0 106 N

weight = mg
N
= (2500 kg)(9.8 )
kg
= 2.45 104 N
~

Fby wall on truck

1.0 106 N
=
~ 2.45 106 N

Fgrav on truck

= 41
The wall exerts a force on the truck that is more than 40 times the weight of the truck.
(d)
~vi + ~vf
~vavg =
2
was valid.
2.P.68
(a) Image (B) is correct because the kick is brief and after the kick, ~v is constant so the block will move with a constant
velocity.
(b) Only the y-component of ~p changes due to the kick because the kick is in the +y direction.
(c) Fnet,x is constant so vf x = vix = 2.5 m/s
Use a picture of ~vf after the kick (shown in Figure 14) to find vf z .
vf z
tan 22 =
vf x
vf z = vf x tan 22
= (2.5 m/s) tan 22
= 1.0 m/s
48
vf
vfz
x
2.5 m / s
~vf = h2.5, 0, 1.0i m/s

q
2 2 2
|~v| = (2.5 m/s) + (0 m/s) + (1.0 m/s)
= 2.69 m/s
~v
v =
|~v|
h2.5, 0, 1.0i m/s
=
2.69 m/s
= < 0.929, 0, 0.372 >
p is the same as v, so
p =< 0.929, 0, 0.372 >
(d)
pf x = mvf x
= (0.7 kg)(2.5 m/s)
= 1.75 kg m/s
(e)
|~p| = m |~v|
= (0.7 kg)(2.69 m/s)
= 1.88 kg m/s
(f)
pf z = mvf z
= (0.7 kg)(1.0 m/s)
= 0.7 kg m/s
49
(g)
~F ~p
=
net
t
Choose the system to be the block of ice. The only component of the net force that is non-zero is the z-component.
pz
Fnet,z =
t
pf z piz
=
t
0.7 kg m/s 0
=
0.003 s
= 233 N
~

Fnet = 233 N
This is called the average net force because we assumed that it is constant.
2.P.69
vi
vf =0
Figure 15: A sketch of the collision
m = 0.057 kg
~vi = h50, 0, 0i m/s
~vf = 0 when instantaneously stopped during the collision
x = 0.02 m during the collision when slowing down
50
Find the time interval as it is slowing down during the collision.
~vi + ~vf
~vavg =
2
vix + vf x
vavg,x =
2
50 m/s + 0
=
2
= 25 m/s
x
vavg,x =
t
x
t =
vavg,x
0.02 m
=
25 m/s
= 0.0008 s
Apply the momentum principle. Define the system to be the tennis ball. The only significant force on the ball during the
collision is due to the wall. Thus Fnet,x = Fbywall,x .
px
Fnet,x =
t
pf x pix
Fbywall,x =
t
0 (0.057 kg)(50 m/s)
=
0.0008 s
= 3560 N
Note that this is quite large compared to the weight of the ball ( 0.6 N)
2.P.70
(a) Here is the program for this part.

4
5 # make a t a b l e
6 # Note t h a t t h e t a b l e i s a b i t l o n g e r than 2 m t o accommodate t h e c a r t
7 t r a c k = box ( pos=v e c t o r ( 1 , 0 . 0 5 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 2 . 1 , 0 . 0 5 , 0 . 1 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
8
9 # make a c a r t
10 c a r t = box ( pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 0 . 1 , 0 . 0 4 , 0 . 0 6 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )
11
12 # d e f i n e c a r t ' s mass i n SI u n i t s
13 # re ad t h e v a r i a b l e name from r i g h t t o l e f t : mass o f t h e o b j e c t named " c a r t "
14 c a r t .m = 0 . 5
51
15
16 # d e f i n e c a r t ' s i n i t i a l momentum ( and i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y ) i n SI u n i t s

17 # re ad t h e v a r i a b l e name from r i g h t t o l e f t : momentum o f t h e o b j e c t named " c a r t "
18 c a r t . p = c a r t .m v e c t o r ( 1 / 3 , 0 , 0 )
19
20 # d e f i n e n e t f o r c e on c a r t
21 Fnet = v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
22
23 # timestep
24 deltat = 0.01
25
26 # i n i t i a l time
27 t = 0
28
29 # i n i t i a l i z e graph d i s p l a y
30 graph1 = g d i s p l a y ( x=450 , y=50 , t i t l e = ' x vs . t ' , x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
31 y t i t l e= ' x (m) ' , xmin =0. , xmax=6.0 , ymin =0. , ymax=2.0)
32 # i n i t i a l i z e t h e f u n c t i o n t o be p l o t t e d
33 xvt = g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . g r e e n )
34
35 # pause and w a i t f o r u s e r t o c l i c k mouse t o s t a r t animation

37
38 # l o o p t o animate t h e c a r t
39 while t < 6 . 0 1 :
40 # l i m i t animation r a t e
41 rate (100)
42 # a p p l y momentum p r i n c i p l e t o u p d a t e c a r t ' s momentum
43 c a r t . p = c a r t . p + Fnet d e l t a t
44 # u p d a t e c a r t ' s p o s i t i o n , assuming Newton ' s e x p r e s s i o n f o r momentum
45 c a r t . pos = c a r t . pos + ( c a r t . p/ c a r t .m) d e l t a t
46 i f cart . x > 2:
47 break
48 # u p d a t e e l a p s e d time
49 t = t + deltat
50 # u p d a t e graph
51 xvt . p l o t ( pos=(t , c a r t . x ) )
(b) Here is the program for this part.

4
8
9 # make a c a r t
11
14 c a r t .m = 0 . 5
15
52

18 c a r t . p = c a r t .m v e c t o r ( 0 . 3 3 3 3 , 0 , 0 )
19
21 Fnet = v e c t o r ( 0 . 2 , 0 , 0 )
22
23 # timestep
24 deltat = 0.01
25
27 t = 0
28
29 # i n i t i a l i z e graph d i s p l a y
30 graph1 = g d i s p l a y ( x=450 , y=50 , t i t l e = ' x vs . t ' , x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
31 y t i t l e= ' x (m) ' , xmin =0. , xmax=6.0 , ymin =0. , ymax=2.0)
34

37
39 while t < 6 . 0 1 :
41 rate (100)
46 # s e e i f c a r t runs o u t o f t r a c k
47 i f cart . x > 2:
48 break
50 t = t + deltat
(c) Here is the program for this part.

4
8
9 # make a c a r t
11
14 c a r t .m = 0 . 5
15
53

18 c a r t . p = c a r t .m v e c t o r ( 1 / 3 , 0 , 0 )
19
21 Fnet = 0.25 c a r t . p / 3 . 0
22
23 # timestep
24 deltat = 0.01
25
27 t = 0
28
29 # i n i t i a l i z e graph d i s p l a y and a l l o w graph d i s p l a y t o a u t o s i z e

30 graph1 = g d i s p l a y ( x=450 , y=50 , t i t l e = ' x vs . t ' , x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' , y t i t l e= ' x (m) ' )
31
34

37
39 while t < 2 4 . 0 1 :
41 rate (100)
46 # s e e i f c a r t runs o f f e i t h e r end o f t r a c k
47 i f cart . x > 2:
48 break
49 i f cart . x < 0:
50 break
52 t = t + deltat
(d) Here is the program for this part.

4
8
9 # make a c a r t , b u t p u t c a r t on t h e r i g h t end o f t h e t r a c k
11
54
14 c a r t .m = 0 . 5
15

18 c a r t . p = c a r t .m v e c t o r ( 1/3 ,0 ,0)
19
21 # THINK ABOUT WHY THIS LINE DOESN 'T CHANGE FROM THAT IN PART ( c ) !
22 Fnet = 0.25 c a r t . p / 3 . 0
23
24 # timestep
25 deltat = 0.01
26
28 t = 0
29
30 # i n i t i a l i z e graph d i s p l a y and a l l o w graph d i s p l a y t o a u t o s i z e

31 graph1 = g d i s p l a y ( x=450 , y=50 , t i t l e = ' x vs . t ' , x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' , y t i t l e= ' x (m) ' )
32
35

38
40 while t < 2 4 . 0 1 :
42 rate (100)
47 # s e e i f c a r t runs o f f e i t h e r end o f t r a c k
48 i f cart . x > 2:
49 break
50 i f cart . x < 0:
51 break
53 t = t + deltat
2.P.71
Start your program simply. Create a table, a block, and a spring such that the spring is attached between the top of the
table and the bottom of the block. It helps to place the position of the spring at y = 0 and to move the table downward a
distance equal to half its height. The code below creates a spring that is 0.1 m long that is attached between the tabletop
and the bottom of the block.
3
55
4 t a b l e=box ( pos =(0 , 0.002 ,0) , s i z e = ( 1 , 0 . 0 0 4 , 1 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )

5 b l o c k=box ( pos = ( 0 , 0 . 1 2 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 0 . 2 , 0 . 0 4 , 0 . 2 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )
6 s p r i n g=h e l i x ( pos = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , a x i s = ( 0 , 0 . 1 , 0 ) , r a d i u s =0.1 , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )
Now, define constants and initial conditions. L is the length of the spring. Update the axis of the spring and the position of
the block after defining L. This way, if you change L, the length of the spring and the position of the block will be correct.
See the program below. Change L to other values like 0.25 m, for example, to see if the length of the spring and position of
the block are adjusted accordingly. By testing your code as you write it, you will be able to find any mistakes in syntax or
errors in logic.
3

7
8 m = 0.06
9 g = 9.8
10 k=8
11 L0 = 0 . 2
12 L = 0.1
13 spring . axis = vector (0 ,L, 0 )
14 b l o c k . pos . y = L + b l o c k . s i z e . y /2
15
16 v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
17 p=mv
18
19 dt =0.01
In a while loop, calculate the net force on the block and update its momentum and position. The net force on the block is
the sum of the gravitational force by Earth on the block and the force by the spring on the block. Calculate the force by the
spring on the block using the procedure shown in Chapter 2. After updating the position of the block, be sure to update the
axis (i.e. length) of the spring. The code below produces a working simulation of the spring-block system.
3

7
8 m = 0.06
9 g = 9.8
10 k=8
11 L0 = 0 . 2
12 L = 0.1
15
16 v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
17 p=mv
18
19 dt =0.01
20
21 while 1 :
56
22 rate (100)
23 Fgrav=v e c t o r (0 , mg , 0 )
24
25 L = spring . axis . y
26 s = abs (L) L0
27 Lvec = v e c t o r ( 0 , L , 0 )
28 Lhat = Lvec /mag( Lvec )
29 F s p r i n g=k s Lhat
30
31 Fnet=Fgrav + F s p r i n g
32
33 p=p+Fnet dt
34 v=p/m
35 b l o c k . pos = b l o c k . pos + v dt
36
37 s p r i n g . a x i s = v e c t o r ( 0 , b l o c k . pos . y b l o c k . s i z e . y / 2 , 0 )
Now, we are ready to add the graph. Be sure to label the axes with the quantities being plotted and their units. Also, add
a variable t to keep track of the clock reading since it will be plotted on the horizontal axis of the graph.
4

8
9 yGraph = g d i s p l a y ( x=0, y =400 , width =400 , h e i g h t =300 , t i t l e = ' y vs . t ' , x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
y t i t l e= ' x (m) ' )
10 y P l o t = g c u r v e ( c o l o r=b l o c k . c o l o r )
11
12 m = 0.06
13 g = 9.8
14 k=8
15 L0 = 0 . 2
16 L = 0.1
19
20 v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
21 p=mv
22
23 dt =0.01
24 t=0
25
26 while 1 :
27 rate (100)
28 Fgrav=v e c t o r (0 , mg , 0 )
29
31 s = abs (L) L0
32 Lvec = v e c t o r ( 0 , L , 0 )
57
35
37
38 p=p+Fnet dt
39 v=p/m
41
43
44 y P l o t . p l o t ( pos=(t , b l o c k . pos . y ) )
45
46 t = t+dt
(a) Take the previous program and use a condition in the while statement to stop the simulation at t = 1 s. Adjust the
time step to dt = 0.1 and print data to compare the simulation results to the example from Chapter 2 of the textbook.
4

8
9 yGraph = g d i s p l a y ( x=0, y =400 , width =400 , h e i g h t =300 , t i t l e = ' y vs . t ' , x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
y t i t l e= ' x (m) ' )
10 y P l o t = g c u r v e ( c o l o r=b l o c k . c o l o r )
11
12 m = 0.06
13 g = 9.8
14 k=8
15 L0 = 0 . 2
16 L = 0.1
19
20 v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
21 p=mv
22
23 dt =0.1
24 t=0
25
26 while t <1:
27 rate (100)
28 Fgrav=v e c t o r (0 , mg , 0 )
29
31 s = abs (L) L0
32 Lvec = v e c t o r ( 0 , L , 0 )
35
37
58
38 p=p+Fnet dt
39 v=p/m
41
43
44 y P l o t . p l o t ( pos=(t , b l o c k . pos . y ) )
45
46 print " time : " , t , "ypos : " , s p r i n g . a x i s . y
The resulting graph and data are identical to what was calculated in the corresponding example in Chapter 2 of the
textbook, with long straight lines between data points on the graph due to the relatively large time interval.
(b) Take the previous program and change dt to 0.01 s. Comment out or delete the print statement because it will slow
down the simulation. The resulting graph is now a smooth curve. (Technically, there are still straight lines between
data points in the graph, but they are very short straight lines so the curve appears smooth.)
(c) Though dt = 0.001 should result in a more accurate calculation, the resulting graph appears to be just as smooth as
for dt = 0.01. One way to check the difference is to print the y-axis of the spring at t = 1 s and compare the results.
For dt = 0.01, the y-axis of the spring at t = 1 is 0.111 m. For dt = 0.001, it is 0.112 m. The difference is only 0.001
m (thats 1 mm) during a 1-second time interval. This is a very small difference, so dt = 0.01 is sufficiently small to
produce fairly accurate results.
(d) Visual inspection of the graph gives a period of little more than 0.5 s. Change L to another value such as 0.05 m, and
run the simulation. The period is the same as before. Evidently, the period of oscillation is independent of the amount
the that the spring is initially compressed or stretched.
2.P.72
Start your program by creating a tabletop, wall, block, and spring. Place the wall at the left side of the tabletop. One end
of the spring should be attached to the surface of the wall. The other end of the spring should be attached to the end of the
block. The spring should be 0.5 m long which is its unstretched length. An example is shown below.
4
5 w a l l = box ( pos = ( 0 . 5 1 , 0 . 1 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 0 . 0 2 , 0 . 2 , 0 . 2 ) , c o l o r = ( 1 , 0 . 5 , 0 ) )
6 f l o o r = box ( pos =(0 , 0.01 ,0) , s i z e = ( 1 , 0 . 0 2 , 0 . 2 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
7 b l o c k = box ( pos = ( 0 . 1 , 0 . 0 5 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 0 . 2 , 0 . 1 , 0 . 1 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )
8 s p r i n g = h e l i x ( pos = ( 0 . 5 , 0 . 0 5 , 0 ) , a x i s = ( 0 . 5 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w , r a d i u s =0.04)
Now, define constants. Define the axis of the spring and the position of the block in terms of the length of the spring L as
shown below.
4
9
10 m = 0.25
11 k =1.3
59
12 L0 = 0 . 5
13 L = 0.7
14 s p r i n g . a x i s = v e c t o r (L , 0 , 0 )
15 b l o c k . pos . x = s p r i n g . pos . x + L + b l o c k . s i z e . x /2
16
17 v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
18 p=mv
19
20 dt =0.01
21 t=0
Create a while loop and use it to calculate the net force on the block and update the blocks momentum and position. Be
sure to also update the axis of the spring. The program below results in a working simulation of the block-spring system.
4
9
10 m = 0.25
11 k =1.3
12 L0 = 0 . 5
13 L = 0.7
16
17 v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
18 p=mv
19
20 dt =0.01
21 t=0
22
23 while 1 :
24 rate (1000)
25 Lvec = s p r i n g . a x i s
26 L = mag( Lvec )
27 Lhat = Lvec /L
28 s=L L0
29 F s p r i n g = k s Lhat
30
31 Fnet = F s p r i n g
32 p = p + Fnet dt
33 v = p/m
35
36 s p r i n g . a x i s = s p r i n g . a x i s + v dt
37
38 t = t+dt
Now, add a graph and plot the blocks x-position vs. time as shown in the program below.
60
4
9
10 xGraph = g d i s p l a y ( x=0,y=400 , width =400 , h e i g h t =300 , t i t l e = ' x vs . t ' , x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' , y t i t l e

= ' x (m) ' )
11 x P l o t = g c u r v e ( c o l o r=b l o c k . c o l o r )
12
13 m = 0.25
14 k =1.3
15 L0 = 0 . 5
16 L = 0.7
19
20 v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
21 p=mv
22
23 dt =0.01
24 t=0
25
26 while 1 :
27 rate (1000)
29 L = mag( Lvec )
30 Lhat = Lvec /L
31 s=L L0
33
34 Fnet = F s p r i n g
35 p = p + Fnet dt
36 v = p/m
38
40
41 t = t+dt
42
43 x P l o t . p l o t ( pos=(t , b l o c k . pos . x ) )
(a) The oscillation is symmetric. Thus, the period should not depend on whether the spring is initially compressed (0.1 m
from equilibrium, for example) or whether it is initially stretched the same amount.
(b) To stretch the spring 14 cm, change the initial value of L to 0.64 m. (Thus, s = 0.64 m 0.5 m = 0.14 m at t = 0.)
The system will oscillate with a period of approximately 2.8 s.
(c) To compress the spring 14 cm, change the initial value of L to 0.36 m. (0.5 m 0.14 m = 0.36 m) The system oscillates
with the same period of approximately 2.8 s.
(d) Change the initial value of L to 0.5 m. (0.5 m 0.5 m = 0, so the spring is not stretched nor compressed.) The system
does not oscillate at all. In order to make the system oscillate, the initial velocity can be given a non-zero value in the
61
x-direction. For example, use v=vector(-0.4,0,0). Though the spring is unstretched at t = 0, the block is moving,
so the system will oscillate.
(e) Change the initial value of L to 0.4 m and the initial value of v to v=vector(-0.4,0,0) m/s. The system still oscillates;
however, the graph is not at a minimum at t = 0, so the spring gets further compressed. Its maximum compression
will be greater than the initial amount.
2.P.73
A program that simulates the motion of the spring-mass system is shown below. Note that the initial value of L can be used
to change the initial length of the spring. The axis of the spring and and the initial position of the mass are calculated after
the constant L. These are the initial conditions of the mass-spring system and can be adjusted.
Its important to calculate the net force on the mass, which in this case is the sum of the gravitational force on the mass by
Earth and the force on the mass by the spring. See the example below.
3
4 s u p p o r t = box ( pos = ( 0 , 0 . 5 5 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 1 , 0 . 1 , 0 . 5 ) , c o l o r = ( 1 , 0 . 5 , 0 ) )
5 s p r i n g = h e l i x ( pos = ( 0 , 0 . 5 , 0 ) , a x i s =(0 , 0.2 ,0) , r a d i u s =0.1 , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )
6 mass = s p h e r e ( pos = ( 0 , 0 . 6 , 0 ) , r a d i u s =0.1 , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )
7
8 t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=mass . c o l o r )
9
10 m = 0.02
11 g = 9.8
12 k = 0.9
13 L0 = 0 . 2
14 L = 0.3
15
16 Lhat = v e c t o r ( 0 , 1 ,0)
17 s p r i n g . a x i s = L Lhat
18 mass . pos = s p r i n g . pos + s p r i n g . a x i s + mass . r a d i u s Lhat
19
20 v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
21 p=mv
22
23 dt = 0 . 0 1
24 t = 0
25
26 while 1 :
27 rate (100)
28
29 Fgrav = v e c t o r (0 , mg , 0 )
30
32 Lmag=mag( Lvec )
33 Lhat = Lvec /Lmag
34 s = mag( Lvec ) L0
36
37 Fnet = Fgrav + F s p r i n g
38 p = p + Fnet dt
39 v = p/m
62
40 mass . pos = mass . pos + v dt

41
43
44 t r a i l . append ( pos=mass . pos )

45
46 t = t +dt
(a) Make a prediction. The mass-spring system should oscillate up and downward with sinusoidal motion. Running the
program shows the validity of this prediction, as the mass oscillates sinusoidally in the vertical direction.
(b) Make a prediction. The force by the spring results in oscillatory motion along the axis of the spring. But the gravitational
force, with the mass displaced a certain angle from vertical, causes the mass to oscillate back and forth like a pendulum
about the vertical. Thus, its reasonable to predict that the resulting motion will be a combination of the two.
In your program, the spring should have a length L, but be stretched in both the x and y directions. Define an angle
(from vertical) and calculate the unit vector. Then multiply the unit vector by L to get the springs initial axis. Be
sure to write the angle theta in radians. Use direction cosines to get the unit vector for the axis of the spring based
on the angle from vertical.
If you run the program below, you will notice that the motion is indeed a superposition of oscillations, one oscillation
back and forth along the axis of the spring and another oscillation about the vertical like a pendulum.
4
5 s u p p o r t = box ( pos = ( 0 , 0 . 5 5 , 0 ) , s i z e = ( 1 , 0 . 1 , 0 . 5 ) , c o l o r = ( 1 , 0 . 5 , 0 ) )
6 s p r i n g = h e l i x ( pos = ( 0 , 0 . 5 , 0 ) , a x i s =(0 , 0.2 ,0) , r a d i u s =0.1 , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )
7 mass = s p h e r e ( pos = ( 0 , 0 . 6 , 0 ) , r a d i u s =0.1 , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )
8
9 t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=mass . c o l o r )
10
11 m = 0.02
12 g = 9.8
13 k = 0.9
14 L0 = 0 . 2
15 L = 0.3
16
17 t h e t a = 45 p i /180
18 Lhat = v e c t o r ( c o s ( p i /2 t h e t a ) , c o s ( t h e t a ) , 0 )
19 s p r i n g . a x i s = L Lhat
20 mass . pos = s p r i n g . pos + s p r i n g . a x i s + mass . r a d i u s Lhat
21
22 v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
23 p=mv
24
25 dt = 0 . 0 1
26 t = 0
27
28 while 1 :
29 rate (100)
30
31 Fgrav = v e c t o r (0 , mg , 0 )
32
63
34 Lmag=mag( Lvec )
35 Lhat = Lvec /Lmag
36 s = mag( Lvec ) L0
38
39 Fnet = Fgrav + F s p r i n g
40 p = p + Fnet dt
41 v = p/m
42 mass . pos = mass . pos + v dt
43
45
46 t r a i l . append ( pos=mass . pos )

47
48 t = t +dt
(c) For 3D motion, you need to give the mass in the previous program an initial velocity component in the z-direction. Try
v=vector(0,0,-1) and view the resulting motion.
1
3.X.1 According to the Principle of Reciprocity,

~ ~
Fon star by planet = Fon planet by star

= 4e25 N
3.X.2 According to Newtons gravitational force law, the magnitude of the gravitational force on a planet by a star is directly
proportional to the product of the mass of the star and the mass of the planet. Thus, increasing the mass of the planet by a
factor of 2 will increase the gravitational force on the planet by a factor of 2. Thus,

~
Fon planet by star = (2)(4e25 N)

= 8e5 N
3-X-3 According to Newtons law of gravitation, the magnitude of the gravitational force on a planet by a star is inversely
proportional to the distance between them squared. Tripling the distance will decrease the magnitude of the force by a factor
of 32 . In other words, the gravitational force is smaller by a factor of (1/3)2 = 1/9.

~
1
Fgrav, on planet by star = (8e20 N)

9
8.89e19 N
3.X.4 According to Newtons law of gravitation, the gravitational force on M by m is directly proportional to the product
of their masses and inversely proportional to the distance between them squared.
Tripling the mass of m will increase the force by a factor of 3.
Increasing the distance by a factor of 4 will decrease the force by 42 , making the force smaller by (1/4)2 = 1/16.
Thus the objects will attract with a force.

0 3
F = F
16
3.X.5 According to Newtons law of gravitation

~
m1 m2
Fgrav = G 2

~r2,1

11 N m
2

(3 kg)(5 kg)
= 6.6742 10 2
kg (2 m)2
= 2.5e-10 N
2
3.X.6 According to Newtons law of gravitation, the magnitude of the gravitational force on an object by Earth if the object
is on Earths surface is

~
mEarth mobject
Fgrav = G

R2
Solve for the mass of Earth.

~
Fgrav R2

mEarth =
Gmobject
(9.8 N)(6.4e6 m)2
= m2 )(1 kg)
(6.6742 1011 Nkg 2
= 6.0e24 kg
3.X.7
(a) Since we are asked for the force on Ganymede by Europa, the vector ~r points from Europa (agent) to Ganymede (object)
which is < 1, 0, 0 >.
(b) r = < 1, 0, 0 >=< 1, 0, 0 >.
(c) It is the same as r, or < 1, 0, 0 >.
In calculating the gravitational force on Europa by Ganymede:
(a) Since we are asked for the force on Europa by Ganymede, the vector ~r points from Ganymede (agent) to Europa (object)
which is < 1, 0, 0 >.
(b) r = < 1, 0, 0 >=< 1, 0, 0 >.
(c) It is the same as r, or < 1, 0, 0 >.
3.X.8
(a)
~rME = ~rM ~rE

= 2.8 108 , 0, 2.8 108 m h0, 0, 0i m

= 2.8 108 , 0, 2.8 108 m

(b)
s 2 2 2

~rME = rME + rME + rME

x y z
q
2 2 2
= (2.8 108 m) + (0 m) + (-2.8e8 m)
= 4.0e8 m
3
(c)
~r
rME = ME
~rME

2.8 108 , 0, 2.8 108 m
=
4.0e8 m
= < 0.7, 0, 0.7 >
(d)
~F = ~Fgrav on M by E
M,E
m m
= G M E2 rME
~rM-E

11 N m
2

(7e22 kg)(6e24 kg)
= 6.6742 10 2
(< 0.7, 0, +0.7 >)
kg (4.0e8 m)2
= 7.0e28 N < 0.7, 0, +0.7 >
= h-4.9e28 , 0, 4.9e28 i N
Note that the force points from Moon toward Earth, exactly as expected for the force on Moon by Earth.
3.X.9
(a) The magnitude of the gravitational field at a distance |~r| from a spherical body of mass M is
M
|~g| = G 2
|~r|
At the surface of Moon, |~r| = R, the radius of Moon.
N m2

11 7e22 kg
|~g| = 6.6742 10
kg2 (1.75e6 m)2
= 1.5 N/kg
(b) The magnitude of the gravitational force on an object of mass m by Moon is

~
Fgrav = m |~g|

= (70 kg)(1.5 N/kg)

= 105 N
(c) On Earth

~
Fgrav = m |~g|

= (70 kg)(9.8 N/kg)

= 686 N
4
3.X.10 The magnitude of the gravitational field at a distance |~r| from a spherical body of mass M is
M
|~g| = G 2
|~r|
At the surface of Mars, |~r| = R, the radius of Mars.
N m2

11 6.4e23 kg
|~g| = 6.6742 10
kg2 (3.4e6 m)2
= 3.7 N/kg
3.X.11 The gravitational force on a person by Earth near its surface is

~
Fgrav, on person by Earth = mperson ~gEarth

(60 kg)(9.8 N/kg)

590 N
According to the Principle of Reciprocity,
~F = ~Fgrav, on person by Earth

grav, on Earth by person
~ ~
Fgrav, on Earth by person = Fgrav, on person by Earth

~
Fgrav, on Earth by person 590 N

3.X.12 The net force on the comet is toward Sun. Sketch the net force and its perpendicular and parallel components at
location B, as shown in Figure 1.
pi A
Sun !
Fgrav
!
F
F! B
! p
!
Figure 1: The net force on the comet at position B.

5
p!f !p
p!i
Figure 2: The final momentum after one time step, starting at position B.
The parallel component of the net force on the comet is opposite the momentum of the comet. As a result, the magnitude
of the momentum will decrease and the comet will slow down. This can be seen by sketching the momentum, change in
momentum, and final momentum after one step. It helps to draw the vectors on their own diagram, as shown in Figure 2.
You can see in Figure 2 that the final momentum after one time step is smaller (i.e. shorter in length) than the initial
momentum at position B. This means that the comet slowed down, which is consistent with our earlier conclusion from
examining the direction of the parallel component of the net force.
The perpendicular component of the net force is mostly upward in the +y direction (if +y is defined toward the top of the
page). As a result the net force changes the direction of the momentum, making the comet curve upward toward the top
of the page along this part of the ellipse.
3.X.13 The magnitude of the electric force of one charged particle on another charged particle is given by Coulombs law.
Substitute known values for charge and distance to calculate the electric force.

~
1 |q1 q2 |
Felec =
4o |~r|2
1 |qelectron qproton |
= 2
4o |~r|
19 19
9 Nm
2

|(1.602 10 C)(1.602 10 C)|
= 9 10 2 2
C 1e-10 m
= 2.3 108 N
Coulombs law is consistent with the Principle of Reciprocity. The magnitude of the force on the electron by the proton is
equal to the magnitude of the force on the proton by the electron.
3.X.14
(a) The magnitude of the electric force of one charged particle on another charged particle is given by Coulombs law.
Substitute known values for charge and distance to calculate the electric force. The charge of the gold nucleus is 79e =
19
(79)(1.602 10 C).
6

~
1 |q1 q2 |
Felec by gold nucleus on electron =

4o |~r|2
1 |qgold nucleus qelectron |
= 2
4o |~r|
19 19
9 Nm
2

|(79)(1.602 10 C)(1.602 10 C)|
= 9 10 2 2
C 3e-9 m
= 2.0 109 N
(b) Coulombs law is consistent with the Principle of Reciprocity. The magnitude of the force on the electron by the gold
nucleus is equal to the magnitude of the force on the gold nucleus by the electron. Thus,

~ ~
Felec by electron on gold nucleus = Felec by gold nucleus on electron

= 2.0 109 N
3.X.15
Si: nprotons = 14 nneutrons = 28 14 = 14

Sn: nprotons = 50 nneutrons = 119 50 = 69
Au: nprotons = 79 nneutrons = 197 79 = 118
Th: nprotons = 90 nneutrons = 232 90 = 142
Examine the difference between the number of neutrons and number of protons for a given atom. For Si, it is 0. For Th, it
is 142 90 = 52. It definitely increases with the number of protons in the atom.
3.X.16 Name the four stars as A, B, C, and D. The net force on star A is:
~F = ~Fon A by B + ~Fon A by C + ~Fon A by D

net, A
All three of the above forces must be calculated directly from Newtons law of gravitation based on the positions of B, C,
and D relative to A.
The net force on star B is
~F = ~Fon B by A + ~Fon B by C + ~Fon B by D

net, B
But the force ~Fon B by A = ~Fon A by B can be obtained easily from what was already calculated by simply reversing the vector
of ~Fon A by B . Thus, only two forces must be calculated directly from Newtons law of gravitation based on the positions of C,
and D relative to B. The other force is obtained using the Principle of Reciprocity.
7
The net force on star C is
~F = ~Fon C by A + ~Fon C by B + ~Fon C by D

net, C
The first two forces were already computed and can be obtained by the Principle of Reciprocity. Only the last force must be
computed from Newtons law of gravitation.
For star D, all forces on star D were already computed and can be obtained by the Principle of Reciprocity.
Thus, the total number of forces to be calculated fully from Newtons law of gravitation are 3 + 2 + 1 = 6, and the other 6
forces are obtained by simply reversing the vectors of those forces already computed (i.e. from the Principle of Reciprocity).
3.X.17
(a) Use the non-relativistic approximation for the momentum of the blocks. The momentum of the two-block system is
~psys = ~p1 + ~p12

= m1 ~v1 + m2 ~v2
= (1 kg)h5, 2, 0i m/s + (3 kg)h3, 4, 0i m/s
= h5, 2, 0i kg m/s + h9, 12, 0i kg m/s
= h4, 14, 0i kg m/s
(b) According to the momentum principle, the momentum of an isolated system doesnt change.
psys = 0
~pf = ~pi
~pf = h4, 14, 0i kg m/s
Therefore, the momentum of the system at any later time is h4, 14, 0i kg m/s.
3.X.18 The center of mass is a weighted average of the positions of the objects, with the mass of each object as the
weighting factor.
m1~r1 + m2~r2
~rcm =
m1 + m2
(10 kg)h3, 0, 0i m + (2 kg)h8, 2, 0i m
=
10 kg + 2 kg
h30, 0, 0i kg m + h16, 4, 0i kg m
=
12 kg
h46, 4, 0i kg m
=
12 kg
= h3.8, 0.33, 0i m
8
Indeed, the center of mass position h3.8, 0.33, 0i m is fairly close to the position of the 10 kg ball which is at h4, 0, 0i m.
3.X.19 The center of mass velocity can be found from the momentum of the system.
~psys = ~p1 + ~p12
Also,
~psys = Mtotal ~vcm
Equate the above expressions for the momentum of the system and solve for the center of mass velocity.
Mtotal ~vcm = ~p1 + ~p12

= m1 ~v1 + m2 ~v2
= (2 kg)h3, 4, 0i m/s + (5 kg)h2, 6, 0i m/s
= h6, 8, 0i kg m/s + h10, 30, 0i kg m/s
= h4, 38, 0i kg m/s
~psys
~vcm =
Mtotal
h4, 38, 0i kg m/s
=
2 kg + 5 kg
= h0.57, 5.4, 0i m/s
3.X.20
(a) System is ball A. The change in the momentum of the system is the change in the momentum of ball A.
~psys = ~pA,f ~pA,i

~psys = < 0, 0, 0 > mA ~vA,i
~psys = mA ~v
~psys = M~v
According to Conservation of Momentum, the change in momentum of the surroundings is
~psurr = ~psys
= (M~v )
= M~v
9
(b) System is ball B. The change in the momentum of the system is the change in the momentum of ball B.
~psys = ~pB,f ~pB,i

~psys = mB ~vB,f < 0, 0, 0 >
~psys = M~v
According to Conservation of Momentum, the change in momentum of the surroundings is
~psurr = ~psys
= (M~v )
= M~v
(c) System is both balls. The total momentum of the system is the sum of the momentum of both balls.
~psys,i = ~pA,i + ~pB,i

= mA ~vA,i + < 0, 0, 0 >
= M~v
~psys,f = ~pA,f + ~pB,f

= < 0, 0, 0 > + mB ~vB,f
= M~v
The change in the momentum of the system is
~psys = ~psys,f ~psys,i

= M~v M~v
= 0
The momentum of the system did not change. It was constant. Therefore, the change in momentum of the surroundings
is also zero, according to Conservation of Momentum.
~psurr = ~psys
= 0
3.X.21
10
(a) Which object in the surroundings interacts with you as you are falling? Earth.
(b) Define the system as you and Earth. There is nothing in the surroundings that exert a force on the system, except
perhaps Sun and Moon. However, these can be neglected. Since the net external force on the system is zero, the
momentum of the system is constant. This comes from the momentum principle.
p = ~Fnet t
~
~psys,f ~psys,i = 0
~psys,f = ~psys,i
The total momentum of the system does not change. It is constant.

The momentum of the system of you and Earth also equals zero since the net external force on the system is zero. Thus,
as your momentum increases in the -y direction as you are falling, Earths momentum increases in the +y direction as
it rises to meet you. Your momentum and Earths momentum have the same magnitude, but opposite direction. So
the total momentum is zero and remains zero throughout the motion.
3.X.22
(a) The total initial momentum of the system is the sum of the momenta of the two balls. Name them A and B.

= mA ~vA,i + mB ~vB,i
= 0.3 kgh4, 3, 2i m/s + 0.5 kgh2, 1, 4i m/s
= h1.2, 0.9, 0.6i kg m/s + h1, 0.5, 2i kg m/s
= h2.2, 0.4, 2.6i kg m/s
(b) The system is near Earth, so the gravitational force on the system is
~F = m~g
grav by Earth on sys
= < 0, mg, 0 >

= < 0, (0.3 kg + 0.5 kg)(9.8 N/kg), 0 >
= < 0, 7.84, 0 > N
(c) Use the momentum principle
~pf = ~pi + ~Fnet t

= h2.2, 0.4, 2.6i kg m/s + (< 0, 7.84, 0 > N)(0.1 s)
= h2.2, 0.4, 2.6i kg m/s + < 0, 0.784, 0 > kg m/s
= h2.2, 1.2, 2.6i kg m/s
11
Note that the x and z momenta of the system are constant (i.e. they did not change) since the net force on the system is
only in the y-direction.
3.X.23 According to the momentum principle,
~F ~p
=
net
t
~v
= m cm
t
= m~acm
~F
net
~acm =
m
h300, 500, 200i N
=
100 kg
= h3, 5, 2i m/s2
3.X.24 The total initial momentum of the system is the sum of the momenta of the two lumps of clay. Name them A and B.

= 0.02 kg(h5, 2, 3i m/s) + 0.02 kg(h3, 0, 2i m/s)
= h0.1, 0.04, 0.06i kg m/s + h0.06, 0, 0.04i kg m/s
= h0.16, 0.04, 0.1i kg m/s
According to the momentum principle, during the small time interval of the impact, the momentum of the system is approx-
imately.
~F t*0

~pf = ~pi +

net
~pf = h0.16, 0.04, 0.1i kg m/s
Its velocity is
12
~psys,f = Mtotal ~vcm,f

Mtotal ~vcm = h0.16, 0.04, 0.1i kg m/s
h0.16, 0.04, 0.1i kg m/s
~vcm =
Mtotal
h0.16, 0.04, 0.1i kg m/s
~vcm =
0.2 kg + 0.2 kg
~vcm = h0.4, 0.1, 2.5i m/s
3.X.25 The total initial momentum of the system is the sum of the momenta of the two rocks. Name them A and B.

= h10, 20, 5i kg m/s + h8, 6, 12i kg m/s
= h2, 14, 7i kg m/s
According to the momentum principle, since the net external force on the system is zero, the momentum of the system is
constant. So the momentum after the collision is
~F t*0

~pf = ~pi +

net
= h2, 14, 7i kg m/s
3.X.26
(a) Neutron decay is governed by the weak interaction.
(b) Proton-neutron attraction is governed by the strong interaction.
(c) Earth-Moon attraction is governed by the gravitational interaction.
(d) Proton repulsion is governed by the electromagnetic interaction.
3.X.27 The magnitude of the gravitational interaction between two particles is proportional to the product of the particles
masses. Changing either mass by a factor n will change the product, and thus the magnitude of the gravitational interaction,
by the same factor n. In this example, if the satellites mass triples (changes by a factor of three), then the magnitude of
the gravitational interaction also triples and becomes 9e23 N. The magnitude of the gravitational interaction between two
particles is inversely proportional to distance squared. Changing this distance by a factor n will change the magnitude by the
same factor, but inversely. If distance increases, then magnitude decreases. If distance decreases, then magnitude increases.
In this example, the distance increases by a factor of three, so the magnitude would decrease by a factor of nine and becomes
1
3 e23 N.
13
3.X.28 The magnitude of the gravitational interaction between two particles is inversely proportional to the distance between
the particles. If the distance increases by a factor n, the magnitude decreases by a factor n2 . If the distance decreases by a
factor n, the magnitude increases by a factor n2 . In this example, increasing the distance by a factor of three will decrease
the magnitude by a factor of nine.
3.X.29 The magnitude of the gravitational interaction between two particles is inversely proportional to the distance between
the particles. If the distance increases by a factor n, the magnitude decreases by a factor n2 . If the distance decreases by a
factor n, the magnitude increases by a factor n2 . In this example, decreasing the distance by a factor of four will increase
the magnitude by a factor of sixteen. (Note that increasing by a factor of 14 is equivalent to decreasing by a factor of 4.)
3.X.30 Here are the relative position unit vectors at each point:
rA = h1, 0, 0i
rB = h0, 1, 0i
rC = h1, 0, 0i
rD = h0, 1, 0i
Here are the force unit vectors at each point:
FA = rA = h1, 0, 0i
FB = rB = h0, 1, 0i
FC = rC = h1, 0, 0i
FD = rB = h0, 1, 0i
Manipulating directions like this may seem strange at first, but it is perfectly valid.
3.X.31
(a) This is a straightforward numerical application. Proceed as follows:

~
m m
Fgrav on Mer by Sun = G Mer Sun

2
~rMer,Sun

11 N m
2

(3.3e23 kg) (2e30 kg)
= 6.6742 10 2 2e22 N
kg2 (4.8e10 m)
(b) By reciprocity, we must have

~
Fgrav on Mer by Sun = ~Fgrav on Sun by Mer 2e22 N.

Think about the problem this way. Between Mercury and Sun, there can be only one gravitational interaction, so there
can be only one magnitude associated with that interaction.
3.X.32 According to Newtons law of gravitation, the magnitude of the gravitational force on an object by Jupiter if the
object is on Jupiters surface is
14

~
mJupiter mobject
Fgrav = G

R2
Solve for the mass of Jupiter.

~
Fgrav R2

mJupiter =
Gmobject
(24.9 N)(71.5e6 m)2
= m2 )(1 kg)
(6.6742 1011 Nkg 2
= 1.9e27 kg
3.X.33
(a) The relative position vector of the star, relative to the planet, is
~rfrom planet to the star = ~rstar ~rplanet

= 2 1011 , 3 1011 , 0 m 5 1011 , 2 1011 , 0 m

= 7 1011 , 5 1011 , 0 m

(b) The distance is
q
2 2 2
~rfrom planet to the star = (7 1011 m) + (5 1011 m) + (0 m)

= 8.6e11 m
(c) The direction of the relative position vector of the star, relative to the planet, is
~r
rfrom planet to the star = from planet to the star
~rfrom planet to the star

7 1011 , 5 1011 , 0 m
=
8.6e11 m
= < 0.81, 0.58, 0 >
(d) Newtons law of gravitation is

~
mplanet mstar
Fgrav on planet by star = G

2
|~r|
11 N m
2

(4e24 kg)(5e30 kg)
= 6.6742 10 2
kg (8.6e11 m)2
= 1.8e21 N
15
(e) Because of the Principle of Reciprocity, the planet and star exert equal magnitude forces on one another. Thus,

~
Fgrav on planet by star = ~Fgrav on star by planet

= 1.8e21 N
(f) The (vector) force exerted on the planet by the star is

~F =
~
Fon the planet by the star rfrom planet to star

on the planet by the star
= (1.8e21 N) < 0.81, 0.58, 0 >

1.5 1021 , 1.0 1021 , 0 N

=
(g) The (vector) force exerted on the star by the planet is

~F = ~Fon the star by the planet (rfrom planet to star )

on the star by the planet
= (1.8e21 N)( < 0.81, 0.58, 0 >)

= 1.5 1021 , 1.0 1021 , 0 N

3.X.34 First, sketch a rough picture so that your answer can be compared to the picture. A sample is shown in Figure 3.
!F
grav on planet by star
!rfrom star to planet
Figure 3: A star and planet.
Apply Newtons law of gravitation.

The relative position vector of the planet, relative to the star, is
~rfrom star to planet = ~rplanet ~rstar

= 6 1011 , 3 1011 , 0 m 5 1011 , 3 1011 , 0 m

= 11 1011 , 6 1011 , 0 m

16
The distance between the star and planet is
q
2 2 2
~rfrom star to planet = (11 1011 m) + (6 1011 m) + (0 m)

= 1.25e12 m
The unit vector is
~r
rfrom star to planet = from star to planet
~rfrom star to planet

11 1011 , 6 1011 , 0 m
=
12.5e11 m
= < 0.88, 0.48, 0 >
Newtons law of gravitation is

~
mplanet mstar

2
|~r|
N m2

11 (4e24 kg)(6e30 kg)
= 6.6742 10
kg2 (1.25e12 m)2
= 1.0e21 N
The (vector) force exerted on the planet by the star is

~F = ~Fon planet by star (rfrom star to planet )

= (1.0e21 N)( < 0.88, 0.58, 0 >)

= 0.88 1021 , 0.58 1021 , 0 N

= 8.8 1020 , 5.8 1020 , 0 N

Note that this points to the right and downward which is in agreement with the force vector drawn in Figure 3.
3.P.35 This problem is an exercise in estimation and approximation. We first have to assume that we can treat the two books
as particles so we can apply Newtons expression for gravitational interaction without any modifications. Two books standing
right next to each other on a bookshelf have centers separated by, to the nearest order of magnitude, 1e-2 m. What about
the books masses? Well, if the books are old fashioned physics books, they probably have masses on the order of 1e0 kg,
which is just a fancy way of saying a few kilogram. We can now estimate the magnitude of the books mutual interaction.

2
Mbook 11 N m
2
M M (1 kg)2

~
Fbook on book G book book 2 G 2 6.6742 10 6.6742e-7 N

kg 2 (1e-2 m)2
~rbook,book ~rbook,book

17
Note that its the order of magnitude thats important here. Multiples and factors of two or three will not change the order
of magnitude. Now lets estimate the magnitude of a books gravitation interaction with Earth. Obviously we need Earths
24 6
mass, 6 10 kg, and well approximate the book-Earth distance to be simply Earths radius, 6.4 10 m.

24
!
11 N m
2
M M (1 kg)(6 10 kg)

~
Fbook on Earth G book Earth 2 6.6742 10 9.78 N

kg2 (6.4 106 m)2
~rbook,Earth

Now we can compare the two magnitudes by taking their ratio.

~
Fbook on Earth

9.78 N
1.47e7
~
Fbook on book
6.6742e-7 N
So the book-Earth interaction is approximately ten million times stronger than the book-book interaction.
3.P.36
(a) If Mathilde were not present, the NEAR spacecraft would travel through space with constant momentum. However,
Mathilde will interact gravitationally with NEAR, deflecting the spacecrafts path slightly toward the asteroid as the
spacecraft approaches and passes the asteroid. The interaction will probably have more effect on NEARs direction
than its speed.
NEAR d = 2400 km
nea
rly
con
tsta
104 m/s 1200 km nt v
eloc
ity
Mathilda
Figure 4: Approximate deflection of NEAR as it interacts with Mathilde.
(b) NEARs change in momentum resulting from this encounter can be approximated by estimating the net force on NEAR
due to Mathilde, ~FNEAR,Mathilde , along with an estimate of the duration, t, of the interaction. The magnitude and the
direction of the force on NEAR both vary with time, so we have no choice but to use rather crude estimates. Lets
take t represent the duration of NEARs travel across the 2400 km distance in the diagram. Lets take the force to
have an approximate magnitude corresponding to a distance of 1200 km. Since were really only interested in NEARs
deviation from an otherwise straight trajectory, lets also treat the force as having only a y component, which is another
very crude approximation. But wait! We also need an estimate of Mathildes mass. We can get this from its assumed
mass density and rough physical dimensions.
18
MMathilde (7e4 m)(5e4 m)(5e4 m)(3e3 kg/m3 ) 5.25e17 kg
Now lets apply the momentum principle.

M M d
pNEAR,y FNEAR,Mathilde,y t G NEAR Mathilde

2
~vNEAR

~rNEAR,Mathilde

11 N m
2

(805 kg)(5.25e17 kg) (2.4e6 m)
6.6742 10 5 kg m/s
kg2 (1.2e6 m)2 (1e4 m/s)
Be certain you understand where the negative sign came from!

(c) In one day, NEAR will travel approximately (1e4 m/s)(24 60 60 s) 9e8 m. As NEAR gets farther and farther
away from Mathilde, the y component of its momentum (and its velocity) is nearly constant. Therefore, in one day
NEARs deviation from its initial trajectory will be approximately
!
pNEAR,y 5 kg m/s

yNEAR (1 day) (24 60 60 s) 500 m
MNEAR 805 kg
(d) Astronomers observed a deviation significantly less than was predicted. Gravitational attraction is proportional to
mass, and mass is proportional to density, so a smaller deviation indicated a smaller mass. NEARs mass was constant,
so Mathildes mass must have been less than the predicted value.
3.X.37 At the surface of a planet, the magnitude of the gravitational field g is
mplanet
~gat surface = G

R2
Earth and Moon have different masses and different radii. Therefore, they have different gravitational field strengths at their
surfaces. Incidentally, the gravitational field of Moon at its surface is about 1/6 of Earths gravitational field at the surface
of Earth.
3.X.38 At an altitude y, the distance from Earths surface is R + y. At this height, the gravitational field is 99% of the field
at Earths surface.
mEarth
~gat surface = G

R2
mEarth
~gat altitude y = G

(R + y)2
19

~gat altitude y = 0.99 ~gat altitude surface

mEarth m
G = 0.99G Earth
(R + y)2 R2
m m
G Earth 2 = 0.99GEarth
(R + y) R2
1 1
= 0.99 2
(R + y)2 R
(R + y)2 = (1/0.99)R2
R2 + y 2 + 2Ry = (1/0.99)R2
2 2 2
y + 2Ry + R (1/0.99)R = 0
2 2
y + 2Ry + R (1 (1/0.99)) = 0
Substitute Earths radius and solve using the quadratic formula or the solve function on your calculator.
y 2 + 2(6.4e6 m)y + (6.4e6 m)2 (1 (1/0.99)) = 0

y 2 + 2(6.4e6 m)y + 4.137e11 m2 = 0
y = 3.2e4 m
Check the answer by calculating g.
mEarth
~gat altitude y = G

(R + y)2
11 N m
2

6e24 kg
= 6.6742 10 2
kg (6.4e6 m + 32000)2
= 9.7 N/kg
and 9.7
9.8 = 99% as expected.
3.X.39 Assumptions:
Earth is treated as a particle (not a bad assumption given Earths nearly spherically symmetric mass distribution)
humans are treated as particles (a rather crude assumption, but not bad over large distances such as Earths radius)
neglect the distance between a humans center of mass and Earths surface, making the the distance from a humans
center of mass to Earths center of mass approximately Earths radius
humans mass is approximately 60 kg (lots of variation here, but the important part is an order of magnitude of 10 kg)

6 1024 kg (60 kg)
11 N m
m m 2

~
Fon human by Earth G human Earth 2 6.6742 10 600 N

2
kg2 6.4 106 m
~rhuman,Earth

20
Now lets do the same calculation for two humans with equal masses, separated by 3 m. Note that Earth doesnt participate
in this interaction to the answer must not depend on Earths mass or radius.
m m N m2

~
11 (60 kg) (60 kg)
Fon human by human G human human 2 6.6742 10 3e-8 N

kg2 2
~rhuman,human
(3 m)
Finally, lets compare these two quantities by looking at their ratio.

~
Fon human by Earth

600 N 6e2 N
2e10
~
Fon human by human
3e-8 N 3e-8 N
The human-Earth interaction is approximately twenty billion times stronger than the human-human interaction.
3.P.40 Lets assume this experiment takes place near Earths surface so we can approximate gravitational interactions between
Earth and object as Fobject,Earth mobject g. Let t be the very short duration of contact, and assume that t is so short
~
that the downward change in the balls momentum due to its interaction with Earth during contact is much smaller than the
upward change in the balls momentum due to its interaction with the scale. The ball initially has a downward momentum
pball,i,y = p just before hitting the scale. Shortly after interacting with the scale, the ball has an upward momentum pball,f,y .
So the ball undergoes a change in momentum of ~pball = ~pball,f ~pball,i pball,f,y pball,i,y which, remembering that (a) were
assuming the ball rebounds to its initial height and (b) pball,i,y is a negative number, is just 2~pball,i or just 2p. (Note
that p is a negative number!) This change in momentum is, remember, almost exclusively due to the balls interaction with
the scale and is directed upward. Therefore, the average force on the ball due to its interaction with the scale must also be
upward.
Let T be the long time between the instants when the ball is at its maximum height (its really the period of the balls oscil-
latory motion), neglecting any energy dissipation. The momentum gives us the magnitude of the average force immediately
|~p |

as ~F ball 2p (remember p is a negative number!).

avg T T
In each fall, the magnitude of the balls momentum increases from 0 to p (remember p is a negative number!) due to its
gravitational interaction with Earth. This happens within a duration of T /2. Applying the momentum principle to the balls
downward motion allows us to express T in terms of known quantities.

pball,y p 0 ~Fball,Earth t

T
p mball g
2
2p
Solving for T gives T m g, and now we can get a final expression for the magnitude of the average force:
ball

~
2p 2p
Favg mball g
T 2p
m g
ball
This surprising result happens to be exactly the same magnitude of the ball-scale interaction if the ball were at rest on the
scale! This unusual result will play a role later in our study of gases.
Alternatively, we can get this surprising result another way. Let T be the duration of the balls fall from rest back to that
same place (again at rest). The net change in the balls momentum is zero. Let ~Favg be the average force on the ball due to
the scale. Apply the momentum principle.
21
~pball = ~Favg T + ~Fball,Earth T

0 ~Favg T mball gT

~Favg mball g

3.X.41 There is only one gravitational interaction between Earth and tennis ball, so there can be only one associated
magnitude. Therefore, statement C is correct and the others are incorrect.
NOTE: This question is not carefully worded. Force is a vector, and one vector cant be greater than or less than another.
Their magnitudes, however, can be so compared. The questions intent is to compare the magnitudes of the Earth-tennis
ball interaction and the tennis ball-Earth interaction.
3.P.42
Before the loop, you should
Define constants such as G

Specify the initial (vector) momentum of each object
Specify an appropriate value for the time step
Specify the mass of each object
Specify the initial (vector) position of each object
Inside the loop, you should
Calculate the (vector) forces acting on the objects

Update the (vector) momentum of each object
Update the (vector) position of each object
3.P.43
(a) Sketch a picture of the situation in 2-D, like the one shown in Figure 5.
Apply Newtons law of gravitation. The relative position vector of the spaceship, relative to the asteroid, is
~rfrom asteroid to spaceship = ~rspaceship ~rasteroid

= 3 105 , 7 105 , 4 105 m 9 105 , 3 105 , 12 105 m

= 6 105 , 10 105 , 8 105 m

The distance between the asteroid and spaceship is
q
2 2 2
~rfrom asteroid to spaceship = (6 105 m) + (10 1011 m) + (16 105 m)

= 1.41e6 m
22
!F
grav on spaceship by asteroid
!rspaceship rel to asteroid
Figure 5: The spaceship and asteroid. z-components of the positions are not shown.
The unit vector is
~r
rfrom asteroid to spaceship = from asteroid to spaceship
~rfrom asteroid to spaceship

6 105 , 10 105 , 8 105 m
=
1.41e6 m
= < 0.424, 0.707, 0.566 >
Newtons law of gravitation is

~
mspaceship masteroid
Fgrav on spaceship by asteroid = G

2
|~r|
N m2

11 (1.4e3 kg)(7e15 kg)
= 6.6742 10
kg2 (1.41e6 m)2
= 3.29e-4 N
The (vector) force exerted on the spaceship by the asteroid is

~F = ~Fon spaceship by asteroid (rfrom asteroid to spaceship )

grav on spaceship by asteroid
= (3.29e-4 N)( < 0.424, 0.707, 0.566 >)

= 1.39 104 , 2.32 104 , 1.86 104 N

In the x-y plane, the force points to the right and downward which is in agreement with the force vector drawn in
Figure 5.
23
(b) Apply the momentum principle
~pf = ~pi + ~Fnet t

~pf ~pi = F~net t
( 1.39 104 , 2.32 104 , 1.86 104 N)(538 s 532 s)

~pf ~pi =
8.4 104 , 1.40 103 , 1.12 103 kg m/s

=
3.P.44
(a) Sketch a picture of the situation showing relevant vectors.
m1 m2
Figure 6: The positions of block 1 and block 2.
Find the relative position vector of block 2, relative to block 1.
~r2 relative to 1 = ~r2 ~r1

= h18, 11, 0i m h7, 11, 0i m
= h11, 0, 0i m
The magnitude of the vector is easy in this case since its a one-dimensional vector.

~r2 relative to 1 = 11 m

The gravitational force is given by Newtons law of gravitation.

~
m1 m2
Fgrav on 2 by 1 = G

2
|~r|
11 N m
2

(40 kg)(1000 kg)
= 6.6742 10 2
kg (11 m)2
= 2.2e-9 N
24
(b) Use the momentum principle. Define the system as block 2.
~p2,t = ~p2,i + ~Fnet t

< 0, 0, 0 > +( 2.2 109 , 0, 0 N)(4.7 s 4.6 s)

~p2,f =
2.2 1010 , 0, 0 kg m/s

~p2,f =
(c) Define the system to be both blocks. At t = 4.6 s the momentum of the system is
~psys,i = ~p1,i + ~p2,i

= 0
The net external force on the system is zero, assuming its an isolated system. Thus,
0
~psys,f ~F
= ~psys,i + >t

net
~psys,f = 0
The momentum of the system is the sum of the momenta of the blocks.
~psys,f = ~p1,f + ~p2,f

0 = ~p1,f + ~p2,f
~p1,f = ~p2,t
= 2.2 1010 , 0, 0 kg m/s

= 2.2 1010 , 0, 0 kg m/s

Block 2s momentum increases as it moves left. Block 1s momentum increases as it moves right. Their momenta are
equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction so that the sum of their momenta is zero.
(d)

~p1,f = ~p2,f

m1 ~v1,f = m2 ~v2,f

They have the same magnitude momentum, but their masses are different. The smaller mass has the greater speed.
So, block 1 is moving faster at t = 4.7 s.
3.P.45
25
Planet
Star
Figure 7: The star and planet with relevant vectors
(a) Sketch a picture of the star and planet.

Calculate the net force on the planet, which is the gravitational force by the star.
~r = ~rplanet ~rstar
= 3 1012 , 4 1012 , 0 m 5 1012 , 2 1012 , 0 m

= 2 1012 , 2 1012 , 0 m

q
2 2 2
|~r| = (2 1012 ) + (2 1012 ) + (0 ) m
= 2.83e12 m
~r
r =
|~r|
= h0.707, 0.707, 0i

~
mplanet mstar

2
|~r|
(6.67 1011 )(3e24 kg)(7e30 kg)
=
(2.83e12 m)2
= 1.75e20 N
26

~F =
~
Fgrav (r)

= (1.75e20 N)(h0.707, 0.707, 0i )

= 1.24 1020 , 1.24 1020 , 0 N

Apply the momentum principle to calculate the momentum of the planet after 1e6 s. Define the system to be the
planet.
~pf = ~pi + ~Fnet t

= m~vi + ~Fnet t
= (3e24 kg)( 0.3 104 , 1.5 104 , 0 m/s) + ( 1.24 1020 , 1.24 1020 , 0 N)(1e6 s)

= 9.12 1027 , 4.49 1028 , 0 kg m/s

Solve for the final velocity of the planet.
~pf
~vf =

m
9.12 1027 , 4.49 1028 , 0 kg m/s

=
3e24 kg
= 3.04 10 , 1.496 104 , 0 m/s
3

(b) The position of the planet is found by using the definition of average velocity.
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t
Use the approximation ~vavg ~vf .
3.004 1012 , 4 1012 , 0 m + ( 3.04 103 , 1.496 104 , 0 m/s)(1e6 s)

~rf =
= 3.004 1012 , 4.01 1012 , 0 m

(c) The final velocity and final position are both approximate since the net force on the planet is not constant and since
the final velocity is used in place of the average velocity. These approximations improve in the limit as t 0. Thus,
the approximations would be worse for larger t like 1e9 s.
3.P.46
(a) Sketch a picture of the two stars at t = 0.

Apply Newtons law of gravitation to calculate the force on star 1.
27
Star 2
Star 1
Figure 8: The stars and relevant vectors
~r = ~rstar 1 ~rstar 2
= 2.00 1012 , 5.00 1012 , 4.00 1012 m 2.03 1012 , 4.94 1012 , 3.94 1012 m

= 3 1010 , 6 1010 , 5 1010 m

q
2 2 2
|~r| = (3 1010 ) + (6 1010 ) + (5 1010 ) m
= 8.367e10 m
~r
r =
|~r|
= h0.3586, 0.7171, 0.5976i

~
mstar 1 mstar 2
Fgrav on 1 by 2 = G

2
|~r|
(6.67 1011 )(4e30 kg)(3e30 kg)
=
(8.367e10 m)2
= 1.143e29 N

~F =
~
Fgrav (r)

grav on star 1 by star 2
= (1.143e29 N)(h0.3586, 0.7171, 0.5976i )

4.100 1028 , 8.200 1028 , 6.833 1028 N

=
Apply the momentum principle to calculate the momentum of star 1 after 1e5 s. Define the system to be star 1.
~pf = ~pi + ~Fnet t

= m~vstar 1, i + ~Fnet t
2.841 1035 , 2.482 1035 , 3.268 1035 kg m/s

=
28
Solve for the final velocity of the planet.

(b) The momentum of the first star is approximate because the net force on it is not constant, but rather it depends on
the distance between the stars. The approximation improves as t 0.
(c)
~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t
Approximate the average velocity as ~vavg ~vf .
~pf
~vf =
mstar 1
7.103 104 , 6.205 104 , 8.171 104 m/s

=
2.00 1012 , 5.00 1012 , 4.00 1012 m + ( 7.103 104 , 6.205 104 , 4.00 1012 m/s)(1 105 s)

~rf =
= 2.007 1012 , 4.994 1012 , 3.992 1012 m

The final position was computed to four significant figures because for a small time interval, its displacement is quite
small. Sometimes rounding to three or fewer significant figures will make it seem like there is no displacement at all.
(d) This result is approximate because the velocity is changing and ~vavg 6= ~vf . However, for small time intervals, ~vavg ~vf .
3.X.47 Each positively charged particle will attract the negatively charged particle. We are to assume that the particles are
at the vertices of an isosceles triangle. If this is true, then the vertical components of each positive-negative interaction will
nullify each other, while the horizontal components of each positive-negative interaction will reinforce each other. The net
force on the negatively charged particle will therefore be directed away from the negatively charged particle and will point
toward the left. Geometrically, the net force will lie along the perpendicular bisector of the line connecting the two positively
charged particles. Note that no formula is necessary to answer this question. The solution is in the geometry.
3.X.48 If the positively charged particle were at the midpoint of the line joining the two negatively charged particles, the
net force on it would be zero (a symmetry argument). But the symmetry is broken, and the positively charged particle is
closer to the negatively charged particle on the right hand side. Thus, the interaction between the positively charged particle
and the right hand negatively charged particle dominated the net force on the positively charged particle. Therefore, the net
force will be toward the right. Note that no formula is necessary to answer this question. The solution is in the geometry.
3.X.49 The direction of the electric force on the electron by the proton is toward the top edge of the page, along the line
from the electron to the proton. Be careful about calling that direction up if your book is lying open flat on your desk! Also
be careful about calling that direction toward the proton because there are infinitely many such directions! The direction of
the electric force on the proton by the electron is toward the bottom edge of the page, along the line from the proton to the
electron. There can be only one electric interaction between the proton and the electron, so there can be only one magnitude.
Therefore, the magnitude of the proton-electron interaction must equal the magnitude of the electron-proton interaction.
The direction of the electric force on electron A by electron B is toward the bottom edge of the page, along the line connecting
the two electrons. The direction of the electric force on electron B by electron A is toward the top edge of the page, along
the line connecting the two electrons.
Note that no formula is necessary to answer this question. The solution follows directly from reciprocity.
29
3.X.50 There can be only one electric interaction between the alpha particle and the proton, so there can be only one
associated magnitude. Therefore, statement C is correct and the others are incorrect.
3.P.51 This is a straightforward problem, assuming we treat electrons as particles.

~
1 Qelectron Qelectron 1 Q2
Felec,electrons 2 electron

2
4o 4o

~relectron,electron ~relectron,electron

~
melectron melectron m2
Fgrav,electrons G 2 G electron

2
~relectron,electron ~relectron,electron

Now take the ratio of these two magnitudes and youll see that the distance dependence divides out, and that the comparison
depends only on fundamental physical constants!
2
N m2
9
19
~ 1
Felec,electrons Q2 9 10 1.602 10 C

4o electron C2
= 2 4e42
N m2

~
Fgrav,electrons
Gm2 6.6742 1011 2 9.109 10 31
kg
electron kg
If the two electrons are initially at rest, they will experience both a gravitational attraction and an electrical repulsion.
However, the electrical repulsion overwhelms the gravitational attraction by a factor of about 4e42 ! The net interaction will
be electrical repulsion.
3.P.52
(a)
~r21 = ~r2 ~r1 = h0.4, 0.4, 0i m h0.5, 0.2, 0i m

~r21 h0.9, 0.6, 0i m
(b)
r 2 2 2 q
2 2 2
~r
21
= r21,x + r21,y + r21,z ((0.9)) + ((0.6)) + (0) m

~r
21
1.08 m
(c)
~r h0.9, 0.6, 0i m
r21 = 21 h0.833, 0.556, 0i
~r
21
1.08 m
(d)

~
m m
Fgrav,21 = G 1 22

~r
21
11 N m
2
(2e-3 kg)2

~
Fgrav,21 6.6742 10 2.29e-16 N

kg2 (1.08 m)2
30
(e)

~F ~
Fgrav,21 Fgrav,21 = ~Fgrav,21 ~r21

=

grav,21
~F (2.29e-16 N)(h0.833, 0.556, 0i) h1.91e-16 , 1.27e-16 , 0i N

grav,21
Make sure this result indicates an attractive interaction and agrees with your diagram.
(f)

~
1 q1 q2
Felec,21 =

4o ~r 2

21
9 Nm
2

~
|(-2e-9 C)(-4e-9 C)|
Felec,21 9 10 6.17e-8 N

C2 (1.08 m)2
(g)

~F = ~Felec,21 Felec,21 = ~Felec,21 ~r21

elec,21
~F (6.17e-8 N) (h0.833, 0.556, 0i) h-5.14e-8 , 3.43e-8 , 0i N

elec,21
Make sure this result indicates a repulsive interaction and agrees with your diagram.
(h)

~
Felec,21

6.17e-8 N
2.69e8
~
Fgrav,21
2.29e-16 N
(i) Both gravitational and electric interactions vary with distance squared, but the ratio of these two interactions is
independent of distance for a given pair of interacting particles. Therefore, the ratio of the magnitude of the electric
force to the magnitude of the gravitational force is still 2.69e8 .
3.P.53
(a) Assuming
a negligible change in the cars speed, the magnitude of the mosquitos momentum goes from 0 to m |~v| so
~pmosquito = m |~v|.

(b) There is only one interaction shared by car and mosquito, so there can be only one magnitude, ~F.

(c) Neglecting interactions with the road and air, the car and mosquito
have changes in momentum that are equal in
magnitude, but opposite in direction. So ~pcar = ~pmosquito m |~v|. Given the mosquitos small mass, this is

negligible to the magnitude of the cars initial momentum ~pcar,i = M |~v|.

(d) Although the car and mosquito experience the same force magnitude (different directions), the change in velocity is
greater for the mosquito because the mosquito has a much smaller mass than the car.
~pcar = ~pmosquito

~p = ~pmosquito

car

M ~vcar m ~vmosquito

M
~vmosquito
~vcar

m
Note that we used the Newtonian approximation for momentum.
31
3.X.54 Lets take system = both rocks + string. Were told the strings mass is negligible, which means the strings
contribution to the systems momentum is also negligible. Therefore, we only need account for the momenta of the two
rocks. Lets also assume both rocks have velocities with magnitudes negligible compared to light speed, so we can use the
Newtonian approximation for momentum.
*0
~psys = ~prock 1 + ~prock 2 + ~pstring
~prock 1 + ~prock 2

mrock 1 ~vrock 1 + mrock 2 ~vrock 2
(0.1 kg) h0, 5, 0i m/s + (0.25 kg) h7.5, 0, 0i m/s
h0, 0.5, 0i kg m/s + h1.875, 0, 0i kg m/s
h1.875, 0.5, 0i kg m/s
3.X.55
(a) The system for which the change in momentum is zero is that system on which the net force is zero. There is a nonzero
net force on the car. There is a nonzero net force on the bug. There is, however, no net force on the system consisting
of car + bug.
(b) There is only one interaction between the car and bug, and thus only one force relating these two entities. Force and
impulse (change in momentum) are directly proportional to one another, so there can be only one impulse relating the
car and the bug. Therefore, neither is greater than the other; they must be equal.
(c) If the magnitude of the bugs change in momentum is equal to that of the car, then their respective changes in velocities
must have different magnitudes. The magnitude of the change in velocity is inversely proportional to mass, so the bug
must experience the greater change in velocity than the car.
3.X.56 Choose system = both protons and apply the momentum principle to this system. Let the first proton mentioned
be 1 and the other proton be 2. Lets also assume velocities with magnitudes negligible to that of light, so we can use the
newtonian approximation for momentum.
~F t*0

~psys,f = ~psys,i +

net
0
~p1,f + ~p2,f = ~p + ~p
1,i 2,i
~p2,f = ~p1,i ~p1,f

= h3.4e-21 , 0, 0i kg m/s h2.4e-21 , 1.6e-21 , 0i kg m/s
= h1.0e-21 , -1.6e-21 , 0i kg m/s
3.P.57
(a) Lets choose system = all clay and apply the momentum principle. Lets also use the Newtonian approximation for
momentum.
~psys,i ~p1,i + ~p2,i m1 ~v1,i + m2 ~v2,i

~psys,i (0.03 kg) (h3, 3, 3i m/s) + (0.03 kg) (h3, 0, 3i m/s)
~psys,i h0.09, 0.09, 0.09i kg m/s + h0.09, 0, 0.09i kg m/s h0, 0.09, 0.18i kg m/s
32
(b) Just after the collision, the clay exists as one lump whose mass is the sum of the individual masses. Apply the momentum
principle to the system just after the collision.
~psys,f ~psys,f (m1 + m2 )~vf
But we cant evaluate this because we dont know ~vf . If, however, we assume there are no significant interactions on
our system, then the momentum principle predicts that ~psys,f = ~psys,i . Therefore, ~psys,f = h0, 0.09, 0.18i kg m/s.
(c) Solve the above application of the momentum principle for ~vf .
~psys,f (m1 + m2 )~vf

~psys,i h0, 0.09, 0.18i kg m/s
~vf h0, 1.5, 3i m/s
(m1 + m2 ) 0.06 kg
3.P.58
(a) Lets choose system = car + truck + road and apply the momentum principle to the system just after the collision,
assuming low speeds so we can use Newtons expression for momentum.
~psys,i mcar ~vcar,i + mtruck ~vtruck,i

~psys,f ~psys,f (mcar + mtruck )~vf
The momentum principle predicts ~psys,i = ~psys,f so we can solve for ~vf .
~psys,f (mcar + mcar )~vf

~psys,i mcar ~vcar,i + mtruck ~vtruck,i
~vf
(mcar + mtruck ) (mcar + m2 )
(2800 kg)h40, 0, 0i m/s + (4700 kg)h14, 0, 29i m/s
~vf
(7500 kg)
h1.12e5, 0, 0i kg m/s + h6.58e4, 0, 1.363e5i kg m/s
~vf
(7500 kg)
~vf h6.16, 0, 18.2i kg m/s
(b) Since our choice of system included the road, the road cant exert an external force on the system and so has no effect
on the systems momentum.
3.X.59
(a) You should choose the system on which the net force is zero. With net forces on the bullet and the block, the best
choice is the system consisting of bullet + block.
(b) If the net force on a system is zero, then the systems final and initial momenta must be equal. Therefore, statement 2
is true.
33
3.X.60 This is a nuclear decay problem, and so is governed by nuclear interactions. Choice of system is extremely important
in this problem. We cannot choose system = radium nucleus because the radium nucleus does not exist after the nuclear
interaction takes place. Similarly, we cannot choose system = alpha particle + radon nucleus because neither of these particles
exists prior to the nuclear interaction happening. The best choice of system is system = all particles. The systems initial
state is such that the total momentum is zero (only one stationary particle). Note that in the initial state, the systems total
energy is not zero (stationary particles have energy). With no net force acting on our chosen system, the total momentum
must be zero in both the initial and final states. So if the newly created alpha particle moves in the +z direction in the final
state, then the newly created radon nucleus must move in the z direction so as to conserve momentum.
3.X.61
(a) Choosing the system consisting of bowling ball + ping pong ball and applying the momentum principle to that system
tells us that the systems momentum is conserved. Therefore psys,z = 0.
(b) Choosing the system consisting of just the bowling ball and applying the momentum principle to that system tells us
that the net force on the bowling ball must be in the same direction as the bowling balls change in momentum. The
force on the bowling ball by the ping pong ball is in the +z direction, and that must also be the direction of the bowling
balls change in momentum. Thus, for this system, psys,z has a positive sign.
3.P.62
Assume the bullet travels in the +x direction, ~vi = h300, 0, 0i m/s. Define the system to be the bullet and the block. Assume
that the net external force on the system is zero. Apply the momentum principle with the initial momentum being before
the collision and the final momentum being after the collision.
0
~psys,f ~F
= ~psys,i + >t

net
The momentum of the system is the sum of the momenta of the bullet and block. The final velocity of the bullet is the same
as the block.
~pbullet,i + ~pblock,i = ~pbullet,f + ~pblock,f
mbullet ~vbullet,i + mblock ~vblock,i

* 0= m
~v + mblock ~vf
bullet f
mbullet ~vbullet,i = (mbullet + mblock )~vf

!
mbullet
~vf = ~vbullet,i
mbullet + mblock

0.105 kg
~vf = h300, 0, 0i m/s
0.105 kg + 2 kg
= h15, 0, 0i m/s

~vf = 15 m/s

3.P.63
(a)
34

= h20, 5, 0i kg m/s + h5, 6, 0i kg m/s
= h25, 1, 0i kg m/s
(b) The impulse on the system of the two objects is due to the net external force on the system. During the small time
interval of the collision, the net force on the system is approximately zero, so the impulse on the system is approximately
zero.
(c)
0
~psys,f ~F
= ~pA,i + >t

net
~psys,f = ~psys,i
= h25, 1, 0i kg m/s
(d)

~pB,f = ~psys,f ~pA,f
= h25, 1, 0i kg m/s h18, 5, 0i kg m/s
= h7, 4, 0i kg m/s
3.P.64
Define the system to be the two rocks. The net force on the system is zero, so
0
~psys,f= ~psys,i + ~F >t

net
0
~psmall rock,i +
~plarge

= ~p
:

rock,i small rock,f
+ ~plarge rock,f
~plarge rock,f = ~psmall rock,i ~psmall rock,f
= msmall rock (~vi ~vf )
= 5 kg(h0, 1500, 0i m/s h0, 1800, 0i m/s)
= 5 kg(h0, 3300, 0i m/s)
= h0, 16500, 0i kg m/s
3.P.65
Define the system to be the two rocks, named A and B. The net external force on the system is zero. Apply the momentum
principle.
35
0
~psys,f ~F
= ~psys,i + >t

net
~psys,f = ~psys,i
~pA,f + ~pB,f = ~pA,i + ~pB,i
mA,f ~vA,f + mB,f m
~ B,f = mA,i ~vA,i + mB,i ~vB,i
mA,i ~vA,i + mB,i ~vB,i mA,f ~vA,f

~vB,f =
mb,f
(9 kg)(h4100, 2600, 2800i m/s) + (6 kg)(h450, 1800, 3500i m/s) (7 kg)(h1300, 200, 1800i m/s)
=
8 kg
= h3138, 1750, 4200i m/s
3.P.66
Define the system as rock 1 and rock 2. Apply the momentum principle to the system. The net external force on the system
is zero, so
0
~psys,f ~F
= ~psys,i + >t

net
~psys,f = ~psys,i
~p1,f + ~p2,f = ~p1,i + ~p2,i
m1 ~v1,f + m2 ~v2,f = m1 ~v1,f + m2 ~v2,f
m1 ~v1,i + m2 ~v2,i m1 ~v1,f
~v2,f =
m2
(5 kg)(h30, 45, 20i m/s) + (8 kg)(h9, 5, 4i m/s) (5 kg)(h10, 50, 5i m/s)
=
8 kg
= h16, 1.88, 5.38i m/s
3.P.67
Define the system as the two rocks. The net external force on the system is zero. Apply the momentum principle.
0
~psys,f ~F
= ~psys,i + >t

net
~psys,f = ~psys,i
The momentum of the system is the sum of the momenta of the two rocks. The final velocity of each rock is the same since
they stick together.
36
~pA,f + ~pB,f = ~pA,i + ~pB,i

mA ~vf + mB ~vf = mA ~vA,i + mB ~vB,i
(mA + mB )~vf = mA ~vA,i + mB ~vB,i
mA ~vA,i + mB ~vB,i
~vf =
mA + mB
(15 kg)(h10, 30, 0i m/s) + (32 kg)(h15, 12, 0i m/s)
=
15 kg + 32 kg
= h13.4, 1.4, 0i m/s
3.P.68
First, sketch a picture of the situation showing the people and Earth before they jump and the people and Earth at the
moment the people leave the ground, as shown in Figure 9. Treat the people as a single particle.
People People
Earth Earth
Before people jump Just after people

leave the ground
Figure 9: Sketch of people and Earth before and just after they jump.
Define the system to be the people and Earth. The net external force on the system is zero. The system is initially at rest,
so the initial momentum of the system is zero. Apply the momentum principle.
0
~psys,f ~F
= ~psys,i + >t

net
~psys,f = ~psys,i
~psys,f = 0
The momentum of the system is the sum of the momenta of the people and Earth.
37
~psys,f = ~ppeople,f + ~pEarth,f

0 = ~ppeople,f + ~pEarth,f
~pEarth,f = ~ppeople,f
mEarth ~vEarth,f = mpeople ~vpeople,f
mpeople ~vpeople,f
~vEarth,f =
mEarth
!
mpeople
~vEarth,f = ~vpeople,f

mEarth
Assume that the mass of each person is 50 kg ( 110 lb). Assume that the average speed of each person as she or he leaves
the ground is about 2 m/s.
(6 109 )(50 kg)

~vEarth,f = (2 m/s)

6e24 kg
= 1e-13 m/s
Earth would move a distance less than the diameter of a single hydrogen atom in second 1.
3.P.69
Assume the bullet travels in the +x direction, ~vi =< v, 0, 0 >. Define the system to be the bullet and the block. Assume
that the net external force on the system is zero. Apply the momentum principle with the initial momentum being before
the collision and the final momentum being after the collision.
0
~psys,f ~F
= ~psys,i + >t

net
The momentum of the system is the sum of the momenta of the bullet and block. The final velocity of the bullet is the same
as the block.
~pbullet,i + ~pblock,i = ~pbullet,f + ~pblock,f
m~vbullet,i + M ~vblock,i
* 0= m~v + M~v

f f
m~vbullet,i = (m + M )~vf

m
~vf = ~vbullet,i
m+M

m
~vf = ~vbullet,i

m+M

m
~vf = v

m+M
38
Before Collision After Collision
m m
M M
Figure 10: The meteor and satellite before and after the collision.
3.P.70
First, sketch a picture showing the objects before and after the collision (see Figure 10).
Though the satellite is rotating, treat it as a particle. Define the system to be the meteor and satellite. Apply the momentum
principle with net external force equal to zero.
0
~psys,f ~F
= ~psys,i + >t

net
~psys,f = ~psys,i
~pmeteor,f + ~psatellite,f = ~pmeteor,i + ~psatellite,i
m~vmeteor,f + M~vsatellite,f = m~vmeteor,i + M~vsatellite,i
m < v2x , v2y , 0 > +M < vf x , vf y , 0 > = m < v1x , v1y , 0 > +M < v , 0, 0 >
Write the above equation in component form in the x and y directions.
x:
mv2x + M vf x = mv1x + M v
M vf x = mv1x + M v mv2x
mv1x + M v mv2x
vf x =
M
m(v1x v2x ) + M v
vf x =
M
Note that vf x > v as a result of the collision. Thus, the satellite will be moving faster in the +x direction due to the collision.
Now for y,
39
y:
mv2y + M vf y = mv1y + 0
M vf y = mv1y mv2y
mv1y mv2y
vf y =
M
m(v1y v2y )
vf y =
M
Note that vf y is positive, thus after the collision, the satellites velocity has a slight upward component in the +y direction.
3.P.71
(a) First, sketch a picture showing the balls before and after the collision (see Fig. 11).
Before Collision After Collision
mB
mB
mA
mA
Figure 11: The balls before and after the collision.
Define the system as the two balls, A and B, where A is the lighter ball. Apply the momentum principle. The net
external force on the system is zero.
0
~psys,f ~F
= ~psys,i + >t

net
~psys,f = ~psys,i
~pA,f + ~pB,f = ~vA,i + ~pB,i
mA ~vA,f + mB ~vB,f = mA ~vA,i + mB ~vB,i
mA ~vA,i + mB ~vB,i mB ~vB,f
~vA,f =
mA
(0.05 kg)(h17, 0, 0i m/s) + 0 (0.1 kg)(h3, 3, 0i m/s)
=
0.05 kg
= h11, 6, 0i m/s
40
(b) Impulse on ball A is
~pA = ~pA,f ~pA,i

= mA ~vA,f mA ~vA,i
= mA (~vA,f ~vA,i )
= (0.05 kg)(h11, 6, 0i m/s h17, 0, 0i m/s)
= h0.3, 0.3, 0i kg m/s
(c) Define the system as the lighter ball A. Apply the momentum principle.
~pA
~F =
net on A
t
h0.03, 0.03, 0i kg m/s
=
0.03 s
= h10, 10, 0i N
3.P.72
Sketch a picture of the system before and after the package is launched, as shown in Figure 12.
Before Launch After Launch
m
m
M M
Figure 12: The system before and after the package is launched.
Treat the objects as point particles. Define the system to be the space station and the package. Assume that m << M so
that the center of mass of the system before the package is launched is very close to the center of mass of the space station.
With this assumption, the initial momentum of the system (before the launch) is zero. Also, assume that the net external
force on the system is zero. Apply the momentum principle.
0
~psys,f = ~psys,i + ~F
>t

net
~pstation,f + ~ppackage,f = ~pstation,i + ~ppackage,i

= 0+0
Thus,
41
~pstation,f = ~ppackage,f
M~vf = m~v
m
~vf = ~v
M
m
~vf = hv cos , v sin , 0i m/s
M
Written in component form:
m
~vfx = v cos
M
and
m
~vfy = v sin
M
Basically, the space station recoils in the opposite direction with equal magnitude and opposite momentum as the package,
as a result of launching the package.
3.P.73
(a) Write a VPython program to solve the problem. Here is an example.

3
4 RE = 6 . 4 e6 #r a d i u s o f Earth
5
6 s p a c e c r a f t = s p h e r e ( pos =(10RE, 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan , r a d i u s =0.25RE)

7 Earth = s p h e r e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . blue , r a d i u s=RE)
8
9 m=1.5 e4 #mass o f s p a c e c r a f t
10 ME = 6 e24
11 G = 6 . 6 7 e 11
12
13 v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) #i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y o f s p a c e c r a f t
14 p=mv #i n i t i a l momentum o f s p a c e c r a f t
15
16 t=0
17 dt =0.13600 #time s t e p
18
19 rmag=mag( s p a c e c r a f t . pos ) ; #d i s t a n c e o f s p a c e c r a f t from Earth

20
21 t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=s p a c e c r a f t . c o l o r )
22
23 while rmag>RE: #s t o p i f rmag < RE

42
24 rate (1000)
25 r=s p a c e c r a f t . pos
26 rmag=mag( r )
27 r u n i t=r /rmag
28
29 Fgrav=GmME/rmag 2 r u n i t
30 Fnet=Fgrav
31
32 p = p + Fnet dt
33 v = p/m
34 s p a c e c r a f t . pos = s p a c e c r a f t . pos + v dt
35
36 t r a i l . append ( pos=s p a c e c r a f t . pos )

37
38 t = t + dt
Begin with an initial velocity of zero. The spacecraft accelerates to the right, crashing into Earth.
(b) To 3 significant figures, using a time step of 0.1 h (i.e. (0.1)(3600 s)), the minimum velocity is ~vi = h0, 1.06e3, 0i m/s.
However, if you watch many orbits you will find that its not a closed orbit. This is due to the fact that the time step
is too large and therefore produces inaccurate results.
(c) When trying smaller time steps, t = 0.01 h (or rather (0.1)(3600 s)) gave better results that were consistent for
numerous orbits. However, the initial speed had to be increased to ~vi = h0, 1.07e3, 0i m/s to avoid crashing into Earth.
(d) Straight lines could be seen near Earth, and in fact the orbit wasnt even closed for t = 0.2 h (which is (0.2 h)(3600 s/h).
Any larger time interval will show straight line segments and an open orbit, especially noticeable as the spacecraft ap-
proaches Earth. The error is mostly due to the the approximation that ~vavg ~vf , when in fact the average velocity will
likely be greater than or less than (in magnitude) the final velocity. The other approximation is that net force is con-
stant during the time step, when in fact it changes as the spacecrafts distance from Earth changes during the time step.
(e) It helps to print rmag inside the loop so that you can examine the distance of the spacecraft from Earth. For a perfectly
circular orbit of radius 10(6.4e6 m) = 6.4e7 m, the distance of the spacecraft from Earth will not deviate from this
value. You can adjust the rate statement to speed up or slow down the calculations. Note that printing will slow down
the program. For a time step of 0.01 h, a speed of 2.5e3 m/s gives a nearly circular orbit that is off by only about
0.2% (1/640 0.002).
(f) If the launch speed is slightly less than or slightly greater than the speed for a circular orbit, the path of the spacecraft
is an ellipse.
(g) Using a time step of (0.01)(3600 s), the spacecraft escapes if its initial speed is greater than 3.5e3 m/s.
(h) The spacecraft travels to the left, slowing down until its speed is zero, and then it speeds up toward Earth.
(i) The speed needed to leave Earth, moving to the left, is the same as in part (g).
3.P.74
43
(a) Modify the program in 3.P.74. You will need to look up the radius of Moon and its orbital radius (i.e. average center-
to-center distance from Earth). Heres a sample program for part (a). The rate() statement has been removed in
order to speed up the animation. When drawing the sphere for Moon, make its radius arbitrarily large so that it can
be seen in the animation. Also, note that the net force on the spacecraft is the sum of the gravitational force by Earth
and the gravitational force by Moon.
In this example, Earth is at the origin. Therefore, the distance of the spacecraft from Earth is simply the magnitude
of the spacecrafts position.

3
5 RM = 1 . 7 3 7 e6 #r a d i u s o f Moon
6

9 Moon = s p h e r e ( pos =(3.84 e8 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . white , r a d i u s =0.5RE)
10
12 ME = 6 e24 #mass o f Earth
13 MM = 7 e22 #mass o f Moon
14 G = 6 . 6 7 e 11
15
16 v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 3 . 2 6 4 e3 , 0 ) #i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y o f s p a c e c r a f t
18
19 t=0
20 dt =0.013600 #time s t e p
21

23 rrelmoonmag=mag( s p a c e c r a f t . posMoon . pos ) #d i s t a n c e o f s p a c e c r a f t from Moon
24
26
27 while rmag>RE and rrelmoonmag>RM: #s t o p i f rmag < RE or rrelmoonmag < RM

28 #c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on s p a c e c r a f t by Earth
30 rmag=mag( r )
32 FgravE=GmME/rmag 2 r u n i t
33
34 #c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on s p a c e c r a f t by Moon
35 r r e l m o o n=s p a c e c r a f t . pos Moon . pos
36 rrelmoonmag=mag( r r e l m o o n )
37 r r e l m o o n u n i t=r r e l m o o n / rrelmoonmag
38 FgravM=GmMM/ rrelmoonmag 2 r r e l m o o n u n i t
39
40 #c a l c u l a t e n e t f o r c e
41 Fnet=FgravE + FgravM
42
43 #u p d a t e momentum and p o s i t i o n
44 p = p + Fnet dt
45 v = p/m
44
47

49
50 t = t + dt
The minimum initial velocity for the spaceship to crash into Moon, to four significant figures, is 3.264e3 m/s.
(b) Though not perfectly symmetric, a speed of 3.259e3 m/s will cause the spacecraft to loop around Moon and return to
Earth in a figure-8 like-pattern. Increasing or decreasing the speed by 1 m/s will allow you to see various orbits that
return the spacecraft to Earth.
(c) An orbit where the spacecraft reaches zero speed and returns along its same path is achieved with an initial speed of
3.2534e3 m/s. Decreasing the time step by 1/2 slightly improves the accuracy of the orbit. A reasonable time step to
use is about 10 seconds.
(d) Increasing the speed by only 0.1 m/s yields a very different orbit that does not repeat itself and is not stable. Try
3.2534e3 m/s for example.
(e) When the spacecraft is approaching Earth or Moon, it speeds up because the parallel component of the net force on
the spacecraft is in the same direction as the momentum of the spacecraft. As a result, the spacecrafts momentum
increases in magnitude and the spacecraft speeds up.
3.P.75 Create three bodies of the same mass. It helps to use typical values of radius and mass for a planet or star. In the
example below, masses and radii were chosen to be similar as Sun. The program below has initial conditions for a particularly
interesting orbit in which identical mass stars are arranged in an equilateral triangle and the initial velocities are tangent to
a circle which circumscribes the triangle, as shown in the figure.
a a
Figure 13: Initial positions and velocities of three stars of the same mass.
The code for this example is shown below. The code used to calculate the initial velocities ensures that the velocity vectors
are tangent to the circle.
45
4 a=1e11 # c o n s t a n t used i n i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n s o f s t a r s
5 R=7e8 # r a d i u s o f t h e s t a r s
6 G=6.67 e 11
7
8 x =0.288675 a # used t o f i n d t h e r a d i u s o f t h e i n i t i a l c i r c l e t h a t c i r c u m s c r i b e s t h e s t a r s
9 R c i r c l e =( s q r t ( 0 . 7 5 ) 0.288675) a # r a d i u s o f t h e i n i t i a l c i r c l e t h a t c i r c u m s c r i b e s t h e
stars
10
11 s t a r 1=s p h e r e ( pos=(a/2,x , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w , r a d i u s =10R)

12 s t a r 2=s p h e r e ( pos=(a/2,x , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan , r a d i u s =10R)
13 s t a r 3=s p h e r e ( pos =(0 , R c i r c l e , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . magenta , r a d i u s =10R)
14
15 s t a r 1 .m=1.989 e30
16 s t a r 2 .m=s t a r 1 .m
17 s t a r 3 .m=s t a r 1 .m
18
19 s i =3e4 #i n i t i a l s p e e d
20
21 #f i g u r e o u t i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y v e c t o r s so t h e y a r e t a n g e n t t o t h e c i r c l e
22 s t a r 1 . v=s i c r o s s ( norm ( s t a r 1 . pos ) , v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 1 ) )
25
26 print "r_1 (m) : " , s t a r 1 . pos

27 print "r_2 (m) : " , s t a r 2 . pos
28 print "r_3 (m) : " , s t a r 3 . pos
29 print "v_1 (m/ s ) : " , s t a r 1 . v
30 print "v_2 (m/ s ) : " , s t a r 2 . v
31 print "v_3 (m/ s ) : " , s t a r 3 . v
32
33
34 s t a r 1 . p=s t a r 1 .m s t a r 1 . v
37
38 t=0
39 dt=1e2
40
41 t r a i l 1=c u r v e ( c o l o r=s t a r 1 . c o l o r )
44
45 while 1 :
46
47 #c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on s t a r 1 by s t a r 2
48 r 1 2=s t a r 1 . pos s t a r 2 . pos
49 r12mag=mag( r 1 2 )
50 r 1 2 u n i t=r 1 2 / r12mag
51 Fgrav12 = G s t a r 1 .m s t a r 2 .m/ r12mag 2( r 1 2 u n i t )
52
55 r13mag=mag( r 1 3 )
46
56 r 1 3 u n i t=r 1 3 / r13mag
58
59 #c a l c u l a t e Fnet on s t a r 1
60 Fnet1 = Fgrav12 + Fgrav13
61
63 Fgrav21 = Fgrav12
64
67 r23mag=mag( r 2 3 )
68 r 2 3 u n i t=r 2 3 / r23mag
70
73
76
79
82
83 #u p d a t e momentum and p o s i t i o n o f s t a r 1
84 s t a r 1 . p = s t a r 1 . p + Fnet1 dt
85 s t a r 1 . v = s t a r 1 . p/ s t a r 1 .m
86 s t a r 1 . pos = s t a r 1 . pos + s t a r 1 . v dt
87 t r a i l 1 . append ( pos=s t a r 1 . pos )
88
94
100
101 t=t+dt
Shown below are some initial conditions for various orbits. The initial conditions for the long-lasting orbit are for three
identical masses arranged in an equilateral triangle with velocities tangent to a circle that circumscribes the triangle.
47
long-lasting orbit: r1 : h-5E+10 ,-2.88675E+10 ,0i m

r2 : h5E+10 ,-2.88675E+10 ,0i m
r3 : h0, 5.7735E+10 ,0i m
v1 : h15000, 25980.8, 0i m/s
v2 : h15000, 25980.8, 0i m/s
v3 : h30000, 0, 0i m/s
For an orbit that produces a collision, many different initial conditions will suffice. Note that the animation will look awkward
because there is no if statement to stop the animation when a collision takes place. But rather, the stars may go through
each other, and due to a very large force when their centers become very close, be pulled back through one another, giving
the impression that they bounce off of each other. Heres a sample set of initial conditions that causes this to occur.
collision: r1 : h-5E+10 ,0, 0i m

r2 : h5E+10 ,0, 0i m
r3 : h0, 1E+11 ,0i m
v1 : h20000, 0, 0i m/s
v2 : h0, 20000, 0i m/s
v3 : h20000, 20000, 0i m/s
Again, there are many different initial conditions that will cause one of the stars to escape.
escape: r1 : h-5E+10 ,0, 0i m

r2 : h5E+10 ,0, 0i m
r3 : h0, 1E+11 ,0i m
v1 : h0, 40000, 0i m/s
v2 : h20000, 0, 0i m/s
v3 : h20000, 0, 0i m/s
3.P.76
(a) Assume that Earths orbit is a circle. Average speed is
distance in one revolution

|~v| =
time interval for one revolution
2Rorbit
=
T
2(1.5e11 m)
=
(365 day)(24 h/day)(3600 s/h)
= 3.0e4 m/s
48
(b) A period is 365 days. Its reasonable to make t = 0.001T which will result in 1000 steps to compute one orbit. For a
circle, each step will be less than 1 degree around the circle. So anything less than 12 hours (1/2 day) is a reasonably
small time step. For example, use t = (0.0010)(365)(24)(3600) s.
(c) Here is a sample program. Though Sun is placed at the origin, the program is written so that if Sun is not at the
origin, the calculation of the gravitational force on Earth is still correct. The variable au in the program refers to an
astronomical unit which is defined as the average distance of Earth from Sun.
3
4 au =1.5 e11 #d i s t a n c e o f Earth from Sun

5 R=7e8 #r a d i u s o f Sun
6 G=6.67 e 11
7
8 Sun=s p h e r e ( pos = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w , r a d i u s =10R)

9 Earth=s p h e r e ( pos=(au , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . blue , r a d i u s =0.5 Sun . r a d i u s )
10
11 Sun .m=2e30
12 Earth .m=6e24
13
14 T = ( 3 6 5 2 4 3 6 0 0 ) #p e r i o d f o r a c i r c u l a r o r b i t
15 s i =2 p i au/T #i n i t i a l s p e e d f o r a c i r c u l a r o r b i t
16
17 #i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y
18 Earth . v=v e c t o r ( 0 , s i , 0 )
19 Earth . p=Earth .m Earth . v
20
21 t=0
22 dt =0.001T
23
24 t r a i l E a r t h=c u r v e ( c o l o r=Earth . c o l o r )
25
26 while 1 :
27 rate (100)
28 #c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on Earth by Sun
29 r=Earth . pos Sun . pos
30 rmag=mag( r )
32 Fgrav = GSun .m Earth .m/rmag2( r u n i t )
33
34 #c a l c u l a t e Fnet on Earth
35 Fnet = Fgrav
36
37 #u p d a t e momentum and p o s i t i o n o f Earth

38 Earth . p = Earth . p + Fnet dt
39 Earth . v = Earth . p/ Earth .m
40 Earth . pos = Earth . pos + Earth . v dt
41 t r a i l E a r t h . append ( pos=Earth . pos )
42
43 t=t+dt
(d) The path of Earth in the simulation is indeed a circle. Add a print statement to the while block to print the position of
Earth. Also, change the while statement to while t<T in order to run the simulation for onlyone year. You will notice
that the final position of Earth calculated in the loop is 1.49804 1011 , 8.17597 109 , 0 m. The small negative

49
component of Earths position means that it hasnt quite reached its initial position yet. Thus, there is numerical error
in the simulation with this time step.
To print t after Earth completes one orbit, change the while statement to while 1: and use an if statement to check
the clock reading and then the position of Earth. If the clock reading is greater than one period, then check to see
when Earth crosses the y-axis. The sample program below illustrates how to do this. Note the if statement that is
within the while loop which prints the data you need when the condition is met.

3

6 G=6.67 e 11
7

10
11 Sun .m=2e30
12 Earth .m=6e24
13
16
18 Earth . v=v e c t o r ( 0 , s i , 0 )
20
21 t=0
22 dt =0.001T
23
25
26 while 1 :
27 rate (100)
30 rmag=mag( r )
33
35 Fnet = Fgrav
36

42
43 i f ( t>T) :
44 print "T=" , T , " t=" , t , " r=" , Earth . pos
45 i f ( Earth . pos . y>0) :
46 break
47
50
48 t=t+dt
The printed results are:
T= 31536000 t= 31567536.0 r= <1.49888e+11, -6.2932e+09, 0>

T= 31536000 t= 31599072.0 r= <1.49922e+11, -5.35142e+09, 0>
T= 31536000 t= 31630608.0 r= <1.49949e+11, -4.40944e+09, 0>
T= 31536000 t= 31662144.0 r= <1.49971e+11, -3.46728e+09, 0>
T= 31536000 t= 31693680.0 r= <1.49987e+11, -2.52498e+09, 0>
T= 31536000 t= 31725216.0 r= <1.49997e+11, -1.58259e+09, 0>
T= 31536000 t= 31756752.0 r= <1.50001e+11, -6.40133e+08, 0>
T= 31536000 t= 31788288.0 r= <1.49999e+11, 3.02349e+08, 0>
In the simulation, Earth completes an orbit at t = 31788288.0 s, yet the actual period of Earths orbit is closer to
T = 31536000 s. This is fairly close, and decreasing t to t = 0.0001T doesnt make much of an improvement. Yet
increasing it to t = 0.1T gives a non-circular orbit with lots of straight lines. t = 0.01T is about the largest time
interval that can be used and still get a circular orbit with a period close to what is obtained with much smaller time
intervals.
(e) Based on the previous part, begin with t = 0.001T . Take out the if statement(s) from the previous part. Heres a
sample program.
3

6 G=6.67 e 11
7

10
11 Sun .m=2e30
12 Earth .m=6e24
13
16
18 Earth . v =1.2 v e c t o r ( 0 , s i , 0 )
20
21 t=0
22 dt =0.001T
23
25
26 while 1 :
27 rate (100)
30 rmag=mag( r )
33
51
35 Fnet = Fgrav
36

42
43 t=t+dt
The result is an ellipse. The largest time step recommended is t = 0.01T . The more eccentric the ellipse, the faster
Earth travels when near Sun. In this case, smaller time steps such as t = 1 104 T must be used.
If a large time step is used (i.e. too large for accuracy), you will see straight lines on the ellipse, especially when Earth
travels fast, near Sun.
A highly eccentric ellipse like this would cause enormous climate change. Im not sure it would kill life, but it would
affect which life survives. Life that evolves to handle such climate change would be the life that would survive.
(f) First, add print statements to print the gravitational force on Earth and its momentum. This helps you know how to
scale the arrows that you will draw to represent the force and momentum vectors. The sample program below shows
how to draw and scale arrows to represent the force and momentum vectors for Earth. Run the program, and you will
notice that the force on Earth is always toward Sun, as expected. The momentum of Earth is always tangent to its path
and in the direction of motion (as it should be). Earths momentum is greatest when Earth is nearest Sun (perihelion)
and is least when Earth is furthest from Sun (aphelion).
3

6 G=6.67 e 11
7

10
11 Sun .m=2e30
12 Earth .m=6e24
13
16
18 Earth . v =1.2 v e c t o r ( 0 , s i , 0 )
20
21 t=0
22 dt =0.001T
23
25
26 f a r r o w = arrow ( pos=Earth . pos , a x i s=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )

27 parrow = arrow ( pos=Earth . pos , a x i s=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . magenta )
28
29 f s c a l e = 0 . 1 au /1 e21
30 p s c a l e = 0 . 1 au /1 e28
52
31
32 while 1 :
33 rate (100)
36 rmag=mag( r )
39
41 Fnet = Fgrav
42

48
49 #u p d a t e arrows
50 f a r r o w . pos=Earth . pos
51 parrow . pos=Earth . pos
52 f a r r o w . a x i s=f s c a l e Fnet
53 parrow . a x i s=p s c a l e Earth . p
54
55 t=t+dt
3.P.77
(a) The program from 3.P.77 or 3.P.76 can be modified to simulate a binary system. The example below was modified
from 3.P.76.
3
4 #s t a r 1 i s Sun and s t a r 2 i s i t s companion s t a r

5
6 au =1.5 e11 #1 A.U.

8 G=6.67 e 11
9
10 s t a r 1=s p h e r e ( pos = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w , r a d i u s =10R)

11 s t a r 2=s p h e r e ( pos=(au , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan , r a d i u s =10R)
12
13 s t a r 1 .m=1.989 e30 #mass o f Sun

14 s t a r 2 .m=0.5 s t a r 1 .m
15
16 s i =3e4 #i n i t i a l s p e e d
17
18 #f i g u r e o u t i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y v e c t o r s so t h e y a r e t a n g e n t t o t h e c i r c l e
19 s t a r 1 . v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
20 s t a r 2 . v=v e c t o r ( 0 , s i , 0 )
21
53
24
25 t=0
26 dt=1e4
27
30
31 while 1 :
32 rate (1000)
35 r12mag=mag( r 1 2 )
36 r 1 2 u n i t=r 1 2 / r12mag
38
40 Fnet1 = Fgrav12
41
44
46 Fnet2 = Fgrav21
47
53
59
60 t=t+dt
Run the simulation. The two stars orbit one another, and the entire system moves in the +y direction since the initial
momentum of the system is in the +y direction and doesnt change (since the net force on the system is zero). If
you change the initial conditions of the companion star (star 2 in the program), you can find various possible orbits
including open orbits. However, the center of mass of the system always moves in the direction of the initial momentum
of the system.
(b) Change the following lines
star1.p=star1.m*star1.v
to
star1.p=-star2.p
54
to make Suns momentum opposite the momentum of its companion. You must define the companions momentum
before Suns momentum. Note that the earlier definition of Suns initial velocity is irrelevant since Suns momentum is
being redefined.
Now, the momentum of the system, ~psys = ~p1 + ~p2 , is zero. Thus, the center of mass remains at rest as the stars orbit.
3.P.78
Use the program from 3.P.77 that simulates the orbit of Earth. If you use the same initial conditions that resulted in a
circular orbit and if you change the gravitational force to be proportional to 1/r3 , the force is so small that Earth nearly
travels in a straight line. So, increase G to a value between 6 and 12 (N m3 /kg2 ). Various values from G = 6 to G = 12 will
result in interesting orbits.

Alternatively, set G = 10 and vary the initial speed. If ~vcircle is the speed of Earth in a circular orbit, try initial speeds of

0.95 ~vcircle to 1.05 ~vcircle .

Here is a sample program.

3

6 G=10
7

10
11 Sun .m=2e30
12 Earth .m=6e24
13
16
18 Earth . v =0.98 v e c t o r ( 0 , s i , 0 )
20
21 t=0
22 dt =0.0001T
23
25
26 while 1 :
27 rate (1000)
30 rmag=mag( r )
33
35 Fnet = Fgrav
55
36

42
43 t=t+dt
Heres another force to try. This force is zero when Earth is at its equilibrium distance from Sun (1 A.U.). However,
its negative (attractive) if Earth gets farther and positive (repulsive) if Earth gets closer. Thus, it acts like a spring. Use
G = 1 1050 and set the gravitational force to
Fgrav = G*Sun.m*Earth.m*(rmag-au)**2*(rmag-au)/abs(rmag-au)*(-runit)
The factor (rmag-au)/abs(rmag-au) is positive if Earth is closer than 1 A.U. to Sun and negative if Earth is further than
1 A.U. to Sun.
3.P.79
(a) At a distance of 1 A.U., the gravitational force on Earth by Sun is

~
MEarth MSun
Fgrav, on Earth by Sun = G

2
|~r|
24 30
11 N m
2

(6 10 kg)(2 10 kg)
= 6.6742 10
kg2 (1.5 1011 m)2
= 3.56e22 N
At a distance of 40 million km, the gravitational force on Earth by Venus is

~
MEarth MVenus
Fgrav, on Earth by Venus = G

2
|~r|
24 24
11 N m
2

(6 10 kg)(6 10 kg)
= 6.6742 10
kg2 (40e9 m)2
= 1.5e18 N
(b) The ratio of the force on Earth by Venus to the force on Earth by Sun is

~
Fgrav, on Earth by Venus

1.5e18 N
=
~
Fgrav, on Earth by Sun
3.56e22 N
= 4 105
In comparison to Sun, the force on Earth by Venus is quite small. It is indeed a good approximation to neglect Venus
in the simulation of Earth orbit around Sun.
56
(c) At a distance of 400,000 km, the gravitational force on Earth by Moon is

~
MEarth MMoon
Fgrav, on Earth by Moon = G

2
|~r|
24 22
11 N m
2

(6 10 kg)(7 10 kg)
= 6.6742 10
kg2 (4e8 m)2
= 1.75e20 N
(d) The ratio of the force on Earth by Moon to the force on Earth by Sun is

~
Fgrav, on Earth by Venus

1.75e20 N
=
~
Fgrav, on Earth by Sun
3.56e22 N
= 5 103
Though more significant than Venus, the force on Earth by Moon is only 5 thousands of the force on Earth by Sun.
Thus, its a reasonably good approximation to neglect it in the simulation of Earths orbit.
3.P.80
(a) Modify the program in 3.P.74. A step size of 10 seconds can be used. Heres an example program where Rangers
initial velocity is directly toward Moon. Note that the radii of the spheres are larger than the actual radii of Earth and
Moon, in order to make them visible in the simulation. A print statement is added after the while loop (outside the
while loop) so that the clock reading can be printed after Ranger crashes into either Earth or Moon.
3
5 RM = 1 . 7 5 e6 #r a d i u s o f Moon
6 h = 5 e4 #i n i t i a l a l t i t u d e o f Ranger
7
8 Earth = s p h e r e ( pos = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . blue , r a d i u s =5RE)

9 Moon = s p h e r e ( pos =(4e8 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . white , r a d i u s =0.5 Earth . r a d i u s )
10 r a n g e r = s p h e r e ( pos=(RE+h , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan , r a d i u s =0.25 Earth . r a d i u s )
11
12 m=173 #mass o f r a n g e r
15 G = 6 . 6 7 e 11
16
17 v=v e c t o r ( 1 . 1 1 e4 , 0 , 0 ) #i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y o f r a n g e r
18 p=mv #i n i t i a l momentum o f r a n g e r
19
20 t=0
21 dt=10
22
23 rmag=mag( r a n g e r . pos ) ; #d i s t a n c e o f r a n g e r from Earth

24 rrelmoonmag=mag( r a n g e r . posMoon . pos ) #d i s t a n c e o f r a n g e r from Moon
25
57
26 t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=r a n g e r . c o l o r )
27

29 rate (1000)
30
31 #c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on r a n g e r by Earth
32 r=r a n g e r . pos
33 rmag=mag( r )
36
37 #c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on r a n g e r by Moon
38 r r e l m o o n=r a n g e r . pos Moon . pos
42
45
47 p = p + Fnet dt
48 v = p/m
49 r a n g e r . pos = r a n g e r . pos + v dt
50
51 t r a i l . append ( pos=r a n g e r . pos )

52
53 t = t + dt
54
55 print " c r a s h e d a t t=" , t
(b) The minimum initial speed of the Ranger to reach Moon is 1.2e4 m/s (rounded to two significant figures). With initial
speeds less than this speed, the Ranger reaches a turning point (zero speed) and returns to Earth. To three significant
figures, with the constants defined as in the sample program, the initial speed was found to be 1.11e4 m/s.
(c) Use an initial speed of (1.1)(1.2e4 m/s) = 1.32e4 m/s. Use the print statement after the while loop to print the clock
reading in seconds. Convert this to hours and days. The duration of the trip is about 15 hours, or 0.6 days.
(d) After the while loop, use print "speed = ", mag(v) to print the magnitude of Rangers velocity. With an initial
speed of 1.32e4 m/s, the impact speed at Moon is 7500 m/s.
3.P.81 In order to reuse an earlier simulation of Earth and Moon that were on the +x axis, in this example, Venus, Earth,
and Moon are arranged as shown in Fig. 14.
Venus has about the same mass as Earth. It is about 4 1010 m from Earth. The distance from Earth to Moon is about
4 108 m. Thus, Venus is 100 times farther away from Earth as Moon. This is so large that the distance from Ranger
to Venus is approximately constant during its journey. As a result, the gravitational force on Ranger by Venus remains
approximately constant and equal to
58
+y
Venus
+x
Earth Moon
Figure 14: The orientation of Venus, Earth, and Moon.

~
mranger MVenus
Fgrav on Ranger by Venus = G

2
|~r|
24
N m2

11 (173 kg)(6 10 kg)
6.6742 10
kg2 (4e10 m)2
4e-5 N
Without Venus in the model, it took about 50,000 s for Ranger to get to Moon. Lets calculate the deflection of Ranger in
the direction toward Venus in this time interval.
py = Fby Venus on Ranger, y t

= (4e-5 N)(5e4 s)
= 2 kg m/s
Now, apply the definition of average velocity to calculate the deflection in the direction toward Venus. If Venus is in the +
y direction and the initial velocity of the ranger is in the + x direction (toward Moon), then
y = vavg,y t
v v
f,y i,y
= t
2
*0
!
pf,y
1
pi,y

= t
m 2
2 kg m/s

1
= (5e4 s)
173 kg 2
300 m
59
The above calculation is an approximation because the gravitational force is not exactly constant. However, with a deflection
of only 300 m, which is small compared to Moons radius, certainly we can say that Ranger will not miss Moon as a result
of the gravitational pull of Venus.
Lets write a program to get a more accurate calculation of how much Venus deflects Ranger. First, return to the simulation
in problem 3.P.81 and print the position of Ranger when it crashes into Moon. This will tell us where the crash site is in our
model, without the effect of Venus. The crash site is found to be at h3.98334e8, 0, 0i m.
Now modify the program in problem 3.P.81 to add Venus. Because Venus is so far away, compared to the Earth-Moon
distance, you must increase the radius of the spheres to make them visible. Heres a sample program.
3
7

10 Venus = s p h e r e ( pos =(0 ,4 e10 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w , r a d i u s=Earth . r a d i u s )
12
16 MV= ME
17 G = 6 . 6 7 e 11
18
21
22 t=0
23 dt=10
24

27
29

31 rate (1000)
32
35 rmag=mag( r )
38
40 r re l m o o n=r a n g e r . pos Moon . pos
44
45 #c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on r a n g e r by Venus
60
46 r r e l V e n u s=r a n g e r . pos Venus . pos

47 rrelVenusmag=mag( r r e l V e n u s )
48 r r e l V e n u s u n i t=r r e l V e n u s / rrelVenusmag
49 FgravV=GmMV/ rrelVenusmag 2 r r e l V e n u s u n i t
50
51
53 Fnet=FgravE + FgravM + FgravV
54
56 p = p + Fnet dt
57 v = p/m
59

61
62 t = t + dt
63

65 print "= ( i n h o u r s ) " , t , ( t / 3 6 0 0 )
66 print "= ( i n days ) " , t , ( t / 3 6 0 0 / 2 4 )
67 print " s p e e d = " , mag( v )
68 print " pos= " , r
The impact speed and impact time are the same as in the previous model without Venus. However, the crash site is at a
slightly different location. Because Venus is in the +y direction from the Earth-Moon axis, it attracts the spaceship slightly
in the +y direction, thus deflecting it in the +y direction. The new crash site found by the simulation is at the location
h3.98334e+08, 327.013, 0i m. Thus, adding Venus to the model deflected Ranger only 327 m from the crash site in the original
model. We can conclude that Venus has a negligible effect on the Ranger, and its safe to neglect it in our model.
Note that the simulation predicts a very similar deflection (327 m) as the back-of-the-envelope approximation of 300 m.
1
4.X.1 Were given aluminums density of 2.7 g/cm3 , and lets assume a cubic shape for an aluminum atom. First, get the
mass of one aluminum atom.
27 g/mol
mAl
6.022 1023 mol1
23
mAl 4.5 10 g
Now use aluminums (micro)density (represented by ) to get an atoms approximate diameter.
mAl
=
d3
mAl
d3 =

mAl
r
d 3

s
23
3 4.5 10 g
d
2.7 g/cm3
8 10
d 2.6 10 cm 2.6 10 m
4.X.2 Were given leads density of 11.4 g/cm3 , and lets assume a cubic shape for an lead atom. First, get the mass of one
lead atom.
207 g/mol
mPb
6.022 1023 mol1
22
mPb 3.4 10 g
Now use leads (micro)density (represented by ) to get an atoms approximate diameter.
mPb
=
d3
mPb
d3 =

mPb
r
d 3

s
22
3 3.4 10 g
d 3
11.4 g/cm
8 10
d 3.1 10 cm 3.1 10 m
4.X.3 A reasonable guess would be that one short springs stiffness would be twenty times the chains effective stiffness, or
800 N/m. Each spring contributes one twentieth of the total stretch (neglecting an individual springs mass). If each spring
stretches by only one twentieth of the total stretch for the same applied force, then each spring must have twenty times the
chains stiffness.
2
4.X.4 A reasonable guess would be that one springs stiffness would be one ninth the combinations effective stiffness, or
300 N/m. Each spring supports one ninth of the rocks weight. Each spring stretches the same amount. Since each spring
supports one ninth of the total weight for the same amount of stretch, each spring must have a stiffness that is one ninth the
combinations effective stiffness, or 300 N/m.
4.X.5 Shortening the wire by a factor of ten means a factor of ten fewer lengthwise interatomic bonds in the wire. So the
wire should be ten times stiffer than before. Therefore, it will only stretch one tenth of the original stretch, or 0.151 mm.
4.X.6 From the graph, a unit stress produces a strain of about 1.8 units. So Youngs modulus would be approximately
8
110 N/m2 10
1.8103 m/m
6 10 N/m2 .
4.X.7 This is a straightforward application of the basic definition of Youngs modulus.

~
F /A
Y =
L/L

~
F /A
L =
Y /L

~
F /(r2 )
L =
Y /L
3
(10 kg)(9.8 N/kg)/((1.5 10 m)2 )
L
(2 1011 N/m2 )/(3 m)
4
L 2.1 10 m 0.21 mm
4.X.8
(a) The block will not move.
(b) Since the block isnt moving (static), the forward force on the block by you must be nulled out by the force on the
block by the floor. Thus, the floor exerts a horizontal force of magnitude 60 N.
(c) 100 N is more than necessary to overcome friction, so the block will accelerate.
(d) Anything over 80 N causes the block to accelerate, so the maximum horizontal force the floor can exert on the block
must be 80 N.
4.X.9
3
(a) Apply the momentum principle to the system consisting of the block. Assume non-relativistic speeds.
px = Fnet,x t
mblock vx Fnet,x t

mblock vx k ~FN t

mblock
vx k
mgt
v block

x
t
k
g

4 m/s
0.7 s
k 0.58
N
9.8 kg
(b) Since the net force on the system (block) is constant, we can approximate the blocks average velocity as the arithmetic
mean of the initial and final velocities and then solve for the blocks change in position.
1
~vavg (4 m/s + 0 m/s) 2 m/s

2
x (2 m/s) (0.7 s) 1.4 m
(c) Assume the upper (3 kg) box doesnt slide on the other box. Youve effectively increased the systems mass, and thus
also increased the normal force on the system, by a factor of 1.6. As you saw in part (a), the systems mass divides out
for the purposes of calculating k . Therefore, the same change in velocity will take place during the same time interval.
Therefore, the new box will stop in 0.7 s. This seems counterintuitive, but in this problem, t is algebraically and
physically independent of mblock .
4.X.10 The rate of change of the objects momentum is precisely what we mean by net force on the object. Thus, the z
component of the net force on the object will be 4 N.
4.X.11 Constant momentum automatically implies that d~

p
dt is zero. Therefore, ~Fnet is also zero.
4.X.12
~vf ~vi
~a =
t
h5.02, 3.04, 0i m/s h5, 3, 0i m/s
~a =
0.01 s
h0.02, 0.04, 0i m/s
~a h2, 4, 0i m/s/s
0.01 s
Note that the unit of acceleration is m/s/s, which is usually abbreviated to m/s2 .
The rate of change of the balls momentum and the net force on the ball are the same physical entity, which is approximately
3

mball ~a 80 10 kg (h2, 4, 0i m/s/s)
mball ~a h0.16, 0.32, 0i N
4.X.13
4
(a) First, calculate the stiffness.

N
mg (0.33 kg) 9.8 kg
ks =
s (5.5 102 m)
ks 58.8 N/m
(b) Second, calculate the oscillation frequency, which tells how many oscillations per second the system will carry out.
r
1 ks
f =
2 m
s
1 58.8 N/m
f = 2.12 Hz
2 0.33 kg
(c) Now calculate how many oscillations will happen during a 5 s interval.
N = f t
N (2.13 Hz)(5 s) 10.6 oscillations
4.X.14
(a) Oscillation period is independent of amplitude, so one complete oscillation would still take 2 s.

(b) Oscillation period is proportional to
the square root of mass. Tripling the mass increases the period by a factor of 3.
Therefore, the new period would be 3(2 s) 3.46 s.
4.X.15
s
ks
|~v| = d
matom
s
40 N/m 10
25 2.1 10 m
3.3 10 kg
2970 m/s
4.X.16
L
T
|~v|
3m

2970 m/s
3
1 10 s
4.X.17
5
The buoyant force on the iron is the weight of the blocks volume of air.

~ 6 1 kg N
Fb (1.3 10 kg/cm3 ) (125 cm3 ) 9.8
8 103 kg/cm3 kg
3
1.6 10 N

The blocks weight is (1 kg) 9.8 kg
N
= 9.8 N.
4.X.18
At the top of Earths atmosphere, P = 0. At Earths surface, P = 1 105 m2 .
N
Assuming uniform density,
P = gh
P
h =
g
The density of air at 20 C and at atmospheric pressure is approximately 1.2 m3 .

kg
N
1 105 m2
h = kg N
(1.2 m3 )(9.8 kg )
h = 8500 m
4.X.19
Draw a sketch of the region.
Volume of air
0.01 mm
A
Figure 1: A sketch of the region
Assume that the area is approximately 0.2 m 0.2 m = 0.04 m2
V = (0.01 mm)(0.04 m2 )
= (1 105 m)(0.04 m2 )
= 4 107 m3
6
kg
air = 1.2
m3
Air is mostly nitrogen N2 with molar mass 14 2 = 28 g

mol = 0.028 mol .
kg
Avogadros Number is NA = 6.02 1023 molecules

mol .
Use unit cancelation to find the number of molecules of air between the book and table.

molecules 1mol
kg
6.02 1023 1.2 3 4 107 3
m = 1 1019 molecules
mol
0.028 kg m

4.X.20
Assume the oscillation is along the x-axis.
px = Fx t
0
pf x pix
> = Fx t

pf x = Fx t
mv0 = Ft
Then, v0 = Ft
m is the initial speed after the hammer strike.
Assume that x during the strike is negligible. Then, since x0 = 0,
0 m
x + v02 = A2
0
ks
2
m Ft
= A2
ks m
m Ft
r
A =
ks m
m
r
A = v
ks 0
4.X.21
At t0 = 0, x0 = 0 and v0 = m .
Ft
Assume that v0 is positive. (Note: it could be negative.) Sketch x vs t, as shown in Figure
2.
Note that the slope of x vs t, which is the x-velocity, is positive at t = 0.
Substitute t0 = 0 into
0

r
k
s
x = A cos t 0 +

m
x = A cos
0 = A cos
cos = 0
7
Figure 2: Graph of x vs t
Thus = 90 or 270 . Substitute t0 = 0 into

0

r r
k
ks
v0 = A sin s
t 0 +

m m
r
ks
= A sin
m
Since v0 is positive, sin must be negative. Since = 90 or 270 then
sin = 1
3
= 270 or
2
Note: we chose v0 to be positive. If, however, v0 is negative, then sin is positive and
sin = +1

= 90 or
2
4.X.22
(a) Neglect the mass of the rope and assume that tension is uniform throughout the rope.
Apply the momentum principle to the climber. Sketch a free-body diagram. Define the system to be the climber.
~F = ~p
net
t
The climbers momentum is constant (since the climber is "motionless"), so

~F = 0
net
8
FT on climber by rope
Fgrav on climber byEarth
Figure 3: A free-body diagram of the climber
Sum the forces from the free-body diagram.

~F + ~Fgrav by Earth = 0
T by rope
~F = ~Fgrav by Earth
T by rope
= < 0, mg, 0 >

= < 0, mg, 0 >
N
= < 0, (55 kg)(9.8 ), 0 >
kg
= h0, 539, 0i N

~
FT by rope = 539 N

(b)
m = 88 kg
~F = < 0, mg, 0 >
T by rope
N
= < 0, (88 kg)(9.8 ), 0 >
kg
= h0, 862, 0i N
(c) Both (2) and (3) are true. Model the rope as balls connected by springs in one dimension. Tension (i.e. a force applied
to the rope) causes the interatomic springs (i.e. bonds) to stretch. As a result the atoms in the one-dimensional
model get further apart.
4.X.23
(a) is true. Also, as atoms get closer than their equilibrium distance, they repel. In this way, the bond acts like a spring.
(c) is partially, but not completely, true. It is only true for small amplitude oscillations about the equilibrium distance
between atoms.
9
4.X.24
m = 5 kg of gallium.
molar mass, M = 70 g
mol = 0.07 kg
mol
Avogadros Number, NA = 6.02 1023 atoms
mol
Use unit cancelation to find the mass of one atom in atom

kg
.

kg 1
mol
kg
0.07 23
= 1.2 1025
mol
6.02 10 atoms atom
4.X.25
The radius of a hydrogen atom is called the Bohr radius and is about 0.5 1010 m. A copper atom is bigger than hydrogen,
so its radius is about 1 1010 , rounded to one significant figure.
4.X.26
(a) molar mass, M = 64 g

mol = 0.064 kg
mol
Avogadros Number NA = 6.02 1023 atoms
mol
So the mass of 1 atom of copper is

kg 1mol
kg
0.064 = 1.06 1025 .
mol
6.02 1023 atoms atom
(b) Assume a simple cubic array as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4: One side of the cubic array
L = 4.6 cm
= 0.046 m
L = Nd
L
N =
d
0.046 m
=
2.28 1010 m
= 2.02 108 atoms
10
(c) A cubic block with each side of length 0.046 m has a volume
V = L3
= (0.046 m)3
= 9.73 105 m
The total number of atoms is the number of atoms along each side cubed.
Ntotal = N3
side
= (2.02 108 atoms)3

= 8.21 1024 atoms
Multiply the number of atoms times the mass of each atom.
kg
m = (1.06 1025 )(8.21 1024 atoms)
atom
m = 0.870 kg
4.X.27
molar mass: M = 184 g
mol
kg
= 0.184 mol
1 kg (100 cm)3
density: = 19.3 g
cm2 1000 g 1 m3
kg
1.93 104 m3
Find the volume of a cube of the block that is taken by one atom.
1 m3 m3

kg 1mol

0.184 23
= 1.58 1029
1.93 104 kg mol
6.02 10 atoms atom
Figure 5: Cube filled by atom

11
This is the volume of a cube that is filled as much as possible by a spherical atom. The volume of the cube is d3 where d is
the diameter of the atom.
d3 = 1.58 1029 m3
1
d = (1.58 1029 m3 ) 3
= 2.51 1010 m
4.X.28
A sketch of the situation is shown in Figure 6.
One wire Two wires

FT by wire FT by wire 1 FT by wire 2
m=10 kg m=10 kg
Fgrav Fgrav
Figure 6: A sketch of the situation with one and two wires.
With two wires, the tension in each wire is half the tension in the case of one wire. (This is a result of the momentum
principle.) Since the tension in the wire is proportional to the distance stretched, each wire, in the case of two wires, will
stretch half as much as one wire alone. The correct answer is (A), each wire stretches 4 mm.
4.X.29
FT L
= Y
A L
FT L
L =
A Y
1
L
A
Half the area results in twice the distance stretched. The correct answer is (C), the second wire stretches 16 mm.
4.X.30
FT L
= Y
A L
FT
L = L
AY
L L
12
If the wire is twice as long as the original wire, then it will stretch twice as far. Thus, the correct answer is (C), the second
wire stretches 16 mm.
4.X.31
The upward force of the spring on M is ks s1 . When you cut the spring in half, the resulting spring has a stiffness twice as
large as the original spring. (See solution to 4.X.32.) Since the upward force of the spring on M is the same, the distance
s
stretched must be half as much as the original spring. So, the answer is (C) 21 .
4.X.32
For springs in series, the effective stiffness is
1 1 1
= +
ks,eff ks,1 ks,2
For 2 identical springs,

1 2
=
ks,eff ks
Thus, the stiffness of one spring is

ks = 2ks,eff
Cutting the spring in half results in a spring that has twice the stiffness. The correct answer is (C) 2ks,eff .
4.X.33
Springs in series have an effective stiffness
1 1 1
= + + ...
ks,eff ks,1 ks,2
For N identical springs,

1 1
=N
ks,eff ks
Each individual spring has a stiffness

ks = N ks,eff
N
= (50)(270 )
m
N
= 1.35 104
m
4.X.34
For identical springs in series,
1 1
=N
ks,eff ks
13
Each individual spring has a stiffness,

ks = N ks,eff
N
= (2)(190 )
m
N
= 380
m
4.X.35
For springs in parallel, the effective stiffness is
ks,eff = ks,1 + ks,2 + ...
For N identical springs,

ks,eff = N ks
Each individual spring has a stiffness

ks,eff
ks =
N
N
20250 m
=
45
N
= 450
m
4.X.36
1 1
= N
ks,eff ks
ks = N ks,eff
N
= 2(140 )
m
N
= 280
m
4.X.37
For identical springs in parallel,
ks,eff = N ks
N
= 5(390 )
m
N
= 1950
m
14
4.X.38
How far a material stretches when a certain force is applied depends on the interatomic bond stiffness. Thus the correct
answer is (C).
4.X.39
(b) YA = YB because both wires are made of pure copper.
4.X.40
No, it is not a violation of the momentum principle. Before picking up the object, it is at rest. Thus, it must be sitting on
the ground or on the floor or on a table, for example. Or perhaps it is hanging by a chain or rope. Lets assume its sitting
on a table, as in Figure 7. Then,
Figure 7: The object is at rest on a table
Draw a free-body diagram (see Figure 8).
Fby floor on object
Fgrav by earth on object
Figure 8: A free-body diagram of the forces on the object
If you also lift the box and it remains at rest, then the free-body diagram looks like the one in Figure 9.
The net force on the object is still zero, according the the momentum principle. By you applying an upward force on the
object, the force by the floor on the object diminished, but the net force (i.e. the sum of all forces) on the object is still zero.
15
Fby you on object Fby floor on object
Fgrav by earth on object
Figure 9: A free-body diagram with the lifting force added
4.X.41
(a) Its cross-sectional area is the area of a circle, r2 .
A = r2
= (4 103 m)2
= 5 105 m2
(b) Rod 2s cross-sectional area is the area of a rectangle.
A = wd
= (12 mm)(6 mm)
= (12 103 m)(6 103 m)
= 7.2 105 m2
(c) Rod 3s cross-sectional area is the area of a square.
A = wd
= (6 103 m)(6 103 m)
= 3.6 105 m2
4.X.42
Since both wires are made of the same material, then they will have the same Youngs Modulus, Y. Youngs Modulus only
depends on the material of the wire. Thus, (1) YB = YA is true.
4.X.43
(a) First, sketch a picture (see Figure 10).

Define the system as the load. Apply the momentum principle. Draw a free-body diagram of the system (see Figure
11).
16
Load
Steel
Fby steel on load
Fgrav by earth on load
Figure 11: Free-body diagram of the system
~F ~p
=
net
t
~F + ~Fsteel = 0
grav
~F = ~Fgrav
steel
~F = < 0, mg, 0 >

steel
= < 0, mg, 0 >

N
= < 0, (85 kg)(9.8 ), 0 >
kg
= h0, 833, 0i N
17
(b)
FT L
= Y
A L
FT L
L =
A Y !

833 N 0.28 m
=
(0.28 m)(0.28 m) 2 1011 mN2
= 1.5 108 m
Note: this is approximately 100 times the diameter of an atom.
4.P.44
For Aluminum:
N
Y = 6.2 1010 2
m
(100 cm)3

g 1 kg
= 2.7
cm3 1000 g 1 m3
kg
= 2700 3
m
Molar mass M = 27 g
mol = 0.027 kg
mol
Assume a simple cubic array. Find the diameter of the Al atom.
1 m3 m3

0.027 kg 1mol

V = = 1.66 1029
2700 kg 1mol
6.02 1023 atoms atom
V = d3
1
d = V 3
= 2.55 1010 m
Write Youngs modulus in terms of atomic quantities and solve for the bond stiffness.
ks,bond = Yd
N
= (6.2 1010 )(2.55 1010 m)
m2
N
= 16
m
For lead,
18
N
Y = 1.6 1010
m2
g
= 11.4
cm3
kg
= 1.14 104
m3
g
M = 207
mol
kg
= 0.207
mol
Find the diameter of a Pb atom.
1 m3

0.207 kg 1mol

V =
1.14 104 kg 1mol
6.02 1023 atoms
3
m
V = 3.02 1029
atom
1
d = V3
= 3.11 1010 m
Use Y and d to calculate the bond stiffness.
ks = Yd
N
= (1.6 1010 )(3.11 1010 m)
m2
N
= 5.0
m
4.P.45
(a) A: To analyze the interatomic compression at A, define the system to be the entire rod except the layer of atoms on
the left edge of the rod. Sketch the bonds between this layer of atoms and the rod as shown in Figure 12.
Apply the Momentum Principle to this system of the rod.
~F = ~p
net
t
Sketch a free-body diagram for the rod (see Figure 13).
~F ~p
=
net
t
~F ~v
= mrod
A
t
19
Figure 12: Bonds at A on the rod
FA
Figure 13: free-body diagram
~F is the force on the system due to interatomic compression at A.

A
C: At the right end of the rod at C, define the system to be a very thin layer of the rod of mass mC , as shown in Figure
14
Sketch a free-body diagram for the thin layer of the rod at C (see Figure 15).
Apply the Momentum Principle.
~F ~p
=
net
t
~F ~v
= mC
C
t
Note that the mass of the thin layer of the rod at C is much less than the mass of the rod. As a result, compare the
following equations. Note that ~
t is the same for all parts of the rod.
v
20
Figure 14: Bonds at C on the rod
FC
Figure 15: free-body diagram
~F ~v
= mrod
A
t
~F ~v
= mC
C
t
The interatomic force at C will be less than the interatomic force at A, since mC << mA . As a result, the bonds at C
will be less compressed than at A.
B: Since we showed that the bonds are most compressed at A and least compressed at C, then at B the bonds will be
compressed less than at A and more than at C.
From A to C, down the length of the rod, bonds will vary in compression from most compressed at A and least
compressed at C.
(b) When the force is removed, the rods momentum (and thus velocity) will be constant and to the right. The net force
on the rod is zero.
If you choose any piece of the rod to be the system, its momentum is constant; therefore, the net force on the system
is zero. In this case, the compression in the interatomic bonds is uniform (i.e. the same) throughout the rod. In fact,
all bonds (springs) will be at their equilibrium length.
21
4.P.46
(a) Define the system to be m1 ,m2 , and m3 together. Sketch a free-body diagram (see Figure 16).
Figure 16: Free-body diagram for the entire system of m1 ,m2 , and m3 .
Apply the Momentum Principle to the system.
~F d~p
=
net
dt
Write the x-component of the Momentum Principle.
dvx
F = msystem
dt
dvx F
=
dt msystem
dvx F
=
dt (m1 + m2 + m3 )
Note that the acceleration will be the same for all parts in the system as well. So m1 ,m2 , and m3 all have the same
acceleration.
For the left end, define the system to be m3 . Sketch a free-body diagram (see Figure 17).
~F is the compression force on the left end of m due to its pushing on m .
2 2 3
~F d~p
=
net
dt
dvx
F2 = m3
dt
Substitute the acceleration of the system.

22
F2
Figure 17: Free-body diagram for m3 .
!
F
F2 = m3
m1 + m2 + m3
!
m3
F2 = F
m1 + m2 + m3
Note that this is the compression force at the left end of m2 and is less than the compression force at the right end of
m2 . This is expected since m2 has an acceleration to the left.
(b) Define the system to be m2 and m3 together. Sketch a free-body diagram of the system (see Figure 18).
F1
Figure 18: Free-body diagram of the system of m2 and m3 together.
~F is the compression force at the right end of m due to contact with m .

1 2 1

23
~F d~p
=
net
dt
dvx
F1 = msystem
dt
dvx
F1 = (m1 + m2 )
dt
Substitute the x-acceleration from part (a).
!
F
F1 = (m1 + m2 )
m1 + m2 + m3
!
m1 + m2
F1 = F
m1 + m2 + m3
Note that this is less than the magnitude of the force F and greater than F2 , as expected.
(c) When sketching the free-body diagram in part (a), the direction of the force on the system is the same whether you
pull on block 3 or push on block 1. The only difference is that if you pull on block 3, interatomic bonds will stretch.
If you push on block 1, interatomic bonds will compress. But the magnitudes and directions of the forces will be the
same in the two cases.
4.P.47
This is an experimental question, and therefore precise results will vary. You should be able to obtain at least the correct
order of magnitude with even the simplest experimental setup.
4.P.48
N
(5 kg)(9.8 kg )
kwire 3
0.4035 10 m
1.214 N/m
48 g/mol 23
matom 23 1 8.0 10 g
6.022 10 mol
s
m 8.0 1023 g
r
8 10
d 3 atom 3 2.6 10 cm 2.6 10 m
4.51 g/c3 m
L 3m 10
Nbonds in 1 chain 10 2.6 10
d 2.6 10 m
Awire 13
Nchains 4.6 10
Aatom
10
(1.214 N/m)(1.2 10 )
ks 32 N/m
4.6 1013
4.P.49
24
(a)

N
(415 kg) 9.8 kg 5
k 2 3.23 10 N/m
1.26 10 m
(b)
2
Awire (0.15 10 m)2 13
Nchains 10 2
3.57 10
Aatom (2.51 10 m)
(c)
L 2.5 m 9
Nbonds in 1 chain 10 9.96 10
d 2.51 10 m
(d)
5 9
(3.23 10 N/m)(9.96 10 )
ks 90 N/m
(3.57 1013 )
4.P.50
(a)

~
F /A
Y =
L/L
3
N
(14 kg)(9.8 kg )/()(1 10 m)2
Y =
(0.00139 m)/(2.5 m)
10
Y 7.9 10 N/m
(b) First, calculate the mass of one gold atom.
197 g/mol
mAu =
6.022 1023 mol1
22
mAu 3.27 10 g
Now, use the density () and atoms mass to calculate an approximate interatomic spacing, assuming a cubical atom.
m
r
d 3 Au

s
3.27 1022 g 8 10
d 3 3
2.57 10 cm 2.57 10 m
19.3 g/cm
Finally, use the Youngs modulus and interatomic spacing to calculate the interatomic stiffness.
ks Yd
10
10

ks 7.9 10 N/m 2.57 10 m 20.3 N/m
25
4.P.51 Start by calculating Youngs modulus for copper. It turns out that the data given in the question is not plausible.
In early printings of the textbook, the initial length was incorrectly given as 3.5 m, but it should be 0.95 m, as noted in the
textbook Errata found at matterandinteractions.org.

~
F /A
Y =
L/L
3

N
(36 kg)(9.8 kg )/ ()(0.7 10 m)2
Y =
(0.00183 m)/(0.95 m)
11
Y 1.90 10 N/m2
Next, calculate the mass of one copper atom.

63 g/mol
mCu =
6.022 1023 mol1
22
mCu 1.05 10 g
Now, use the density () and atoms mass to calculate an approximate interatomic spacing, assuming a cubic atom.
m
r
d 3 Cu

s
1.05 1022 g 8 10
d 3 2.27 10 cm 2.27 10 m
9 g/cm3
ks Yd
11
10

ks 1.2 10 N/m2 2.27 10 m 27 N/m
4.P.52 Start by calculating Youngs modulus for iron.

~
F /A
Y =
L/L
2
N
(52 kg)(9.8 kg )/()/(0.04 10 m)2
Y =
(0.0127 m)/(2.5 m)
11
Y 2.0 10 N/m
Next, calculate the mass of one iron atom.

56 g/mol
mFe =
6.022 1023 mol1
22
mFe 9.30 10 g
Now, use the density () and atoms mass to calculate an approximate interatomic spacing, assuming a cubic atom.
m
r
d 3 Fe

s
9.30 1022 g 8 10
d 3 2.28 10 cm 2.28 10 m
7.87 g/cm3
26
ks Yd
11
10

ks 2.0 10 N/m 2.28 10 m = 46 N/m
4.P.53
(a) Assume a simple cubic lattice for iron. Find the volume of a cube that surrounds a spherical atom.
(100 cm)3

g
1 kg
= 7.87
cm2 1000 g 1 m3
kg
= 7870 3
m
g
M = 56
mol
kg
= 0.056
mol
1 m3

0.056 kg 1mol

V =
7870 kg 1mol
6.02 1023 atoms
29 3
= 1.18 10 m
V = d3
1
d = V 3
= 2.28 1010 m
(b) Determine Youngs Modulus. Begin by applying the Momentum Principle to the hanging mass. Draw a free-body
diagram, as shown in Figure 19.
The hanging mass is in equilibrium.
~F d~p
=
net
dt
~F + ~F = 0
T grav
~F = ~Fgrav
T
= < 0, mg, 0 >

= < 0, mg, 0 >
N
= < 0, (65 kg)(9.8 ), 0 >
kg
= h0, 637, 0i N
27
T on massby wire
F
grav on massby earth

F
Figure 19: A free-body diagram of the system.
The tension applied to the wire is 637 N.
FT L
= Y
A L
FT

L
Y =
A L
FT

L
=
R2 L
Ft = 637 N
0.09 cm
R =
2
= 0.045 cm
= 4.5 104 m
L = 2.0 m
L = 0.01
m
637 N 2m
Y =
(4.5 104 m)2 0.01 m
N
= 2.0 1011 2
m
The interatomic bond stiffness is
k = Yd
N
= (2.0 1011 )(2.28 1010 m)
m2
N
= 46
m
4.P.54
28
(a) Begin by applying the Momentum Principle to the hanging mass. Draw a free-body diagram, as shown in Figure 20.
T on massby wire
F

F
The hanging mass is in equilibrium.
~F d~p
=
net
dt
~F + ~F = 0
T grav
~F = ~Fgrav
T
= < 0, mg, 0 >

= < 0, mg, 0 >
N
= < 0, (66 kg)(9.8 ), 0 >
kg
= h0, 647, 0i N
The tension applied to the wire is 637 N.
FT L
= Y
A L
FT

L
Y =
A L
FT

L
=
R2 L

647 N 2.2 m
=
(4.5 104 m)2 0.0112 m
N
= 2.0 1011 2
m
(b) Assume a simple cubic lattice for iron. Find the volume of a cube that surrounds a spherical atom.
29
(100 cm)3

g 1 kg
= 7.87
cm2 1000 g 1 m3
kg
= 7870 3
m
g kg
M = 56 = 0.056
mol mol
1 m3

0.056 kg 1mol

V =
7870 kg 1mol
6.02 1023 atoms
29 3
= 1.18 10 m
V = d3
1
d = V 3
= 2.28 1010 m
k = Yd
N
= (2.0 1011 )(2.28 1010 m)
m2
N
= 46
m
4.P.55
Spring force is F = bs3
(a) Define the system as the hanging mass. Draw a free-body diagram.
Apply the Momentum Principle. The system remains at rest (i.e. in equilibrium).
~F d~p
=
net
dt
~F + ~Fgrav = 0
spring
~F = ~Fgrav
spring
< 0, bs3 , 0 > = < 0, mg, 0 >
Examine the y-component only.

30
on massby spring
F

F
Figure 21: A free-body diagram of the situation
bs3 = mg
mg
b =
s3
Where s = L L0 = 29 cm 25 cm = 4 cm = 0.04 m.
N
(0.018 kg)(9.8 kg )
b =
(0.04 m3 )3
N
= 2760 3
m
(b) The following ideas were used in the analysis for part (a).
The Momentum Principle
The fact that the gravitational force acting on an object near Earths surface is approximately mg.
The rate of change of momentum of the system is zero.
4.X.56
Spring force is F = bs3
(a) For Bob, there is clearly a frictional force of the floor on the box that has a magnitude of 20 N and is in the opposite
direction as the force of Bob on the box, since the net force on the box is zero. Assuming that the frictional force is not
dependent on speed (which is generally the case) then the force by Alice on the box must also be 20 N. Though she
pushes the box such that it has a greater speed, its velocity is constant and so the net force on the box is zero. Since
there is a frictional force of magnitude 20 N, she must be pushing with an oppositely directed force of magnitude 20 N.
(b) Initially, to make the box speed up, both Alice and Bob had to push with a force of magnitude greater than 20 N. When
the box reached a speed of 20 m/s, Bob reduced his force to 20 N and the box moved with constant speed of 1 m/s.
When the box reached a speed of 2 m/s, Alice reduced her force to 20 N and then her box moved with a constant speed
of 2 m/s.
31
4.X.57
It also must be pulled by 3 N. The frictional force does not generally depend on the area of the surfaces in contact, but only
on the materials in contact and the normal (perpendicular) contact force.
4.X.58
(a) To start the box moving, you must apply a force parallel to the surfaces in contact that is greater than the maximum
static force. Thus,
fs,max = s FN
Apply the Momentum Principle. Define the system to be the box. Draw a free-body diagram for the box (see Figure
22).
F N by table onbox
f sby table on box
F by personon box
F grav by earth on box
~F d~p
=
net
dt
At the instant just before it starts to move,
~F = 0
net
In the y-direction,
32
Fnet,y = 0
FN + mg = 0
FN = mg
N
= (3 kg)(9.8 )
kg
= 29.4 N
In the x-direction,
Fby person on box

+ fs,max = 0
Fby person on box
= fs,max
= s FN
= (0.3)(29.4 N)
= 8.82 N
(b) To move at constant speed, the box is in equilibrium with ~Fnet = 0, but the frictional force is kinetic friction. Define
the system to be the box, and apply the Momentum Principle.
~F = 0
net
FN = 29.4 N
Fby person on box
= fk
= k FN
= (0.2)(29.4 N)
= 5.9 N
4.X.59
Assume a horizontal floor.
Define the system to be the box. Draw a free-body diagram (see Figure 23).
Apply the Momentum Principle
~F d~p
=
net
dt
Write it in component form, starting with the y-direction.

33
F N by floor on box
f k bytable on box
F by personon box
F grav by earth on box
py
Fnet,y =
t
= 0
FN by f loor on box,y
+ Fgrav,y = 0
FN + mg = 0
FN = mg
N
= (20 kg)(9.8 )
kg
= 196 N
In the x-direction,
px
Fnet,x =
t
px
Fperson + fk,x =
t
px
Fperson + k FN =
t
pf x pix
90 N (0.25)(196 N) =
t
pf x pix
90 N 49 N =
t
pf x pix
41 N =
t
Solve for vf x .
34
mvf x mvix
41 N =
t
(20 kg)(vf x 3 m/s)
41 N =
0.6
s
41 N
vf x = 3 m/s + (0.6)
20 kg
= 3 m/s + 1.23 m/s
= 4.23 m/s
To get xf , use vavg,x .
vix + vf x
vavg,x =
2
3 m/s + 4.23 m/s
=
2
= 3.62 m/s
xf = xi + vavg,x t
= 8 m + (3.62 m/s)(0.6 s)
= 10.2 m
4.X.60
The magnitude of momentum is largest when the oscillating mass-spring system is at equilibrium. At this instant, the net
force on the mass is smallest it is zero.
4.X.61
(a) and (e) are true. At the lowest point, the spring is stretched more than it is at equilibrium. Thus ~Fspring > mg at the

lowest point in the oscillation.
4.X.62
r
m
T = 2
k

T m

If m is doubled, T increases by a factor 2. So if T = 1 s, doubling the mass gives a period of 2(1 s) = 1.4 s
35
4.X.63
r
m
T = 2
k
1
T
k
Doubling the stiffness causes T to change by a factor of 1 .

2
Thus, if T = 1 s, then doubling the stiffness results in a period
of 0.71 s.
4.X.64
1 1
= N
keff k
k = N keff
= 2keff
Thus, cutting the spring in half doubles the stiffness. Since
1
T
k
doubling the stiffness changes T by a factor of 1

2
= 0.71. Thus, a period of 1 s becomes a period of (0.71)(1 s) = 0.71 s.
4.X.65
Period is independent of amplitude. Therefore, the period will remain 1 s.
4.X.66
Period is independent of g. Therefore, the period will remain 1 s.
4.X.67
Define the system to be the mass. Sketch a free-body diagram when x = +s (see Figure 25).
Apply the Momentum Principle in the x-direction.

36
m m m
x=s x=0 x=s
Figure 24: A sketch of the system
by spring on mass
F
dpx
Fnet,x =
dt
dpx
Fspring,x =
dt
dpx
ks x =
dt
dv
ks x = m x
dt
ks dvx
x =
m dt
Substitute vx = dt .
dx
ks d2 x
x =
m dt2
d2 x ks
+ x = 0
dt2 m
37
A solution for this differential equation is
r !
ks
x = A cos t+
m
A and are constants that depend on initial conditions.
4.X.68
Angular frequency is
r
ks
=
m
Since = 2f , then frequency is
r
1 ks
f =
2 m
Since T = f1 , then
m
r
T = 2
ks
Amplitude is independent of ks and m.
4.X.69
m
r
T = 2
ks
Period is independent of amplitude. Therefore, doubling the amplitude does not affect the period.

T m

Doubling the mass changes the period by a factor of 2.
1
T p
ks
38
Doubling the stiffness changes the period by a factor of 1 .

2
4.X.70
For x = A cos t, the systems velocity should be zero at t = 0, and the systems position is most positive at x = A.
For x = A sin t, the systems velocity should be a maximum and positive at t = 0; thus the system should be moving in the
+x direction at t = 0.
4.X.71
An oscillating diatomic moleciule is not a harmonic oscillator (except for very small amplitude oscillations).
A pendulum with a large initial angle from vertical is not a harmonic oscillator.
4.X.72
(a)
r
ks
=
m
s
N
4m
=
1.14 kg
rad
= 1.69
s
(b)
= 2f

f =
2
1.69 rad
s
=
2
= 0.269 s1
(c)
1
T =
f
1
=
0.269 s1
= 3.72 s
(d) The period does not depend on g. Therefore, the period of this system would be the same on Moon as it is on Earth,
3.72 s.
4.X.73
39
r
ks
=
m
s
N
8m
=
2.2 kg
rad
= 1.91
s
x = A cos (t + )
In this case, since x = +A at t = 0, = 0. So, at t = 1.15 s,
x = A cos t
rad
= (0.18 m) cos ((1.91 )(1.15 s))
s
= 0.105 m
4.X.74
ks,A = 3ks,B
mA = 3mB
dA dB
v = d
s
ks,i
= d
ma

3 times the interatomic stiffness changes the speed by a factor of 3. 3 times the mass changes the speed by a factor 1 .
3
These effects cancel out so that (b) vA = vB .
4.X.75
The speed of sound only depends on the material (the interatomic bond stiffness, atomic mass, and atomic diameter). Since
both rods are made of titanium and since their lengths are the same, then the time for the disturbance to travel to the end
of the rod is the same. The answer is (c).
4.X.76
The time it takes for a ball to fall from rest at an initial height h is given by
40
y v0,y *+0 1 Fnet,y t2

=
t

2 m

1 2
h = (g)t
2
1
h = gt2
2
s
2h
t =
g
The time to rise to the same height after it bounces is also
s
2h
t =
g
Thus the period of a bouncing ball that returns to its same height is
s
2h
t = 2
g

Since t h, if you quadruple the maximum height h, the period increases by a factor of 4 = 2. Thus, the period
doubles.
4.X.77
m
r
T = 2
ks
(a)

T m

If you double m, T changes by a factor 2.
(b)
1
T p
ks
If you double ks , T changes by a factor of 1 .

2
(c) If you double both m and ks , the effects cancel each other out and T remains the same.
(d) T is independent of A, so if you double A, T remains the same.

41
T by rod on ball
F
grav by earth on ball

F
4.P.78
Apply the Momentum Principle to the ball. Define the system to be the ball. Draw a free-body diagram, as shown in Figure
26.
Since the body is in equilibrium,
~F ~p
=
net
t
= 0
~F + ~F = 0
T grav
~F = ~Fgrav
T
= < 0, mg, 0 >

= < 0, mg, 0 >
N
= < 0, (41 kg)(9.8 ), 0 >
kg
= h0, 402, 0i N

~
FT = 402 N
Calculate Youngs Modulus,
FT L
= Y
A L
FT L
Y =
A L
The cross-sectional area of the rod is

42
A = (1.5 mm)(3.1 mm)

= (1.5 103 m)(3.1 103 m)
= 4.65 106 m2

402 N 2.6 m
Y =
4.65 106 m2 0.002898 m
N
= 7.8 1010 2
m
Calculate the diameter of a silver atom. Assume a simple cubic lattice. Find the volume of a cube taken up by a spherical
atom.
(100 cm)3

g 1 kg kg
= 10.5 3 3
= 1.05 104 3
cm 1000 g 1m m
g kg
M = 108 = 0.108
mol mol
1 m3

0.108 kg 1 mol
V =
1.05 104 kg 1 mol 6.02 1023 atoms
= 1.71 1029 m3
1
d = V 3
= 2.56 1010 m
ks = Yd
N
= (7.8 1010 )(2.56 1010 m)
m2
N
= 20.0
m
Calculate the speed of sound in silver.
s
ks
v = d
ms
The mass of an atom is

kg 1 mol
ma = 0.108
mol 6.02 1023 atoms
kg
= 1.79 1025
atom
43
s
N
20 m
v = (2.56 1010 m)
1.79 1025 kg
= 2710 m/s
4.P.79
r
m
T = 2
k

The period does not depend on amplitude or g. Increasing m by a factor of 6 increses the period by a factor of Increasing
6. q
the stiffness by a factor of 10 changes the period by a factor of 1 .
10
Thus, the period on the other planet will be 10 TEarth .
6
Thus,
r
6
Tplanet = (2.1 s)
10
= 1.6 s
4.P.80
(a) To do this experiment, measure the initial unstretched length of the spring L0 with no mass on the spring. Add mass
to the end of the spring and measure the length L of the spring. Record both the total mass and length of the spring.
Continue adding mass to the end of the spring. Each time, you should record both the total mass and length of the
spring. Fill out Table 1 with approximately 8 - 10 data points. Calculate the distance stretched s and the magnitude
of the force on the spring by the hanging mass for each data point.

Graph ~Fon spring by mass m vs. s. Though the y-intercept may not be zero, as expected from Hookes law, the graph will

be linear as shown in Figure 27.
(b) To measure the period of oscillation, you can use a sonic ranger and computer data acquisition system such as a LabPro
by Vernier. However, you can also use a stopwatch. If you use a stopwatch, place a reasonable mass on the spring that
will give a reasonable period to measure. You dont want the mass to be too small, or the period will be small and
harder to measure. You dont want the mass to be too large, or the spring may stretch too far and become deformed.
Choose a mass somewhere in the middle of the range that you used in part (a) of this experiment.
Pull the hanging mass downward a known, measured distance A and release it from rest. When the object later reaches
its lowest point, start the stop watch. Count 10 complete oscillations and stop the stopwatch when the object reaches
its starting point after its tenth oscillation.
Measure the total time for 10 oscillations and divide by 10 to get the time for one oscillation, which is the period. Note
that you can use any number of oscillations. You want to use enough oscillations that the small reaction time to start
and stop the stopwatch is small compared to the total. However, if you use too many oscillations, then the oscillator
loses energy and the period may not be constant (i.e. in this case you are not controlling the variable of amplitude).
10 oscillations is probably a reasonable number that is neither too small nor too large.
44

~
m (kg) L (m) s (m) Fon spring by mass m (N)

0 0 0
Table 1: Data for spring experiment.
force on the spring vs. distance stretched

7
4
|F| (N)
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
s (m)

Figure 27: A sample graph of ~Fon spring by mass m vs. s.

Its a good idea to repeat this measurement of the period about 5 more times so can report the average and standard
deviation. This gives you an idea about how repeatable the experiment is and how precise your measurements are.
Even if you use a LabPro, graph x vs. t, and determine the period from the graph, its a good idea to repeat the
45
experiment numerous times and report the average period and standard deviation.
(c) Double the amplitude and repeat your measurement of the period in part (b). Again, make multiple measurements
of the period and calculate the average and standard deviation. Note whether the periods are the same or different,
within the uncertainty of your measurement of the period.
4.P.81
Sketch a picture of the system, as shown in Figure 28.
Figure 28: A sketch of the system.
The distance of mass m from the center of the Earth is r. The position of mass m is x. The gravitational force on the mass
is
mg
Fgrav,x = x
R
~F mg
= < x, 0, 0 >
R
Define the system to be the mass m. Apply the Momentum Principle to the mass m. The only force on m is the gravitational
force defined above. Write it in component form.
~F d~p
=
net
dt
dpx
Fnet,x =
dt
mg dv
x = m x
R dt
The instantaneous velocity of mass m is vx = dt .

dx
Thus,
46
mg d dx
x = m
R dt dt
mg d2 x
x =
m 2
R dt
d2 x g
+ x = 0
dt2 R
This looks like the equation of motion for an oscillating mass-spring system which is
d2 x k
+ x = 0
dt2 m
q
Where = m k
. By comparing the equations, you can see that they are the same. Thus, the mass m will oscillate back and
forth through Earth with an angular frequency given by
r
g
=
R
The time it takes the mass m to reach the other side is 1

2 the period. Find the period.
= 2f
2
=
T
2
T =
s
R
T = 2
g
So t to get to the other side is
1
t = T
2 s
1 R
= (2 )
2 g
s
R
=
g
4.P.82
47
(a)
m
r
T = 2
ks

If you double the mass m, the period increases by a factor 2. Thus the period, with two 20 gram masses on the
spring, is

T = 2(1.2 s)
= 1.7 s
(b) The effective stiffness of identical springs in parallel is
ks,eff = N ks
Thus, two springs in parallel have twice the stiffness of one spring. Since
1
T
k
The period will be
1
(1.2 s) = 0.849 s
2
(c) Identical springs in series have a stiffness
1 1
= N
keff ks
The stiffness of each spring is
ks = N keff
If you cut a spring in half, the half-spring has a stiffness
ks = 2keff
Doubling the stiffness results in the period

48
1
T = (1.2 s)
2
= 0.849 s
(d) Period is independent of g; therefore, the period of the oscillator on the Moon is the same as on Earth.
4.P.83
(a) Assume that ks 10 m.

N
The mass of a hydrogen atom is

g 1 mol
m = 1
mol 6.02 1023 atoms
= 1.66 1024 g
= 1.66 1027 kg
r
1 k
f =
2 m
s
N
1 10 m
=
2 1.66 1027 kg
1 1013 Hz
Note that this does not take into account the fact that both H atoms in the diatomic molecule are oscillating.
(b) The mass of an oxygen atom is

g 1 mol
m = 16
mol 6.02 1023 atoms
= 2.66 1024 g
= 2.66 1026 kg
r
1 k
f =
2 m
s
N
1 10 m
=
2 2.66 1026 kg
3 1012 Hz
49
(c) Deuterium has twice the mass of hydrogen. Thus, since f 1 ,

m
its frequency will be
1 1
fhydrogen = (1 1013 Hz)
2 2
0.7(1 1013 Hz)
7 1012 Hz
(d) The ratios of the frequencies is proportional to the inverse of the square root of the ratio of their masses, if their bond
stiffnesses are the same. In this case, since both hydrogen and deuterium have the same charge in their nucleus, they
have the same bond stiffness.
4.P.84
g kg
M = 59 = 0.059
mol mol
(100 cm)3

g 1 kg
= 8.9
cm3 1000 g 1 m3
kg
= 8900 3
m
The cross-sectional area of the bar is
A = (2 mm)(2 mm)
= (2 103 m)(2 103 m)
= 4 106 m2
To determine the time for a disturbance to travel down the rod, we need the speed of sound in nickel. To get the speed of
sound in nickel, we need to know its bond stiffness, the mass of a nickel atom, and the diameter of a nickel atom. Atomic
mass and diameter are easy to calculate from the given properties of nickel, but the bond stiffness must be calculated from
Youngs Modulus which must also be determined from the given data.
The diameter of an atom is found from the volume of a cube taken up by the spherical atom. Assume a simple cubic lattice
for nickel.
1 m3

8.509 kg 1 mol
V =
8900 kg 1 mol 6.02 1023 atoms
= 1.10 1029 m3
d = V 1/3
= 2.2 1010 m
The mass of an atom of nickel is

50

kg 1 mol
m = 0.059
mol 6.02 1023 atoms
= 9.80 1026 kg
Youngs Modulus is given by
FT L
= Y
A L
FT L
Y =
A L
The tension in the rod is equal in this case to the weight of the mass hanging from the rod, according to the Momentum
Principle applied to the hanging mass. Thus,
FT = mg
N
= (40 kg)(9.8 )
kg
= 392 N

392 N 2.5 m
Y =
4 106 m2 1.2 103 m
N
= 2.04 1011 2
m
The bond stiffness ks is
ks = Yd
N
= (2.04 1011 )(2.22 1010 m)
m2
N
= 45.3
m
The speed of sound in nickel is
s
ks
v = d
matom atom
s
N
45.3 m
= (2.22 1010 m)
9.8 1026 kg
= 4770 m/s
51
Speed is defined as
|~r|
v =
t
The time interval to travel a distance 2.5 m down the rod is
|~r|
t =
v
2.5 m
=
4770 m/s
= 5.2 104 s
4.P.85
Approximate each atom in the bar to be a simple harmonic oscillator that oscillates with an angular frequency
r
ks
=
m
where ks is the bond stiffness in the material and m is the mass of an atom.
Since U238 and U235 have the same number of protons and electrons (for a neutral atom), their bond stiffnesses are the same.
However, U238 atoms have more mass and therefore will vibrate with less frequency.
The speed of sound in the material is
r
ks
v = d
m
Thus, the speed of sound in U238 will be less since U238 has more mass than U235 .
4.X.86
Calculate the volume of 1 kg of lead. Convert kg to grams.
1000 g
V = g
11 cm 3
= 90.9 cm3
The buoyant force of air on the lead is equal to the weight of an equal volume of air. The density of air is approximately (at
20 C and atmospheric pressure) 1.2 m kg
3 . Thus, the weight of 90.9 cm
3
of air is (be sure to pay attention to units)
52
wair = mg
1 m3

kg 3
N
= 1.2 3 90.9 cm 9.8
m (100 cm)3 kg
= 0.0011 N
= 1.1 103 N
The buoyant force on the lead is a paltry 1.1 103 N. The weight of the lead object is 9.8 N. The ratio of the buoyant
force on the object to the weight of the object is approximately
103 N
= 104
10 N
Thus the buoyant force is about one ten-thousandth the weight of the object. The buoyant force in thie case is clearly
negligible.
4.X.87
Area A
Depth h
Volumeof water , V =hA
Figure 29: A sketch of the region
The pressure at depth h is the pressure at the top plus the weight of the volume of water divided by its area.
mg
pbottom = ptop +
A
Multiply the last term by h

h
mgh
pbottom = ptop +
Ah
Ah is the volume and mass/volume is the density of the water.

53
mgh
pbottom = ptop +
V
pbottom = ptop + water gh
The density of freshwater is 1000 m3 .

kg
Solve for h.
pbottom ptop
h =
water g
N 5 N
3 105 m2 1 10 m2
= kg N
(1000 m 3 )(9.8 kg )
= 20.4 m
Saltwater has a greater density than freshwater. It is 1030 m3 .

kg
Thus in seawater,
pbottom ptop
h =
seawater g
N 5 N
3 105 m2 1 10 m2
= kg N
(1030 m 3 )(9.8 kg )
= 19.8 m
4.P.88
(a) Begin by sketching a picture of the floating block of wood (see Figure 30).
Area A
Depth y
Height h
A = (20 cm)(10 cm)

= (20 102 m)(20 102 m)
= 2 102 m2
h = 6 cm = 0.06 m
54
(100 cm)3

g 1 kg
wood = 0.7
cm3 1000 g 1 m3
kg
= 700 3
m
g kg
water = 1.0 = 1000 3
cm3 m
Define the system to be the block. Apply the Momentum Principle to the block. Draw a free-body diagram for the
system, as shown in Figure 31.
B onblock by water
F
grav onblock by Earth

F
~F ~p
=
net
t
The block remains at rest, so ~p = 0. Write the Momentum Principle in the y-direction.
Fnet,y = 0
FB,y + Fgrav,y = 0
FB,y = Fgrav,y
= (mg)
= mg
The mass of the block is
kg
m = (700 )(2 102 m2 )(0.06 m)
m3
= 0.84 kg
Thus,
55
N
FB,y = (0.84 kg)(9.8 )
kg
= 8.23 N
The buoyant force is also equal to the weight of water displaced by the wood. The volume of water displaced by the
wood is
V = Ay
= (2 102 m2 )y
The mass of this volume of water is
m = V
kg
= (1000 )(2 102 m2 )y
m3
kg
= (20 )y
m
The weight of this volume of water is
w = mg
kg N
= (20 )y(9.8 )
m kg
N
= (196 )y
m
Thus,
FB = wwater displaced
N
8.23 N = (196 )y
m
8.23 N
y = N
196 m
= 0.042 m
= 4.2 cm
Note that this is less than the height of the block, 6 cm, as expected. Also, note that about 4.2 cm
6 cm = .7 = 70% of the
block is submerged.
56
B by air on blimp
F
grav by Earth on blimp

F
(b) Define the system to be the blimp. Apply the Momentum Principle to the system. Assume the system is at rest. Draw
a free-body diagram, a shown in Figure 32.
~F ~p
=
net
t
py
Fnet,y =
t
FB,y + Fgrav,y = 0
FB,y = Fgrav,y
= (mg)
= mg
Thus, the mass of the blimp is
FB,y
m =
g
w = 2.77 104 N
Thus, the magnitude of the buoyant force on the blimp is

~
FB = 2.77 104 N
The total mass of the blimp is

57

~
FB
m =
g
2.77 104 N
= N
9.8 kg
= 2827 kg
2830 kg
This should be greater than the mass of helium, which is

4 g 1000
L 1 kg 3
mHe = (2356
m )
22.4 L m
13 1000 g
= 421 kg
The mass of the material of the blimp including the gondola must be
2827 kg 421 kg = 2406 kg 2410 kg
To get FB,y , use the fact that it is equal to the weight of air displaced by the blimp. The volume of the (cylindrical)
blimp is approximately
V = R2 h
Where h is the length of the blimp and R is its radius. Thus
2
10 m
V = (30 m)
2
= 2356 m3
The density of air is approximately 1.2 m3 .

kg
Thus, the mass of the equivalent volume of air is
kg
mair = (1.2 )(2356 m3 )
m3
= 2827 kg
The weight of this volume of air is

58
w = mg
N
= (2827 kg)(9.8 )
kg
= 27700 N
4.P.89
(a) Begin with a sketch of the system, as shown in Figure 33.
s=L
Define the system to be the mass m. Apply the Momentum Principle. Sketch a free-body diagram as shown in Figure
34.
T on massby string
F
grav on massby Earth

F
Define a coordinate system with the radial axis perpendicular to the objects path and directed toward the pivot and
the tangential axis tangent to the path, as shown in Figure 35
With this coordinate system, write ~Fgrav using the right triangle shown in Figure 36.
59
rad tan
T
F
grav
F
Figure 35: The coordinate system.
grav ,rad
F

grav
F
grav ,tan
F
Figure 36: The gravitational force vector described

Fgrav,tan = ~Fgrav sin

Fgrav,rad = ~Fgrav cos

The net force on the mass m is
~F = ~Fgrav + ~FT
net

= < ~Fgrav sin , ~Fgrav cos , 0 >

Where the first component is the tangential component and the second component is the radial component. Thus, the
only component of the net force in the tangential direction is Fgrav sin .
~
60
Write the Momentum Principle
~F d~p
=
net
dt
Express this in the tangential direction and substitute for Fnet,tan .
dptan
Fnet,tan =
dt
dptan
~Fgrav sin =

dt

Thus, since ~Fgrav = mg,

dptan
= mg sin
dt
Substitute = s
L since arc length is s = L
dptan s
= mg sin
dt L
(b) For small angles, sin
dptan s
mg
dt L
The tangential component of momentum is ptan = mvtan , where vtan = dt .

ds
Thus the Momentum Principle gives
dptan dvtan s
= m = mg
dt dt L
d ds s
m = mg
dt dt L
d2 s s
m 2 =
mg
dt L
d2 s g
2
+ s = 0
dt L
(c) Compare this to the Momentum Principle applied to a mass-spring system where
d2 x ks
+ x = 0
dt2 m
61
and
r
ks
=
m
The equations for the pendulum and the mass-spring system have the same form. Thus, for the pendulum
r
g
=
L
The period of the pendulum for small amplitude oscillations is given by
2
=
T
2
T =
s
L
= 2
g
(d) A simple experiment can be constructed with a mass and string. Use a stopwatch to measure the time for 10 oscillations
(or whatever number
q you choose). Measure t for N oscillations. Then T = t/N . Calculate the period from the
theory, T = 2 g,
L
and compare your experimental and theoretical results.
(e) 3-D graphics are not required for this simulation. The goal is to graph s vs. t and ptan vs. t. It is useful to review the
simulation for an oscillating mass-spring system, such as the simulation for problem 2.P.72 for example. If you have
not written a simulation like the one in 2.P.72, then you may wish to write that one first.
This simulation is similar except it will not include 3-D graphics. Begin by defining importing necessary libraries and
defining important constants.
4
5 m = 1 . 0 #mass i n kg
6 g = 9.8
7 t h e t a = 20 #t h e i n i t i a l a n g l e i n d e g r e e s
8 t h e t a = t h e t a p i /180 #c o n v e r t t h e t a t o r a d i a n s
9 L = 1 . 0 #l e n g t h o f pendulum i n m e t e r s
10 s = L t h e t a #i n i t i a l a r c l e n g t h
11 v_tan = 0 #i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y
12
13 p_tan = mv_tan
14 t = 0
15 dt = 0 . 0 1
Now, create the graph window and the curve to be plotted.

4
62
5 m = 1 . 0 #mass i n kg
6 g = 9.8
12
13 p_tan = mv_tan
14 t = 0
15 dt = 0 . 0 1
16
17 sGraph = g d i s p l a y ( x=0,y=400 , width =400 , h e i g h t =300 , t i t l e = ' s vs . t ' , x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,

y t i t l e= ' s (m) ' )
18 s P l o t = g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )
Now, create a while loop. Inside this loop, calculate the tangential component of the net force on the pendulum, update
its tangential momentum, and update the arclength s. For each data point, add (s, t) it to the curve being plotted.
4
5 m = 1 . 0 #mass i n kg
6 g = 9.8
12
13 p_tan = mv_tan
14 t = 0
15 dt = 0 . 0 1
16

y t i t l e= ' s (m) ' )
19
20
21 while 1 :
22 rate (1000)
23 Fnet_tan = mg s i n ( s /L)
24
25 p_tan = p_tan + Fnet_tan dt

26 v_tan = p_tan/m
27 s = s + v_tan dt
28
29 t = t+dt
30
31 s P l o t . p l o t ( pos=(t , s ) )
In the example simulation above, the initial angle is 20 , and the graph appears sinusoidal. You can change this angle
to larger angles to see that the resulting graph is no longer a sine or cosine function. Its especially obvious for an
angle such as 179 . Though the function is periodic, it will be much more rounded at the maxima and minima, when
63
compared with a sine or cosine curve. A screen capture is shown in Figure 37.
Figure 37: A graph of s vs. t for a pendulum with an initial angle of 179 from the y direction.
You can use the angle and length to calculate the position of the pendulum and add 3-D animation to the simulation.
In the example below, the sphere and the string (or massless rigid rod) are defined after the constants so that the angle
and length of the pendulum can be used to calculate the position of the pendulum. In the while loop, the position of
the pendulum and the axis of the rod must be updated after s is updated and after is calculated . The angle is
necessary for calculating the position of the pendulum.
4
5 m = 1 . 0 #mass i n kg
6 g = 9.8
12
13 p_tan = mv_tan
14 t = 0
15 dt = 0 . 0 1
16
17 b a l l = s p h e r e ( pos=(L s i n ( t h e t a ) , L c o s ( t h e t a ) , 0 ) , r a d i u s = L/ 1 0 , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )
18 rod = c y l i n d e r ( pos = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , a x i s=b a l l . pos , r a d i u s = L/ 1 0 0 , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
19

y t i t l e= ' s (m) ' )
22
23
24 while t <30:
25 rate (100)
26 Fnet_tan = mg s i n ( s /L)
27
28 p_tan = p_tan + Fnet_tan dt

29 v_tan = p_tan/m
30 s = s + v_tan dt
64
31
32 t h e t a = s /L
33 b a l l . pos=(L s i n ( t h e t a ) , L c o s ( t h e t a ) , 0 )
34 rod . a x i s = b a l l . pos
35
36 t = t+dt
37
38 s P l o t . p l o t ( pos=(t , s ) )
Adjust the initial angle to view the resulting motion and graph for both small angle oscillations and large angle
oscillations.
4.P.90
When starting a simulation like this, it helps to define some useful constants such as:
M = the total mass of the rod

L = the total length of the rod
N = the number of atoms in the model
d = the diameter of each atom (for display purposes only)
m = the mass of each atom
L0 = the equilibrium length of each bond
k = bond stiffness
All quantities in the simulation should be based on the constants defined above. As a result, you can change the number of
atoms, N, for example, and see how it affects the measured speed of sound.
Begin your program by importing libraries and defining your constants. Also, you can print the theoretical value for the
speed of sound. Note that:
r
ks
vsound = d
ma
where ks is the bond stiffness, ma is the mass of an atom, and d is the diameter of an atom. We are assuming that the atoms
are closely packed as shown in Figure 38.
Figure 38: A model of a rod as a one-dimensional line of closely packed atoms.
If the rod is made one atom, then the atomic diameter is d = L. If the rod is made of two atoms, then the atomic diameter
is d = L/2. Thus, in general, d = L/N . This the diameter that should be used in calculating the theoretical value of the
speed of sound in the rod.
So, the first part of our program looks like the example shown below. If you run it, it will print the theoretical value for
the speed of sound in the rod. You can increase the value of N which presumably improves the accuracy of the value of the
speed of sound. Note that the constant d that is calculated in the constants will be the diameter used to draw the atom. Its
used for display purposes to make the simulation look good but it not physical, meaning that its the actual diameter used
in the calculation, which is d = L/N .
65

4
5 M= 1
6 N = 10
7 L = 1
8 d = 0 . 5 L/N
9 m = M/N
10 L0 = L/ (N1)
11 k = 10
12
13 v_theor = s q r t ( k/m) L/N

14 print " t h e o r e t i c a l s p e e d o f sound i s " , v_theor
Now, because we are creating N number of atoms and N-1 number of bonds in our simulation, we will need to store them
in a list, which is Pythons construct for an array. So, initialize the lists for the atoms and springs (i.e. bonds) and use for
loops to create the atoms and springs used in the simulation. Spread the atoms out evenly along the rod with the left end
at x = L/2 and the right end at x = +L/2. Also, initialize the net force, velocity and momentum vectors for each atom in
the list. Run the example simulation below to see a 3-D picture of the rod, with atoms and springs.
4
5 M= 1
6 N = 10
7 L = 1
8 d = 0 . 5 L/N
9 m = M/N
10 L0 = L/ (N1)
11 k = 10
12

15
16 atoms = [ ]
17 springs =[]
18
19 for i in r a n g e ( 0 ,N) :
20 atom = s p h e r e ( pos=(L/2+ i L/ (N1) , 0 , 0 ) , r a d i u s = d / 2 , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
21 atoms . append ( atom )
22
23 for i in r a n g e ( 0 ,N1) :
24 atom=atoms [ i ]
25 bond = h e l i x ( pos=atom . pos , a x i s =(L0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r = ( 1 , 0 . 5 , 0 ) , r a d i u s = d / 4 )
26 s p r i n g s . append ( bond )
27
28 for i in r a n g e ( 0 ,N) :
29 atom=atoms [ i ]
30 atom . Fnet = v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
31 atom . v = v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
32 atom . p = matom . v
Disturb the left end by displacing the atom on the left side of the rod to the left about half a bond length. This is the
66
initial disturbance that will propagate down the rod. Also, define the time step and initialize the graph. I prefer to use the
command scene.mouse.getclick()" to make the simulation pause at this part of the program. Then, Ill have to click on the
simulation window to make it start. This gives me a chance to zoom in, rotate, move the graph window, etc. before the
simulation starts. In the example below, I also define a boolean (i.e. true/false) variable disturbenceReachedEnd that I will
use to mark the instant that the disturbance reaches the right end of the rod. See the example below.
4
5 M= 1
6 N = 10
7 L = 1
8 d = 0 . 5 L/N
9 m = M/N
10 L0 = L/ (N1)
11 k = 10
12

15
16 atoms = [ ]
17 springs =[]
18
19 for i in r a n g e ( 0 ,N) :
22
23 for i in r a n g e ( 0 ,N1) :
24 atom=atoms [ i ]
27
28 for i in r a n g e ( 0 ,N) :
29 atom=atoms [ i ]
30 atom . Fnet = v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
31 atom . v = v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
33
34 atoms [ 0 ] . pos . x = atoms [ 0 ] . pos . x L0/5

35 dt = 0 . 0 0 1
36 t = 0
37
38 xGraph = g d i s p l a y ( x=0,y=400 , width =400 , h e i g h t =300 , t i t l e = ' x vs . t f o r atom a t r i g h t end

o f t h e rod ' , x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' , y t i t l e= ' x (m) ' )
39 x P l o t = g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )
40
42
43 disturbenceReachedEnd = f a l s e
Now, were ready for the while loop. In the first part of the loop, calculate the force on the atom on the left side of the
rod. Assume that the spring is attached to the centers of the atoms. Define the vector L
~ to point parallel to the spring and
toward the atom that is our system, as shown in Figure 39.
The force by the spring on this atom is
67
Atom 0
Figure 39: Calculating the force on the atom on the left end of the rod.
~F = ks sL
by spring on left atom

where s = ~L L0 and is the distance the spring is stretched or compressed. If the spring is stretched s is positive. If it is

compressed, s is negative. So, if the spring is stretched, ~Fby spring is opposite ~L, and if the spring is compressed, ~Fby spring is
in the same direction as ~L.
Note that the first atom is atom[0] in the list and the second atom is atom[1] in the list and so on. Heres the while loop
and its first part that calculates the force on the left atom. The vector ~L is called L01 in the program, meaning the vector
from atom 1 to atom 0.
1 while 1 :
2 # f i r s t atom on l e f t end o f b a r
3 L01 = atoms [ 0 ] . pos atoms [ 1 ] . pos
4 L01_mag = mag( L01 )
5 L01_hat = L01/L01_mag
6 s = L01_mag L0
7 atoms [ 0 ] . Fnet = k s L01_hat
For the atom on the right end of the bar, the spring is toward the left as shown in Figure 40.
Atom 9
Figure 40: Calculating the force on the atom on the right end of the rod.
Thus, the vector ~L points to the right, again toward the atom that is the system. This atom is atom[9] if N=10. But in
general, this atom is atom[N-1] and its nearest neighbor is atom[N-2]. The code to calculate the force on this atom is shown
below.
1 while 1 :
4 L01_mag = mag( L01 )
5 L01_hat = L01/L01_mag
6 s = L01_mag L0
8
9 # l a s t atom on r i g h t end o f b a r
10 L l a s t = atoms [ N 1 ] . pos atoms [ N 2 ] . pos
11 Llast_mag = mag( L l a s t )
12 Lla st_hat = L l a s t / Llast_mag
68
13 s = Llast_mag L0
14 atoms [ N 1 ] . Fnet = k s Lla st_hat
Now that we know how to calculate the force on an atom due to a spring on its right side and the force on an atom due to a
spring on its left side, we can calculate the forces on the middle atoms in the rod. See the while loop below. You will notice
that the force due to the spring on the left and the force due to the spring on the right are added together to get the net
force on the atom.
1 while 1 :
4 L01_mag = mag( L01 )
5 L01_hat = L01/L01_mag
6 s = L01_mag L0
8
9 #atoms i n t h e m i d d l e
10
11 f o r i in r a n g e ( 1 ,N1) :
12 L r i g h t = atoms [ i ] . pos atoms [ i + 1 ] . pos
13 Lright_mag = mag( L r i g h t )
14 Lright_hat = L r i g h t / Lright_mag
15 s = Lright_mag L0
16 F r i g h t = k s Lright_hat
17
18 L l e f t = atoms [ i ] . pos atoms [ i 1 ] . pos

19 Lleft_mag = mag( L l e f t )
20 L l e f t _ h a t = L l e f t / Lleft_mag
21 s = Lleft_mag L0
22 F l e f t = k s L l e f t _ h a t
23
24 atoms [ i ] . Fnet = F r i g h t + F l e f t
25
30 s = Llast_mag L0
After computing the net force on each atoms, then you need to update their momenta and positions and you need to update
the springs positions and axes, just for display purposes. The rest of the while statement updates the graph and calculates
and prints the measured speed of sound when the disturbance reaches the last atom. The entire program is shown below.
4
5 M= 1
6 N = 10
7 L = 1
8 d = 0 . 5 L/N
9 m = M/N
10 L0 = L/ (N1)
11 k = 10
12
69

15
16 atoms = [ ]
17 springs =[]
18
19 for i in r a n g e ( 0 ,N) :
22
23 for i in r a n g e ( 0 ,N1) :
24 atom=atoms [ i ]
27
28 for i in r a n g e ( 0 ,N) :
29 atom=atoms [ i ]
30 atom . Fnet = v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
31 atom . v = v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
33
34 atoms [ 0 ] . pos . x = atoms [ 0 ] . pos . x L0/5

35 dt = 0 . 0 0 1
36 t = 0
37
38 xGraph = g d i s p l a y ( x=0,y=400 , width =400 , h e i g h t =300 , t i t l e = ' x vs . t f o r atom a t r i g h t end

o f t h e rod ' , x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' , y t i t l e= ' x (m) ' )
39 x P l o t = g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )
40
42
43 disturbenceReachedEnd = f a l s e
44
45 while 1 :
48 L01_mag = mag( L01 )
49 L01_hat = L01/L01_mag
50 s = L01_mag L0
52
53 #atoms i n t h e m i d d l e
54
55 for i in r a n g e ( 1 ,N1) :
56 L r i g h t = atoms [ i ] . pos atoms [ i + 1 ] . pos
57 Lright_mag = mag( L r i g h t )
58 Lright_hat = L r i g h t / Lright_mag
59 s = Lright_mag L0
60 F r i g h t = k s Lright_hat
61
62 L l e f t = atoms [ i ] . pos atoms [ i 1 ] . pos

63 Lleft_mag = mag( L l e f t )
64 L l e f t _ h a t = L l e f t / Lleft_mag
65 s = Lleft_mag L0
70
66 F l e f t = k s L l e f t _ h a t
67
68 atoms [ i ] . Fnet = F r i g h t + F l e f t
69
70
75 s = Llast_mag L0
77
78 # u p d a t e momentum and p o s i t i o n o f each atom

79 f o r i in r a n g e ( 0 ,N) :
80 atoms [ i ] . p = atoms [ i ] . p + atoms [ i ] . Fnet dt
81 atoms [ i ] . v = atoms [ i ] . p/m
82 atoms [ i ] . pos = atoms [ i ] . pos + atoms [ i ] . v dt
83
84 # u p d a t e each s p r i n g
85 f o r i in r a n g e ( 0 ,N1) :
86 spring = springs [ i ]
87 s p r i n g . pos = atoms [ i ] . pos
88 s p r i n g . a x i s = atoms [ i + 1 ] . pos atoms [ i ] . pos
89
90 t = t+dt
91
92 x P l o t . p l o t ( pos=(t , atoms [ N 1 ] . pos . x ) )

93
94 # c h e c k i f t h e d i s t u r b e n c e r e a c h e d t h e r i g h t end o f t h e rod
95 i f mag( atoms [ N 1 ] . Fnet ) > 0 . 0 0 1 :
96 # c a l c u l a t e and p r i n t t h e s p e e d
97 i f ( disturbenceReachedEnd ==f a l s e ) :
98 v_meas = L/ t
99 print " measured s p e e d o f sound i s " , v_meas
100 disturbenceReachedEnd = t r u e
You can increase the number of atoms N to improve the accuracy of the simulation. Some theoretical and measured values
for the speed of sound in this rod for various values of N are shown in Table 2. (In this case, L = 1 m, m = 1 kg, k = 10 N/m.
You will notice that the accuracy improves with greater N .
N (# of atoms) vtheoretical (m/s) vmeasured (m/s)

10 1.0 1.832
20 0.707 0.923
30 0.577 0.679
40 0.500 0.557
50 0.447 0.482
60 0.408 0.428
70 0.378 0.375
80 0.354 0.350
90 0.333 0.329
100 0.316 0.312
Table 2: Results of the speed of sound simulation for L = 1 m, m = 1 kg, k = 10 N/m.

71
You will notice that the best accuracy actually occurs at about 70 atoms. This is because the measured speed for low N is
greater than the theoretical value. For N > 70, the measured speed is less than the theoretical value. Somewhere around
N = 70 is the transition.
1
5.X.1 (a) bat, Earth, air (b) string, Earth, air (c) vine, Earth, air (d) snow, Earth, air
5.X.2
~F + ~F + ~F = ~0
1 2 3
~F = ~F1 ~F2
3
~F = h30, 90, 130i N

3
5.X.3 Both d~
p
dt and ~Fnet are ~0.
5.X.4
(a) d~
p
dt nonzero, directed downward
(b) d~
p
dt nonzero, directed downward
(c) d~
p
dt nonzero, directed upward
(d) d~
p
dt nonzero, directed leftward
5.X.5 The best kissing circle is the one with radius R3 , and the net force is directed toward the center.
5.X.6
(a) Arrows representing the force at each point should all point toward Sun and should have correct relative lengths.
(b) zero at A and D, nonzero at all other points
(c) nonzero at all points
(d) zero at A and D, positive at B and D, negative at E and F
(e) changing at all points
5.X.7 Constant speed implies no change in magnitude, so there is no parallel component of net force. The perpendicular
component is directed toward the center. Earth and the seat exert forces on the passenger.
5.X.8
2
|~v|
|~a|
R
2
(30 m/s)

200 m
4.5 m/s2
2
Compare to 9.8 m/s2 for freely falling objects.
5.X.9
d~p
= |~p| |~v|

dt R

dt R
d~p
|~p| =
c
10
(2 10 N)(8 m)

(3 10 s )
8 m
18
5.3 10 kg m/s
5.X.10 Define the system to be the child.

The parallel component of d~
p
dt is
d |~p|
p = 0
dt
because |~p| is constant.
The speed of the child is
2R
|~v| =
T
2(5 m)
=
90 s
= 0.349 m/s
The magnitude of the momentum is
|~p| = m |~v|
= 14.0 kg m/s
The perpendicular component of d~

p
dt has a magnitude of
dp |~v|

|~p| = |~p|
dt R
0.349 m/s

= (14 kg m/s)
5m
= 0.977 N
and |~p| ddtp points toward the center of the carousel. According to the Momentum Principle, the net force on the child is equal
to d~
p/dt which is 0.977 N and points toward the center of the carousel. The only object in the surroundings that exerts a
force on the child in the direction of the center of the carousel is the force by the horse on the child.
5.X.11
3
(a) The only force acting on the satellite is the gravitational force by Earth on the satellite. There is no centripetal force
acting on the satellite. The free-body diagram for the satellite should only show the gravitational force by Earth on
the satellite.
(b) The only force acting on the satellite is the gravitational force by Earth on the satellite. There is no centrifugal force
acting on the satellite. The free-body diagram for the satellite should only show the gravitational force by Earth on
the satellite.
(c) The satellite travels in a circle with a constant speed. Therefore, the net force on the satellite points toward the center
of the circle. The parallel component of the net force on the satellite is zero.
5.X.12
(a) The acceleration of the ball is
~v
~a =
t
= h1.43, 8.57, 0i m/s
(b)
~p ~v
= m
t t
= h0.129, 0.771, 0i N
(c)
~F ~p
=
net
t
= h0.129, 0.771, 0i N
5.X.13
Use direction cosines.
(a)
~

Fnet,x = Fnet cos x
= (210 N) cos(23 )
= 193 N
(b)
= ~Fnet cos y

Fnet,x

= (210 N) cos(90 23 )
= (210 N) cos(67 )
= 82 N
5.P.14
4
(a) d~
p
dt is zero. The box is static.
(b) 3 is the correct diagram.

(c) (40 kg) 9.8 kgN
392 N
(d) Geometrically, its ~FT2 cos 38 but physically, it must also be 392 N.

(e) ~FT2

392 N
497.4 N

cos 38
(f) ~FT2 sin 38 306.2 N

(g) It must be -306.2 N.
5.P.15
(a) d~
p
dt is zero so it has no direction.
(b) ~Fnet is zero.
(c) rope, floor
(d) (255 N) cos 40 195.3 N
(e) It must be -195.3 N.
(f) Earth, floor, rope
(g) (255 N) sin 40 163.9 N

(h) (30 kg) 9.8 kgN
294 N
(i) 294 N 163.9 N 130 N
5.P.16

Let be the angle between the spring and the vertical. Then sin = 8
15 and cos = 15 .
161
The vertical component of the
spring tension must null out the balls weight.
Mg = ks s cos
M g 15
s =
ks 161

(0.45 kg) 9.8 kg
N
(15)

(110 N/m) ( 161)
0.047 m 4.7 cm
Lo 15 cm 4.7 cm 10.3 cm
5.P.17
5
(a)
~

F Lo
L =
AY
(60 kg) 9.8 N
kg (2 m)

(0.35 103 m)2 (2 1011 N/m2 )
0.015 m 1.5 cm
(b) The interatomic bonds are stretched the most at the top of the rod, and progressively less and less from the rods top
to the rods bottom.
(c) Let the origin be at the very bottom of the vertically hanging rod. Consider a small slice of the rod at the very top.
This slice has a thickness L or y. The slice is in static equilibrium, so the force pulling it up must have the same
magnitude as the force pulling it down. The force pulling the slice down is the weight of the rest of the rod, and this
force has a magnitude V g = Agy where is the materials density. Note that the density is needed to express this
Y yy. Taking the limit for smaller and smaller
force as a function of y. This little slice will stretch an amount L = g
2
slices gives dL = g
Y ydy and we integrate both sides from y = 0 to y = L. Evaluating the integral gives Lrod = 2Y ,
gL
which is independent of radius (and therefore area). We can express the stretch as L = 2AY , which for this rod is
M gL
7
approximately 7.7 10 m.
(d) For a given material, the stretch is independent of radius, and therefore independent of area.
5.P.18
Let the left wire be 1, the right wire be 2, and the vertical wire be 3.
(a) ~F1 6098 N,

~ ~

F2 3980 N, F3 7840 N

(b) For each wire, the strain will just be the stress divided by Youngs modulus. Wire 1: L
Lo 0.049, Wire 2: L
Lo 0.032,
Wire 3: L
Lo 0.063
5.P.19
(a) d~
p
dt is zero.
(b) Earth, cable, air
(c) force due to cable pointing to the upper right, force due to air pointing left, force due to Earth pointing down
(d) The vertical component of the tension must null out the packages weight. Therefore, ~Fcable 9530 N.

(e) ~Fcable = h3609, 8820, 0i N
(f) The force due to the air must null out the horizontal component of the tension. Therefore, ~Fair 3609 N.

(g) ~Fair = h3609, 0, 0i N

(h) Yes, the cable will likely break.
5.X.20
6
(a) distance = 2R = 69.1 m

(b)
distance
|~v| =
t
69.1 m
=
12 s
= 5.76 m/s
5.X.21
The speed of the atom is
2R
|~v| =
T
= 2.24 m/s
and its direction is tangential (i.e. tangent to its path).
5.X.22 Assume that Earth travels from A to B in the figure. Thus, it is orbiting counterclockwise around Sun.
The velocity of Earth and the net force on Earth are shown in Figure 1.
A
Sun
Figure 1: The velocity of Earth and the net force on Earth at points A and B.
The vector ~
p is toward Sun and ~pf is in the direction of ~pi + ~
p as shown in Figure 2.
5.X.23
(a) The momentum is zero, so it has no direction.

(b) d~
p/dt is downward, toward Earth.
(c) The net force on the ball is downward, toward Earth.
(d) At the turning point, the momentum is zero, so it has no direction.
(e) d~
p/dt is to the left.
(f) The net force on the cart is to the left.
7
A
Sun
Figure 2: The change in momentum and the final momentum (after 1 hour) from points A and B.
(g) At this instant, its momentum is zero, so it has no direction.

(h) d~
p/dt is upward.
(i) The net force on the block is upward.
5.X.24
(a)
2R
|~v| =
T
2(7 m)
=
12 s
= 3.67 m/s
(b) (iii) The direction of the momentum of the atom is tangent to its path.
(c) (i) The direction of the rate of change of the momentum of the atom is inward, toward the center of its circular path.
5.X.25
(a) 1. a
2. h
3. g
4. f
5. e
(b) 1. g
2. f
3. e
4. d
5. c
(c) 1. g
8
2. f
3. e
4. d
5. c
5.X.26
(a) c
(b) zero
(c) At location D and also at location F, the perpendicular component of the net force on the comet is nonzero.
(d) zero
(e) changing
(f) e
(g) nonzero
(h) nonzero
(i) positive
(j) changing
(k) h
(l) nonzero
(m) nonzero
(n) negative
(o) changing
5.X.27
Because the speed of the particle is constant, d~ dt is perpendicular to the path where the path is curved and is zero where
p
dt is large. For a large radius of

the path is straight. For small radius of curvature (of the kissing circle) at a given point, d~
p
curvature, dt is small. If the path is straight or is an inflection point, then dt is zero.

d~
p d~
p
Arrows for d~
p
dt are shown in Figure 3 for given points on the path.
5.X.28
false. At constant speed, the net force on the object is inward toward the center of the kissing circle.
true
true
false. To make an object turn, the net force on the object must be inward toward the center of the kissing circle which
in this case would be toward the left.
9
zero
zero
Figure 3: d~
p
dt at given points on the path of a particle.
5.X.29
No. There is no force pushing you to the right as the car turns to the left. According to Newtons first law, your body
continues moving in a straight line unless a force acts on your body. As the car turns to the left, your body continues moving
in a straight line until hitting the door. Then, the door exerts a force on you to the left, toward the center of the kissing
circle.
5.X.30
(1) If the net force on Moon is zero then it would travel in a straight line at constant speed. The fact that it moves in a
circular path shows that the net force on Moon is not zero.
(2) Every force is due to an interaction of two objects. The gravitational force is the force by Earth on Moon. What object
exerts the centrifugal force? There is none, so the force does not exist.
5.X.31
d~p dp d|~p|
= |~p| + p
dt dt dt
p|
d|~
Because the speed is constant, dt p = 0. Thus,
d~p dp
= |~p|
dt dt
which has a magnitude of
d~p |~v|
= |~p|
dt R
23 m/s
= (78 kg m/s)
4m
= 449N
10
According to the Momentum Principle, the magnitude of the net force is equal to the magnitude of the time rate of change
~

of the momentum, so Fnet = 449 N.
5.X.32
p|
d|~
(a) Because the protons speed is constant, dt p = 0.
(b)
d~p dp
= |~p|
dt dt
d~p |~v|

dt = |~p|
R
2
m |~v|
= since the protons speed is much less than c.
R
= 1.04 1014 N
The direction of |~p| ddtp is toward the center of the circle, which is arrow (h).
5.X.33
(a) d
(b) b
p|
d|~
(c) Because the protons speed is constant, dt p = 0. Thus,
d~p dp
= |~p|
dt dt
d~p |~v|

dt = |~p|
R
2
m |~v|
= since the protons speed is much less than c.
R
= 8.74 1015 N
5.X.34
p|
d|~
(a) dt p = 0 because the childs speed is zero.
(b) The childs speed is
2R
|~v| =
T
= 3.99 m/s
The magnitude of |~p| ddtp is

11
dp |~v|

|~p| = |~p|
dt R
2
m |~v|
= since the childs speed is much less than c.
R
= 169 N
The direction of |~p| ddtp is toward the center of the carousel.
(c) According to the Momentum Principle, the net force on the child is equal to d~
p
dt which is 169 N, toward the center of
the carousel.
(d) The object that contributes to this horizontal force on the child is the horse.
5.X.35
The childs speed is
2R
|~v| =
T
= 1.76 m/s
The tangential component of the net force on the child is zero since the childs speed is constant. Therefore, the net force on
the child is directed toward the center of the circle and has a magnitude
|~v|
= |~p|

R
Fnet,
2
m |~v|
= since the childs speed is much less than c.
R
= 66.3 N
5.X.36
Convert the period of Earths orbit from years to seconds.
T = (1 year) = 3.156 107 s
Earths speed is
2R
|~v| =
T
2(1.5 1011 m)
=
3.156 107 s
= 3.0 104 m/s
p|
d|~
Because Earths speed is constant, dt p = 0.
12
The direction of |~p| ddtp is toward the center of the circle, which is toward Sun in this case. Its magnitude is
dp |~v|

|~p| = |~p|
dt R
2
m |~v|
= since Earths speed is much less than c.
R
(6 1024 kg)(3 104 m/s)2
=
1.5 1011 m
= 3.6 1022 N
The gravitational force by Sun on Earth is directed toward the center of the circle (toward Sun) and has a magnitude
~
GMsun MEarth
Fgrav =

Rorbit
= 3.6 1022 N
Note that we did not use the Momentum Principle,

but rather we showed that it is true for Earths orbit. We calculated d~
p
dt
from the motion of Earth and found that dt = 3.6 1022 N. Then, we calculated the gravitational force by Sun on Earth
d~p
using Newtons Law of Gravitation and showed that it is 3.6 1022 N. These are equal, as is expected from the Momentum
Principle.
5.X.37
A circular pendulum is analyzed as an example in CH 05 of the textbook. The radius of the pendulum is R = L sin = 0.516 m.
Application of the Momentum Principle in the vertical direction shows that
FT cos = mg
Application of the Momentum Principle in the radial direction shows that
2
m |~v|
FT sin =
R
Solving for FT in the first equation and substituting into the second equation allows one to solve for the speed of the pendulum.
2
m |~v|
mg tan =
R
2
|~v|
g tan =
pR
|~v| = Rg tan
= (0.516 m)(9.8 N/kg) tan(28 )
p
= 2.69 m/s
13
The period is found using:
2R
|~v| =
T
T = 1.21 s
5.X.38
(a) Arrow (a)
(b) The net force on Tarzan is upward. The net force is the sum of the force by the vine and the force by Earth on Tarzan.
Therefore, the upward force by the vine on Tarzan is greater than the downward gravitational force by Earth on Tarzan,
so that when added together, the net result is upward.
5.X.39 b.
5.X.40 Since the airplanes speed is constant, d~

p
dt for the passenger is directed toward the center of the circular path. In this
case, it is directed downward.
5.X.41 a.
5.X.42
p|
d|~
(a) dt 6= 0. It is directed in the x direction if speeding up or in the +x direction if slowing down.
(b) dp
dt = 0 because the motion of the object is along a straight path.
(c) ~Fk =
6 0. It is directed in the x direction if speeding up or in the +x direction if slowing down.
(d) ~F = 0 because dp
dt = 0.
5.X.43
p|
d|~
(a) dt = 0 because the airplanes speed is constant.
(b) dp
dt 6= 0 because the direction of the airplanes momentum is changing. It must be perpendicular to the path; therefore,
it could be in the +x, x, +y, or y direction.
(c) ~Fk = 0 because p|

d|~
dt = 0.
(d) ~F 6= 0 because dp
dt 6= 0. It must be perpendicular to the path; therefore, it could be in the +x, x, +y, or y direction.
5.P.44
The riders speed is
14
2R
|~v| =
T
= 5.98 m/s
The riders speed is constant; therefore, the net force on the rider is always directed toward the center of the Ferris wheel
and has a magnitude
|~v|
= |~p|

R
Fnet,
2
m |~v|
= since the riders speed is much less than c.
R
= 200N
At each point in the motion, sketch a free-body diagram. There are two forces acting on the rider: the force by the seat and
the gravitational force by Earth. The gravitational force by Earth always acts downward. The force by the seat on the varies
so that when added to the gravitational force, the net force points toward the center of the Ferris wheel and has a constant
magnitude.
The gravitational force by Earth on the rider is h0, mg, 0i = h0, 549, 0i N.
In all answers below, define the +y direction to be upward and the +x direction to the right.
(a) d~
p
dt = h0, 200, 0i N
(b) h0, 549, 0i N
(c) The net force on the rider is
~F = ~Fgrav + ~Fseat
net
Solve for the force by the seat on the rider.
~F = ~Fnet ~Fgrav
seat
= h0, 200, 0i N h0, 549, 0i N

= h0, 749, 0i N
(d) d~
p
dt = h0, 200, 0i N
(e) h0, 549, 0i N
(f)
~F = ~Fgrav + ~Fseat
net
~F = ~Fnet ~Fgrav
seat
= h0, 200, 0i N h0, 549, 0i N

= h0, 349, 0i N
(g) The rider feels heavier at the bottom of the ride because Fseat,y > ~Fgrav .

15
(h) The rider feels lighter at the top of the ride because Fseat,y < ~Fgrav .

5.P.45
(a) a.
p|
d|~
(b) Because the speed is constant, dt p = 0.
(c)
dp |~v|

|~p| = |~p|
dt R
2
m |~v|
= since the speed is much less than c.
R
= 492 N
|~p| ddtp is directed toward the center of the circle, which is at this instant in the +x direction.
(d) It is in the +x direction.
(e) ~Fnet = h0, 492, 0i N

(f)
~F = ~F1 + ~F2
net
~F = ~Fnet + ~F1
2
= h492, 0, 0i N h196, 369, 0i N

= h296, 369, 0i N
5.P.46
(a) The net force on the car is directed toward the center of the circle and has a magnitude
|~v|
Fnet, = |~p|

R
2
m |~v|
R
In the vertical direction (with +y upward), the y-component of the force by the road on the car is equal to the
gravitational force by Earth on the car.
Froad,y = mg
The maximum frictional force by the road on the car is parallel to the road and has a magnitude
froad,x = s Froad,y
froad,x = s mg
16
Since the only force on the car that acts toward the center of the circle is the frictional force, then

Fnet, =

froad,x
2
m |~v|
= s mg
R
|~v| = s gR
p
= 13.6 m/s
This is the maximum possible speed because the maximum possible frictional force (static friction) acts on the car.
(b) (3) and (6) are true.
(c) The maximum speed is the same because it does not depend on mass.

(d) The maximum speed is proportional to the square root of the radius. Thus, |~v| = 2(13.6 m/s) = 19.3 m/s
5.P.47
(a)
|~v|
Fnet, = |~p|

R
2
m |~v|
vR
u
t net, R
u F
|~v| =
m
= 41.3 m/s
(b) 2
(c)
~

Fspring = ks

v
u ~F
u

t spring
ks =
s
s
760 N
=
(9 8.7) m
= 2530 N/m
5.P.48
p|
d|~
(a) dt p =0
17
(b)
dp |~v|

|~p| = |~p|
dt R
2
m |~v|
R
= 8.71 N
(c) 871 N
(d) The force by the cord on the child is upward (+y direction) and the gravitational force by Earth on the child is downward
(y direction). The net force on the child is in the upward (+y direction), toward the center of the circle.
~F = ~Fcord + ~Fgrav
net
~F = ~Fnet ~Fgrav
cord
~F = h0, 871, 0i N h0, 255, 0i N

cord
~F = h0, 1130, 0i N
cord
(e)
~

Fspring = ks

v
u ~F
u

t spring
ks =
s
s
1126 N
=
(4.3 4.22) m
= 1.4 104 N/m
5.P.49
p|
d|~
(a) dt p =0
dp |~v|

|~p| = |~p|
dt R
2
m |~v|
R
= 495 N
(b) h0, 495, 0i N
(c) The force by the cord on the child is upward (+y direction) and the gravitational force by Earth on the child is downward
(y direction). The net force on the child is in the upward (+y direction), toward the center of the circle.
18
~F = ~Fcord + ~Fgrav
net
~F = ~Fnet ~Fgrav
cord
~F = h0, 495, 0i N h0, 235, 0i N

cord
~F = h0, 730, 0i N
cord
(d)
~

Fspring = ks

v
u ~F
u

t spring
ks =
s
s
730 N
=
(3.1 3.06) m
= 1.8 104 N/m
5.P.50
(a) First, find the speed
~
|~v|
Fnet = |~p|
R
2
m |~v|
vR
u ~F R
u
t net
|~v| =
m
= 27.8 m/s
Then, calculate the period.
2R
|~v| =
T
= 1.70 m/s
(b) 27.8 m/s
(c) (4)
5.P.51
The net force on the roller coaster at any instant is
19
~F = ~Ftrack + ~Fgrav
net
Since the roller coaster travels in a circle with constant speed,
~
|~v|
Fnet = |~p|
R
2
m |~v|
R
At the top of the roller coaster, the net force on the roller coaster is toward the center of the circle which is in the downward
(y) direction. The gravitational force on the roller coaster is also in the downward (y) direction. At the minimum speed
needed to make it around the loop, ~Ftrack = ~0 at the top of the loop. Thus,
~F = ~Fgrav
net
~
= ~Fgrav

Fnet

2
m |~v|
= mg
R
|~v| = Rg
p
A reasonable R is on the order of 10 m which gives a minimum speed of about 10 m/s.
5.P.52
A circular pendulum is analyzed as an example in CH 05 of the textbook. The radius of the pendulum is R = L sin .
Application of the Momentum Principle in the vertical direction shows that
FT cos = mg
Application of the Momentum Principle in the radial direction shows that
2
m |~v|
FT sin =
R
Solving for FT in the first equation and substituting into the second equation allows one to solve for the speed of the pendulum.
2
m |~v|
mg tan =
R
2
|~v|
g tan =
pR
|~v| = Rg tan
20
The speed is |~v| = T .

2R
Substitute the speed and solve for g in terms of the period T .
2R
= Rg tan
p
T
4 2 R
g =
T 2 tan
To determine g from experimental data, you must measure the period, the radius of the circle, and the angle .
5.P.53
The speed of the engineer is
2R
|~v| =
T
= 2.93 m/s
Define the system to be the engineer. The only force acting on the engineer is the force by the space station on the engineer.
Thus,
~F = ~Fspace station
net
Since the engineer travels in a circle with constant speed,
~
|~v|
Fnet = |~p|
R
2
m |~v|
R
Thus,
~
= ~Fnet

Fspace station

2
m |~v|
=
R
= 43.0 N
By Newtons third law, the force by the engineer on the space station is also 43.0 N. Thus, the engineer must exert a force
of 43 N on the space station in order to hold on.
5.P.54
First, convert period from days to seconds. T = 1.04 day = 8.99 104 s. Define the system to be the NEAR spacecraft. The
net force on NEAR is equal to the gravitational force by Eros on NEAR. Note that the speed of NEAR is much less than c.
Thus,
21
~
= ~Fgrav

Fnet

|~v| GM m
|~p| =
R R2
2
m |~v| GM m
=
R R2
2 MG
|~v| =
R
The speed of the spacecraft is v = T .

2R
Substitute this to get an expression that relates the period and radius of the
spacecrafts orbit.
2
2R MG

=
T R
4 2 R2 MG
=
T2 R
4 2 3
T2 = R
GM
The above expression is known as Keplers third law for circular orbits. Solve for the mass of Eros.
4 2 R3
M =
T2
= 6.65 1012 kg
5.P.55
The force by the seat on the rider is upward (+y direction) and the gravitational force by Earth on the rider is downward
(y direction). The net force on the rider is in the upward (+y direction), toward the center of the circle.
~F = ~Fseat + ~Fgrav
net
~F = ~Fnet ~Fgrav
seat
mv 2

= 0, , 0 h0, mg, 0i
R
mv 2

= 0, + mg, 0
R
m4 2 R

= 0, + mg, 0
T2
Thus, ~Fseat =

m4 2 R
+ mg.

T2
Fseat upward, in the +y direction, toward the center of the circle. Thus, Fseat =< 0, 1, 0 >.
5.P.56
22
(a) The force by the seat on the rider can be upward (+y direction) or downward (y direction) depending on how fast
the roller coaster goes over the hill. The gravitational force by Earth on the rider is downward (y direction). At the
top of the hill, the net force on the rider is in the downward (y direction), toward the center of the circle. To feel
weightless, the force by the seat on the rider must be zero at the top of the hill.
0
~F = ~F
> ~
seat Fgrav
+

net
* +
2
m |~v|
0, ,0 = h0, mg, 0i
R
2
m |~v|
= mg
R
|~v| = gR
p
(b) At the bottom of a hill (or a dip), the net force on the rider is upward. The force by the seat on the rider is also
upward and in this case has a magnitude of 3mg. The net force on the rider is
~F = ~Fseat + ~Fgrav
net
* +
2
m |~v|
0, ,0 = h0, 3mg, 0i + h0, mg, 0i
R
2
m |~v|
= 2mg
R
|~v| = 2gR
p
5.P.57
(a) T = 6.88 s
10revolutions = 0.688s
2R
|~v| =
T
= 13.7 m/s
(b) Yes, the momentum vector changes because its direction changes. It is not moving in a straight line.
(c) The force by the spring on the ball changes its direction because this force is perpendicular to the balls path.
(d) ~Fspring = ks = 300 N

(e)
2
~
m |~v|
Fnet =
R
= 300 N
Solving for mass gives m = 32.8 kg.

23
5.P.58
(a) Assume that the parallel component of the net force on the car is zero; therefore, its speed might be constant or the
car be transitioning from speeding up to slowing down as it goes over the hill. The net force on the car at the top of
the hill is thus directed toward the center of the hill, in the y direction. The forces that act on the car are: (1) the
gravitational force by Earth on the car and (2) the force by the road on the car.
(b) The net force on the car is in the y direction, toward the center of the circular path. Thus, the downward force by
Earth is greater than the upward force by the road. A diagram is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4: Forces on a car traveling over a hill.
(c)
~F = ~Froad + ~Fgrav
net
~F = ~Fnet ~Fgrav
road
* +
2
m |~v|
= 0, , 0 h0, mg, 0i
R
2
m |~v|
Froad,y = mg
R
Note that it is less than mg as expected.

v|2
m|~
(d) If the cars speed is great enough such that R = mg, then the car will momentarily leave the road and the force by
the road on the car will be zero.
5.P.59
The net force on the ball is equal to the force by the spring on the ball which is ~Fspring = ks . The distance the spring

stretches is s = R L. Because the speed of the ball is constant and is much less than the speed of light, ~Fnet = m|~

v|2
R .

Therefore,
~
= ~Fspring

Fnet

2
m |~v|
= ks (R L)
R r
ks R(R L)
|~v| =
m
24
For circular motion, |~v| = T .

2R
Substitute for |~v| and solve for T.
r
2R ks R(R L)
=
T s m
4 2 mR
T =
ks (R L)
5.P.60
Define the system to be Earth. The net force on Earth is the gravitational force by Sun on Earth. Use this to solve for the
speed of Earth.
~
= ~Fgrav

Fnet

|~v| GM m
|~p| =
R R2
2
m |~v| GM m
=
R R2
2 GM
|~v| =
R
Earth is in a nearly circular orbit, thus its speed is v = T .

2R
Substitute this to get an expression that relates the period and
radius for Earths orbit.
2
2R GM

=
T R
4 2 R2 GM
=
T2 R
4 2 3
T2 = R
GM
The above expression is known as Keplers third law for circular orbits.
From the solution above, Earths orbital speed as determined from Newtons law of gravitation and The Momentum Principle
is
r
GM
|~v| =
R
N m2
11

6.6742 10 kg2 (2 1030 kg)
=
1.5 1011 m
= 3.0 10 m/s 4
Note that the radius of Earths orbit is defined as 1 A.U. (Astronomical Unit) which is 1.5 1011 m.

5.P.61
25
(a) The
d~p |~v|

= |~p|
dt R
2
m |~v|
= since the persons speed is much less than c.
R
= 1.58 N
(b) The direction of the rate of change of momentum of the person is toward the center of the circle. In this case, it appears
that the angle with respect to the +x axis (to the right) is about 120 . Thus, the direction of d~ p/dt is given by
direction cosines: h cos(120 ), cos(30 ), 0i = h0.5, 0.866, 0i.
(c) ~Fnet = 1.58 N. A sketch of the net force on the person is shown in Figure 5.

F
net
Figure 5: The net force on a person riding a Ferris Wheel.
5.P.62
The net force on the charged particle is equal to the magnetic force on the particle. Since the particles speed is constant,
the net force on the particle is toward the center of the circle and its magnitude is Fnet, = |~p| |~vr | . where r is the radius of

its path.
~F = ~Fmagnetic
net
~
= ~Fmagnetic

Fnet

|~v|
|~p| = q |~v| B
r
|~p| = qBr
5.P.63
(a) For a star orbiting a central body of mass M at the center of the galaxy, the net force on the star is equal to the
gravitational force by the central body on the star. The net force is also equal to the time rate of change of the
momentum of the star. If it orbits with constant speed in a circular orbit of radius r, then
26
~F = ~Fgrav
net
~
Fnet = ~Fgrav

|~v| GM m
|~p| =
r rr
2
GM
|~v| =
r
Thus, the speed of the star should be proportional to r1/2 . Stars further from the center of the galaxy should have a
smaller orbital speed.
(b) Rubin found that stars speeds were independent of distance r for stars further out in the galaxy. As a result, they are
going faster than expected. This means that there is more mass in the galaxy that is not found at the center of the
galaxy. It must be spread throughout the disc of the galaxy, even where there is little luminous matter.
5.P.64
(a) Convert the units for the period of the satellite to seconds. T = 24 h = 86400 s.
Use Keplers third law for a circular orbit that was derived in Problem 5.P.60 from Newtons law of gravitation and
The Momentum Principle for an object moving at constant speed along a circular path.
4 2 3
T2 = R
GM
R = 4.24 107 m
Its useful to calculate the altitude h of the satellite, which is the height of the satellite above Earths surface. The
altitude is h = R RE = 4.24 107 m 6.4 106 m = 3.6 107 m.
(b) The distance from one person to the satellite is h. A radio wave travels from person 1 to the satellite back to person 2
for a total distance of 2h. Then person 2 responds and a radio wave travels from person 2 to the satellite and back to
person 1 for a distance of 2h. The total distance traveled by the radio waves is d = 4h.
d = 4h
= 1.44 108 m
d
t =
c
= 0.48 s
This is the minimum delta time simply due to the travel time for light (in this case, the light has a radio wavelength
and is not visible).
(c) Use Keplers third law with the radius of the orbit approximately equal to Earths radius (R REarth = 6.4 106 m).
4 2 3
T2 = R
GM
T = 5073 s = 85 minute = 1.4 hour
27
(d) Its speed is
2R
|~v| =
T
= 7.9 103 m/s
(e) The orbital radius in this case is approximately the radius of Moon, 1.74 106 m. The mass of Moon is 7.35 1022
kg. Use Keplers third law to find the orbital period.
4 2 3
T2 = R
GM
T = 6500 s
The time interval that the astronauts lose radio contact is half the period, 1/2T = 3250 s.
5.P.65
A picture of the situation is shown in Figure 6. The vectors from the center of the circle to the stars are their position vectors.
1 v
v a a
2 3
v
Figure 6: Three stars in a particular three-body orbit.
The stars are equidistant from another and form an equilateral triangle of side length a. The stars move in uniform circular
motion with speed v (that is much less than the speed of light) and radius r from the center of the circle. Therefore, the net
force on each star has a magnitude
2
~
m |~v|
Fnet =
r
28
and is directed toward the center of the circle. Select star 2 to be the system". Apply the Momentum Principle to star 2.
We will need to calculate the gravitational force of each of the other stars on star 2; therefore, we need to know the positions
of the stars at this instant. Define the +x direction to the right and the +y direction upward. Use direction cosines to get
the unit vector for each stars position (i.e. r =< cos x , cos y , 0 >). Note that because it is an equilateral triangle, the
angles between the positions of the stars are 120 .
~r1 = r < cos(90 ), cos(0 ), 0 >= r < 0, 1, 0 >

~r2 = r < cos(210 ), cos(120 ), 0 >= r < 0.866, 0.5, 0 >
~r3 = r < cos(330 ), cos(240 ), 0 >= r < 0.866, 0.5, 0 >
The vectors from star 2 to each of the other stars are:
~r32 = ~r3 ~r2

= r < 1.723, 0, 0 >

= 3r < 1, 0, 0 >
~r12 = ~r1 ~r2

= r < 0, 1, 0 > r < 0.866, 0.5, 0 >
= r < 0.866, 1.5, 0 >

= 3r < 0.5, 0.866, 0 >
Calculate the gravitational force by star 1 on star 2 and the gravitational force by star 2 on star 3. The net force on star 2
is the sum of these forces.
~F Gmm
32
= r
~r 32
32
Gmm
= < 1, 0, 0 >
3r2
~F Gmm
12
= r
~r 12
12
Gmm
= < 0.5, 0.866, 0 >
3r2
The net force on star 2 is
~F = ~F32 + ~F12
net
Gmm Gmm
= < 1, 0, 0 > + < 0.5, 0.866, 0 >
3r 2 3r2
Gmm
= < 1.5, 0.866, 0 >
3r2
29
Its magnitude is:
Gmm
q
~

2 2 2
Fnet = (1.5 ) + (0.866 ) + (0 )
3r2 q
Gmm 2 2 2
= (1.5 ) + (0.866 ) + (0 )
3r2
Gmm
= 3
3r2
Gmm
=
3r2
According to the Momentum Principle, the net force is equal to d~

p/dt which has a magnitude of v 2 /r. Thus,
2
m |~v| Gmm
=
r 3r2
2
m |~v| mm
G
=
r 3r2
2 Gm
|~v| =
3r
The speed of a star in uniform circular motion is v = 2r/T . Substitute this for the speed and solve for the period of the
star.
4 2 r2 Gm
=
T2 3r
4 2 3
T2 = 3 r
GM

Note that this looks like Keplers law for a star orbiting a central object of mass m except for the constant 3. The additional
gravitational force due to the second star in the three-body problem increases the period compared to a star orbiting a central
body in the two-body problem.
The period of the star will be
1/2
4 2 r3

T = 3
GM
5.P.66
(a) The period of the star can be found from the figure. From 1995 to 2004 the star travels approximately 90 degrees, or
1/4 of a revolution around the circle. Therefore, the period of the star is T = 4(9 y) = 36 y. Convert this to seconds,
T = 1.136 109 s.
The speed of the star is
30
2r
|~v| =
T
2(2.9 1014 )
=
1.136 109 s
= 1.60 106 m/s
In terms of the speed of light, the stars speed is (1.60 106 m/s)/(3 108 m/s) = 0.005c
(b) The stars speed is less than one-hundredth the speed of light. As a result, it is considered non-relativistic, and p mv.
(c) Use Keplers third law.
4 2 3
T2 = r
GM
M = 1.11 1037 kg
Divide this by the mass of Sun to get the mass in units of solar masses. (1.11 1037 kg)/(2 1030 kg) = 5.6 million
solar masses.
5.P.67
At the North Pole (NP), the net force on the person standing on the scale is zero. The upward force by the scale on the
person is equal in magnitude to the gravitational force on the person. The calibrated scale reads 10 kg. The force by the
scale on the person at the NP is
~
= ~Fgrav

Fscale, N.P.

= mgN P
GMEarth
= m
RN P
N m2
11
24
6.6742 10 kg 2 (6 10 kg)
= (10 kg)
(6.357 106 m)2
= (10 kg)(9.9 N/kg)
= 99.0 N
At the equator, the person is in uniform circular motion with a period T = 24 h = 86400 s. The net force on the person is
toward the center of Earth and has a magnitude mv 2 /R. Call this the positive radial" direction. Then, the net force on the
person is the sum of the gravitational force (which poiints toward Earth) and the force by the scale on the person (which
points away from Earth).
~F = ~Fgrav + ~Fscale
net
2
|~v| GM
= m 2 ~Fscale

m

R R
2
~
GM |~v|
Fscale = m 2 m

R R
31
Substitute v = 2R/T .
~
GM 4 2 R
Fscale = m m

R2 T2
N m2
11
24
6.6742 10 kg2 (6 10 kg) 4 2 (6.378 106 m)
= (10 kg) (10 kg)
(6.378 106 m)2 (86400 s)2
= 98.4 N 0.337 N
= 98.1 N
The slightly larger radius at the equator results in a slightly smaller gravitational force of 98.4 N. The rotational motion
further reduces the scale force by 0.337 N to give a net force of 98.1 N.
What will the scale read? It was calibrated at the NP to give the mass in kg. Thus, we must divide by g at the NP.
98.1 N
scale reading =
9.9 N/kg
= 9.91 kg
5.P.68
It is easiest to use the dot product of ~Fnet ~p. The dot product is defined as:
~F ~p = ~Fnet |~p| cos

net
where is the angle between the net force and momentum vectors. VPython has a function dot(A,B) which calculates the
~

dot product of two vectors A and B. The parallel component of the net force is Fnet cos . Thus, it can be calculated using
~F = ~Fnet cos p

net, k
~F ~p
= net
p
|~p|
The net force can be written as ~Fnet = ~F + ~Fk . Use this to solve for the perpendicular component of the net force.
~F = ~Fnet ~F
k
Use these equations to calculate the parallel and perpendicular components of the net force. Draw arrows for the net force
and its components. Multiply the arrow by a scale factor to scale its length so that it can be seen. Use the distance from
Earth to the spacecraft to scale the length of the arrow.
An example program is shown below for a spacecraft orbiting Earth in an elliptical orbit.
32

3
5

8
10 ME = 6 e24
11 G = 6 . 6 7 e 11
12
13 v =1.2 s q r t (GME/mag( s p a c e c r a f t . pos ) ) v e c t o r ( 0 , 1 , 0 ) #i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y o f s p a c e c r a f t

15
16 t=0
17 dt =0.13600 #time s t e p
18

20
22 Fperparrow = arrow ( pos=s p a c e c r a f t . pos , a x i s=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . g r e e n )
23 Fpararrow = arrow ( pos=s p a c e c r a f t . pos , a x i s=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )
24 Fnetarrow = arrow ( pos=s p a c e c r a f t . pos , a x i s=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )
25
26 s c a l e = 10RE/1000
27
28 while rmag>RE: #s t o p i f rmag < RE

29 rate (100)
31 rmag=mag( r )
33
34 Fgrav=GmME/rmag 2 r u n i t
35 Fnet=Fgrav
36
37 p = p + Fnet dt
38 v = p/m
40
41 #c a l c u l a t e t h e p a r a l l e l component o f t h e n e t f o r c e
42 pmag = mag( p )
43 phat = p/pmag
44 F p a r a l l e l = dot ( Fnet , p ) /pmag phat
45
46 #c a l c u l a t e t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r component o f t h e n e t f o r c e
47 Fperp = Fnet F p a r a l l e l
48
49 #u p d a t e arrows f o r t h e f o r c e s
50 Fperparrow . pos = s p a c e c r a f t . pos
51 Fperparrow . a x i s = Fperp s c a l e
52 Fpararrow . pos = s p a c e c r a f t . pos
53 Fpararrow . a x i s = F p a r a l l e l s c a l e
54 Fnetarrow . pos = s p a c e c r a f t . pos
33
55 Fnetarrow . a x i s = Fnet s c a l e
56
57

59
60 t = t + dt
1
6.X.1
1 8 m 2
31
13
E = mc2 (9 10 kg) 3 10 5.2 10 J
1 0.988 2 s
14
Er = mc2 8.1 10 J
13
K = E Er 4.4 10 J
6.X.2
1 2
K m |~v|
2 !
5
1 5 9 10 m
(1.4 10 kg)
2 3600 s2
9
4.4 10 J
6.X.3
r
2K
|~v|
m
s
21.1 105 J

1.5 103 kg
12 m/s
6.X.4
mc2 = K
5
K 1.1 10 J
m 2
c2 3 108 ms
12
1.2 10 kg
6.X.5
~r = ~rf ~ri h18.2, 8, 6i m

W = ~F ~r
W h0.03, 0.04, 0.09i N h18.2, 8, 6i m
W 1.41 J
2
6.X.6
W = ~
F ~r
N
W 0, 9.8 (2 kg), 0 N h25, 30, 0i m
kg
W 585 J
6.X.7
(a) K decreases and W is negative
(b) K increases and W is positive
(c) K decreases and W is negative
(d) K increases and W is positive
6.X.8
W = ~F ~r
W h300, 0, 0i N h2, 0, 0i m
W 600 J
6.X.9 A gravitational force acts on the jar.
W = ~F ~r
h0, 4.9, 0i N h0, 1, 0i m
4.9 N
6.X.10
(a) No work is done because Earths displacement and Suns gravitational force on Earth are perpendicular.

(b) |~p| = ~pf ~pi = |2P | = 2P

6.X.11 Doubling the final speed requires quadrupling the work done. Work, in this case, is proportional to speed squared.
Doubling the speed therefore quadruples the work.
6.X.12
3
E 40.8mc2
K 39.8mc2
Here, K is large compared to mc2 , in fact its about 40 times larger than mc2 . At this speed, most of the energy is kinetic
energy. About 40/41 of the total energy is kinetic energy. The remaining 1/41 of the total energy is rest energy.
At low speeds, K is small compared to mc2 .
6.X.13
0.8 MeV 4
8.51 10
939.6 MeV
6.X.14
W1 h30, 0, 0i N h2.3, 0, 0i m 69 J
W2 h15, 0, 0i N h8, 0, 0i m 120 J
Wnet = W1 + W2 189 J
6.X.15 Since the force and displacement are in the same direction, the dot product reduces to a simple scalar product.
19

W 5 10 N (0.5 m)
19
2.5 10 J
6.X.16
Eparticle + U = 0
50 J + U = 0
U = 50 J
6.X.17 There are six interaction energy pairs: U12 , U13 , U14 , U23 , U24 , and U34 . Note that U12 and U21 are the same since
they describe the same pairwise interaction. Dont count such terms twice!
6.X.18
4
Mm
Ug G
R
11
(6 1024 kg)(1 kg)
6.7 10 Nm/kg2
(6.4 106 m)
7
6.3 10 J
6.X.19
!
1 1 1 1
= +
rf ri 1 107 m 1 108 m
= 9 108 m1
Yes, it is negative.
6.X.20
!
1 1 1 1
= +
rf ri 1 10 m 1 107 m
8
= 9 108 m1
6.X.21
By choosing your system appropriately, W = 0 and E = 0, so Ei = Ef .
6.X.22
r is the distance from the spacecraft to the center of the asteroid.
6.X.23
K decreases because U increases. You can see that the vertical separation between E and U decreases in going from r1 to
r2 .
6.X.24
A is bound because E < 0. C is unbound because E > 0. B is trapped because there are turning points where E = U and
K = 0.
6.X.25
C is circular motion since r=constant. B is an elliptical orbit. A is linear motion where an object is lauched vertically from
a star, rises until K = 0, and falls back into the star along a straight line.
5
6.X.26
In the problem in Chapter 3, the initial speed of the spacecraft is the speed necessary to just barely get it to the Moon and
have v = 0 when it gets there. The escape speed is the speed necessary for the object to go to r = and have zero speed
when it gets there. It takes slightly more initial speed to reach r = than to reach the Moon.
6.X.27
If an object falls from rest from a very large distance from Earth (r = ), then its speed when striking Earth is the escape
speed, 1.12 104 m/s.
6.X.28
You calculate the same final speed because
K f + Uf = Ki + Ui
Kf = Ki + Ui Uf
= Ki + U
= Ki + mgy
The final kinetic energy depends on y = yf yi . Thus, initial height and final height are not important; it is the change
in height y that determines the final speed.
6.X.29
vi = 100 mph = 44.7 m/s. Define the system to be the ball and Earth. At the initial state, the ball leaves the hand with
speed vi and height yi = 0. At the final state, it is at its peak and vf = 0. There is no work done on the ball.
0 0 0
U
7 + Ki = Uf + K + W
>

i f
1
mv 2 =
mgyf
2 i
v2
i
yf =
2g
= 102 m
6.X.30
q
Define the system to be the ball and Earth. Its initial height is yi and its initial speed is vi = v2 + v2 . Its height at the
xi yi

peak is yf and speed at the peak is vxf . Since Fnet,x = 0, vx is constant is vxf = vxi . There is no work done on the ball.

6
0
Ui + K i = Uf + Kf +
W
>

Uf = Ui + Ki Kf
1 1
mgyf = mgyi + mv2 mv2
2 i 2 f
1
mgyf = mgyi + m(v2 v2 )
2 i f
1
mgyf = mgyi + m(v2 + v2 v2 )
2 xi yi xf
1
mgyf = mgyi + mv2
2 yi
2
v
yf = yi + yi
2g
6.X.31
Convert the kinetic energy of a proton to J. Ki,proton = 1.6 1014 J. Define the system to be the two protons, so Ki =
2(1.6 1014 J) = 1.6 1014 J. Assume that they are initially very far apart, so Ui 0. At the final state, their speeds are
zero at the turning point, which is the point of closest approach. The work done on the system is zero and their rest energies
are constant. Thus, the total initial kinetic energy is completely converted to the final electric potential energy.
Ki = Uf
1 q1 q2
Ki =
40 r
q1 = q2 = 1.6 1019 C, thus
r = 7.2 1015 m
Note that the radius of a hydrogen atom is about 1 1010 m, so at these energies, the protons distance of closest approach
is within the atom, and close to the diameter of the nucleus.
6.X.32
The rest energy of O2 is about
Erest = 16(940 MeV)

= 1.5 1010 eV
The binding energy of O2 is 5 eV. Thus, the ratio is
5 eV
= 3.3 1010
1.5 1010 eV
7
1 mol of O2 molecules has a mass of about 16 g. The best analytical balances measure to about 1 106 g. This gives a
6
ratio of 110
16 g
g
= 6 108 . Thus, even the most precise analytical balances can not measure the mass difference between
1 mol of O2 molecules and 2 mol of atomic oxygen (individual oxygen atoms).
6.X.33
The binding energy of a deuteron is 2.2 MeV. The total energy of a deuteron is
E = mproton c2 + mneutron c2 + Uatom
The electrons rest energy is negligible. Also, the potential energy U of the proton and the electron is small compared to the
rest energy. Thus,
Erest mproton c2 + mneutron c2

= 938 MeV + 940 MeV
= 1878 MeV
The ratio of binding energy to rest energy is
2.2 MeV
= 0.1%
1878 MeV
6.X.34
U
Fy =
y

GM m
=
y y
GM m
Fy =
y2
U
Fx =
x
GM m
=
x y
= 0
8
6.X.35
p2 [kg m/s]2

=
m [kg]
m2
= [kg 2 ]
s
= [N m]
= [J]
m2
[mc2 ] = [kg ]
s2
= [N m]
= [J]
6.X.36
|~v| = 0.99c and m = 9.11 1031 kg
E = mc2
1
= (9.11 1031 kg)(3 108 m/s)2
1 0.992
= 7.08(8.20 1014 J)
= 5.80 1013 J
= 3.63 MeV
Erest = mc2
= 8.20 1014 J
= 0.512 MeV
K = E Erest = 3.12 MeV. Thus, K

Erest 6.
6.X.37
2
|~v| = 100 mph = 44.7 m/s. K 12 m |~v| so
1 2
K 2m |~v|
=
Erest mc2

1 2
2 |~v|
=
c2
= 1.11 1014
9
This is very small! A baseballs rest energy is much greater than its kinetic energy at typical speeds for a baseball.
6.X.38
For a baseball, |~v| 90 mph 40 m/s and m 0.15 kg, so
1 2
K = m |~v|
2
= 120 J
For a basketball, |~v| 10 m/s and m 0.6 kg, so K = 30 J
6.X.39
Because the energy of the electron is so large compared to its rest energy, the electrons speed will be very close to the
speed of light. To achieve at least 7 significant figures in your answer, you need to use melectron = 9.10938215 1031 kg,
1.672621638 1027 kg and c = 2.99792458 108 m/s.
Erest,proton = mc2
= (1.672621638 1027 kg)(2.99792458 108 m/s)2
= 1.50327736 1010 J
Eelectron = 1.50327736 1010 J and m = 9.10938215 1031 kg
Eelectron = mc2
1.50327736 1010 J
=
(9.10938215 1031 kg)(2.99792458 108 m/s)2
= 1836.1527
1
= q
2
1 |~vc2|
Solve for |~v|. Because of the very high value of , the speed of the electron is very close to c. In fact, the precision of your
calculator may be so small, that it calculates |~v| to be exactly equal to c, which is not correct. Its possible to use a computer
program such as Excel which has greater precision than your calculator. The result is |~v| /c = 0.99999985, though the 5 is
not a significant figure.
Note that most of the electrons energy is kinetic energy.
K = ( 1)mc2
= (1836.1527 1)(9.10938215 1031 kg)(2.99792458 108 m/s)2
= 1.502459 1010 J
6.X.40
10
(a)
Erest = mc2
= (0.145 kg)(3 108 m/s)2
= 1.305 1016 J
(b) yes, because |~v| << c.

(c)
1 2
K = m |~v|
2
1
= (0.145 kg)(17 m/s)2
2
= 21.0 J
(d)
K << Erest
6.X.41
malpha = mHe 4(1.7 1027 kg) = 6.4 1027 kg |~v| = 0.9993c
(a)
Erest = mc2
= (6.4 1027 kg)(3 108 m/s)2
= 5.76 1010 J
(b) No, because |~v| is close to c.

(c)
1
= q
v|2
|~
1 c2
1
= p
1 (0.9993)2
= 26.7
K = ( 1)mc2
= 1.48 1010 J
(d) Though K < Erest , they are both on the order of 1010 J; therefore, K Erest
6.X.42
11
(a)
1 2
K = m |~v|
2
= 1470 J
(b) It is the same. K is a scalar and thus does not depend on the direction of ~v
6.X.43
1 2
K = m |~v|
2
1
= (0.144 kg)(222 + 232 + 112 m2 /s2 )
2
= 81.6 J
6.X.44

4g 1 kg 1 mol
mHe =
mol 1000 g 6.02 1023 atoms
=6.64 1027 kg
1 2
K = m |~v|
2
r
2K
|~v| =
m
= 658 m/s
6.X.45

K = Kf Ki = 0 because ~vf = 19 m/s and ~vi = 19 m/s.

6.X.46
(a)
~p = ~Fnet t
= (h0.3, 0, 0i N)(1.5 s)
= h0.45, 0, 0i kg m/s
12
(b)
~vi = h0.9, 0, 0i m/s

p
~v =
m
h0.45, 0, 0i kg m/s
=
0.8 kg
= h0.5625, 0, 0i m/s
~vf = ~vi + ~v
= h0.3375, 0, 0i m/s
K = Kf Ki
1 1
= mv2 mv2
2 f 2 i
= 0.081 J
6.X.47
W = ~F ~r
= ~F |~r| cos

= (40 N)(3 m)(30 )

= 104 J
6.X.48
W = ~F
~r
= ~F |~r| cos

= (30 N)(50 m)(cos 35 )
= 1230 J
6.X.49
(a) Zero. The displacement through which the force acts is zero.
13
(b) Zero. The force vector is perpendicular to the displacement d~r, and cos 90 = 0.
(c) Wby spring = 12 ks2 12 ks2 which is 0 for one cycle since si = sf . For one-half cycle, Wby spring = 0 because, if the spring
i f
is stretched a distance si then one half-cycle later it will be compressed the same distance, sf = si and s2 = s2 .
f i
6.X.50
(a)
W = ~F ~r
= Fx x + Fy y + Fz z
= (22 N)(25 (17)) m
= 176 J
(b) K is negative, so K decreased.

(c)
W = (22 N)(17 (25)) m

= 176 J
(d) K is positive, so K increased.
6.X.51
(a)
W = ~F ~r
= Fy y
= mg(yf yi )

N
= (0.7 kg) 9.8 (0 4.5 m)
kg
= 30.9 J
(b) K is positive, so K increased.
(c) W = 30.9 J since ~F is opposite ~r.

(d) K is negative, so K decreased.
6.X.52
Erest = mc2
= 4.59 1010 J
14
E = mc2 where = q 1
v |2
|~
= 5.61.
1 c2
E = (5.61)Erest
= 2.58 109 J
K = E Erest
= 2.12 109 J
If W = 4.7 109 J, then E = W = 4.7 109 J.
Ef = Ei + E
= 2.58 109 J + 4.7 109 J
= 7.28 109 J
Erest stays the same, 4.59 1010 J.
K = E Erest
= 7.28 109 J 4.59 1010 J
= 6.82 109 J
Since Erest stays the same, you can also calculate K using Kf = Ki + W = 6.82 109 J
6.X.53
False, W is not a vector
True
False, W is not the magnitude of a vector.

2
False, K 21 m |~v| for |~v| << c.
True
True
True
6.P.54
15
W = ~F ~r
= (< 250, 440, 220 > N) (< 6, 4, 5 > m)
= 840 J
W = E
= K + *0
Erest

Ki = Kf W
1
= mv2 W
2 f
= 3745 J 840 J
= 2905 J
1
Ki = mv2
2 i
vi = 6.96 m/s
6.P.55
W = ~F ~r
= h250, 490, 160i N h3, 9, 5i m
= 2860 J
Kf = Ki + W
1
= mv2 + W
2 i
= 8640 J + (2860 J)
= 5780 J
1
Ki = mv2
2 f
vf = 9.81 m/s
16
6.X.56
You do the same work on each block. According to the Energy Principle, each block will have the same K. Since they
both start from rest, then Kf is the same for each block.
p2
Kf = 2m
f
therefore the larger mass block will have a larger final momentum.
If you pull the blocks for the same amount of time, then according to the Momentum Principle, ~p = ~Fnet t will be the
~
p

same for the two blocks. Since they both start from rest, ~pf will be the same. Since ~vf = mf , then ~pf is greater for the

smaller block and the smaller block will have a greater final kinetic energy.
6.P.57
(a), (b) as follows:
WJack h400, 0, 200i N h2, 0, 1i m

1000 J
WJill h150, 0, 300i N h2, 0, 1i m
0J
(c) Jill does no work, so her force must be perpendicular to the boats displacement.
(d)
Kf Ki + W
r
2 2W
~vf ~v +

i
m
s
2(1000 J)
(1.3 m/s)2 +
3000 kg
1.0 m/s
6.P.58

K = ~F ~r = ~F |~r|

~ K
F =
|~r|

K = f i mc2

1 1 31 8 m
K q q (9 10 kg)(3 10 )2
0.93c
1 c2
2
0.99c
1 c2
2
s
13
K 3.5 10 J
13

~ 3.5 10 J
F
3m
13
1 10 N
6.P.59
17
(a)
W = ~F ~r h0, mg, 0i h0, y, 0i

N
(0.12 kg)(9.8 )(0.07 m) 0.082 J
kg
(b)
K = Wspring + WEarth
Wspring = K WEarth
1 2 1 2
m ~vf m ~vi + 0.082 J
2 2
0.288 J
6.P.60 Steps 1, 2, 5, and 6 must be included, but not necessarily in that order.
W = ~F
D ~r 13 E
1.6 10 , 0, 0 N h2, 0, 0i m
13
3.2 10 J
Ef = Ei + W
1 31 8 m 13
q (9 10 kg)(3 10 )2 + 3.2 10 J
1 0.91c
2
s
2
c
13
5.15 10 J
Solve for speed as a function of energy (final energy, that is).
E = mc2
E 1
= 2
=r
mc 2
1 |~vc2|
r
|~v| mc2
= 1
c E
s
m 2
|~v| (9 1031 kg)(3 108 s )
1
c 5.15 1013 J
|~v|
0.99
c
Significant figures are important in this problem.
6.P.61 Significant figures are important in this problem.

18
(a)
12 3 9
W = ~F ~r (2 10 N)(3.2 10 m) 6.4 10 J
0 9
Ef = E7
i
+ W 6.4 10 J
s
r
|~v| mc2 (9 1031 kg)(3 108 ms )2
= 1 1
c E 6.4 109 J
0.99999999992
(b) Since the electron experiences a constant force, its acceleration is constant, and therefore its average speed is the
3
arithmetic mean of its initial and final speeds, or 0.49999999996c. So the electron takes about 3.210 m
0.49999999996c 0.00002 s
to go the distance.
6.X.62
si = 0 and sf = 0.1 m. The average force exerted between si = 0 and sf = 0.1 is

~
1
Favg = (ks + ksi )
2 f
1 N
= 20 (0.1 m)
2 m
= 1.0 N

W = ~Favg |~r|

= (1.0 N)(0.1 m)
W = 0.1 J
6.X.63
Assume that ~F is parallel ~r.
(a)
W = ~F ~r
= Fx x
= (130 N)(6 m)
= 780 J
(b)
W = Fx x
= (40 N)(5 m)
= 200 J
19
(c)
Wtotal = 780 J + 200 J
= 580 J
6.X.64
W = W1 + W2
= ~F1 ~r1 + ~F2 ~r2
= h90, 150, 195i N h4, 6, 4i m + h90, 90, 585i N h4, 6, 4i m
= ((90 N)(4 m) + (150 N)(6 m) + (195 N)(4 m)) + ((90 N)(4 m) + (90 N)(6 m) + (585 N)(4 m))
= 480 J + 2160 J
= 2640 J
W = E
= Ef Ei
Ef = Ei + W
Kf = Ki + W
1
= mv2 + W
2 i
= 4.67 104 J + 2.64 103 J

= 4.93 104 J
1
Kf = mv2
2 f
vf = 29.8 m/s
6.P.65
W1 h250, 400, 170i N h6, 7, 4i m 4980 J

W2 h140, 250, 150i N h4, 7, 5i m 440 J
W = W1 + W2 4540 J
Kf = Ki + W
r
2 2W
~vf = ~v +

i
m
s
2(4540 J)
(3.5 m/s)2 +
100 kg
10.2 m/s
20
6.P.66
Wme h400, 310, 250i N h3.6, 4.2, 1.2i m 162 J

W = K
Wme + Wfriend = K
Wfriend = Kf Ki Wme
1 1
(700 kg)(4.01 m/s)2 (700 kg)(4 m/s)2 162 J
2 2
134 J
6.P.67
(a) W1 (130 N)(7 m) 910 J

(b) W2 (40 N)(7 m) 200 J
(c) W = W1 + W2 710 J
6.P.68
Assume that the force by you on the crate is parallel to the crates displacement.
W = ~F ~r
= ~F1 ~r1 + ~F2 ~r2 + ~F3 ~r3
= F1x x1 + F2x x2 + F3x x3
= (34 N)(2 m) + (13 N)(6 m) + (40 N)(2 m)
= 66 J
6.P.69
W = (180 N)(6 m) + (170 N)(4 m)

= 400 J
W = K
Kf = W + Ki
1
= W + mv2
2 i
= 400 J + 613 J
= 1013 J
21
1
Kf = mv2
2 f
vf = 4.5 m/s
6.X.70
Ei = Ef
Eelectron + Epositron = 2Ephoton
2Eelectron = 2Ephoton
Eelectron = Ephoton
Ephoton = Eelectron
= mc2
= 8 1014 J
= 0.5 MeV
6.P.71
Ei = Ef
(a)
Ei,nuc = E + Ef,nuc
= Erest, + Erest,f,nuc + K
K = Ei,nuc Erest, + Erest,f,nuc
= mi c2 m c2 + mf c2
= 3.145285 108 J 5.968326 1010 J 3.085536 108 J
= 6.58 1013 J
(b)
1 eV = 1.6 1019 J
K = 4.11 106 eV
= 4.11 MeV
6.P.72
22
(a)
Ei,rest = mc2
= (3.894028 1025 kg)(2.99792 108 m/s)2
= 3.499767 108 J
(b)
Erest,alpha + Erest, new nucleus = m c2 + mnucleus c2

= (6.640678 1027 kg)(2.99792 108 m/s)2 + (3.827555 1025 kg)(2.99792 108 m/s)2
= 5.968326 1010 J + 3.440024 108 J
= 3.499708 108 J
(c) The rest energy decreased.
(d)
K = Erest,i Erest,f
= 5.95 1012 J
= 3.72 MeV
6.X.73
Define the system to be the ball and Earth.
Ei = Ef
Ui + Ki = Uf + K f
1 1
mgy
:+0 mv2 = mgvf + mv *0

i
2 i
q 2 f
vi = 2gyf
= 19.8 m/s
6.X.74
Define the system to be the object and the Earth. Very far away, Uf = 0 and Kf = 0.
23
W = E
= Ef Ei
!
GmM
= 0
ri
GmM
=
r
i
Nm2
6.7 1011 kg2
(1 kg)(6 1024 kg)
=
6.4 106 m
7
= 6.28 10 J
6.X.75
Note that the gravitational force is in the negative radial direction (toward the center of Earth). This is important for getting
your signs correct.
For r < R,
dU
Fr =
dr
gr
=
R
gr
Z
U = dr
R
g r2
= +C
R 2
where C is an integration constant. At r = R,
R
U (r = R) = g +C
2
GM R
= +C
R2 2
1 GM
= +C
2 R
For r > R, U (r > R) = GM

r . At r = R, U (r = R) = R . The expression for U (r < R) must match the expression for
GM
U (r > R) at r = R. Thus,
1 GM GM
+C =
2 R R
3 GM
C =
2 R
3
= gR
2
24
And therefore, U(r<R) is
g r2 3
U (r < R) = gR
R 2 2
g 2
= (r 3R2 )
2R
where g = GM/R. A graph of U (r) is shown in Figure 1. You will notice an inflection point at r = R = 6.4 106 m. For
r < R, the potential energy is quadratic. For r > R, the potential energy is proportional to 1/r.
UEarth vs. distance from center of Earth

-3e+07
-4e+07
-5e+07
-6e+07
U (J)
-7e+07
-8e+07
-9e+07
-1e+08
0 2e+06 4e+06 6e+06 8e+06 1e+07 1.2e+07
r (m)
Figure 1: U(r) for Earth.
6.X.76
In nuclear energy production, there is a change in rest energy due to splitting or joining of nuclei. In the case of fusion, for
example, the change in rest energy results in gamma rays (i.e. high energy photons). In a chemical reaction used for chemical
energy production, the number of nuclei (of various types) stays the same. This is called stoichiometry in chemistry. No
nuclei split or join, but rather molecules split and atoms can join together to make new molecules. There is a change in the
binding energy (electric potential energy) which can result in an increase of thermal energy (in the case of an exothermic
reaction).
Nuclear energy production and chemical energy production are alike in the sense that something splits or joins to produce
energy. The difference is that, in the case of nuclear energy, nuclei split or join, and in the case of chemical energy, molecules
split or are formed (i.e. bonds are broken or formed between atoms).
6.X.77

(a) Momentum increases as the comet gets closer to Sun; therefore, ~pE > ~pD > ~pC > ~pB > ~pA

25
(b) K increases as |~p| increases; therefore, KE > KD > KC > KB > KA .
(c) false
false
false
true
true
(d) false
true
false
true
true
(e) U increases as r increases; thus, UA > UB > UC > UD > UE .
6.X.78
If E = EA , then
false
true
true
false
false
true
If E = EB , then
true
true
false
false
6.X.79
U
Fx =
x
b
=
x x2
2b
=
x3
26
U
Fy =
y

b
=
y x2
= 0
6.X.80
r
2GM
vescape =
R
= 2320 m/s
The escape speed from Earth is 1.1 104 m/s, which is 4.8 times larger than the Moon. Thus, a thruster on the Moon must
do approximately 1/(4.8)2 = 1/23 times less work than a thruster on Earth to cause an equal mass object to escape.
6.P.81
(a)
0
Ui + K i = U
7+ K
f f
Ki = Kf Ui
1 1 GM m
mv2 = mv2
2 i 2 f ri
s
2GM
vi = v2 +
f ri
s
2
2(6.7 1011 Nm
kg2
)(0.6 1024 kg)
= 2
1000 +
3.4 106 m
vi = 4960 m/s
(b) Uf and Kf = 0, so
Ui + K i = 0
Ki = Ui
!
1 GM m
mv2 =
2 i ri
s
2GM
vi =
ri
= 4860 m/s
27
6.P.82
0
Ui + Ki = U
7+ K
f f
(a)
Ki = K f Ui
1 1 GM m
mv2 = mv2
2 i 2 f ri
s
2GM
vi = v2 +
f ri
s
2
2(6.7 1011 Nm
kg2
)(0.6 1024 kg)
= 20002 +
3.4 106 m
vi = 5260 m/s
(b) Uf and Kf = 0, so
Ui + K i = 0
Ki = Ui
!
1 GM m
mv2 =
2 i ri
s
2GM
vi =
ri
= 4860 m/s
6.P.83
Use escape speed to get M for the asteroid.
r
2GM
vesc =
R
1 v2 R
M =
2 G
= 7.46 1015 kg
If vi = 20 m/s, vf is found from Ei = Ef .

28
0
Ui + K i = U
7+ K
f f
GM m 1 1
+ mv2 = mv2
ri 2 i 2 f
r
2GM
vf = v2
i R
vf = 17.3 m/s
6.P.84
r
2GM
vesc =
R
2 2GM
vesc =
R
Use the Energy Principle.
Ei = Ef
0
Ui + Ki = U
7+ K
f f
GM m 1 1
+ mv2 = mv2
ri 2 i 2 f
2GM
v2 = v2
f i R
v2 = v2 vesc2
f i
q
vf = v2 vesc2
i
p
= (35 m/s)2 (24 m/s)2
vf = 25.5 m/s
6.P.85
The Earth-Moon distance is 3.84 105 km = 3.84 108 m. The Energy Principle for the Earth-Moon-spacecraft system
gives
Ei = Ef
UE,i + UM,i + Ki = UE,f + UM,f + Kf
Kf = UE,i UE,f + UM,i UM,f + Ki
! !
1 2 1 1 1 1 1
v = GME + GMM + v2
2 f rE,i rE,f rM,i rM,f 2 i
29
rE,i = RE = 6.4 106 m

rE,f = d RM = 3.823 108 m
rM,i = d RE = 3.776 108 m
rM,f = RM = 1.75 106 m
Substitute and solve for vf
1 2 J J J
v = 6.176 107 + 2.80 106 + 8.45 107
2 f kg kg kg
1 2 J
v = 2.55 107
2 f kg
vf = 7.15 103 m/s
The sample program below simulates the motion of the spacecraft launched along a straight line between Earth and Moon.
The speed of impact at Moon as determined by the simulation is 7.12 103 m/s which is similar to the speed calculated
from The Energy Principle of 7.15 103 m/s.
3
6
7 s p a c e c r a f t = s p h e r e ( pos=(RE, 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan , r a d i u s =0.25RE)

9 Moon = s p h e r e ( pos =(3.84 e8 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . white , r a d i u s =0.5RE)
10
13 MM = 7 . 3 5 e22 #mass o f Moon
14 G = 6 . 6 7 e 11
15
16 v=v e c t o r ( 1 . 3 e4 , 0 , 0 ) #i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y o f s p a c e c r a f t
18
19 t=0
20 #d t =0.013600 #time s t e p
21 dt=10
22

24 rrelmoonmag=mag( s p a c e c r a f t . posMoon . pos ) #d i s t a n c e o f s p a c e c r a f t from Moon
25
27
28 while rmag >0.99999999RE and rrelmoonmag>RM: #s t o p i f rmag < RE or rrelmoonmag < RM

29 rate (100)
30 #c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on s p a c e c r a f t by Earth
32 rmag=mag( r )
30
35
36 #c a l c u l a t e Fgrav on s p a c e c r a f t by Moon
37 r r e l m o o n=s p a c e c r a f t . pos Moon . pos
41
44
46 p = p + Fnet dt
47 v = p/m
49

51
52 t = t + dt
53
54 print mag( v )
6.P.86
The system is Mars and the spacecraft.
Ei = Ef
Ui + Ki = Uf + K f
Kf = Ui Uf + K i
!
1 1
= GM m + Ki
ri rf
!
1 1 1 1
mv2 = GM m + mv2
2 f ri rf 2 i
!
1 2 1 1 1
v = GM + v2
2 f ri rf 2 i

1 1 1
= GM + v2
7 106 4 106 2 i
1 2 J J
v = 4.59 106 + 4.5 106
2 f kg kg
vf = 4.26 103 m/s
6.P.87
31
r
GM
vcircular/orbit =
R
= 7925 m/s
7900 m/s
Define the system to be the satellite and Earth.
W = E
= Ef Ei
= Uf + Kf Ui Ki
0
GM m > 1

0 GM m 1
2
= + mv >
mv2
rf 2 f ri 2 i

GM m 1
= mv2
R 2 i
GM m 1 GM
= m
R 2 R
1 GM m
=
2 R
= 6.3 109 J
6.P.88
Ei = Ef
Ui + Ki = Uf + Kf
Kf = Ui Uf + Ki
1 GM m GM m 1
mv2 = + mv2
2 f ri rf 2 i
!
1 2 1 1 1
v = GMSun + v2
2 f ri rf 2 i
J J
= 3.33 109 + 3.34 109
kg kg
vf = 4420 m/s
6.P.89

W = ~F r
~
cos = (1.6 1013 N)(2 m) = 3.2 1013 J
32
W = E
= Ef Ei
Ef = W + Ei
2
f mc = W + i mc2
1
= 3.2 1013 J + p (9.11 1031 kg)(3 108 m/s)2
1 (0.95)2
= 3.2 1013 J + 2.63 1013 J
= 5.83 1012 J
f mc2 = 5.83 1013 J
5.83 1013 J
f =
(9.11 1031 kg)(3 108 m/s)2
f = 7.11
1
f = q
2
1 vc2
Solve for v which gives vf = 0.99c.
6.P.90
(a)
Ui + Ki = Uf + K f
0
Ki 7 Ui + K
= U
f f
1 GM m 1
mv2 = + mv2
2 i R 2 f
1 2 GM 1 2
v = + v
2 i R 2 f
J J
= 134 + 4.5
kg kg
vi = 16.6 m/s
6.P.91
ri and vi 0. rf,J relative to Jupiter is Jupiters radius. rf,S relative to the Sun is the orbital radius of Jupiter plus
Jupiters radius (which is negligibly small in comparison to the distance from the Sun.) rf,S 8 1011 m. Define the system
to be the rock, Sun, and Jupiter.
33
Ei = Ef
0 0 0
U
i,S,rock + U
i,J,rock + K
i
= Uf,S,rock + Uf,J,rock + Kf
GMS m GMJ m 1
0 = + + mv2
rf,s rf,J 2 f
1 2 GMS GMJ
v = +
2 f rf,S RJ
J J
= 1.68 108 + 9.57 108
kg kg
vf = 4.7 104 m/s
6.X.92
The system is the ball and Earth.
Ui + Ki = Uf + K f
1 0 0 1
2
mgyi + mv
> = mg y + mv2
2 i f
2 f
1 2
mgyi = mv
2 f
q
vf = 2gyi
= 6.3 m/s
6.X.93
The system is the bear and Earth.
(a)
0
Ui + K
i
= Uf + Kf
Kf = Ui Uf
= mg(yi yf )

N
= (0.5 kg) 9.8 (2 m)
kg
= 9.8 J
1
Kf = mv2
2 f
vf = 6.3 m/s
34
(b) The flower pot has twice the mass of the teddy bear, so it will have twice the kinetic energy when hitting the ground,
Kf = 19.6 J. Since mass cancels out, its speed when hitting the ground will be the same as the teddy bear, 6.3 m/s.
6.X.94
(a)
~F ~p
=
net
t
m(vf y viy )
mg =
t
mviy
mg =
t
viy = gt

N
= 9.8 (1.55 s)
kg
= 15 m/s
(b) The system is the ball and the Earth
0 0
U
7 + Ki = Uf + K
i f
1
mv 2 =
mgyf
2 i
2
1 vi
yf =
2 g
= 11.8 m
6.P.95
r=R
Z
mg
W = r dr
R
r=0
mgR
=
2
To move the object from r = R to r = , W = Ugrav = Uf Ui where Uf = 0. W = Ui = GM R

m
= GM R
R2 m = mgR. It
takes twice as much energy to move the object from R to as it takes to move the object from 0 to R.
6.X.96
For two protons,
35
Nm2 q1 q2

U = 9 109
c2 r
Where q1 = q2 = 1.6 1019 C
U = 1.44 1011 J
If the two protons move closer together, U increases.
For an electron and proton, q1 = 1.6 1019 C and q2 = 1.6 1019 C, so U = 1.44 1011 J
As the electron and proton come closer together, U decreases because it becomes more negative.
false
false
true
6.X.97
Graph (a). Two electrons are an unbound system, so E > 0. Also, U > 0 and decreases to U = 0 at r = .
Graph (b). An electron and proton that are moving when very far apart are an unbound system, so E > 0. For oppositely
charged particles, U < 0. Also, K increases as r 0.
6.P.98
A sketch of the protons is shown in Figure 2. It is useful for calculating the distances between each pair of protons.
p
r1,4 = d2 + d2 = 2d
36
1 d 3
d d
2 d 4
Figure 2: Four protons at the corners of a square of length d.
Ei = Ef
0 0
Ui + K
i
= U7
+ Kf
f
Ui = Kf
Kf = U1,2 + U1,3 + U1,4
1 q2 1 q2 1 q2
= + +
40 d 40 d 40 2d

1 2 2 1
4Kproton = q +
40 d 2d
!
1 q2 4 + 2

1
4 mv2 =
2 f 40 d 2
! 12
1 q2 1
v = (1 + )
40 md 8
6.P.99
(a) When very far apart and at rest, their potential energy is zero and their total kinetic energy is zero. Thus, their total
energy is zero. Their potential energy at any distance r apart is
1 (+e)(e)
U =
4o r
1 (1.6 1019 C)2
=
4o r
37
Since the total energy of the system is zero, then their total kinetic energy is K = U . As a result,
1 (1.6 1019 C)2

K = +
4o r
These quantities are shown on the graph in Figure 3.
E vs. r for a particle of charge +e and its antiparticle of charge -e

2.5e-13
U (r)
K (r)
2e-13 E (r)
1.5e-13
1e-13
5e-14
E (J)
-5e-14
-1e-13
-1.5e-13
-2e-13
-2.5e-13
5e-15 1e-14 1.5e-14 2e-14 2.5e-14 3e-14 3.5e-14 4e-14 4.5e-14 5e-14
r (m)
Figure 3: Graphs of E, U , and K for a particle and antiparticle.
(b) U = 0 when very far apart.

38
Ei = Ef
2Erest,M = 2Erest,m 2Kf
2M c2 = 2mc2 + 2Kf
Kf = M c2 mc2
= (M m)c2
Kf = (f )mc2
Kf
f = +1
mc2
(M m)c2
= +1
mc2
M m
= +1
m
M
= 1+1
m
M
f =
m
1 M
q =
1 v2 m
c2
v2 m2
1 =
c2 M2
v2 m2
= 1 2
c2 r M
m2
v = 1 2c
M
If m << M , then f >> 1 and vf is close to c. The particles are definitely relativistic.
(c) mproton = 1.67 1027 kg and mpion = 2.5 1028 kg
v !2
u
u mproton
v = t1 c
mpion
s 2
2.5 1028 kg

= 1 c
1.67 1027 kg
v = 0.99c
(d)
Kf = ( 1)mc2
1
= p
1 (0.99)2
= 7.09
Kf = 1.37 1010
39
Calculate the distance between the pions when their potential energy is 10% of the final kinetic energy.
U = 0.1Kf
= 1.37 1011 J
1 q1 q2
U =
40 r
2
19 2
(9 109 Nm
c2 )(1.6 10 c )
r =
1.37 1011 J
= 1.7 1017 m
The radius of a proton is on the order of 1015 m. Thus, the pions are separated a distance of about 1
100 of the radius
of a proton. They do not have to be very far apart for U to be negligible.
6.P.100
(a) The initial state is the original plutonium nucleus, which is (c) in the figure.
The final state is when the daughter nuclei are far apart and Uf 0. This is (b) in the figure.
Initially, the system only has rest energy. In the final state, it has rest energy and kinetic energy, since Uf 0.
The Energy Principle gives
Ef = Ei
Kf + 2Erest,Ag = EPu
Kf = EPu 2Erest,Ag
= mPu c2 2mAg c2
= (242.007)(1.66054 1027 kg)(2.99792 108 m/s)2 2(120.894)(1.66054 1027 kg)(2.99792 108 m/s)2
= 3.61175 108 J 3.60848 108 J
Kf = 3.27 1011 J
If v << c, then Kf,1 = 21 mv2 where Kf,1 is 1

2 the total kinetic energy and m is the mass of the nucleus.
f
1
Kf,1 = K
2 f
= 1.63 1011 J
m = (120.894)(1.66054 1027 kg)
= 2.00749 1025 kg
s
2Kf,1
vf =
m
= 1.28 107 m/s
= 0.043c
40
v is about 4% of the speed of light, so it is safe to assume that the nucleus is non-relativistic.
(b) 1 Pu-242 nucleus gives 3.27 1011 J of kinetic energy. 1 mol of Pu-242 nuclei is 6.02 1023 nuclei, which results in
(6.02 1023 )(3.27 1011 J) = 1.96 1013 J of kinetic energy, This is 10 million times more energy than the 106 J
derived from 1 mol of gasoline.
(c) In going from state (a) to state (b) in the figure, there is no change in rest energy.
From this initial state to the final state where the nuclei are far apart, the potential energy changes and kinetic energy
changes.
Ei = Ef
0 0
Ui + K
i
= U
7+ K
f f
Ui = Ki
1 q1 q2
= 3.27 1011 J
40 r
Where q1 = q2 = 47(1.60218 1019 C) = 7.53025 1018 C.

Solving for r gives
2
18
(8.98755 109 NmC2 )(7.53025 10 C)2
r = 11
3.27 10 J
14
= 1.56 10 m
The radius of 121 nucleons is about
1
R = (1.3 1015 m)(121) 3
= 6.43 1015 m
A sketch is shown in Figure 4. Units are femtometers, where 1 fm = 1015 m. The diameter of a nucleus is 2(6.43 fm) =
12.9 fm. This leaves a gap of 15.6 fm 12.9 fm = 2.7 fm. The gap is 12.9
2.7
= 21% of the center-to-center distance.
2.7 fm
6.4 fm 6.4 fm
15.6 fm
Figure 4: The Ag-121 nuclei immediately after fission.

41
6.P.101
(a) The initial state is shown in state (c), the last state in the figure.
The final state in this case is when the nuclei interact, which is state (b), the middle state shown in the figure.
The potential energy has increased and the kinetic energy has decreased in this process.
Ef = Ei
0
Uf + Kf = U
7 + Ki
i
Kf = Ki Uf
1 qproton qdeuterium
= Kproton,i + Kdeuterium,i +
40 rf
Nm2 (1.60218 1019 C)2
= 4.14 1013 J + 2.07 1013 J (8.98755 109 )
C2 2(0.9 1015 m)
= 4.14 1013 J + 2.07 1013 J 1.28171 1013 J
= 4.928 1013 J
Now this is the initial kinetic energy of the system and the final state is the 3 He nucleus and the gamma ray, which is
state (c) (the top state in the figure).
(b) During this process, there is a change in the rest energy, a change in potential energy, and a change in kinetic energy.
Ef = Ei
Erest,Helium + Kf = Ki + Erest,proton + Erest,deuterium
Kf = Ki + Erest,proton + Erest,deuterium Erest,Helium
= 4.928 1013 J + mproton c2 + mdeuterium c2 mHelium c2
= 4.928 1013 J + 1.50331 1010 J + 3.00513 1010 J 4.50038 1010 J
= 4.928 1013 J + 8.05904 1013 J
Kf = 1.30 1012 J
(c)
K = Kf Ki
= 1.30 1012 J 4.928 1013 J
= 8.06 1013 J
(d) If 1 proton and 1 deuterium nucleus produces 8.06 1013 J of kinetic energy, then 1 mol of protons and 1 mol of
deuterium nuclei will produce (6.02 1023 )(8.06 1013 J) = 4.8 1011 J of energy. This is about half a million times
the energy obtained by burning 1 mol of gasoline.
42
6.P.102
(a) The momentum of the Ra-220 nucleus is zero; therefore, the total momentum of the Ra-216 nucleus and alpha particle
must also be zero. Since they exert equal magnitude forces on each other in opposite directions,
then they will have
the same magnitude momentum, but in opposite directions as shown in Figure 5. Thus, ~pf,Ra-216 = |~p |.

p p
Figure 5: The Ra-216 nucleus and alpha particle after decay.
(b)
Ei = Ef
Erest,Ra-220 = Erest,Ra-116 + Erest, + KRa-216 + K
p2 p2
Ra216
= Erest,Ra-116 + Erest, + +
2mRa-216 2m
!
p2 1 1
Erest,Ra-220 = Erest,Ra-116 + Erest, + +
2 mRa-216 m
Solve for p .
!
p2 1 1
+ = Erest,Ra-220 Erest,Ra-216 Erest,
2 mRa-216 m
= mRa-220 c2 mRa-216 c2 m c2
= [(219.96274)(1.6603 1027 kg) (215.95308)(1.66 1027 kg) (4.00151)(1.6603 1027 kg)](2
= 3.28228 108 J 3.22245 108 J 5.97105 1010 J
= 1.216 1012 J
43
2(1.216 1012 J)
p2 =
1
m m1
Ra-216
p = 1.26 1019 kg m/s

p2
K =
2m
= 1.194 1012 J
(c)
KRa-216 + K = Erest,Ra-220 Erest,Ra-216 E
= 1.216 1012 J
KRa-216 = 1.216 1012 J 1.194 1012 J
= 2.2 1014 J
p2
Note that KRa-216 < K as expected. They have the same magnitude of momentum. Since K = 2m , the larger mass
nucleus has less kinetic energy.
(d)
K = 1.194 1012 J
( 1)mc2 = 1.194 1012 J
= 1.002
Since 1, v << c.
6.P.103
(a) Ephoton in J is (2.2 106 eV)(1.6 1019 J

eV ) = 3.52 1013 J
Ei = Ef
Eproton + Eneutron = Edeuteron + Kphoton
Edeuteron = Eproton + Eneutron Kphoton
= mproton c2 + mneutron c2 Kphoton
= (1.6726 1027 kg)(2.99792 108 m/s)2 + (1.6749 1027 kg)(2.99792 108 m/s)2 3.52 1013 J
= 1.50325 1010 J + 1.50532 1010 J 3.52 1013 J
= 3.00505 1010 J
Edeuteron
mdeuteron =
c2
= 3.34358 1027 kg
44
Note that mdeuteron 6= mproton + mneutron because of the small kinetic energy of the photon.
3.521013 J
(b) For a photon, pc = E so pphoton = 2.99792108 m/s = 1.17 1021 kg m/s. Thus, pdeuteron = 1.17 1021 kg m/s due
to conservation of momentum.
p2
Kdeuteron =
2m
(1.17 1021 kg m/s)2
=
2(3.34 1027 kg)
= 2.0 1016 J
Note that Kdeuteron << Kphoton so it was safe to neglect it when applying the Energy Principle.
6.P.104
(a)
Ei = Ef
Erest,U = 2Erest,Pd + 2KPd
2
mU c = 2mPd c2 + 2KPd
1
KPd = (m c2 2mPd c2 )
2 U
1
(235.996)(1.6603 1027 kg)(2.99792 108 m/s)2 2(117.894)(1.6603 1027 kg)(2.99792 108 m/s)2

=
2
1
= (3.52153 108 J 3.51843 108 J)
2
1
= (3.103 1011 J)
2
= 1.55 1011 J
Assuming that |~v| << c, then
1 2
K = m |~v|
2
vP d = 1.26 107 m/s
This is less than 10% of c, so it is reasonable to use the non-relativistic approximation.

(b) Immediately after fission, the Pd nuclei are at rest. Each one has a charge of 46(1.60218 1019 C) = 7.37003 1018 C.
Ei = Ef
Ui = 2Kf,Pd
1 q1 q2
= 3.103 1011 J
40 ri
ri = 1.57 1014 m
45
(c)
1
R = (1.3 1015 m)(118) 3
= 6.38 1015 m
The distance between the centers of the nuclei is 15.7 1015 m. Thus the gap between the surfaces is 15.7 2(6.38) =
2.95 1015 m. A sketch is shown in Figure 6. Note that 1015 m = 1 fm.
6.4 fm 6.4 fm
2.94 fm
15.7 fm
Figure 6: Two palladium nuclei after fission.
6.P.105
(a) Consider a proton and deuteron initially very far apart. At the minimum energy needed to make contact, their speed
will be zero at contact. Apply the Energy Principle.
Ei = Ef
0 0
U
7 + Ki = Uf + K
i f
Ki = Uf
1 q1 q2
=
40 rf
Substitute rf = 2(1 1015 m) = 1 1015 m, q1 = q2 = 1.6 1019 C.
Ki = 1.15 1013 J
46
(b) Upon production of the Helium-3 nucleus and gamma ray photon,
Ei = Ef
Erest,proton + Erest,deuteron + Ki = Erest,He + Kf
Kf = Erest,proton + Erest,deuteron + Ki Erest,He
= mproton c2 + mdeuteron c2 + Ki mHe c2
= 1.50331 1010 J + 3.00513 1010 J + 1.15 1013 J 4.50038 1010 J
= 8.06 1013 J + 1.15 1013 J
= 9.21 1013 J
(c)
Kf Ki = 9.21 1013 J 1.15 1013 J

= 8.06 1013 J
This is the change in rest energy of the nuclei in this reaction.
(d) Graph 3. It correctly represents the nuclear interaction at short distances before fusion (the system is bound, thus
U < 0), the coulomb interaction after fusion (repulsive force and unbound system, thus U>0), the coulomb repulsion
at greater distances (U > 0, but decaying), and no interaction at great, great distances (U 0 as r ).
6.P.106
Let 1 be the original nucleus and 2 be the new nucleus after alpha decay. Use c = 2.992792 108 m/s.
Ei = Ef
Erest,1 = Erest, + Erest,2 + Kf
Kf = Erest,1 Erest, Erest,2
= m1 c2 m c2 m2 c2
= 3.52065 108 J 5.96833 1010 J 3.46089 1008 J
= 8.38 1013 J
6.P.107
(a) Define y = 0 to be at the lowest point of the pendulums motion ( = 0). Then the height of the pendulum is
y = L L cos = L(1 cos ). Because it is near Earth, we can use
U = mgy
U = mgL(1 cos )
47
U vs. e for a pendulum

20
18
16
14
12
U (J)
10
0
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200
e ()
Figure 7: U vs. for a pendulum.
(b) To sketch the graph, assume that m = 1 kg and L = 1 m. Then, U varies between the values of 0 and 2g. An example
graph is shown in Figure 7.
(c) s = L, so = L.
s
Write U in terms of s.
s
U = mgL(1 cos )
L
The tangential component of the net force on the mass is
U
Fnet,tan =
s
s
= (mgL(1 cos ))
s L
s 1
= mgL( sin )( )
L L
s
= mg sin
L
= mg sin
The net force can also be found by sketching a free-body diagram for the pendulum and summing the forces to calculate
the net force on the pendulum. A free-body diagram is shown in Figure 8.
The gravitational force can be written in terms of its radial component and its tangential component. The tangential
component of ~Fgrav is
48
Frad
Fgrav , rad
Fgrav
Fgrav , tan
Figure 8: A free-body diagram for the pendulum.
Fgrav,tan = Fgrav sin

= mg sin
The negative sign gives the direction, showing that the force is to the left and angent to the path for positive angles
and to the right and tangent to the path for negative angles.
(d) To barely make it to the top, vf = 0 at the top. Apply the Energy Principle with the initial state at = 0 and the
final state at = 180 .
Ei = Ef
Ki = Uf
Ki = mgL(1 cos 180 )
1
mv2 = 2mgL
2 i
p
vi = 4gL
Use m = 1 kg and L = 1 m. The initial energy needed to barely make it to the top is Ei = 2mgL = 2g, for m = 1 and
L = 1. If E > 2g, then it easily goes all the way around. If E < 2g, then it never makes it to the top. An example
graph is shown in Figure 9.
6.P.108
49
U vs. e for a pendulum

30
U
v > critical speed
v = critical speed
v < critical speed
25
20
U (J)
15
10
0
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200
e ()
Figure 9: Various energy levels for a pendulum.
E2 (pc)2 = (mc2 )2 (m |~v| c)2

particle
2
= 2 (mc2 )2 2 m2 |~v| c2
1 1
= 2
(mc2 )2 m2 |~v|2 c2
|~
v| v |2
|~
1 c2 1 c2
2
(mc2 )2 m2 |~v| c2
= 2

1 |~vc2|
2
m2 c4 m2 |~v| c2
= 2

1 |~vc2|
2 2 2
m2 c4 (1 mm|~v2 c| 4c )
= 2

1 |~vc2|
2
m2 c4 (1 |~vc2| )
= 2

1 |~vc2|
= m2 c4
= (mc2 )2
6.P.109
A sample program is shown below.
50

3
7

11
15 G = 6 . 6 7 e 11
16
19
20 t=0
21 dt=5
22
23 #i n i t i a l i z e work
24 work = 0
25

28
30

32 rate (1000)
33
36 rmag=mag( r )
39
45
48
50 p = p + Fnet dt
51 v = p/m
53
54 #c a l c u l a t e work done by g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e s
51
55 work = work + dot ( Fnet , v dt )

56

58
59 t = t + dt
60

62 print "= ( i n h o u r s ) " , t , ( t / 3 6 0 0 )
63 print "= ( i n days ) " , t , ( t / 3 6 0 0 / 2 4 )
64 print " s p e e d = " , mag( v )
65 print " work = " , work
66 print " change i n K= " , 0 . 5 m (mag( v ) 2 ( 1 . 3 2 e4 ) 2 )
6.P.110
A sample program is shown below. Note that the energy is calculated before the position and momentum update so that
the speed in the kinetic energy calculation corresponds to the same clock reading when the distances (such as rmag) are
calculated.
4
8

12
16 G = 6 . 6 7 e 11
17
20
21 t=0
22 dt=10
23

26
27 UGraph=g d i s p l a y ( t i t l e ="E vs . r " , x t i t l e= ' r (m) ' , y t i t l e= 'E ( J ) ' , x =450 , y=0, width =400 ,
h e i g h t =300)
28 UPlot=g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan )
29 EPlot=g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )
30 KPlot=g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
31
32
34
52

36 rate (1000)
37
40 rmag=mag( r )
43
49
52
53 #c a l c u l a t e e n e r g y
54 Umoon = GmMM/ rrelmoonmag
55 Uearth = GmME/rmag
56 U = Umoon + Uearth
57 K = 1/2mmag( v ) 2
58 E= K + U
59
61 p = p + Fnet dt
62 v = p/m
64

66
67 t = t + dt
68
69 UPlot . p l o t ( pos=(rmag ,U) )

70 EPlot . p l o t ( pos=(rmag , E) )
71 KPlot . p l o t ( pos=(rmag ,K) )
Viewing the graphs shows that the total energy indeed remains constant. If the time step is too large (dt > 100 s for example),
the total energy will become inaccurate.
The escape speed from Earth is approximately 1.12 104 m/s. If you change the initial speed to be less than the escape
speed, you will notice that the total energy is negative and the spacecraft never makes it to Moon. If you launch it at the
escape speed, you will notice that the total energy is zero, as expected. Since the escape speed would cause the spacecraft to
just barely reach r = , then it certainly has enough energy to get to Moon. Thus, even at the escape speed, with E = 0,
it still reaches Moon as one would expect.
1
7.X.1
1
Us = k s2
2 s
1
(0.6 N/m)(0.2 m)2
2
0.012 J
7.X.2
Us + K = 0
0 0
> U + K K = 0
Us,f

s,i f i
Kf = Us,i
1 2 1
m ~vf = k s2
2 2 s s
r
ks 0.5 N/m
~vf = s (0.1 m)

m 0.02 kg
0.5 m/s
7.X.3
A represents the magnitude of the systems potential energy. B represents the systems kinetic energy. C represents the
magnitude of the systems total (K+U) energy.
7.X.4
States 1, 2, 3, and 4 are bound and state 5 is unbound.
7.X.5
Over one period, the system returns to its original shape so Us = 0.
7.X.6
Neglect any thermal effects from the glass.
E1 + E2 = 0
m1 C1 Tf m1 C1 T1 + m2 C2 Tf m2 C2 T2 = 0
(m1 + m2 )Tf = m1 T1 + m2 T2
m1 T1 + m2 T2
Tf =
m1 + m2
(300)(25 C + (800)(20 C)
21.4 C
1100
2
7.X.7
Ug + Etherm = 0
mgy +
mCT = 0
gy
T =
C
N
(9.8 kg )(50 m)
3
4.2 10 J/K/kg
0.12 K
Note that a T of 1 K is equivalent to a T of 1 C.
7.X.8
system = water
5
Etherm = mCT (500 g)(4.2 JKg)(60 K) 1.26 10 J
5 4 4
Q = Etherm W 1.26 10 J 5 10 J 7.6 10 J
5
Esurroundings = Etherm 1.26 10 J
7.X.9
system = hotplate + water
0
Esys =
W>+ Q + T

other
Etherm = +8000 J
Q = 1000 J
Tother = Esys Q = Etherm Q
+8000 J + 1000 J 9000 J
Note that there is no such thing as electricity. Electric current transfers energy.
7.X.10
system = house
0
Esys =
W>+ Q + T

other
Esys = Etherm = 0
Etherm = Q + 11000 J
Q 11000 J
3
7.X.11
system = water
Ug + Etherm = 0
mgh + Etherm = 0
N
Etherm = mgh (1 kg)(9.8 )(50 m)
kg
Etherm 500 J
Etherm /(1 kg)
P = M
1s
6
1 10 J/s
M = 2000 kg
490 J/s
7.X.12
P = ~F ~v
For max power, ~F and ~v are parallel.

P = ~F |~v|

~ P
F =
|~v|
50 103 W
=
20 m/s
= 2500 N

~
F
|~a| =
m
= 2.5 m/s2
7.X.13
Z
W = ~F d~r
spring
Z 0
= kx dx
x=A
0
1
= kx2

2 x=A
1 2
= kA
2
4
If the system is the mass alone,
W = E
1 2
kA = K
2
1 2
K = kA
2
If the spring and mass together are the system, then W = 0 and Ei = Ef .
7.X.14
The system is the sky diver. Apply the Momentum Principle.
~F = 0
net
Fnet,y = 0
Fair,y + Fgrav,y = 0
Fair,y mg = 0
Fair,y = mg
N
= (90 kg)(9.8 )
kg
= 882 N
7.X.15
Kf for the ball will be less when the ball falls through air because some of the energy in the system (of ball and air) is the
kinetic energy of the air molecules that collide with the ball. Thus, vf for the ball falling through air will be less than if it
falls in a vacuum.
7.X.16
Define the system to be the air, filter, and earth.
Ei = Ef
Ui = Kf,ball + Kf,air
Kf,air = Ui Kf,ball
1
= mgyi mv2
2 f
= 0.02744 J 0.000448 J
Kf,air = 0.027 J
7.X.17
5
No. It simply means that the system and surroundings gain energy in a way that hasnt been accounted for. In this case,
the object and Earth gain thermal energy.
7.X.18
The work done by friction of the pivot and the work done by air depend on the displacement of the ball along its path. The
greater the path length, the greater the work done by drag and the greater the amount of potential and kinetic energy lost
in one cycle.
7.X.19
While moving the block to the right,
W1 = (20 N)(0.2 m) = 4J
While moving the block back to where it started,
W2 = (20 N)(0.2 m) = 4J
Define the system to be the block and the table. Apply the Energy Principle to the system as it is moved to the right and
back to where it started.
W = Esystem
W =
E :+0
rest K:+0 E

therm
Etherm = 8J
7.X.20
2
If D F , then A = c
F
D
m D
Since A 1c , then for low viscous damping with D F , A will be large.
If F >> D ,
2
cos F
=1
2
F
= 0
If D >> F and c is small, then

6
2
cos D
= 1
2
D
= 180
If F = D , then
cos = 0
= 90
7.X.21

If F D = c
2m F and F D

2 D
F
A = c 1
(((F D )(F + D ))2 + ( m D )2 ) 2
2 D
F
= c c 1
((( 2m F )(2F ))2 + ( m D )2 ) 2
2 D
F
= c 2 2 1
(2( m ))
F
2 D
= Fc
2 m 2
F
D
= c
2m
The peak amplitude at F = D is
2
F
A = c 2 D
m D
D
= c
m

Thus A at F D = c
2m F is 1 times the peak amplitude.

2
7.X.22

Fon spring = ks. Define x = 0 to be the location of the end of the spring when it is released. Then ~Fon spring = kx.
~
7
Z
W = ~F d~r
Z
= Fx dx
Z x
f
= kx dx
x
i
1 2 1 2
= kx kx
2 f 2 i
2
1 N 2 1 N N
= 100 (0.03 m) 100 0.01
2 m 2 m m
= 0.04 J
7.X.23
W = ~F ~r
= Fx x + Fy y + Fz z
= 8.64 J
7.X.24
Near Earth, U = mgy, so
U = mgy
= mg(yf yi )
N
= (7 kg)(9.8 )(11 m 43 m)
kg
= 2200 J
7.X.25
1 2 1 2
U = ks ks
2 f 2 i
1 N h 2 2
i
= 800 (0.3 m) + (0.11 m)
2 m
= 31.2 J
8
7.X.26
The work done by a conservative force around a closed path is zero. In other words, the change in potential energy along
a path from some initial position to some final position is zero. However, for the given path, the work done on the object
as it makes a complete cycle (or orbit) is W = F (2R) which is not 0. Therefore, F is not a conservative force and has no
associated potential energy function.
In the case of a block on the end of a string which is swung in a circle, the force by the string on the block is perpendicular
to the path, and in the radial direction, and therefore does zero work on the block.
7.X.27
(a)
~r = h0, 13, 0i m
(b)
~F = h0, 784, 0i N
grav
(c)
W1 = ~Fgrav ~r
= (784 N)(13 m)
= 1.02 104 J
(d) zero; because between ~Fgrav and ~r is 90 and cos 90 = 0.

(e)
W = ~Fgrav ~r
= 1.02 104 J
(f) zero; because between ~Fgrav and ~r is 90 and cos 90 = 0.

(g)
W2 = 1.02 104 J + 0 + 0
= 1.02 10J J
(h) zero; because between ~Fgrav and ~r is 90 and cos 90 = 0.

(i)
~r = ~rE ~rD
= < 0, 13, 0 > < 33, 0, 0 >
= < 33, 13, 0 >
9
W = ~Fgrav ~r
= h0, 784, 0i N h33, 13, 0i m
= (784 m)(13 m)
= 1.02 104 J
(j)
W3 = 1.02 104 J
= 1.02 104 J
(k) W done by ~Fgrav is the same for the three different paths.
7.X.28
UAB = UB UA
1 Qq 1 Qq
=
40 rB 40 rA
!
1 1 1
= Qq
40 rB rA
UBC = 0 since rB = rC
UCD = UD UC
!
1 1 1
= Qq
40 rD rC
Note that rC = rB and rD = rA , so
!
1 1 1
UCD = Qq
40 rA rB
UABCD = UAB + UBC + UCD
! !
1 1 1 1 1 1
= Qq +0+ Qq
40 rB rA 40 rA rB
= 0
This is the same as UAD because
!
1 1 1
UAD = Qq
40 rD rA
= 0
10
since rA = rB .
The round trip U from A to B to C to D and back to A is zero.
7.P.29
(a)
Esys = 0
0
K
f
Ki + Us,f Us,i = 0
Us,f = Ki + Us,i
1 1 2 1
k s2 = m ~vi + ks s2
2 s f r 2
2 i
m 2
sf = ~v + s2
ks i i
s
0.4 kg
(3 m/s)2 + (0.1 m)2
200 N/m
0.17 m
(b)
0
Kf Ki + Us,f>
U
s,i
= 0

Kf = Ki + Us,i
r
2 ks
~vf =
~v + s2
i
m i
s
200 N/m
(3 m/s)2 + (0.1 m)2
0.4 kg
3.7 m
q q
(c) One cycle takes T = 2 m
ks 2 0.4 kg
200 N/m 0.28 s. The energy loss per cycle is then 0.01 J
0.28 s 0.036 W. Thus, the
input power must also be at least 0.036 W.
7.P.30 Take system = spring + block + Earth. Let Lo be the springs unstretched, horizontal length. Assume the spring
has negligible mass so it doesnt stretch under its own weight when suspended vertically (more realistically, assume the
resulting stretch is negligible). Let d, a positive quantity, be the amount of stretch when the block is attached to the end of
the vertically suspended spring. In equilibrium with the block attached, we must have ks d = mg. Now, displace the block
vertically by s, where s is a signed quantity. If the block is displaced above the equilibrium position, s > 0. If the block is
displaced below the equilibrium position, s < 0. At the new displaced position, we have ks d ks s mg = d~ dt , which reduces
p
2
to -ks s = d~
dt . Thus, Esys = mc + 2 m |~
p 2 1
v| + 12 ks s2 just as though the spring were horizontal rather than vertical.
7.P.31
11
(a) system = spring + block
Esys =
K:+0 U = W

+ WEarth
s hand
1
k s2 = Whand M gs, (s < 0)
2 s
1
Whand = k s2 + M gs
2 s
But M g = ks s
Mg
|s| =
ks
2
(M g)2 1 (M g)2

1 Mg
Whand = ks + =
2 ks ks 2 ks
(b) system = spring + block + Earth
K
:+0 U + U

= 0
g s
1 2
M gs + ks s = 0, (s < 0)
2
2M g
s = , (s < 0)
ks
(c) system = spring + block + Earth
K + Ug + Us = 0
1 2
1
M ~vf + M g(2L) M g(L + s) ks s2 = 0
2 2 r
ks s2
~vf = 2g(L s)

M
7.P.32
(a) U 1.3 eV, K 1.1 eV, K + U 0.2 eV

(b) We want K + U = 0, so we must input 0.2 eV to separate the atoms.
(c)
a
U = 6
r

~ dU 6a
F = dr = r7

7.P.33
(a) Diagram 1: jumpers downward velocity, downward gravitational force. Diagram 2: jumpers downward velocity, down-
ward gravitational force, two very small upward elastic forces with equal magnitudes. Diagram 3: jumpers downward
velocity, downward gravitational force, two upward elastic forces with magnitudes half the maximum magnitude. Di-
agram 4: jumper has no velocity at this instant, downward gravitational force, two upward elastic forces each with
maximum magnitude. Diagram 5: jumpers upward velocity (equal in magnitude to the velocity in diagram 3), down-
ward gravitational force, two upward elastic forces with magnitudes half the maximum magnitude. The downward
gravitational force is approximately constant in all the diagrams.
12
(b) The tension is greatest when the cords are fully stretched, and this is when the jumper is at the very bottom of the
jump.
(c) The jumpers speed is zero when the tension in the cords is maximum.
(d) The jumpers momentum is changing at this instant. If it didnt change, the jumper would never rise back up.
(e) system = cords + jumper + Earth
K+0 U + U
:
= 0
g s
1 2
mg(L1 + L2 ) + 2 ks L2 = 0
2
mg(L1 + L2 )
ks =
L22
N
(80 kg)(9.8 kg )(34 m)

(24 m)2
46.3 N/m

(f) Maximum tension occurs at maximum stretch. ~Fmax = ks L2 (46.3 N/m)(24 m) 1100 N

(g)

~
Fnet = 2ks L2 mg
2L1 + L1
= mg
L2
1.83mg

ay 1.83g

(h) The maximum acceleration is directed upward.
(i) We can neglect air resistance and the precise position of the jumpers center of mass. We can treat the cords as springs
and use Hookes law to describe their behavior.
7.P.34 system = asteroid + package + spring
K + Us + Ug = 0
1
2 1 2 1 1 GM m GM m
m ~vf m ~vi + ks s2f ks s2i +

= 0
2 2 2 2 rf ri
1 2 1 GM m
m ~vf ks s2 + = 0
2 2 R
1 1 2 GM m
k s2 =m ~vf +
2 s 2
s R
m 2 2GM m
s = ~v +
ks f ks R
7.P.35
13
Define the system to be the asteroid, package, and spring. The final state is when it is very far away. The initial state is
when the spring is fully compressed.
Ei = Ef
Ugrav,i + Uspring,i = Kf
GM m 1 2 1
+ ks = mv2
ri 2 i 2 f
1 2 1 GM m
ks = mvf +
2 i 2 R
= 2.298 105 J + 5.545 105 J
= 7.84 105 J
si = 2.37 m
7.P.36
Redefine the unstretched length of the spring to be 0.8 m. Using this as its unstretched length, we can neglect gravitational
potential energy and model the spring as if its a horizontal spring or a vertical spring not in a gravitational field. Thus,
si = 0.9 0.8 = 0.1 m and vi = 1.2 m/s. The maximum length occurs when vf = 0.
Ei = Ef
1 2 1 1 2
ks + mv2 = ks
2 i 2 i 2 f
We need the stiffness of the spring. Use the Momentum Principle. ~Fnet = 0 when the object hangs at rest, so ks = mg and
k = mg
s = 19.6 m
N
The Energy Principle gives
1 N 1 1 2
(19.6 )(0.1 m)2 + (0.3 kg)(1.2 m/s)2 = ks
2 m 2 2 f
1 2
ks = 0.098 J + 0.216 J
2 f
= 0.314 J
sf = 0.18 m
The spring is stretched 0.18 m from its original length of 0.8 m, so its new length is 0.98 m.
7.X.37
E = mcT so T will be greater for substance B since it has a smaller specific heat capacity.
7.X.38
Power is the rate that energy is transferred, or the rate at which work is done; thus, P = t .
E
Force is one method that can be used to transfer energy from the surroundings to the system. A force does work on a system.
14
Energy is quite an abstract idea, actually. But when you learn how to count energy, it is constant for a system as long as
you count any energy transferred to or from the system. This Energy Principle is thus quite a powerful idea.
7.X.39
kW h is a unit of energy.
!
1 Js

1000 W 3600 s
1kW h = 3.6 106 J
1 kW 1h 1W
7.X.40
The only truly closed system is the Universe. All other systems can be approximated as closed systems under given conditions.
However, they are all generally open systems except under certain conditions or approximations.
7.X.41
E
P =
t
3000 J
=
11 s
= 273 W
7.X.42
For the system: Woman + Barbell + Earth, Esys = Ugrav,b+E + Kbarbell + Ewoman , and W = 0.
For the system: Barbell only, Esys = Kbarbell and W = Wwoman + Wgrav .
For the system: Barbell + Earth, Esys = Ugrav,b+E + Kbarbell and W = Wwoman .
7.X.43
For the system of block + spring + Earth,
Ef = Ei + W
Us,f + Ugrav,f + Kf = Us,i + Ugrav,i + Ki + 0
1 1 1 2 1
ks2 + mgy2 + mv22 = ks1 + mgy1 + mv12
2 2 2 2
For the system of block + spring,

15
Ef = Ei + W
Us,f + Kf = Us,i + Ki + Wgrav
1 2 1 1 2 1
ks + mv22 = ks + mv12 + mg(y2 y1 )
2 2 2 2 1 2
For the system of the block alone,
Ef = Ei + W
Kf = Ki + Wgrav + Wspring
1 1 2 1 1
mv22 = v1 mg(y2 y1 ) + ks21 ks22
2 2 2 2
7.X.44
(a) For the system of the horse alone,
Esys = W +Q
Echem,horse + Etherm,horse = Wgrav + Qair
(b) For the system of the Universe (basically , horse + Earth + air),
Esys = W +Q
Echem,horse + Etherm,horse + Ugrav + Etherm,air = 0+0
7.P.45
System is the water + pan. Assume it is insulated so Q = 0.
Esys = 0
Etherm,water + Etherm,Al = 0
mwater cwater Twater + mAl cAl TAl = 0
J J
(400 g)(4.2 )(Tf 100 C) + (600 g)(0.9 )(T 20 C) = 0
Kg Kg f
Solve for Tf . You will find that Tf = 80.5 C.
7.P.46
16
(a) The system is the water and pan. Assume it is insulated so Q = 0.
Esys = 0
Etherm,water + Etherm,Al = 0
mwater cwater Twater + mAl + cAl + TAl = 0
J J
(180 g)(4.2 )(Tf 100 C) + (1050 g)(0.9 )(T 26 C) = 0
Kg Kg f
Solve for Tf , and you will find that Tf = 58.9 C.

(b) The assumptions made are:
The energy transfer between the system and surroundings is negligible.

The heat capacities of water and aluminum are independent of temperature.
(c)
Esys = W +Q
Q = Esys W
Q = mwater cwater Twater + mAl cAl TAl W
J J
= (180 g)(4.2 )(86.9 58.9 C) + (1050 g)(0.9 )(86.9 58.9 C) 29541 J
Kg Kg
= 21168 J + 26460 J 29541 J
= 1.81 104 J
7.P.47
(a) 2000 food calories = 4.8 106 J.
4.8 106 J

1 day 1 hour
P =
day 24 hours 3600 s
= 56 W
This is about the same as a 60 W lightbulb, which is typical for a table lamp.
(b) Suppose that it takes 5 seconds to run up a flight of stairs of height 6 m. Define the system to be the person and Earth.
The initial and final speed is zero. Suppose that Q 0. Estimate the mass of the person to be about 70 kg.
Esys = 0
Eperson + Ugrav = 0
Eperson = Ugrav
= mgh
N
= (70 kg)(9.8 )(6 m)
kg
= 4100 J
17
If the person climbs the stairs in 5 s, then
E
P =
t
4100 J
=
5s
= 820 W
This is approximately 1 hp of energy output.
7.P.48
(a) In doing one sit-up, if Q 0, then
Esys = 0
Eperson + Ugrav = 0
Eperson = Ugrav
= mgh
where is the maximum height of the center of mass of ones torso during a sit-up (h 0.3 m and m is the mass of ones
torso (m 1/2(70 kg) 35 kg). So Eperson (35 kg)(9.8 kgN
)(0.3 m) 100 J. In 100 sit-ups, this is about 1 104 J
of energy expended by the person.
6
One candy bar has an energy of 280(4.2 103 J) = 1.2 106 J. So a candy bar has about 1101104 = 100 times more
energy than what is expended doing 100 sit-ups. Youd have to do (100)(100) = 10, 000 sit-ups to burn the energy in
that candy bar. Or, you can eat 100
1
of a candy bar to equal the energy expended in 100 sit-ups.
(b) Assume a mass of 70 kg. 2000 calories per day is 8.4 106 J. The gravitational potential energy at the top of Mt.
Everest, relative to sea level, is
U = mgh
N
= (70 kg)(9.8 )(8848 m)
kg
= 6 106 J
6106 J
This is less than a day of food calories. In fact, it is 8.4106 J = 0.7 day = 17 h.
7.P.49
All of the blood must be lifted once every 20 seconds. When lying down, the lift height is about the body thickness, or about
0.2 m. When standing up, the lift height is about the persons height, or about 1.8 m. The increased lift height is about 1.6
m. The increase in the power is very roughly this:
18
(70 kg)(60 cm3 /kg)(1 103 kg/cm3 )(9.8 N/kg)(1.6 m)

Increase in power =
20 s
3W
A major simplifying assumption here is that the power required to force the blood through the blood vessels is probably not
very different whether youre lying down or standing up, so that we can roughly estimate the increased power by considering
only the change in how much additional lifting of the blood there is against gravity. Also, we assume that blood has a density
similar to water, 1 gram per cubic centimeter.
7.P.50
Take the house and air inside to be the system.
Esys = W +Q
0 = W +Q
Q = W
= 45 kW h
E
P =
t
45 kW h
=
3h
= 15 kW
= 1.5 104 W
If T = (20 0 ) = 20 , then Q = 45 kW h. If T = (25 0 ) = 25 , then since 20

25
= 1.25, Q will increase by a factor
of 1.25, and Q = 1.25(45 kW h) = 56 kW h. So, 56 kW h of electric energy will be used during a 3 hour period.
7.P.51
Define the block to be the system. Neglect Q.
W = E
W = Kf Ki

~ 1 1
F |~r| = mv2 mv2
2 f 2 i
= 1053 J 538 J
~
F = 57 N
Define the person to be the system, then Eperson = W since Q 0. Eperson = (57 N)(3 m) = 171 J.
7.X.52
19
An object must have a low speed for air resistance to be negligible, so generally for something like a ball falling a few meters
you can neglect air resistance. However, if the mass of the object is small and it has a large surface area, like a falling flat
piece of paper, then air resistance cannot be neglected. Thus, for large mass, small surface area, and low speed, you can
neglect air resistance.
7.X.53
If the object has high speed, like a falling skydiver or a moving car, then air resistance is not negligible. In cases of small
mass and large surface area, like a falling flat piece of paper, it is also not negligible.
7.X.54
The main two approximations are that air resistance is negligible and g is constant (i.e. not dependent on altitude).
7.X.55
y = vavg,y t
v + v
fy iy
= t
2
vf y can be found from the Energy Principle.
Kf = Ui
1
mv2 = mgyi
2 f
q
vf = 2gyi
= 31.3 m/s

31.3 m/s
50 m = t
2
t = 3.19 s
x = vx t
= (10 m/s)(3.19 s)
= 31.9 m
This prediction is an upper limit, meaning that it is too large. Air resistance will result in a force in the x direction, which
will make the measured value of x less than the value calculated above.
7.X.56
Assume that the air, earth, and filter are a closed system. Then,
20
Ei = Ef
0
Ui + Ki,filter
* =
Kf,filter + Ef,air

1
Ef,air = mgyi mv2
2 f
= 0.0706 J 0.000576 J
Ef,air = 0.0700 J
7.X.57

(a) ~Fnet = 0 at terminal speed, thus ~Fair = ~Fgrav = mg.

So, ~Fair = 353 N.

(b) ~Fair = ~Fgrav = 696 N.

7.X.58
Fk,table = F,table
= (0.6)(190 N)
= 114 N
7.X.59
You have to increase the horizontal force that you exert on the block, so that ~Fyou on block > ~Ffriction . Then, the block will

speed up. When its speed is 2v, you have to decrease the force you exert on the block to a magnitude ~Fyou on block = ~Ffriction .

Then the net force will be zero, and its speed will be constant, 2v.
7.P.60
(a) You can use a meterstick and stopwatch to measure terminal speed. However, it is instructive to use video analysis or
a motion detector to graph y vs. t. This allows you to easily observe the time interval when the coffee filter(s) fall at
terminal speed. During the first part of the motion the graph of y vs. t is curved. However, it becomes linear when the
coffee filter(s) reach terminal speed. The slope of the linear portion of the graph is the terminal speed. An example
graph for a stack of three coffee filters is shown in Figure 1. Data was measured with a motion detector.
If you use a stopwatch and meterstick, then drop the filters from a very high height and measure their speeds near the
floor. To verify that they have reached terminal speed, measure its speed using a distance of 2 m (from the floor). Also
measure its speed using a distance of 1 m (from the floor). If at terminal speed, then you will get the same speeds
(within experimental uncertainty). However, if not at terminal speed, then its average speed during a distance of 2
m (from the floor) will be less than its average speed during a distance of 1 m (from the floor) because the filters are
speeding up. Note that there can be significant error in time measurements if you use a stopwatch; therefore, it is best
to use five or more trials and average the results.
21
distance vs. t for 3 falling coffee filters
2.0
Linear Fit for: Data Set | distance

y = mt+b
m (Slope): 1.932 m/s
b (Y-Intercept): -0.3523 m
Correlation: 1.000
1.5
RMSE: 0.001888 m
distance (m)
1.0
0.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5

time (s)
Figure 1: Distance vs. time for a stack of three coffee filters.
(b) At terminal speed, the net force on the coffee filter(s) is zero. Thus, the upward
force by air on the filters is equal in
magnitude to the downward gravitational force by Earth on the filters, and ~Fair = mg. Use this to calculate the force

by air on the filters at terminal speed and graph this quantity vs. terminal speed. An example is shown in Figure 2.
The force units are arbitrary since it is the number of coffee filters that is plotted on the vertical axis. Thus, the mass
units would be in terms of the mass of one coffee filter.
Force of air resistance vs. speed
5
Auto Fit for: Data Set | Force of air resistance

y = Av^2
A: 0.8275 +/- 0.008571
3 RMSE: 0.07679 arb.
Force of air resistance (arb.)
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
terminal speed (m/s)
Figure 2: Force by air resistance vs. speed for falling coffee filters.

You can see the the graph is quadratic, showing that ~Fair |~v|. If the speed is zero then the filters are not moving,

and the force by air on the filters is zero. As a result, the graph should go through the origin. This constraint allows
you to do a curve fit of the form F = Av 2 (where A is a constant) which requires the curve to go through the origin. If
you use a curve fit of the form F = Av 2 + Bv + C then the resulting curve will not necessarily go through the origin.
22

2
Alternatively, you can also graph ~Fair vs |~v| which will result in a straight line.

7.P.61
The total (mechanical) energy of the mass-spring system is the sum of its kinetic energy and its spring potential energy.
Clearly, graph C is the total energy of the system because it is the sum of other two graphs.
The kinetic energy of the system is K = 1/2mv 2 . If we define the coordinate x to be at the equilibrium position of the
mass-spring system, then U = 1/2kx2 . At a turning point in the objects motion, its speed is zero, thus K = 0 and U is a
maximum. At this instant, E = U and dE/dt is given by

dE d 1 2
= kx
dt dt 2
dx
= k
dt
Since dx
dt = 0 at the turning point, then dE/dt = 0 at the turning point when K = 0 and U is a maximum. Note the points
where the slope of graph C is zero (i.e. where graph C is flat). This occurs when U is a maximum. Thus, graph A is the
spring potential energy.
By process of elimination, graph B is kinetic energy. Note that when graph B is a maximum, dE/dt 6= 0 and is actually
negative.. Also, note that E = K (U=0) does not occur when K is a maximum. As a result, the point in the motion where
U=0 is not at the equilibrium of the mass-spring system. These observations are worth further investigation.
7.P.62

(a) At terminal speed ~Fnet = 0, thus ~Fair = ~Fgrav .

~
Fair = mg
= (0.0017 kg)(9.8 N/kg)
= 0.0167 N
(b)

~
Fair = mg
= 5(0.0017 kg)(9.8 N/kg)
= 0.0833 N

(c) ~Fair v 2 . Increasing the force by air on the coffee filters by a factor of 5 results in an increase in terminal speed by

a factor 5. If it falls the same distance at a constant speed, then the time interval decreases by a factor 1/ 5. The
time to hit the ground will be 15 (52 s) = 23 s
7.P.63
There are several ways that you can design an experiment to measure the coefficient of sliding friction depending on the
equipment that is available in your laboratory. Here is one possible experiment.
Equipment: a block, a plate, a force sensor, and data acquisition software such as Logger Pro by Vernier.
Procedure:
23
(1) Place the block on a level, flat plate. Attach a string between the block and the force sensor.
(2) Begin collecting data.
(3) Pull the block horizontally with a constant force so that the block slides with a constant speed.
(4) Stop collecting data.
(5) Highlight the region of the graph where the force is constant. Calculate the average value of the measured force data.
(6) Record the frictional force by the plate on the block f .
(7) Repeat the above steps for a total of 5 to 10 trials (at least).
(8) Compute the average of your measurements for the frictional force by the plate on the block for the total number of
trials in your experiment.
Analysis:
The frictional force by the plate on the block is f = k FN . In this case the normal component of the force by the plate on
the block is equal to the weight of the block. Thus, f = k mg. Measure the mass of the block and calculate the coefficient
of sliding friction using
f
k =
mg
Results:
You should use the variation in your measurements of the frictional force to determine an uncertainty for your calculation of
k . It is vitally important to report uncertainties with your experimental results.
You can also stack more mass on top of the block and repeat the experiment. You will likely observe that k is independent
of the mass of the block and is thus a property of the materials in the interaction, in this case the block and the plate.
7.P.64
Your instructor will provide you with this data.
7.P.65
(a) In this case, the mass moves up and down with the same amplitude as your hand. The spring doesnt stretch or
compress very much (from equilibrium) and the entire system moves up and down with your hand.
(b) In this case, your hand moves up and down with high frequency and the mass stays relatively still with nearly constant
position. As a result, its amplitude of oscillation is approximately zero.
(c) In this case, the mass oscillates with a very large amplitude that is much larger than the amplitude of your hand. In
fact, you will likely not be able to maintain this oscillation for very long because the mass may come up and hit your
hand or perhaps become detached from the spring. This case is called resonance
(d) Though the amplitude will still be largest when the frequency of your hand matches the natural frequency (i.e. free
oscillation frequency) of the system, the amplitude will not be as large as when there is no damping. The damping
reduces the amplitude at resonance.
7.P.66
Here is an example VPython program that simulates a harmonic oscillator and plots graphs of x vs t, E vs. t, U vs. t, and
K vs. t.
24

4
5 L=0.1 #u n s t r e t c h e d l e n g t h o f t h e s p r i n g
6 A=L / 1 . 1 #a m p l i t u d e o f t h e o s c i l l a t i o n
7
8 #s e t t h e s i z e o f t h e window and c o l o r o f t h e b a c k g r o u n d
10 s c e n e . r a n g e =1.2L
11 s c e n e . background=c o l o r . w h i t e
12
13 #p u t t h e w a l l a t L so t h a t t h e o t h e r end o f t h e s p r i n g i s a t t h e o r i g i n when u n s t r e t c h e d
14 #t h i s makes t h e v a r i a b l e x e q u a l t o t h e d i s t a n c e t h e s p r i n g i s s t r e t c h e d or compressed
15 w a l l=box ( pos=v e c t o r (L , 0 , 0 ) , width=L / 2 . , h e i g h t=L / 2 . , l e n g t h=L / 2 0 . , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )
16
17 #p u t t h e o b j e c t a t t h e p o s i t i o n x=A so t h a t t h e s p r i n g i s i n i t i a l l y s t r e t c h e d an amount A
18 mass=c y l i n d e r ( pos=v e c t o r (A, 0 , 0 ) , a x i s=v e c t o r (L / 2 0 . , 0 , 0 ) , r a d i u s=L / 1 0 . , c o l o r = ( 0 . 5 , 0 . 5 , 0 . 5 )
)
19
20 s p r i n g=h e l i x ( pos=w a l l . pos , a x i s=mass . posw a l l . pos , r a d i u s=L / 1 0 . , c o l o r = ( 1 , 0 . 7 , 0 . 2 ) ,

t h i c k n e s s=L / 1 0 0 . )
21
22 #s k e t c h arrows t o show t h e o r i g i n o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e system

23 x a x i s=arrow ( pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , a x i s=v e c t o r (L , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . black , s h a f t w i d t h=L / 5 0 . )
24 y a x i s=arrow ( pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , a x i s=v e c t o r ( 0 , L , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . black , s h a f t w i d t h=L / 5 0 . )
25
26 graph=g d i s p l a y ( x=430 , y=0, width =400 , h e i g h t =400 ,

27 t i t l e = 'E vs t f o r o b j e c t o s c i l l a t i n g on a s p r i n g ' ,
28 x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
29 y t i t l e= 'E ( J ) ' ,
30 background=c o l o r . b l a c k )
31
32 graph2=g d i s p l a y ( x =430 , y=400 , width =400 , h e i g h t =400 ,

33 t i t l e = ' x vs t f o r o b j e c t o s c i l l a t i n g on a s p r i n g ' ,
34 x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
35 y t i t l e= ' x (m) ' ,
37
38 f u n c t i o n=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graph , c o l o r=c o l o r . magenta )

39 f u n c t i o n 2=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graph , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan )
40 f u n c t i o n 3=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graph , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
41 f u n c t i o n 4=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graph2 , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
42
43 mass .m=0.1
44 mass . v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
45 mass . p=mass .m mass . v
46
47 #s p r i n g c o n s t a n t
48 k=20
49
50 dt =0.001
51 t=0
52
25
54
55 while t <2:
56 rate (100)
57 s=mass . pos
58
59 Fnet= k s
60 mass . p= mass . p+Fnet dt
61 mass . v= mass . p/ mass .m
62 mass . pos= mass . pos+mass . v dt
63
64 s p r i n g . a x i s=mass . poss p r i n g . pos

65 t=t+dt
66
67 U=1/2k mass . pos . x 2

68 K=1/2mass .mmag( mass . v ) 2
69 E=K+U
70
71 f u n c t i o n . p l o t ( pos=(t ,U) )
72 f u n c t i o n 2 . p l o t ( pos=(t ,K) )
73 f u n c t i o n 3 . p l o t ( pos=(t , E) )
74 f u n c t i o n 4 . p l o t ( pos=(t , mass . pos . x ) )
(a) If you run the sample program above, you will notice that the total energy actually oscillates in time. Theoretically it
should be constant, so this oscillation is an artifact of numerical error in the computation. Decreasing the time step
by a factor of 10, for example, does decrease the amount of oscillation in the total energy; however, it doesnt remove
it altogether. In fact, no matter how small a time step is used, there will be numerical error in the total energy. The
example program above uses what is called the Last Point Approximation (LPA) to calculate momentum and position.
Though there are more accurate methods, the advantage of this method is that is comparatively easy to understand
and the error in the total energy during half a cycle is zero (for periodic motion). A discussion of this technique can be
found in an article by Alan Cromer, Stable solutions using the Euler Approximation, Am. J. Phys. 49, 455 (1981).
(b) Changing the initial speed will also change the total energy. As a result, the amplitude increases. However, the
frequency depends only on the stiffness of the spring and the mass, so the frequency remains the same.
7.P.67
(a) Sliding friction

A sample VPython program modeling a harmonic oscillator with sliding friction is shown below. In this case, ~Ffriction =
mgv.
4
7
10 s c e n e . r a n g e =1.2L
26
12
13 #p u t t h e w a l l a t L so t h a t t h e o t h e r end o f t h e s p r i n g i s a t t h e o r i g i n when
unstretched
16
17 #p u t t h e o b j e c t a t t h e p o s i t i o n x=A so t h a t t h e s p r i n g i s i n i t i a l l y s t r e t c h e d an
amount A
18 mass=c y l i n d e r ( pos=v e c t o r (A, 0 , 0 ) , a x i s=v e c t o r (L / 2 0 . , 0 , 0 ) , r a d i u s=L / 1 0 . , c o l o r
=(0.5 ,0.5 ,0.5) )
19

t h i c k n e s s=L / 1 0 0 . )
21

23 x a x i s=arrow ( pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , a x i s=v e c t o r (L , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . black , s h a f t w i d t h=L
/50.)
24 y a x i s=arrow ( pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , a x i s=v e c t o r ( 0 , L , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . black , s h a f t w i d t h=L
/50.)
25

28 x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
29 y t i t l e= 'E ( J ) ' ,
31

34 x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
35 y t i t l e= ' x (m) ' ,
37

42
43 mass .m=0.1
44 mass . v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
46
48 k=20
49
50 #c o e f f o f s l i d i n g f r i c t i o n
51 mu=0.1
52
53 dt =0.0001
54 t=0
55
57
58 while t <2:
59 s=mass . pos
27
60
61 i f (mag( mass . v )==0) :

62 F f r i c=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
63 else :
64 vhat=mass . v/mag( mass . v )
65 F f r i c=mu mass .m 9 . 8 vhat
66
67 F s p r i n g = k s
68
69 Fnet= F s p r i n g + F f r i c
73

75 t=t+dt
76
77 U=1/2k mass . pos . x 2

79 E=K+U
80
There are some important sections to note. First, the coefficient of sliding friction is defined as a constant that can
be changed. In this example, = 0.1. Second, the net force on the object is the sum of the force by the spring and
the force by friction. The frictional force only occurs if the object is sliding. Thus, an if statement is used to check
whether the speed is zero (or not zero). Also, the direction of the frictional force is opposite the velocity of the object,
so the unit vector for the velocity is calculated. The section shown below is responsible for calculating the net force on
the object in the case of sliding friction.
1 s=mass . pos
2
3 i f (mag( mass . v )==0) :

4 F f r i c=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
5 else :
6 vhat = mass . v / mag( mass . v )
7 F f r i c = mu mass .m 9 . 8 vhat
8
9 Fspring = k s
10
11 Fnet = F s p r i n g + F f r i c
(b) Viscous friction

Take the previous program and modify it. Define a constant D for the drag constant. (This includes the drag coefficient,
density of the fluid, cross-sectional area of the object, etc.) Use ~Ffriction = D |~v| v to calculate the frictional force. A
sample program is shown below.
4
28
7
10 s c e n e . r a n g e =1.2L
12
13 #p u t t h e w a l l a t L so t h a t t h e o t h e r end o f t h e s p r i n g i s a t t h e o r i g i n when
unstretched
16
17 #p u t t h e o b j e c t a t t h e p o s i t i o n x=A so t h a t t h e s p r i n g i s i n i t i a l l y s t r e t c h e d an
amount A
18 mass=c y l i n d e r ( pos=v e c t o r (A, 0 , 0 ) , a x i s=v e c t o r (L / 2 0 . , 0 , 0 ) , r a d i u s=L / 1 0 . , c o l o r
=(0.5 ,0.5 ,0.5) )
19

t h i c k n e s s=L / 1 0 0 . )
21

23 x a x i s=arrow ( pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , a x i s=v e c t o r (L , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . black , s h a f t w i d t h=L
/50.)
24 y a x i s=arrow ( pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , a x i s=v e c t o r ( 0 , L , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . black , s h a f t w i d t h=L
/50.)
25

28 x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
29 y t i t l e= 'E ( J ) ' ,
31

34 x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
35 y t i t l e= ' x (m) ' ,
37

42
43 mass .m=0.1
44 mass . v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
46
48 k=20
49
50 #d rag c o e f f i c i e n t
51 D=0.2
52
53 dt =0.0001
29
54 t=0
55
57
58 while t <2:
59 s=mass . pos
60
61 i f (mag( mass . v )==0) :

62 F f r i c=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
63 else :
64 vhat = mass . v / mag( mass . v )
65 F f r i c = D mag( mass . v ) vhat
66
67 F s p r i n g = k s
68
69 Fnet= F s p r i n g + F f r i c
73

75 t=t+dt
76
77 U=1/2k mass . pos . x 2

79 E=K+U
80
(c) Air resistance

2
Take the previous program and modify it. You only need to change the force of friction so that ~Ffriction |~v| .

(d) The rate of energy loss in all cases depends on the coefficients. In the case of sliding friction, it is and in the case of
viscous friction and air resistance (for large blunt objects) it is D. Greater coefficients increase the force of friction on
the object and increase the rate of energy loss.
7.P.68
(a) An example VPython program to simulate the motion of the baseball with air resistance is shown below.
3
4 b a l l=s p h e r e ( r a d i u s =5, pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )

5 g r a s s=box ( pos=v e c t o r (0 , b a l l . r a d i u s 0 . 5 , 0 ) , l e n g t h =250 , width =250 , h e i g h t =1, c o l o r=
c o l o r . green )
6
7 m=0.155 #mass i n kg
8 s =1000.44704 #i n i t i a l s p e e d i n m/ s
30
9 t h e t a =45 p i / 1 8 0 . #i n i t i a l a n g l e i n rad
10 v=s v e c t o r ( c o s ( t h e t a ) , s i n ( t h e t a ) , 0 ) #v e l o c i t y v e c t o r
11 p=mv #momentum
12
13 g =9.8
14 C=0.35
15 R=0.07/2
16 A=p i R2
17 rho =1.3
18
19 dt =0.01
20 t =0.
21
22 t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=b a l l . c o l o r )
23
25
26 while b a l l . pos . y > 0.01:

27 rate (100)
28
29 vmag=mag( v )
30 vhat=v/vmag
31 F a i r = 1/2C rho Avmag2 vhat
32 Fgrav=v e c t o r (0 , mg , 0 )
33
34 Fnet=F a i r+Fgrav
35 p=p+Fnet dt
36 v=p/m
37 b a l l . pos=b a l l . pos+v dt
38 t=t+dt
39
40 t r a i l . append ( pos=b a l l . pos )

41
42 print " f i n a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e b a l l : " , b a l l . pos , "m a t t=" , t , " s "
The baseball starts at the origin, and its final position is at x = 130 m. This is 370 ft which is shorter than the distance
from the center field fence to home plate. Note that outfielders cannot throw a baseball at 100 mph. Only the fastest
pitchers, using the advantages of technique and an elevated mound, can reach speeds of 100 mph.
(b) The example program below includes graphs of K, U , and E = K + U .

4
5 b a l l=s p h e r e ( r a d i u s =5, pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )

6 g r a s s=box ( pos=v e c t o r (0 , b a l l . r a d i u s 0 . 5 , 0 ) , l e n g t h =250 , width =250 , h e i g h t =1, c o l o r=
c o l o r . green )
7
9 s =1000.44704 #i n i t i a l s p e e d i n m/ s
10 t h e t a =45 p i / 1 8 0 . #i n i t i a l a n g l e i n rad
11 v=s v e c t o r ( c o s ( t h e t a ) , s i n ( t h e t a ) , 0 ) #v e l o c i t y v e c t o r
12 p=mv #momentum
13
31
14 g =9.8
15 C=0.35
16 R=0.07/2
17 A=p i R2
18 rho =1.3
19
20 dt =0.01
21 t =0.
22

25 x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
26 y t i t l e= 'E ( J ) ' ,
28

32
33
34 t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=b a l l . c o l o r )
35
37
38 while b a l l . pos . y > 0.01:

39 rate (100)
40
41 vmag=mag( v )
42 vhat=v/vmag
43 F a i r = 1/2C rho Avmag2 vhat
44 Fgrav=v e c t o r (0 , mg , 0 )
45
47 p=p+Fnet dt
48 v=p/m
49 b a l l . pos=b a l l . pos+v dt
50 t=t+dt
51
52 U=mg b a l l . y
53 K=1/2mvmag2
54 E=K+U
55
59
60
61 t r a i l . append ( pos=b a l l . pos )

62
63 print " f i n a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e b a l l : " , b a l l . pos , "m a t t=" , t , " s "
(c) Set C = 0 and run the simulation. The baseball lands at a distance of 204 m from its initial position at the clock
reading t = 6.45 s. Now, solve this analytically. Due to symmetry, vf y = viy . Apply the Momentum Principle in the
y-direction to calculate the time interval that the ball is in the air.
32
py
Fnet,y =
t
v vi,y
mg = m f,y
t
2vi,y
mg = m
t
2vi,y
g =
t
2vi,y
t =
g
2(44.7 m/s) cos(45 )
=
9.8 N/kg
= 6.45 s
Note that the time matches the time determined in the simulation. Now, use this time to calculate the horizontal
displacement of the baseball. The x-component of the net force is zero, so the x-velocity of the baseball is constant.
Apply the definition of average velocity and solve for x.
x
vavg,x =
t
x = vavg,x t
= (44.7 m/s) sin(45 )(6.45 s)
= 204 m
This agrees with the results of the simulation.
(d) Use the program from part (b). Set the drag coefficient to zero. Note that the total energy is constant.
(e) Substitute = 0.83(1.3 kg/m3 ) = 1.08 kg/m3 into the simulation from part (a). The range in this case is 122 m. At
sea level, it was 113 m. As a result, the ball carries 9 m, or 8%, further due to the lower density of air.
7.P.69

First, calculate the force by air on the sky diver using ~Fair = Dv 2 where D is a constant that includes the drag coefficient,

cross sectional area, and density of air. At terminal speed, the net force on the skydiver is zero, so ~Fair = ~Fgrav = mg.

Using a terminal speed of 60 m/s and a somewhat typical mass of 100 kg (including the person and parachute), calculate a
reasonable value for the constant D.
mg
D =
v2
(100 kg)(9.8 N/kg)
=
(60 m/s)2
= 0.27 N/(m/s)2
Use this constant in the simulation. Starting with the simulation in Problem 7.P.68, set the initial speed to zero and the
initial height at 1500 m. (You can set the initial height to be larger if the skydiver doesnt reach terminal speed within this
distance.) Terminal speed occurs when the speed vs time graph becomes flat. An example VPython program is shown below.
33

4
5 s k y d i v e r=s p h e r e ( r a d i u s =5, pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 1 5 0 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )

6 g r a s s=box ( pos=v e c t o r (0 , s k y d i v e r . r a d i u s 0 . 5 , 0 ) , l e n g t h =250 , width =250 , h e i g h t =1, c o l o r=
c o l o r . green )
7
8 m=100 #mass i n kg
9 v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) #v e l o c i t y v e c t o r
10 p=mv #momentum
11
12 g =9.8
13 D=0.27
14
15 dt =0.01
16 t =0.
17

19 t i t l e = ' y vs t f o r a s k y d i v e r ' ,
20 x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
21 y t i t l e= ' y (m) ' ,
23

25 t i t l e = 'v_y vs t f o r a s k y d i v e r ' ,
26 x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
27 y t i t l e= 'v_y (m/ s ) ' ,
29

31 f u n c t i o n 2=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graph2 , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan )
32
33
34 t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=s k y d i v e r . c o l o r )
35
37
38 while s k y d i v e r . pos . y > 0.01:

39 rate (100)
40
41 vmag=mag( v )
42 i f ( vmag==0) :
43 Fair = vector (0 ,0 ,0)
44 else :
45 vhat=v/vmag
46 F a i r = Dvmag2 vhat
47
48 Fgrav=v e c t o r (0 , mg , 0 )
49
51 p=p+Fnet dt
52 v=p/m
53 s k y d i v e r . pos=s k y d i v e r . pos+v dt
34
54 t=t+dt
55
56 f u n c t i o n . p l o t ( pos=(t , s k y d i v e r . pos . y ) )
57 f u n c t i o n 2 . p l o t ( pos=(t , v . y ) )
58
59 t r a i l . append ( pos=s k y d i v e r . pos )

60
61 print " f i n a l yp o s i t i o n o f t h e s k y d i v e r : " , s k y d i v e r . pos . y , "m a t t=" , t , " s "

62 print " f i n a l s p e e d o f t h e s k y d i v e r : " , vmag , "m/ s a t t=" , t , " s "
63 print " d i s t a n c e f a l l e n : " , 1500 s k y d i v e r . pos . y , "m a t t=" , t , " s "
The speed vs. time graph appears to become flat at approximately t = 20 s. It is possible to programmatically determine
the terminal speed by using an if statement to break out of the loop when the speed reaches 60 m/s, our assumed terminal
speed. Alternatively, you can calculate |~v| during each time step and when this is sufficiently small, break out of the loop.
Using the example program above, the skydiver reaches 60 m/s at t=19 s and has fallen a distance of about 890 m. So, our
approximation of 20 s was fairly good.
7.P.70
To model the motion of the coffee filters, you will need data for the coffee filters. Lets calculate for the force by air on the
coffee filters using ~Fair = Dv 2 where D is a constant that includes the drag coefficient, cross sectional area, and density of

air. At terminal speed, the net force on the coffee filters is zero, so ~Fair = ~Fgrav = mg. Using a terminal speed of 1 m/s for

one coffee filter (from the data used in Problem 7.P.60) and a mass of 1.6 g, calculate a reasonable value for the constant D.
mg
D =
v2
(0.001 kg)(9.8 N/kg)
=
(1 m/s)2
0.01 N/(m/s)2
Use this constant in the simulation. An example VPython program is shown below. The coffee filter is dropped from a height
of 3 m above the floor.
4
5 f i l t e r =s p h e r e ( r a d i u s =0.1 , pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 3 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )

6 g r a s s=box ( pos=v e c t o r (0 , f i l t e r . r a d i u s , 0 ) , l e n g t h =2, width =2, h e i g h t =0.1 , c o l o r=c o l o r . g r e e n
)
7
9 v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) #v e l o c i t y v e c t o r
10 p=mv #momentum
11
12 g =9.8
13 D=0.01
14
15 dt =0.01
16 t =0.
17

19 t i t l e = ' y vs t f o r a f i l t e r ' ,
35
20 x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
21 y t i t l e= ' y (m) ' ,
23

25 t i t l e = 'v_y vs t f o r a f i l t e r ' ,
26 x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
27 y t i t l e= 'v_y (m/ s ) ' ,
29

31 f u n c t i o n 2=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graph2 , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan )
32
33
34 t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r= f i l t e r . c o l o r )
35
37
38 while f i l t e r . pos . y > 0.01:

39 rate (100)
40
41 vmag=mag( v )
42 i f ( vmag==0) :
43 Fair = vector (0 ,0 ,0)
44 else :
45 vhat=v/vmag
46 F a i r = Dvmag2 vhat
47
48 Fgrav=v e c t o r (0 , mg , 0 )
49
51 p=p+Fnet dt
52 v=p/m
53 f i l t e r . pos= f i l t e r . pos+v dt
54 t=t+dt
55
56 f u n c t i o n . p l o t ( pos=(t , f i l t e r . pos . y ) )
57 f u n c t i o n 2 . p l o t ( pos=(t , v . y ) )
58
59
60 t r a i l . append ( pos= f i l t e r . pos )

61
62 print " f i n a l yp o s i t i o n o f t h e f i l t e r : " , f i l t e r . pos . y , "m a t t=" , t , " s "

63 print " f i n a l s p e e d o f t h e f i l t e r : " , vmag , "m/ s a t t=" , t , " s "
64 print " d i s t a n c e f a l l e n : " , 3 f i l t e r . pos . y , "m a t t=" , t , " s "
You will notice that a coffee filter reaches terminal speed very quickly. In fact, it occurs in about 0.4 s when the filter has
fallen only about 0.33 m, which is 1/3 of a meter.
7.P.71
36
5 # Comment i n t h e t y p e ( s ) o f f r i c t i o n o f i n t e r e s t
6 s c e n e . background = c o l o r . w h i t e
7 scene . x = scene . y = 0
8 s c e n e . width = 1000
9 s c e n e . h e i g h t = 300
10
11 # spring unstretched length

12 L = 2
13 # b l o c k and motor d i m e n s i o n s
14 b = 0.5
15 # driving amplitude
16 D = 0.2
17 # i n i t i a l u n d r i v e n s t r e t c h ( x=0 f o r no s t r e t c h )
18 x = 0.0
19
20 #s p r i n g = c y l i n d e r ( pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , a x i s=v e c t o r (L , 0 , 0 ) , r a d i u s =0.05 ,

21 # c o l o r=c o l o r . red , Ks=0.7)
22 #b l o c k = box ( pos=v e c t o r (L+b / 2 , 0 , 0 ) , l e n g t h=b , w i d t h=b , h e i g h t=b ,
23 # mass =0.02 , c o l o r=c o l o r . b l u e )
24 #c o u p l i n g = c y l i n d e r ( pos=v e c t o r (D, 0 , 0 ) , a x i s=v e c t o r (D, 0 , 0 ) , r a d i u s =0.02 ,
25 # c o l o r=c o l o r . g r e e n )
26 #motor = box ( pos=v e c t o r (Db / 2 , 0 , 0 ) , l e n g t h=b , w i d t h=b , h e i g h t=b ,
27 # c o l o r=c o l o r . g r e e n )
28 s p r i n g = c y l i n d e r ( pos=v e c t o r (L , 0 , 0 ) , a x i s=v e c t o r (L+x , 0 , 0 ) , r a d i u s =0.05 ,
29 c o l o r=c o l o r . red , Ks =0.7)
30 b l o c k = box ( pos=v e c t o r ( b/2+x , 0 , 0 ) , l e n g t h=b , width=b , h e i g h t=b ,
31 mass =0.02 , c o l o r=c o l o r . b l u e )
32 c o u p l i n g = c y l i n d e r ( pos=v e c t o r (DL , 0 , 0 ) , a x i s=v e c t o r (D, 0 , 0 ) , r a d i u s =0.02 ,
33 c o l o r=c o l o r . g r e e n )
34 motor = box ( pos=v e c t o r (Db/2L , 0 , 0 ) , l e n g t h=b , width=b , h e i g h t=b ,
35 c o l o r=c o l o r . g r e e n )
36 t a b l e = box ( pos=v e c t o r (0 , b / 2 , 0 ) , l e n g t h =8, width =2, h e i g h t =0.01 ,
37 c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan )
38
39 # s t a r t from r e s t
40 block . p = vector (0 ,0 ,0)
41 b l o c k . v = b l o c k . p / b l o c k . mass
42 # viscous friction
43 f f r i c t i o n = vector (0 ,0 ,0)
44 c = 0.004
45
47 t = 0
48 # time s t e p
49 dt = 0 . 0 0 5
50 # free o s c i l l a t i o n frequency
51 wf = s q r t ( s p r i n g . Ks/ b l o c k . mass )
52 # driving frequency
53 wd = 0 . 9 wf
54
55 egraph = g d i s p l a y ( x=0, y=300 , width =1000 , background=c o l o r . white ,

56 t i t l e = 'K: blue , U: red , K+U: magenta ' )
57 u p l o t=g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )
37
58 k p l o t=g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . b l u e )
59 u k p l o t=g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . magenta )
60 pgraph = g d i s p l a y ( x =150 , y=325 , width =1000 , background=c o l o r . white ,
61 t i t l e=' x : green ' )
62 p o s p l o t=g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . g r e e n )
63
65 while t < 1 0 0 :
66 rate (400)
67 # driving displacement
68 d = D s i n (wd t )
69 # viscous friction
70 f f r i c t i o n . x = c b l o c k . v . x
71 # net force
72 Fnet = s p r i n g . Ks v e c t o r ( ( x d ) , 0 , 0 ) + f f r i c t i o n
73 b l o c k . p = b l o c k . p + Fnet dt
74 b l o c k . v = b l o c k . p / b l o c k . mass
75 b l o c k . pos = b l o c k . pos + b l o c k . v dt
76 s p r i n g . pos = v e c t o r (L+d , 0 , 0 )
77 s p r i n g . a x i s = v e c t o r (L+xd , 0 , 0 )
78 c o u p l i n g . a x i s = v e c t o r (D+d , 0 , 0 )
79 # update undriven s t r e t c h
80 x = b l o c k . pos . x b/2
81
82 # energies
83 s p r i n g . k = (mag( b l o c k . p ) 2 ) / ( 2 b l o c k . mass )
84 s p r i n g . u = ( 0 . 5 ( s p r i n g . Ks ( ( xd ) 2 ) ) )
85 s p r i n g . uk = s p r i n g . u + s p r i n g . k
86
87 # update graphs
88 u p l o t . p l o t ( pos=( t , s p r i n g . u ) )
89 k p l o t . p l o t ( pos=(t , s p r i n g . k ) )
90 u k p l o t . p l o t ( pos=(t , s p r i n g . uk ) )
91 p o s p l o t . p l o t ( pos=(t , b l o c k . x ) )
92
93 t = t + dt
1
8.X.1
Ered + Eviolet
Egreen
2
1.8 eV + 3.1 eV
Egreen
2
Egreen 2.45 eV
8.X.2
19 19
Assume each photon has an average energy of (2.45 eV) 1.6 10 J/eV 3.92 10 J. So the number of photons per
21
second per square meter is just 3.6 10 photon/s/m2 .
8.X.3
The atoms ground state energy is 13.6 eV indicating a bound system. To make the total energy zero, we must add 13.6 eV
and this ionizes the atom.
8.X.4
With four energy levels, there are six possible transition combinations. You can calculate this as a binomial coefficient.

4 4!
= =6
2 2!(4 2)!
8.X.5
With three energy levels, there are two possible upward transitions from the ground state. They are
1.6 eV (4 eV) 2.4 eV

2.3 eV (4 eV) 1.7 eV
But the human eye wont detect the second one, so well only see the first one.
8.X.6
The electrons initial kinetic energy must have been the sum of the mercury atoms energy and the electrons final kinetic
energy. So, it must be 5.2 eV.
8.X.7
Sketch an energy level diagram like the one shown in Figure 1.
The 3 emitted photons correspond to 3 transitions between the states. Label them as
E1 = 8 eV
E2 = 3 eV
E3 = 2 eV
2
2 eV
3 eV
8 eV
Figure 1: An energy level diagram showing possible transitions.

Ephoton = E1,2

= E1 E2
= |8 eV + 2 eV|
= 5 eV

Ephoton = E1,3

= |8 eV + 2 eV|
= 6 eV

Ephoton = E2,3

= |3 eV + 2 eV|
= 1 eV
8.X.8
" r # 12
ks N
~ = [J s]
m m kg
kg

m
= [J s] 2
s m kg
= [J]
3
8.X.9
A sketch of possible transitions is shown in Figure 2.
E4
E3
E2
E1
Figure 2: Energy level diagram.

= 0.4 eV

E3,4

= 0.8 eV

E2,4

= 1.2 eV

E1,4

= 0.4 eV

E2,3

= 0.8 eV

E1,3

= 0.4 eV

E1,2
Only 3 photon energies will be in the emission spectrum. They are: 0.4 eV, 0.8 eV, and 1.2 eV.
8.X.10
1
E = k A2
2 s
1 N 2
= 0.7 (0.2 m)
2 m
= 0.014 J
4
r
ks
=
m
s
N
0.7 m
=
0.2 kg
rad
= 5.92
s
E = E0 + N ~
E N ~ since E0 is negligible for large N .
E
N =
~
0.014 J
=
(1.055 1034 J s)(5.92 rad
s )
= 2 1031
8.X.11
A sketch of the transition is shown in Figure 3.
E5
0
E4
E3
E2
Figure 3: A sketch of the energy levels and transition.

= E2 E5

E2,5
= 3~0
5
8.X.12
To become unbound, the final energy of the deuteron must be greater than or equal to 0. If 2.2 MeV of energy is needed for
the deuteron to become unbound, then its binding energy must be 2.2 MeV.
8.X.13
Ei = Ef
E+ = Eproton + Ephoton
1232 MeV = 938 MeV + Ephoton
Ephoton = 294 MeV
Note that this is a gamma ray photon as expected for this type of decay.
8.X.14
Ef = 0
13.6 eV
Ei =
22
= 3.4 eV
E = 0 (3.4 eV)
= 3.4 eV
8.X.15

J 1 photon 1 eV photon
0.7 = 2.43 1018
s 1.8 eV 1.6 1019 J s
8.X.16
(a)
13.6 eV
K +U =
42
= 0.85 eV
6
(b)
13.6 eV
K=U =
22
= 3.4 eV
(c)

Ephoton = EH

= Ef Ei

= E2 E4
= |3.4 eV + 0.85 eV|
= 2.55 eV
(d) Arrow 5
8.X.17
(a) Arrow 1
(b) Arrow 4
(c) Arrow 2
(d) Arrow 3
(e) (2) through (5) are all correct.
8.X.18
For cold hydrogen, the atoms are all in the ground state. As a result, the absorption lines occur only for energies that
correspond to transitions from the ground state. All of these energies are in the UV region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
For very hot hydrogen, there are atoms in all of the lower energy states. As a result, hydrogen atoms trasition to all of
the lowest energy states from higher states, resulting in the emission of photons in the UV, visible, and IR regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
8.X.19
A hydrogen atom in the ground state has an energy of 13.6 eV. To get to the first excited state (E = 3.4 eV) requires
10.2 eV of energy. Thus, an incoming electron collided with a hydrogen atom and transfered 10.2 eV of energy to the
hydrogen. The final kinetic energy of the electron is 11.6 eV 10.2 eV = 1.4 eV.
Note, to excite the atom to the second excited state (E = 1.51 eV) requires 1.51 eV + 13.6 eV = 12.09 eV of energy. The
electrons to not have enough energy to excite the hydrogen atoms to the second excited state, E3 .
8.P.20
(a) An electron must have a kinetic energy of at least 13.6 eV to ionize a ground state hydrogen atom.
7
(b) The electrons have sufficient kinetic energy to cause upward transitions from N=1 to N=2, N=1 to N=3, and N=1 to
N=4. With electrons in the N=2, N=3, and N=4 states, there are six possible downward transitions corresponding to
photon emissions of 0.66 eV,2.56 eV,12.75 eV,1.89 eV,10.2 eV, and 12.09 eV. Note that not all of these are detectable
by the human eye.
(c) There will be three absorbed photons with energies 10.2 eV, 12.09 eV, and 12.75 eV.
8.P.21
(a) Two possible energy level schemes are shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4: Two possible energy level schemes.
(b) To distinguish between these two schemes, consider the absorption spectrum of a very cold quantum object, i.e. an
object in the ground state. Bombard the object with photons with a variety of energies, but including an energy of
0.57 eV. If we observe an 0.57 eV absorption line, the scheme on the right must be the correct one. Otherwise, the one
on the left is the correct one.
8.P.22
Given the range of energies to which the human eye is sensitive, only transitions ending on the N=2 energy level (i.e. the
first excited level) will be visible to us, but only from the N=3, N=4, N=5, and N=7 levels. The transition from N=7 to
N=2 lies in the ultraviolet. Transitions to the N=1 (ground state) level fall in the ultraviolet and those to levels above N=2
fall in the infrared. So, we predict four emission lines in hydrogens spectrum at 1.89 eV, 2.55 eV, 2.85 eV, and 3.02 eV. Due
to individual anatomical variations, not everyone can see the 3.02 eV photon. Its close to the limit of the eyes sensitivity
anyway.
8.P.23
(a) We predict six photons with energies 3.0 eV, 2.5 eV, 1.9 eV, 0.5 eV, 1.1 eV, and 0.6 eV.
(b) We predict three absorptions lines with energies 1.9 eV, 2.5 eV, and 3.0 eV.
8
8.P.24
First, sketch the energy states and transitions. (See Figure 5.)
E2
E1
E0
Figure 5: Energy states.
The photons absorbed are 0.4 eV and 0.7 eV. As a result, E1 E0 = 0.4 eV and E2 E1 = 0.3 eV
When the material is warmed

up, these are atoms in the energy states E1 and E2 . Possible transitions are E2 to E1 , E1 to
E0 , and E2 to E0 . E1,2 = E1 E2 = 0.3 eV. Thus, three photons will be emitted with energies 0.3 eV, 0.4 eV, and

0.7 eV. The additional photon emitted corresponds to the transition from E2 to E1 .
8.P.25
(a) The ground state is E0 = 4 eV. The two higher energy states must have energies such that all transitions produce
0.3 eV, 2.0 eV, and 2.3 eV photons. Thus, the difference in energy levels must correspond to these photon energies.
One possible energy diagram is shown in Figure 6.
1.7 eV E2
2 eV E1
4 eV E0
Figure 6: A sketch of the transitions
The possible transitions are

9

= |4 eV + 2 eV| = 2 eV

E0,1

= |2 eV + 1.7 eV| = 0.3 eV

E1,2

= |4 eV + 1.7 eV| = 2.3 eV

E0,2
(b) The quantum objects are all in the ground state. Thus, the only transitions that can occur are from E0 to E1 and
from E0 to E2 , as shown in Figure 7.
1.7 eV E2
2 eV E1
4 eV E0
Figure 7: Absorption from the ground state.
Photons absorbed are:

Ephoton = E1,0 = |4 eV + 4 eV|

= 2 eV
Ephoton = E2,0 = |1.7 eV + 4 eV|

= 2.3 eV
The only absorption lines will be at 2 eV and 2.3 eV.
(c) Shown in Figure 8 is an alternative set of energy levels that gives the same transitions of 0.3 eV, 2.0 eV, and 2.3 eV.
Photons emitted are

= 2.0 eV

E1,2

= 0.3 eV

E0,1

= 2.3 eV

E0,2
(d) Absorption lines occur for quantum objects transitioning from the ground state to higher states, as shown in Figure 9.
The absorbed photons have the following energies:
10
1.7 eV E2
E1
3.7 eV
4 eV E0
Figure 8: A second possible energy level diagram.
1.7 eV E2
E1
3.7 eV
4 eV E0

Ephoton = E1,0 = |3.7 eV + 4 eV| = 0.3 eV

Ephoton = E2,0 = |1.7 eV + 4 eV| = 2.3 eV

The absorption lines will be at 0.3 eV and 2.3 eV. The 0.3 eV absorption line in this case is different than the 2 eV line
in the other case. Whichever absorption line is observed can tell you which set of energy states is correct.
8.P.26
(a) First, sketch an energy level diagram and indicate the transitions that emit photons. (See Figure 10.)
The six photon energies correspond to the transitions shown in Figure 10. They are:
11
1.0 eV E3
1.8 eV E2
2.9 eV E1
4.8 eV E0
Figure 10: An energy level diagram.

= |1.8 eV + 1.0 eV| = 0.8 eV

E2,3

= |2.9 eV + 1.0 eV| = 1.9 eV

E1,3

= |2.9 eV + 1.8 eV| = 1.1 eV

E1,2

= |4.8 eV + 1.0 eV| = 3.8 eV

E0,3

= |4.8 eV + 1.8 eV| = 3.0 eV

E0,2

= |4.8 eV + 2.9 eV| = 1.9 eV

E0,3
Note that two of the transitions result in the same energy photon. Therefore, only five photons with unique energies
will be emitted.
(b) In this case there are only transitions from the ground state. The photons absorbed correspond to the transitions E0
to E1 , from E0 to E2 , and from E0 to E3 . The absorbed photons have energies 1.9 eV, 3.0 eV, and 3.8 eV.
8.P.27
(a)
dU
Fr =
dr
Therefore, the direction of the force is opposite to the slope. At point A, the slope is negative, so Fr is positive.
At B, Fr = 0.
At C, Fr is negative.The magnitude
of Fr is proportional to the magnitude of the slope. A steeper slope means a
greater force. As a result, F > F > F .

r A r B r C
The kinetic energy at point D is represented by a vertical line drawn downward from E = 0 to the potential energy
curve.
12
0.2 eV E3
0.5eV E2
1.1 eV E1
2.3 eV E0

(b) The minimum energy needed to break apart the molecule is the energy required to make Ef = 0. |E| = Ef Ei =

0 (2.3 eV) = 2.3 eV. So 2.3 eV of energy is needed to break apart the molecule.
(c) The possible transitions for this molecule are shown in the energy level diagram in Figure 11.
The emitted photons have the following energies:

= E0 E3 = |2.3 eV + 0.2 eV| = 2.1 eV

E0,3

= E0 E2 = |2.3 eV + 0.5 eV| = 1.8 eV

E0,2

= E0 E1 = |2.3 eV + 1.1 eV| = 1.2 eV

E0,1

= E2 E3 = |0.5 eV + 0.2 eV| = 0.3 eV

E2,3

= E1 E3 = |1.1 eV + 0.2 eV| = 0.9 eV

E1,3

= E1 E2 = |1.1 eV + 0.5 eV| = 0.6 eV

E1,2
(d) The total rest energy of a molecule is E = mmolecule c2 where mmolecule is the inertial mass of the molecule. the total
energy can also be written as
E = m1 c2 + m2 c2 + U + K
Where m1 c2 and m2 c2 are the rest energies of the atoms that form the molecule. There is a difference in the inertial
mass of the molecule in the two states due to the difference in binding energy (U + K). The difference in inertial mass
is
mmolecule c2 = E3,0
= 0.2 eV + 2.3 eV
= 2.1 eV
eV
mmolecule = 2.1 2
c
13
This is an acceptable form of the answer; however, it can be converted to kg.
19
(2.1 eV)( 1.610
1 eV
J
)
mmolecule = 8 2 2
(3 10 m/s )
= 3.73 1036 kg
Note: this mass difference is quite small. For comparison, consider the mass of the proton, which is 1.67 1027 kg.
The mass difference for the molecule for these two energy states is 4.510
1
8 , the mass of a proton. Thats almost a
billionth of the mass of a proton.
8.P.28
First, sketch a diagram of the energy levels and the transitions that emit a photon. (See Figure 12.)
1 eV E3
3 eV E2
6 eV E1
12 eV E0
The emitted photons have the following energies:

= E 0 E3 = |12 eV + 1 eV| = 11 eV

E0,3

= E 1 E3 = |6 eV + 1 eV| = 5 eV

E1,3

= E 2 E3 = |3 eV + 1 eV| = 2 eV

E2,3

= E 0 E2 = |12 eV + 3 eV| = 9 eV

E0,2

= E 1 E2 = |6 eV + 3 eV| = 3 eV

E1,2

= E 0 E1 = |12 eV + 6 eV| = 6 eV

E0,1

For absorption when all atoms are in the ground state, the only transitions possible are E1,0 = 6 eV, E2,0 = 9 eV, and

E3,0 = 11 eV. The absorbed photons have energies 6 eV, 9 eV, and 11 eV.

8.P.29
14
(a) The differences in the energy levels must correspond to the energies of the emitted photons. One possible set of levels
is shown in Figure 13.
E 02.8 eV=E3
2.0 eV 2.5 eV 2.8 eV
E 00.8 eV=E2
0.8 eV 0.5 eV
E 00.3 eV=E1
0.3 eV
E0
The ground state is E0 , the first excited state is E1 = E0 + 0.3 eV, the second excited state E2 = E0 + 0.8 eV, and the
third excited state is E3 = E0 + 2.8 eV.
(b) No, because the energy levels are not equally spaced.
(c) Since all quantum objects are in the ground state, the only absorption lines occur for transitions from the ground state.
In this case, they are: 0.3 eV, 0.8 eV, and 2.8 eV.
8.X.30
q
k
It is impossible for a quantum oscillator to gain an amount of energy 21 ~ ms since the difference in energy levels is twice
q
k
this value, or ~ ms . As a result, the oscillators energy remains the same and its amplitude remains the same.
8.X.31
Frequeny is independent of amplitude for both a classical and quantum oscillator. If you increase the energy (and amplitude)
of an oscillator, it still oscillates with the same frequency.
8.X.32
The similarities in the energy levels are that (1) they are equally spaced from the next higher or next lower energy levels and
(2) the
q oscillator will oscillate with the same frequency regardless of the energy level. Frequency of oscillation is given by
ks
= m which only depends on the stiffness and mass.
The differences in the energy levels are that (1) they have different energies (of course) and (2) the oscillator will oscillate at
different amplitudes at the different energy levels. A greater energy results in a greater amplitude, since E = 12 ks A2 . Due to
the greater total energy, the oscillator will have greater kinetic energy for a given stretch s at the higher energy level.
8.X.33
(a) 1
(b) 4
15
(c) 5
(d) 2
(e) 7
(f) 3
(g) 6
8.P.34
(a)
r
k
0 =
m
s
N
50kg
=
4 1026 kg
rad
= 3.5 1013
s
For a quantum oscillator, the difference in successive energy levels is
E = ~0

rad
= (6.58 1016 eV s) 3.5 1013
s
= 0.023 eV
Note that this is in the IR range of the electromagnetic spectrum.

(b) According to E = mc2 , a change in energy E results in a change in mass.
E
m =
c2
1.61019 J
(0.023 eV) 1 eV
=
(3 108 m/s)2
= 4.1 1038 kg
This is very small. The mass of a proton is 1.7 1027 kg. Thus, the change in mass is only 1
41010 the mass of a
proton. Thats one forty billionth of the mass of a proton - exceedingly small indeed.
(c) Sketch an energy level diagram like the one shown in Figure 14.
The levels are equally spaced. As a result, there are only three unique photon energies of emitted photons. They are
~0 , 2~0 , and 3~0 , which results in energies of 0.023 eV, 0.046 eV, and 0.069 eV.
8.P.35
16
E0
Figure 14: An energy level diagram.
(a) Use the mass of a H atom and neglect the mass of the Cl atom. Because the Cl atom has an atomic mass of 35.5 mol g
,
it oscillates with a very small amplitude. The atom that really oscillates is the H atom, which has a much smaller
mass of 1 molg
. One can calculate the reduced mass using
m1 m2
=
m1 + m2
g g

1 mol 35.5 mol
= g g
1 mol + 35.5 mol
g
= 0.97
mol
But note that this is quite close to the mass of the H atom. So just use the mass of H. Convert this to kg.

kg 1 mol
0.001 = 1.7 1027 kg
mol 6 1023 atoms
For bond stiffness, use an approximate value based on the bond stiffness calculated in Chapter 4 for copper, gold,
aluminum, etc. which were between 5 mN
and 30 mN
. HCl might have a stiffness in this region. Lets make an educated
approximation of 10 m .
N
The energy spacing in this case is
E = ~0
s
N
10 m
= (6.58 1016 eV s)
1.7 1023 kg
= 0.05 eV
This is in the IR region, which is expected for vibrational spectra. If the molecule absorbs or emits a photon, then the
lowest energy photon it can absorb (or emit) is 0.05 eV.
We can use experimental data to check our approximation. A HCl molecule absorbs a photon of about 3.47 m
wavelength. This corresponds to a photon energy of
17
E = hf
hc
=

(4.14 1015 eV s)(3 108 m/s)
=
3.47 106 m
= 0.36 eV
This is about 7 times larger than our approximation. Thus, our estimate for ks was about 50 times too small. HCl is
bonded much more strongly than atoms in a typical solid.
(b) For an ideal quantum oscillator, emitted photons would have energies ~0 , 2~0 , 3~0 , etc. If ~0 = 0.05 eV, then
emitted photons would have energies 0.05 eV, 0.1 eV, 1.5 eV, etc. These are in the IR region.
8.P.36
(a) Treat an iron atom and bond

q as a quantum oscillator. Its lowest energy transition (and thus lowest energy photon
k
emitted) is E = ~0 = ~ ms where ks is the stiffness of an iron bond and m is the mass of an iron atom. The mass
of an Fe atom is

kg 1 mol
0.0558 = 9.3 1026 kg
mol 6.02 1023 atoms
The stiffness of a bond is found using the technique learned in Chapter 4. See the solution to 4.P.52. For iron, ks = 46 N
m
r
k
0 =
m
s
N
46 m
=
9.3 1026 kg
rad
= 2.2 1013
s
E = ~0

rad
= (6.58 1016 eV s) 2.2 1013
s
= 0.015 eV
This is the lowest energy emission line and is in the IR region of the spectrum.
(b) The highest energy emission line is in the red region of the spectrum since the bar glows a dull red. If there were blue
or green photons, for example, the bar would appear orange or yellow or white, a combination of the visible photons.
Since red is approximately 1.8 eV, then the highest energy photons emitted are about 1.8 eV.
18
(c)
E = E0 + N ~
For large N , E N ~, so N is
E
N
~
1.8 eV

0.015 eV
120
(d) Other energies are 2~, 3~, 4~, etc. So other emitted photons have energies:
2(0.015 eV) = 0.03 eV

3(0.015 eV) = 0.045 eV
4(0.015 eV) = 0.06 eV
etc.
1
9.X.1
~ +M R
M1 R ~ +M R ~
1 2 2 3 3
~rCM =
M1 + M2 + M1
(3 kg)h10, 20, 5i m + (5 kg)h4, 15, 8i m + (6 kg)h7, 10, 9i m
=
3 kg + 5 kg + 6 kg
h0.571, 3.21, 5.64i m
9.X.2 Take the origin to be at Earths center.
~
MEarth R ~
+ MMoon R
Earth Moon
~rCM =
MEarth + MMoon
24 22
D 8
E
(6 10 kg)h0, 0, 0i m + (7 10 kg) 4 10 , 0, 0 m
=
6 1024 kg + 7 1022 kg
D 6
E
4.6 10 , 0, 0 m
9.X.3 Both pucks are subject to the same net force, so their centers of mass will behave identically. The bottom puck will
rotate, and will therefore have rotational kinetic energy whereas the first puck will only have translational kinetic energy.
9.X.4 Just after applying the net force, the rate of change of the sticks momentum is 6 N to the right. The sticks initial
~
Fnet m/s
acceleration is just m or 20 s .
9.X.5
1 2
Krot = I
2
1 2
19 kg m2 (70 rad/s)

=
2
4
4.7 10 J
9.X.6 Neglect the rods very low mass, so we only have to worry about the balls moments of inertia.
1 2 1
Krot = I = 2Iball 2
2 2
2
(0.8 kg)(0.175 m)2 (40 rad/s)

=
39.2 J
9.X.7
2
(a)
1
I = m2
12
1
= (1.2 kg)(0.7 m)2
12
= 0.049 kg m2
1 2
Krot = I
2
1 rad 2
= (0.049 kg m2 )(50 )
2 s
= 61.3 J
(b)
1
Ktrans = mv2
2 CM
1
= (1.2 kg)(8 m/s)2
2
= 38.4 J
Ktotal = Krot + Ktrans

= 99.7 J
9.X.8
1 2
Krot = I
2
1 1 2
= ( M R2 )( )2
2 2 t
1 2 2
= (10 kg)(0.4 m)2 ( )
4 0.2 s
= 395 J
9.X.9
1 2
Krot = I
2
1 2 2
= ( M R2 )( )2
2 5 t
1 2 2 2
= ( )(10 kg)(0.4 m)2 ( )
2 5 0.2 s
= 316 J
3
9.X.10
(a) This situation is a lot like the Moon orbiting Earth. Think of the sphere as rotating about its center of mass and
orbiting the center of the circle at a distance d. If you were standing at the center of the circle of distance d, you would
see the same side of the sphere at all times. Thats because the period of rotation (i.e. spin) about its axis is equal to
the period of revolution (i.e. orbit) about the center of the circle. (I encourage you to draw a picture and verify that
this is the case.) Thus, rot = orbit , and the angular speed of its orbit about the center of the circle is
v
=
d
(b)
1
Krot = I 2
2 CM 2
1 2 2 v
= MR
2 5 d2
2
1 v
= M R2 2
5 d
(c)
Ktot = Ktrans + Krot

1 1 R2
= M v2 + M 2 v2
2 5 d 2
1 2 2R
= Mv 1 +
2 5 d2
9.X.11
In this case, the real system of the block only has translational kinetic energy. There is no change in rotational kinetic energy,
thermal energy, etc. for the real system. Thus the block, in terms of energy, is like a point particle.
9.X.12
(a)
px
Fnet,x =
t
m(vf,x vi,x )
Fground,x =
t
(50 kg)(10 m/s)
=
3s
= 167 N
4
(b) The point of contact between the shoe and the ground does not move and thus its displacement is zero (if no slipping).
As a result, the ground does no work on the runner. On the point particle system, the ground does work of Fx xCM
(0+10 m/s)
where xCM is the displacement of the point particle system. xCM = vavg,x t = 2 (3 s) = 15 m.
~F ~r = Fground,x xCM
net CM
= (167 N)(15 m)
= 2505 J
2500 J
(c) Apply the Energy Principle to the real system of the runner.
E = W
Ktrans + Einternal = 0
Einternal = Ktrans
= 2500 J
The internal energy of the runner changes due to a decrease in chemical energy and a slight increase in thermal energy.
So it is the chemical energy of the runner that decreases a little more than 2500 J.
9.X.13
The motion of an atom in the block can be described by a superposition of the center of mass motion of the block and the
atoms vibrational motion relative to the center of mass. As the block is falling, the atom has a downward acceleration to the
center of mass and also oscillates. After the falling block collides with the other block, it will come to rest. The large-scale
vibrations dampen out, leaving the atoms in the block oscillating with greater amplitude than before the collision. The
large-scale vibrations damp due to interactions with the other block and the air. Consider this to be a type of drag that
reduces the large-scale vibrations and increases the atomic vibrations within the blocks.
9.X.14
A simple example is a diatomic molecule. The center of mass is at a point between the two atoms.
9.X.15
Place the origin at the intersection of the L-shaped object. Treat each piece as a point particle at the center of the piece and
label them 1 (vertical piece) and 2 (horizontal piece).
The center of mass x-position is at

5
m1 x1 + m2 x2
xCM =
m1 + m2
m(x1 + x2 )
=
2m
1
= (x + x2 )
2 1
1 L
= (0 + )
2 2
L
=
4
The y-position of the center of mass is at
1
yCM = (y + y2 )
2 1
1 L
= ( + 0)
2 2
L
=
4
Thus, the center of mass is at ~rCM =< L L

4, 4 >.
Now define the origin to be at the right end of the horizontal piece.
1
xCM = (x + x2 )
2 1
1 L
= (L )
2 2
3
= L
4
1
yCM = (y + y2 )
2 1
1 L
= ( + 0)
2 2
L
=
4
So ~rCM =< 43 L, L4 >. This is at the same location, relative to the pieces, as the first case when the origin was at the left
end of the horizontal piece.
9.X.16
Because they have equal speeds in opposite directions and because their masses are equal, the center of mass velocity of the
system is zero.
6
m1 ~v1,i + m2 v2,i
~vCM,i =
m1 + m2
m(~v1,i + ~v2,i )
=
2m
1
= (~v + ~v2,i )
2 1,i
= 0
After they rotate 90 , the center of mass velocity is still zero. A sketch of the center of mass motion is quite simple. It
doesnt move. It is stationary. The center of mass position is constant.
9.X.17
A piece of paper can be treated as a point particle when applying the Momenum Principle. There are two forces on the paper:
(1) the force by air resistance and (2) the gravitational force by Earth. These same two forces act on the ball; however, the
force of air resistance depends on properties of the paper or ball, such as its cross-sectional area. Both objects can be treated
as point particles and the Momentum Principle correctly predicts the motion of both objects. However, they do not fall with
the same motion because the net force on each object is not the same.
Sometimes a falling piece of flat paper cannot be described as a point particle because of its bending or air currents or
turbulence as air flows around it. You may see a falling piece of paper float side to side as it falls, for example. In this case,
you cannot treat the paper as a point particle. One must consider forces at different locations on the paper, and its motion
may be quite difficult to describe.
9.X.18
No, not really. Though with air resistance, shape is important, we modeled the spacecraft after it left Earths atmosphere.
And though gravitational force depends on distance, the difference in distance between Earth and the back of the spaceship
and the front of the spaceship is negligible. Therefore the spaceship can be treated as a point particle when applying the
Momentum Principle.
9.X.19
(a)
~ptotal = m1 ~v1 + m2 ~v2 + m3 ~v3

= (2 kg)h8, 6, 15i m/s + (6 kg)h12, 9, 6i m/s + (4 kg)h24, 34, 23i m/s
= h152, 178, 86i kg m/s
(b)
~ptot
~vCM =
M
h152, 178, 86i kg m/s
=
(2 kg + 6 kg + 4 kg)
= h12.7, 14.8, 7.17i m/s
7
(c)
Ktot = K1 + K2 + K3
1 1 1
= m1 v12 + m2 v22 + m3 v32
2 2 2
1 1 1
= (2 kg)(18.0 m/s) + (6 kg)(16.2 m/s)2 + (4 kg)(47.6 m/s)2
2
2 2 2
= 324 J + 787 J + 4532 J
= 5643 J
(d)
1
Ktrans = M v2
2 CM
q 2
1 2 2 2
= (2 kg + 6 kg + 4 kg) (12.7 m/s) + (14.8 m/s) + (7.17 m/s)
2
1
= (12 kg)(20.8 m/s)2
2
= 2590 J
(e)
Ktot = Ktrans + Krel
Krel = Ktot Ktrans
= 5643 J 2590 J
= 3053 J
9.P.20
(a) Place the origin at the man (m1 ). Then,
m 1 x1 + m 2 x2 + m 3 x3
xCM =
m1 + m2 + m3
0 + (50 kg)(5 m) + (30 kg)(2.5 m)
=
(80 kg + 50 kg + 30 kg)
= 2.03 m
Assume that the net force on the canoe is zero. Then its center of mass momentum (and velocity) remains constant,
which is zero in this case. So the center of mass of the system remains stationary.
Place the origin at the left end of the canoe and the center of mass is at
m1 x1 + m2 x2 + m3 x3
xCM =
m1 + m2 + m3
(80 kg)(2.5 m) + (50 kg)(5 m) + (30 kg)(2.5 m)
=
(80 kg + 50 kg + 30 kg)
= 3.28 m
8
At first, the center of mass was 2.03 m from the left end. Now the center of mass is 3.28 m from the left end. The
center of mass never moved! However, the left end moved 1.25 m to the left as the man walked 1.25 m to the right.
9.P.21
(a) Take system = both stars. In the absence of external forces, the center of mass will move through space with constant
velocity.
(b) The circles mutual center must be the location of the center of mass. M1 must be greater than M2 because the center
of mass lies closer to the more massive star.
(c) Take system = star 1 and apply the momentum principle for uniform circular motion assuming a speed much smaller
than that of light.

d~p1 GM1 M2
dt = (R + R )2

1 2
2
~v1 M1 ~v1
= ~p1
R1 R1
4 2 M1 R1

T2
Solving for M2 gives
2
4 2(R1 +R2 ) R1
M2
T2
12 11
4 2 (1.5 10 m)2 (6 10 m)
2
(40 yr) (3.15 107 s/yr)
29
5 10 kg
29
(d) Take system = star 2 and carry out a similar analysis. The result should be M2 7.5 10 kg. Indirectly measuring
stellar masses this way is extremely important in astronomy and astrophysics.
9.P.22
(a)
~psys = ~p1 + ~p2

= (5 kg)h8, 14, 0i m/s + (3 kg)h5, 9, 0i m/s
h25, 97, 0i kg m/s
(b)
m1 ~v1 + m2 ~v2
~vCM =
m1 + m2
(5 kg)h8, 14, 0i m/s + (3 kg)h5, 9, 0i m/s
=
8 kg
h3.125, 12.125, 0i m/s
9
(c)
1 2 1 2
Ktot = m1 ~v1 + m2 ~v2
2 2
1 1
= (5 kg)(260 m2 /s2 ) + (3 kg)(106 m2 /s2 )
2 2
809 J
(d)
1 2
Ktrans = (m1 + m2 ) ~v2
2
1
= (8 kg)(213.03 m2 /s2 )
2
627.125 J
(e) Krel = Ktot Ktrans 181.875 J
(f) For m1 :
~vrel = ~v1 ~vCM h4.875, 1.875, 0i m/s

1
Krel = (5 kg)(27.281 m2 /s2 )
2
68.203 J
For m2 :
~vrel = ~v2 ~vCM h8.125, 3.125, 0i m/s

1
Krel = (3 kg)(75.781 m2 /s2 )
2
113.672 J
These two values of Krel should sum to the value from part (e).
9.X.23
1 2
Krot = I
2
2Krot
I =
2
2(50 J)
=
(12 rad
s )
2
= 0.69 kg m2
9.X.24
10
1
Idisc = M R2
2
1 2
Krot = I
2
2
1 1 2
= M R2
2 2 T
2
1 2 2
= (13 kg) (0.2 m)
4 0.6 s
= 14.3 J
9.X.25
(a)
2
Isphere = M R2
5
2
= (22 kg)(0.7 m)2
5
= 4.31 kg m2
2
=
t
2
=
0.5 s
rad
= 12.6
s
1 2
Krot = I
2
= 340 J
(b)
1
Ktrans = mv2
2 CM
1
= (22 kg)(4 m/s)2
2
= 176 J
9.X.26
11
2
=
0.03 s
rad
= 209
s
1 1
I = M L2 + M R 2
12 4
1 1
= (5 kg)(0.7 m)2 + (5 kg)(0.08 m)2
12 4
= 0.204 kg m2 + 0.008 kg m2
= 0.212 kg m2
1 2
Krot = I
2
= 4630 J
9.X.27
The system is the disk.
W = E
W = *0
Krot,f Krot,i

Krot,f = W
= (25 N)(0.6 m)
= 15 J
1
I = M R2
2
1
= (6 kg)(0.3 m)2
2
= 0.27 kg m2
12
1 2
Krot = I
2
r
2Krot
=
I
s
2(153)
=
0.27 kg m2
rad
= 10.5
s
9.P.28
2 |~r | 11
4
(a) ~vCM = ES
= 21.510 m
2.99 10 m/s

T 3.15107 s
2 24 4 33
(b) Ktrans = 21 MEarth ~vCM = 12 (6 10 kg)(2.99 10 m/s)2 2.686 10 J

5
(c) = 2
Trot = 2
86400 s 7.27 10 rad/s
(d)
1 2 1
Krot = I = MEarth R2 2
2 5 Earth
1 24 6 5
= (6 10 kg)(6.4 10 m)2 (7.27 10 rad/s)2
5
29
2.60 10 J
33
(e) Ktot = Krot + Ktrans 2.69 10 J
9.P.28
Consider the disk to be made up of thin strips with radius r and width dr. Each strip has a mass dm equal to its area,
2r dr, multiplied by its (uniform!) mass per area, . Thus dm = 2r dr. Each strip contributes an amount dI to the
moment of inertia.
dI = r2 dm = 2r3 dr
Z Z r=R
I = dI = 2 r3 dr
r=0

1 4 1 M
= 2 R = R4
4 2 R2
1
= M R2
2
9.X.30
The energy equation for the point particle system differs from the energy equation for the real system when the system is
deformable, meaning that it changes shape during the interaction. They also differ when the system undergoes changes in
thermal energy due to work done by friction or drag, for example.
Two such examples are:
13
(1) A skater pushes off from a wall. (system is the skater)
(2) A skydiver falls at terminal speed through the air. (system is the skydiver)
An example where the two energy equations give the same result is an orbit of a satellite orbiting a planet, where the system
is the satellite. Whether you treat the satellite as a point particle or as being made of many smaller particles (the real
system), the energy equations will look the same.
9.X.31
There is no work done on the tire by the force of the road on the tire because the displacement of the point of application of
this force is zero. The source of the energy that increases the cars translational kinetic energy is the chemical energy stored
in the fuel.
9.X.32
(a) To find the change in translational kinetic energy, define the system to be the yo-yo and treat it as a point particle.
Apply the Energy Principle to this point particle system, a point located at the center of mass of the yo-yo.
Ktrans = ~Fnet ~rCM

= (~Fhand + ~Fgrav ) ~rCM
= (Fhand,y mg)y
N
= (0.235 N (0.025 kg)(9.8 ))(0.7 m)
kg
= 0.007 J
(b)
Ktrans = Kf Ki
Kf = Ktrans + Ki
1
= 0.007 J + m(0.5 m/s)2
2
= 0.007 J + 0.003125 J
= 0.0101 J
1
Kf = mv2
2
s
f
2(0.0101 J)
vf =
0.025 kg
= 0.90 m/s
(c) Define the system to be the yo-yo. This is the real system. Apply the Energy Principle.
14
E = W
Ktrans + Krot = Whand + Wgrav
Ktrans + Krot = ~Fhand ~rhand + ~Fgrav + ~rCM
Ktrans + Krot = Fhand,y yhand + (mg)yCM
0.007 J + Krot = (0.235 N)(0.18 m) + (0.245 N)(0.7 m)
0.007 J + Krot = 0.0423 J + 0.1715 J
Krot = 0.207 J
(d)
Krot = Krot,f Krot,i
Krot,f = Krot + Krot,i
1
= Krot + Idisk 2
2 i
1 1
= 0.207 J + ( M R2 ) 2
2 2 i
1 rad 2
= 0.207 J + (0.025 kg)(0.02 m)2 (124 )
4 s
= 0.245 J
1 2
Krot = I
2
s
2Krot,f
2 =
f I
s
2Krot,f
= 1 2
2MR
rad
= 313
s
9.P.33
(a) system = point particle system

Ktrans =
Wext
~
Ktrans,f = Fnet ~rCM
1 2
M ~vCM = ~Fnet ~rCM

2 v
u
u 2 ~F ~r
t net CM
~vCM =

M
s
2(9 N)(0.11 m)
=
2.1 kg
0.971 m/s
15
(b) system = real system

Ktrans + Krot = ~Fhand ~rhand

Ktrans,f + Krot,f = ~Fhand |~rhand | cos(0 )

~F ~r + K = ~Fhand |~rhand |

net CM rot,f

Krot,f = ~Fhand |~rhand | ~Fnet ~rCM

= ~Fhand |~rhand | ~rCM

= (9 N)(0.28 m 0.11 m) 1.53 J
(c)
1 2
Krot = I
2
2Krot 2(1.53 J)
2 0.0544 kg m
2
I = =
2 (7.5 rad/s)
9.P.34
(a)
Ktrans = ~Fnet ~rCM
= Fx xCM
= (50 N)(1.9 m + 1.3 m)
= (50 N)(3.2 m)
= 160 J
1
Kf = 160 J = mv2
s 2 CM
2(160 J)
vCM =
7 kg
= 6.76 m/s
(b)
E = W
= Fx xhand
= (50 N)(4.5 m)
= 225 J
(c)
E = Ktrans + Einternal
Einternal = E Ktrans
= 225 J 160 J
= 65 J
16
9.X.35
(a) As Tarzan is falling,
Ktrans = ~Fnet ~rCM

= ~Fgrav ~rCM
= (mg)(yCM )
N
= (100 kg)(9.8 )(2.1 m)
kg
= 2058 J
Ktrans = Ktrans,f Ktrans,i

1
Ktrans,f = mv2
2
s
CM,f
2(2058 J)
vCM,f =
100 kg
= 6.42 m/s
(b) As Tarzan is landing and slowing down,
E = W
Ktrans + Eint = Wgrav + Wground
0
Ktrans + Eint = (mg)yCM + Fground
y :

ground
Ktrans + Eint = (mg)yCM

N
2058 J + Eint = (100 kg)(9.8 )(0.3 m)
kg
2058 J + Eint = 294 J
Eint = 2058 J + 294 J
= 2352 J
So Eint 2350 J for Tarzan.
9.P.36
(a) Here is sample data:

mass: m = 50 kg crouched position: y = 0.5 m standing position: y = 0.8 m top of jump: y = 1.2 m
Note that this is a fairly high vertical leap for a fairly small mass person. Sign her up for the high jump in track and
field!
17
(b) Calculate the jumpers speed when leaving the floor. Apply the Energy Principle to the jumper while the jumper is in
the air. Treat the jumper as a point particle.
Ktrans = ~Fnet ~rCM

0
Kf
Ki = (mg)yCM
1
mv2 = mgyCM
2 i
q
vi = 2gyCM
s
N
= 2(9.8 )(0.4 m)
kg
= 2.8 m/s
Calculate the force by the floor on the jumper. Apply the Energy Principle to the jumper while the jumper is in contact
with the floor. Treat the jumper as a point particle. Assume a constant force by the floor on the jumper.
Ktrans = ~Fnet ~rCM

0
Kf K
i
= (~Ffloor + ~Fgrav ) ~rCM
Kf = (Ff loor,y mg)(yCM )
1
mv2 = (Ff loor,y mg)(yCM )
2 f
1 N
(50 kg)(2.8 m/s)2 = (Ff loor,y (50 kg)(9.8 ))(0.3 m)
2 kg
196 J = (Ff loor,y 490 N)(0.3 m)
Ff loor,y = 1143 N
Note that it is larger than the persons weight (490 N), which is required for upward acceleration. Also, this force does
no work on the jumper because the floor and feet are stationary during the interaction (the point of contact is not
displaced). Apply the Energy Principle to the real system (while in contact with the floor) to calculate the change in
internal energy of the jumper.
E = W
:0
Ktrans + Eint = Ff
loor,y
yfloor
+ Fgrav,y yCM

196 J + Eint = (mg)(0.3 m)
196 J + Eint = 147 J
Eint = 147 J 196 J
= 343 J
The time interval that the person is in contact with the ground can be found from the Momentum Principle applied to
the jumper. Assume a constant net force.
18
~F ~p
=
net
t
m(vf,y vi,y )
Ff loor,y mg =
t
(50 kg)(2.8 m/s 0)
1143 N 490 N =
t
t = 0.21 s
9.P.37
(a) An skaters reasonable bench press would be about 100 lb, or 400 N. Assume that her arms are about 0.5 m long,
and her mass is about 50 kg. Apply the Energy Principle to point particle system. Assume that she starts from rest.
Ktrans = ~Fnet ~r
Ktrans,f = F xCM
1
mv 2 = F xCM
2 CM,f r
2F xCM
vCM,f =
s m
2(400 N)(0.5 m)

50 kg
2.8 m/s
The worlds fastest sprinters run 100 m in 10 s for an average speed of 10 m/s. Thus, the skater pushing herself off the
wall will surely be moving at a speed less than a sprinter. The calculated speed seems reasonable.
Her average speed while pushing is
vx,i + vx,f
vavg,x =
2
0 + 2.8 m/s
=
2
= 1.4 m/s
The time interval during the push is found by
x
vavg,x =
t
0.5 m
t =
1.4 m/s
= 0.36 s
Her acceleration is
19
~v
ax =
t
2.8 m/s
=
0.36 s
= 7.8 m/s2
Her acceleration is about 0.8g.
(b) Apply the Energy Principle to the woman. Neglect Q. Note that the wall does no work on the woman because the
point of application of the force is not displaced.
Esys = W
Ktrans + Einternal = 0
Einternal = Ktrans
= F xCM
= (400 N)(0.5 m)
= 200 J
Her change in internal energy includes a change in chemical potential energy and a change in temperature. Since her
temperature may increase slightly as a result of this physical exertion, then her chemical potential energy decreases
slightly more than 200 J.
9.P.38
(a) Apply the Energy Principle to the hoop. Define the system to be the hoop. The ramp does zero work on the hoop
since the point of application of the force has zero displacement (i.e. the wheel rolls without slipping).
E = W
:0
Ktrans + Krot = ~Fgrav ~rCM + ~Framp

~rramp

Ktrans + Krot = M g(h)
Ktrans,f Ktrans,i + Krot,f Krot,i = M gh
1 1 1 1
M v 2 M v 2 + M R2 2 M R2 2 = M gh
2 f 2 i 2 f 2 i
2 2
1 1 1 v 1 v
M v2 M v2 + M R2 f2 M R2 i2 = M gh
2 f 2 i 2 R 2 R
M v2 M v2 = M gh
f i
v2 v2 = gh
f i
q
vf = gh + v2
i
(b) The total mass is M + m. The moment of inertia of the wheel and hub is
20
I = Idisk + Ihoop
1 2
= mr + M R2
2
To calculate the answer, we need to know the radius of the hub, r. Lets assume that r << R and m is not negligible.
Then, I M R2 , the moment of inertia of the hoop, though the total mass is M + m.
From part (a),
Ktrans,f Ktrans,i + Krot,f Krot,i = (M + m)gh

1 1 1 1
(M + m)v2 (M + m)v2 + M v2 M v2 = (M + m)gh
2 f 2 i 2 f 2 i
1 1
(M + m)v (M + m)v2
2
= (M + m)gh
2 f 2 i
! 12
(M + m)gh + (M + 12 m)v2
i
vf =
M + 12 m
Check the answer by examining limiting cases. For example, if m << M , then we should get the answer in part (a).
! 12
(M + 0)gh + (M + 0)v2
i
vf =
M +0
1
= (gh + v2 ) 2
i
Great! Now see what happens if m >> M . Then it should be similar to a disk sliding down a frictionless hill. Lets
see what we get.
! 12
mgh + 21 mv2
i
vf = 1
2m
1
vf = (2gh + v2 ) 2
i
Yes! This is what we expect for a particle sliding down a frictionless hill (no rolling).
9.P.39
(a) Apply the Energy Principle to the object. The object is the system.
21
E = W
Ktrans + Krot = ~Fgrav rCM
Ktrans,f + Krot,f = (M g)(h)
1 1
M v2 + I 2 = M gh
2 CM,f 2 f
2
1 2 1 vCM,f
Mv + I = M gh
2 CM,f 2 R2
1 2 I
v (M + 2 ) = M gh
2 CM,f R
! 21
2M gh
vCM,f =
M + RI2
(b) For a hollow cylinder, I = M R2 .
! 12
2M gh
vCM,f = 2
M + MRR2
p
vCM,f = gh
This agrees with the results of problem 9.P.38(a) with an initial speed of zero.
(c) For a solid cylinder, I = 21 M R2 .
! 12
2M gh
vCM,f =
M + RI2
12
2M gh
=
M + 12 M
r
4
vCM,f = gh
3
9.P.40
(a) Apply the Energy Principle to the point-particle system.
Ktrans = ~Fnet ~rCM

Ktrans = FxCM
1
(2M )v2 = Fb
2 CM,f
r
Fb
vCM,f =
M
22
(b) Apply the Energy Principle to the real system.
E = W
Ktrans + Eint = FxF
Fb + Eint = Fd
Eint = F(d b)
9.P.41
(a) Apply the Energy Principle. Consider yourself to be the system. Define the initial state to be hanging from the tree.
Define the final state to be the moment your feet touch the ground.
E = W
Ktrans = ~F grav
~rCM
Ktrans = (mg)(d)
Kf = mgd
Apply the Energy Principle to yourself as you are landing and coming to rest. The ground does no work on you because
the point of application of the force has zero displacement.
E = W
Ktrans + Eint ~
= Fgrav ~rCM
mgd + Eint = (mg)(h d b)
mgd + Eint = mg(h d b)
Eint = mgd + mg(h d b)
Eint = mg(h b)
Note that this is the same result as if the initial state is defined as when you are hanging at rest from the tree.
(b) See the solution to part (a).
1
K = mgd = mv2
p 2
v = 2gd
(c) Apply the Energy Principle to yourself as you are landing. Use the point particle system.
23
Ktrans = ~Fnet R
~
CM
mgd = (Fground,y mg)yCM

mgd = (Fground,y mg)((h d b))
mgd = (Fground,y mg)(h d b)
mgd
Fground,y = + mg
(h d b)
Note that the y-component of the force of the ground on you is positive (upward), which makes sense, and its units
are the same units as mg (newtons). Finally, it is greater than mg which must be true since you have an upward
acceleration (and an upward net force on you) while landing. Use techniques like this to check your solution.
(d) This force does zero work since the displacement of the point of contact is zero.
9.P.42
(a) Apply the Energy Principle to the box. Treat it as a point particle.
Ktrans = ~Fnet ~rCM

Kf Ki = FxCM
1 1
M v2 + M v2 = Fw
2 f 2 i
! 12
2Fw + M v2
i
vf =
M
12
2Fw
vf = + v2
M i
(b) Use the Energy Principle for the real system to find the rotational kinetic energy of the apparatus.
E = W
Ktrans + Krot = ~F net
~rhand
Fw + Krot = F(w + d)
Krot = F(w + d) Fw
Krot = Fd
1 2 1 2
I I = Fd
2 f 2 i
12
2Fd 2
f = +
I i
Note that I = 3mr2 , so
12
2Fd
f = + 2
3mr2 i
24
9.P.43
(a)
1
xCM,i = (0 + 0.6 m)
2
= 0.3 m
(b)
1
xCM,f = (0.2 m + 2.0 m)
2
= 1.1 m
(c)
xCM = 1.1 m 0.3 m

= 0.8 m
(d)
xCM,i = 0.3 m
(e)
xCM,f = 0.8 m
(f)
xCM = 0.8 m
(g)
xCM = 0.8 m
(h)
W = ~Fnet ~rCM
= FxCM
= (100 N)(0.8 m)
= 80 J
(i) A point particle only has translational kinetic energy, so only translational kinetic energy changes.
25
(j)
Ktrans = ~Fnet ~rCM

= 80 J
(k) Ktrans,i = 0, so Ktrans,f = Ktrans = 80 J
(l) The total mass is 2(0.4 kg) = 0.8 kg.
(m)
1
M v2 = Kf
2 f
s
2(80 J)
vf =
0.8 kg
= 14 m/s
(n) The force F acts through a displacement equal to the displacement of the right block, which is 2.0 m 0.6 m = 1.4 m.
(o)
E = W
= ~F ~rF
= 140 J
(p) Ei = 0, so Ef = E = 140 J.
(q) It was calculated in part (j) to be 80 J.
(r) It was calculated in part (m) to be 14 m/s.
(s)
E = W
Ktrans + Kvib + Us = 140 J
Ktrans + Evib = 140 J
Evib = 140 J 80 J
= 60 J
(t)
1 2
Uf = ks
2 f
1 N
= (50 )(1.8 m 0.6 m)2
2 m
= 36 J
26
(u)
Evib = Kvib + Uvib

60 J = Kvib + 36 J
Kvib = 24 J
Since Kvib,i = 0, then Kvib,f = 24 J
9.P.44
(a) For the point particle system,
Ktrans = ~Fnet ~rCM

Ktrans = (F 2M g)yCM
Ktrans = (F 2M g)(yCM,f yCM,i )
Note that yCM,f = 21 (0.5 m + 1.2 m) = 0.85 m and yCM,i = 12 (0.3 m + 0.7 m) = 0.5 m.
N
Ktrans = (167 N 2(5 kg)(9.8 ))(0.85 m 0.5 m)
kg
= (167 N 98 N)(0.35 m)
= 24.2 J
(b) For the real system,
E = W
Ktrans + Evib = ~F grav
rCM + ~Fhand ~rhand
Ktrans + Evib = (2M g)(yCM ) + Fyhand
Ktrans + Evib = (98 N)(0.35 m) + (167 N)(1.2 m 0.7 m)
24.2 J + Evib = 34.3 J + 83.5 J
Evib = 25.0 J
9.P.45
(a) Only translational kinetic energy changes for a point particle.

(b)
yCM = 0.2 m
27
(c)
Fnet,y = Fhand mg
= 130 N 68.6 N
= 61.4 N
(d) It is yCM = 0.2 m.

(e)
W = ~Fnet ~rCM
= (61.4 N)(0.2 m)
= 12.3 J
(f)
Ktrans = ~Fnet ~rCM

= 12.3 J
Since Ktrans,i = 0, then Ktrans,f = 12.3 J.
1
Ktrans,f = M v2
2
s
CM,f
2(12.3 J)
vCM =
7 kg
= 1.87 m/s
(g) A point partice only has translational kinetic energy.

(h) Translational kinetic energy and rotational kinetic energy.
(i)
12.3 J
(j)
yCM = 0.2 m
(k)
Wgrav = ~Fgrav ~rCM

= (mg)y
CM
= (7 kg)(9.8N/kg)(0.2 m)
= 13.7 J
28
(l) yhand = 0.6 m + 0.2 m = 0.8 m.
(m)
Whand = ~Fhand ~rhand

= Fhand,y yhand
= (130 N)(0.8 m)
= 104 J
(n)
E = W
Ktotal = Wgrav + Whand
= 13.7 J + 104 J
= 90.3 J
(o)
Ktotal = Ktrans + Kvib

90.3 J = 12.3 J + Kvib
Kvib = 78 J
9.P.46
(a) The only horizontal force on the box is the frictional force by the belt. Apply the Energy Principle to the box and treat
it as a point particle.
Ktrans = ~Fnet ~rCM

*0
Ktrans,f Ktrans,i = fbelt xCM

1
mv2 = FN,belt d
2
1
mv2 = mgd
2
v2
d =
2g
(b) Apply the Momentum Principle to the box.

29
px
Fnet,x =
t
m(vf,x vi,x )
fbelt =
t
mv
FN,belt =
t
mv
mg +
t
v
t =
g
(c) Apply the Energy Principle to the real system of the box. Neglect Q.
E = W
Ktrans + Etherm = ~F belt
~rbelt
Ktrans + Etherm = fbelt deff
Ktrans + Etherm = FN,belt deff
Ktrans + Etherm = mgdeff
Eeff = mgdeff Ktrans
= mgdeff mgd
= mg(deff d)
Since Etherm > 0 then deff > d.

(d) The box is sliding on the belt. The box only moves a distance d relative to the floor, but the contact point of the belt
and box moves a greater distance deff as the contact point travels a bit further in order to pull the box.
1
10.X.1
(a)
1
Ki = mv2
2 i
1
= (6 kg)(10 m/s)2
2
= 300 J
(b)
pi = pf
mvi = 2mvf
1
vf = v = 5 m/s
2 i
(c)
1
Kf = (2m)(vf )2
2
= (6 kg)(5 m/s)2
= 150 J
(d)
Esys = 0
K + Einternal = 0
Einternal = K
= (150 J 300 J)
= 150 J
10.X.2
~pi = ~pf
~pball,i = ~pEarth,f + ~pball,f
~pEarth,f = ~pball,i ~pball,f
pEarth,f,x = mball vball,i,x mball vball,f,x
= 2mball vball,i,x
2mball vball,i,x
vEarth,f,x =
mEarth
2(0.155 kg)(44 m/s)
=

6 1024 kg
vEarth,f,x
= 2.3 1024 m/s

2
This is too small to measure.
10.X.3
1
KEarth,f = M v2
2 Earth Earth,f
1
= (6 1024 kg)(2.3 1024 m/s)2
2
= 1.6 1023 J
10.X.4
Because the mass of the uranium atom is much greater than the mass of the hydrogen atom, the H atom reflects with a speed
two times the initial speed of the U atom, so
vH,f = 8 104 m/s
10.X.5
The total momentum before the collision has a greater y-component than x-component. Thus, car 1 must have greater mass,
greater speed, or both. Apply the momentum principle in the x and y directions.
x:
pi,x = pf,x
p2 = pf cos 60
y:
pi,y = pf,y
p1 = pf sin 60
p
Solve the above equations for p
1
, which gives
2
p1 pf sin 60
=
p2 pf cos 60
= tan 60
p1
= 3
p2

p1 = 3p2
3
10.X.6
First, calculate ~v1,rel and ~v2,rel , where 1 is the truck and 2 is the car. Define the +x direction to be East. All vectors in this
case are 1-dimensional, so drop the x from all subscripts.
m1 v1 + m2 v2
vCM =
m1 + m2
(3000 kg)(20 m/s) + (1000 kg)(30 m/s)
=
4000 kg
= 7.5 m/s
v1,rel = v1 vCM
= 20 m/s (7.5 m/s) = 12.5 m/s
v2,rel = v2 vCM
= 30 m/s (7.5 m/s) = 37.5 m/s
Ksys is equal to the change in kinetic energy relative to the center of mass since Ktrans = 0 in the CM frame. Krel,f = 0
since the vehicles stick together and are not rotating.
Krel = K *0 K
rel,f rel,i
= Krel,i
= (K1,i + K2,i )
1 2 1 2
= ( m1 v1,res + m1 v1,res )
2 2
1
= ((3000 kg)(12.5 m/s)2 + (1000 kg)(37.5 m/s)2 )
2
= 9.4 105 J
10.X.7
Apply the Momentum Principle. It is non-relativistic motion.

4
~F ~p
=
net
t
~pf = ~pi + ~Fnet t
~F
net
~vf = ~vi + t
m
h30, 0, 0i N
= h0, 20, 0i m/s + (0.2 s)
1.2 kg
= h5, 20, 0i m/s
10.X.8
The momentum of a system is constant if the net external force on the system is zero (and constant). If the net force
has a zero x-component and a non-zero y-component, then the y-momentum will change and the x-momentum will remain
constant. An example is projectile motion with no air resistance.
10.X.9
(a)
~F ~p
=
net
t
m(vf,y vi,y )
Fnet,y =
t
(0.2 kg)(7 m/s (8 m/s))
=
0.5 103 s
= 6000 N
Fnet,y = Ff loor,y mg
Ff loor,y = Fnet,y + mg
N
= 6000 N + (0.2 kg)(9.8 )
kg
= 6000 N + 2 N
= 6002 N
(b)
mg = 2N

(c) ~Ffloor >> ~Fgrav . In fact, mg is negligible and ~Fnet ~Ffloor .

5
10.X.10
(A), (B), (D), and (E)
10.X.11
(B). During the time interval of the collision, ~Fnet 0 and the momentum of the system of two asteroids is conserved.
10.X.12
(C) This is the definition of an elastic collision.
(D) This is also true because if there is no change in these energies, there will be no change in the translational kinetic energy,
assuming that Esys = 0.
10.P.13
(a)
s
M
T = 2
ks
Mg = ks s
Mg
ks =
ss
s
Ms 0.8 m
T = 2 = 2 N
Mg 9.8 kg
T 0.57 s
(b) system = spring + block + bullet
~psys,f = ~psys,i
m~vi = (m + M )~vf
m 0.003
~vf = ~v (200 m/s) 2.96 m/s
m+M i 0.203
(c) system = spring + block + bullet, no external forces
K + Ug + Us = 0
1
(m + M )gh + ks s2 = Ki
2
1 1 2
(m + M )gh + ks (0.4 m h)2 = (m + M ) (2.96 m/s)
2 2
10.X.14
When a moving high-mass object hits a low-mass object head-on, the velocity of the high-mass object remains the same
(approximately) and the low-mass object increases to a greater speed than the high-mass object. The low-mass object will
have a very large change in velocity, almost twice the initial velocity of the high-mass object.
6
When a moving low-mass object hits a high-mass object, the high-mass object has a very small change in velocity (it is
approximately like a rigid wall). The low-mass object has a large in velocity and rebounds backward with nearly the same
speed as before the collision (for an elastic collision).
10.X.15
(a)

= h17, 5, 0i kg m/s + h4, 6, 0i kg m/s
= h21, 1, 0i kg m/s
(b) ~psys = ~Fnet t 0 since t is very small.

(c) ~psys = 0, so ~psys,f = ~psys,i = h21, 1, 0i m/s.
(d)

~pB,f = ~psys,f ~pA,f
= h21, 1, 0i kg m/s h13, 3, 0i kg m/s
= h8, 2, 0i kg m/s
(e)
p
~pA,i = 172 + 52 kg m/s

= 17.7 kg m/s
2
p

(f) KA,i =
~ A,i

2m = 22.4 J
A

(g) ~pB = 7.21 kg m/s

2
p

(h) KB,i =
~B,i

2m = 2.36 J
B

(i) ~pA,f = 13.3 kg m/s

(j) KA,f = 12.6 J

(k) ~pB,f = 8.25 kg m/s

(l) KB,f = 3.09 J
(m) Ki = KA,i + KB,i = 22.4 J + 2.36 J = 24.8 J
(n) Kf = KA,f + KB,f = 12.6 J + 3.09 J = 15.7 J
(o) The collision is inelastic since Kf 6= Ki .

7
(p) Esys = 0 for a closed system.
K + Etherm = 0
Etherm = K
= (Kf Ki )
= (15.7 J 24.8 J)
= 9.1 J
The thermal energy of the system increased as a result of the collision.
(q) (B) We assumed that it was a closed system, so Q = 0. This assumption is valid due to the fact that the time interval
of the collision is quite small.
10.X.16
(a) Define the first rock as rock A and the second rock as rock B. The net force on the system of the rock is zero, thus
~psys,i = ~psys,f
~pA,i + ~pB,i = ~pA,f + ~pB,f
(3 kg)(h3900, 2900, 3000i m/s) + (13 kg)(h220, 260, 300i m/s) = (3 kg)(h3500, 2300, 3500i m/s) + (13 kg)~vB,f
~vB,f = h312, 398, 185i m/s
(b)
Ki = KA,i + KB,i
1 2 1 2

2 2
1 1
= (3 kg)(5711 m/s)2 + (13 kg)(454 m/s)2
2 2
= 4.89 107 J + 1.93 106 J
= 5.09 107 J
Kf = KA,f + KB,f
1 1
= m v 2 + mB v 2
2 A A,f 2 B,f
1 1
= (3 kg)(5458 m/s)2 + (13 kg)(538 m/s)2
2 2
= 4.47 107 J + 1.88 106 J
= 4.66 107 J
8
Assume a closed system so that Esys = 0.
Esys = K + Einternal = 0
Einternal = K
= (Kf Ki )
= (4.66 107 J 5.09 107 J)
= 4.3 106 J
(c) (A) is correct
10.X.17
(a) Assume the net force on the system is zero. So,
~psys,i = ~psys,f
0
~p1,i + ~p2,i
= ~p + ~p
1,f 2,f
(5 kg)(h3300, 3100, 3400i m/s) = (5 kg)(h2800, 2400, 3700i m/s) + ~p2,f

~p2,f = h2500, 3500, 1500i kg m/s
(b)
1
K1,i = m v2
2 1 1,i
1
= (5 kg)(5662 m/s)2
2
= 8.02 107 J
(c) K2,i = 12 m2 v2 = 0
2,i
(d)
1
K1,f = m v2
2 1 1,f
1
= (5 kg)(5223 m/s)2
2
= 6.82 107 J
(e) If it is an elastic collision, then Ki = Kf .
K1,i + K2,i = K1,f + K2,f

8.02 107 J = 6.82 107 J + K2,f
K2,f = 1.20 107 J
9
(f) Assume it is a closed system with Esys = 0. Then
Esys = 0
Ethermal + K = 0
Ethermal + (Kf Ki ) = 0
Ethermal + ((K1,f + K2,f ) (K1,i + K2,i )) = 0
7.16 106 J + 6.82 107 J + K2,f 8.02 107 J = 0
K2,f = 4.8 106 J
(g) During the small time interval of the collision, Q = 0. This was assumed when we set Esys = 0. Note that the thermal
energy of the system increased even though there was no heat transferred (Q) to the system.
10.X.18
~psys = ~pball + ~pbat
10.X.19
(A), (B), and (E) are true.
10.X.20
(a) The net external force on the system of block and bullet is zero, so the momentum of the system is constant. Label the
bullet A and the block B. The bullet and block have the same velocity after the collision.
~psys,i = ~psys,f
0
~pA,i + ~pB,i
> = ~p + ~p

A,f B,f

mA vA,i,x = mA vA,f,x + mB vB,f,x
mA vA,i,x = (mA + mB )vf,x
!
mA
vf,x = vA,i,x
mA + mB

0.102 kg
= (300 m/s)
0.102 kg + 3.5 kg
= 8.50 m/s
10
(b)
Ki = KA,i
1 2
= mA ~vA,i

2
1
= (0.102 kg)(300 m/s)2
2
= 4590 J
(c)
1 2
Kf = (mA + mB ) ~vf

2
1
= (3.602 kg)(8.5 m/s)2
2
= 130 J
(d) The collision is inelastic because Kf 6= Ki .
(e) Assume that it is a closed system.
Esys = 0
K + Ethermal = 0
Ethermal = K
= (130 J 4590 J)
= 4460 J
10.P.21
(a) system = car + truck. Use the momentum principle.
(b)
~psys,i = ~psys,f
~
m~v + M V = (m + M )~vf
m~v + M V ~
~vf =
m+M
(2300 kg)h38, 0, 0i m/s + (4300 kg)h16, 0, 27i m/s
~vf
6600 kg
~vf h2.82, 0, 17.59i m/s
(c) Neglecting friction (which is a HUGE approximation since a minimal friction force is necessary for wheels and tires to
work), the force from the road is perpendicular to the cars and trucks displacements so this force does no work.
11
(d) Use the energy principle. There is no work done by external forces, but there is a change in internal energy.
Esys,f = Esys,i
Kf + Eint = Ki
Eint = Ki Kf
1 1 1
Eint = (2300 kg)(38 m/s)2 + (4300 kg)(31.38 m/s)2 (6600 kg)(17.81 m/s)2
2 2 2
6
2.73 10 J
(e) The collision is inelastic since there is a change in internal energy.
10.P.22
(a) A sail that reflects photons would be better. Bouncing (really photon absorption and re-emission in the opposite
direction) imparts a greater net force to the sail.
(b) Each photon has energy E and momentum |~p|, which are related through Einsteins expression E = |~p| c remembering
that photons have no rest mass. If a photon is absorbed and re-emitted in the opposite direction (i.e. reflected) then
the magnitude of its change in momentum is 2|~p| or 2 Ec . So a beam delivering N photons each second will impart a
net force of 2Nc E . Note that N brings time into the momentum principle here.
10.P.23
(a) The neutrons have almost no interaction with the electrons in a block of uranium, but they do interact through the
strong interaction with the uranium nuclei. A collision of a neutron with a uranium nucleus is an example of a low-mass
projectile striking a massive target that is at rest (the uranium nucleus has about 235 times the mass of the neutron).
If the interaction is elastic (kinetic energy constant), the neutron will bounce off with almost its original momentum
and kinetic energy. The uranium nucleus may acquire as much as twice the neutrons momentum (this happens in a
head-on collision), but due to the huge mass of the uranium nucleus compared to the neutron, the uranium nucleus
p|2
acquires little kinetic energy |~
2M . So fast neutrons travel through uranium with little change in speed.
(b) Again, the neutrons have almost no interaction with the electrons in a block of carbon, but they do interact with the
carbon nuclei, through the strong interaction. The mass of a carbon nucleus is only about 12 times the mass of the
neutron, so much more kinetic energy can be transferred from the neutron to the carbon nucleus than is the case with
uranium nuclei. Therefore carbon should be much more effective than uranium in slowing down fast neutrons.
(c) A water molecule (H2 O) contains two very low-mass nucleithe two hydrogen nuclei, each consisting of a single proton.
The mass of a proton is nearly equal to the mass of a neutron, so our studies of elastic collisions between two equal
masses, one initially at rest, apply here. As an example, a head-on collision will leave the neutron nearly at rest, and
the proton acquires the neutrons momentum and kinetic energy. For this reason water should be a better moderator
than carbon.
A comment: In part (c) we showed that water is a good moderator (that is, it does a good job of slowing down fast neutrons).
There is however a problem with ordinary water. A neutron can fuse with a proton to form a deuteron (a proton plus a
neutron), the nucleus of heavy hydrogen or deuterium. If the neutron is captured in this way, the neutron cannot contribute
to triggering fission in a uranium nucleus. Because of this neutron capture effect, some reactors use as a moderator heavy
water, water consisting of D2 O molecules (an oxygen atom plus two deuterium atoms). A neutron can fuse with a deuteron
to form a triton (proton plus two neutrons), but it happens that the probability for this neutron capture reaction is quite
low compared to the probability of neutron capture in ordinary hydrogen. There is a trade-off between ordinary hydrogen
doing a better job of slowing down the fast neutrons and heavy hydrogen removing fewer neutrons from circulation.
12
10.X.24
For elastic collisions involving two particles confined to a plane, there are three equations (one for each component of
momentum and one for energy) and four unknowns (each particles final speed and direction). For sticking collisions under
similar conditions, there are only two equations (one for each component of momentum and one for energy) and two unknowns
(each particles final speed and direction). In the latter case, the lost kinetic energy shows up as an increase in internal energy.
10.X.25
The tennis ball would be more effective because it will bounce off the door, imparting a greater force on the door than would
the clay, which would likely stick to the door. This follows directly from the momentum principle.
10.X.26
(a) system = bullet + block, no external forces, apply the momentum principle
~
m~v + M V = (m + M )~vf
m
~vf = ~v
(m + M )
(b)
1 2
Ki = m |~v|
2
1 m2 2
Kf = ~v

2 (m + M ) f
Kf m
=
Ki m+M
The loss of kinetic energy is due to an increase in internal energy.
10.X.27
Both the particle and the gold nucleus remained in their ground state with no change in internal energy. Thus the collisions
were elastic.
10.X.28
Scattering angle distributions give information about which interactions influence the collision. Its much easier to get general
information about the relative sizes of the projectile and target. Scattering experiments allow for identifying subatomic
particles.
10.X.29
In the center of mass frame, the total momentum is zero both before and after the collision.
10.P.30
Since the net force on the system is zero, then
13
~pi = ~pf
0
~p1,i + ~p2,i
= ~p + ~p
1,f 2,f
m1 v1,i,x = m1 v1,f,x + m2 v2,f,x
It is a 1-D collision, so only the x-components of the velocity vectors are needed. Drop the x subscript for efficiency. Then,
m1 v1,i = m1 v1,f + m2 v2,f
There are 2 unknowns, the final velocities, so use the Energy Principle. It is an elastic collision.
K = 0
0
K1,i + K2,i
> = K +K

1,f 2,f

1 1 1
m v2 = m v2 + m2 v2
2 1 1,i 2 1 1,f 2 2,f
2 2 2
m1 v = m1 v + m2 v
1,i 1,f 2,f
Substitute v1,f from the Momentum Principle and solve for v2,f . From the Momentum Principle,
m2
v1,f = v1,i v
m1 2,f
Substituting into the Energy Principle gives
m2 m
v2 = v2,f )2 + 2 v2
(v1,i
1,i m1 m1 2,f
!2 !
2
m m m
v = v2 + 2
v2 2 2
v1,i v2,f + 2 v2
i 1,i m1 2,f m1 m1 2,f
!2 !
m2 m2 2
m2
+ v = 2 v1,i v2,f
m1 m1 2,f m1
!
m2
+ 1 v2,f = 2v1,i
m1

2
v2,f = m v1,i
1 + m2
1
Substitute this into the Momentum Principle and solve for v1,f .
14
m2
v1,f = v1,i v
m1 2,f

m2
= v1,i 2 v
m1 1 + m2 1,i
m
1

1 m 2
= v
1,i
m2 + 1
1
m
m2 + 1 2
1
= m v
1,i
m2 + 1
1
m
m2 1
1
v1,f = m v
1,i
m +1
1
m2 m
If m1 >> m2 , then it is like a bowling ball hitting a ping-pong ball at rest. Then, m 0 and m
1
>> 1.
1 2

2
v2,f v1,i = 2vi
1+0
and
m
1
m
v1,f m2 v1,i v1,i
1
m2
So in this case, the ping-pong ball has a final velocity that is twice the initial velocity of the bowling ball, and the bowling
ball continues with the same velocity, as if it hit nothing.
m2 m1
If m1 << m2 , then it is like a ping-pong ball hitting a bowling ball. Then m1 >> 1 and m2 0.
2
v2,f m2 v1,i
m
1
!
m1
2 v1,i
m2
and

01
v1,f v1,i = v1,i
0+1
The ping-pong ball rebounds backward with the same speed and the bowling ball has a small, non-zero velocity after the
collision.
10.P.31
15
(a) One can use the approximation that the total volume is N times the volume of one nucleon. Then
4 3 4
R N r3
3 3
Then R 6 1015 m.
Or use the more accurate equation from problem 6.P.100 in Chapter 6.
1
R = (1.3 1015 m)N 3
For gold, N = 197, so
R = 7.6 1015 m
(b) Apply the Energy Principle to the system of the alpha particle and gold nucleus. It is a closed system.
Esys = 0
K + Uelec = 0
Kf,gold 0 and Kalpha = 0 at closest point during the collision. Uelec,i 0 since ri is large.
0
K
f
Ki + Uelec = 0
Ki + Uelec,f = 0
1 qalpha qgold
= Ki
40 rf
!
Nm2 2(1.6 1019 C)79(1.6 1019 C) 1.6 1019 J

9 6
9 10 = (10 10 eV)
C2 rf 1 eV
rf = 2.28 1014 m
This is larger than the radius of a gold atom.

To make contact, rf = 7.6 1015 m. Then,
Nm2 2(79)(1.6 1019 C)2

9
Ki = 9 10
C 7.6 1015 m

12 1 eV
= 4.8 10 J
1.6 1019 J
= 30 106 eV = 30 MeV
30 MeV alpha particles are needed in order to make contact with the gold nucleus.
16
10.P.32
(a)
malpha 4 mproton 6.68 1027 kg

p2
K =
2m
q
pi,alpha = 2malpha Kalpha
r
1.6 1019 J
= 2(6.68 1027 kg)(10 106 eV)( )
1 eV
= 1.46 1019 kg m/s
(b) Use the results from 10.P.30. Both the Momentum Principle and Energy Principle are needed. Note that mgold
197mproton = 3.29 1025 kg. Label the alpha particle 1 and the gold nucleus 2.
m
m
1
1
2
m1 v1,f = m1
m v
1 1,i
+1
m2
4
197 1

p1,f = 4 p1,i
197 + 1
= 0.96p1,i
= 1.40 1019 kg m/s
(c) Use results from 10.P.30 or use the Momentum Principle. ~Fnet = 0 so,
~psys,i = ~psys,f
0
~p1,i + ~p2,i
= ~p + ~p
1,f 2,f
~p2,f = ~p1,i ~p1,f

p2,f,x = p1,i,x p1,f,x
= 1.46 1019 kg m/s
This is nearly 2 times the initial momentum of the alpha particle, as expected from the ping-pong-ball and bowling
ball example.
17
(d)
p2
alpha,f
Kalpha,f =
2malpha
(1.4 1019 kg m/s)2
=
2(6.68 1027 kg)

1 eV
= 1.47 1012 J
1.6 1019 J
= 9.17 MeV
So the alpha particle lost 0.83 MeV of energy.
(e)
p2
gold,f
Kgold,f =
2mgold
(2.86 1019 kg m/s)2
=
2(3.29 1025 kg)

1 eV
= 1.24 1013 J
1.6 1019 J
= 0.78 MeV
(f) Apply the Energy Principle. Kalpha,f = 0 at point of closest approach. Because mgold >> malpha , Kgold 0 at point of
closest approach. It is a closed system.
Ei = Ef
0
* 0=
Ki + Uelec,i K + Uelec,f
f
Ki,alpha = Uelec,f
1 qalpha qgold
Ki,alpha =
40 rf
!
1.6 1019 J Nm2 2(79)(1.6 1019 C)2

(10 MeV) = 9 109
1 eV C2 rf
rf = 2.28 1014 m
(g) Energy Principle
(h) No, because 2.28 1014 m > (2 1015 m + 8 1015 m).

1 1
(i) 4
3 R
3
N 43 r3 , where R is the approximate radius of the nucleus. R N 3 r = (197) 3 (1.3 1015 m) = 8 1015 m.
1
(j) R (4) 3 (1.3 1015 m) = 2 1015 m.
(k) ok
18
p
(l) vi = m
i
, since vi is presumably non-relativistic.
alpha
pi
vi =
malpha
1.46 1019 kg m/s
=
6.68 1027 kg
= 2.19 107 m/s
This is less than 0.1c.

(m)
x
vx =
t
1 1013 m
t =
2.19 107 m/s
= 4.58 1021 s
So a good time step to use would be approximately 1

100 (4.58 1021 s), which is on the order of 1023 s.
10.P.33
(a) All vectors are 1-dimensional for a head-on collision. So, drop the x subscript from the notation.
mvi,alpha + M vi,gold mv1

vCM,i = =
m+M m+M
(b)
v1,rel = v1 vCM,i
m
= v1 v
m+M 1

m
= 1 v1
m+M

m+M m
= v1
m+M m+M

M
= v1
m+M
v2,rel = v2 vCM,i
m
= 0 v
m+M 1

m
= v1
m+M
19
So
p1,rel = mv1,rel
mM
= v
m+M 1
p2,rel = M v2,rel

mM
= v1
m+M
The total momentum of the system, psys = p1,rel + p2,rel = 0, as expected for the center-of-momentum frame.
(c) If the momentum changes 180 , then p3,rel = p1,rel and

mM mM
p3,rel = v and p4,rel = v1
m+M 1 m+M
Show that the Momentum Principle is satisfied.
pi,rel = p1,rel + p2,rel

mM mM
= v1 +
m+M m+M
= 0
pf,rel = p3,rel + p4,rel

mM mM
= v1 +
m+M m+M
= 0
Yes, pi,rel = pf,rel as expected. Show that energy is conserved.
Ei = E1,i + E2,i
p2 p2
1,rel
= + 2,rel
2m 2M
p2
1 1

1,rel
= +
2 m M
2
p
M +m

1,rel
=
2 mM
20
Ef = E3,f + E4,f
p23 p2
= + 4
2m 2M
p23 1

1
= +
2 m M
p23 M + m

=
2 mM
Yes, Ei = Ef since p21 = p23 . Energy is conserved, as expected.

No other possibilities for p3 and p4 exist that would conserve both momentum and energy. Note that prel,i = 0, so
prel,f = 0. The particles must rebound in opposite directions in order to add to zero. Furthermore, they must be equal
in magnitude in order to add to zero. If they were equal in magnitude before the collision and they must be equal in
magnitude after the collision, then the magnitudes must not have changed as a result of the collision.
10.P.34
(a) Since the net force on the system is zero, then the momentum of the system must be conserved. Since ~pi = 0 (before
the decay) then ~pf = 0 (after the decay)
~psys,f = 0
~pFe,f + ~p = 0
~p = ~p
Fe,f
~pFe,f = |~p |

Apply the Energy Principle to get ~p . It is a closed system.
Esys = 0
EFe atom + KFe + Ephoton = 0
2
p
F e,f
14.4 keV + + p c = 0
2mFe
p2
F e,f
14.4 keV + + pF e,f c = 0
2mFe
1.6 1019 J

p2 + 2mFe pF e,f c (14.4 103 eV) 2mFe = 0
F e,f 1 eV

The mass of Fe-57 is (0.057 kg
mol )
1 mol
6.021023 atoms = 9.47 1026 kg. Substitute the mass of Fe-57.
p2 + (5.68 1017 kg m/s)pF e,f 4.36 1040 J kg = 0

F e,f
21
This is a quadratic equation. Use the quadratic formula to get pF e,f
pF e,f = 7.68 1024 kg m/s or 5.68 1017 kg m/s
The positive solution makes the most sense because it is smallest and yields a non-relativistic speed for the nucleus.
pF e,f
vF e,f =
mFe
7.68 1024 kg m/s
=
9.47 1026 kg
= 81 m/s
We could have neglected the final kinetic energy of the iron nucleus in the energy equation and obtained the same
speed of 81 m/s. Because the golds momentum is so small, its kinetic energy (which is proportional to p2 ) is negligible
compared to the other changes in energy in the system.
(b) From the Energy Principle,
EFe atom
+ KFe + Ephoton = 0
1.14 KeV + Ephoton = KFe
= KFe,f
p2
F e,f
=
2mFe
(7.68 1024 kg m/s)2
=
2(9.47 1026 kg)

1 eV
= 3.1 1022 J
1.6 1019 eV
= 0.0019 eV
This is quite small compared to other energies in the system.

(c) If an entire block of iron recoils, then its speed will be much less than the speed of a single atom. The recoil speed for
a 1 kg block would be 7.68 1024 m/s, which would be too small to measure.
10.P.35
Apply the Momentum Principle. Assuming that the particle is initially at rest, then ~pi = ~pf = 0. After decay,
~psys,f = 0
~pn + ~p = 0
~p = ~p
n
~p
n
= |~p |
22
Apply the Energy Principle. It is a closed system.
Esys = 0
Ei = Ef
Erest, = En + E
2
m c = En + E

En + E = 1196 MeV
Momentum and energy for the neutron are related by
En2 (pn c)2 = (mn c2 )2

En2 (pn c)2 = (939 MeV)2
And for the ,
E (p c)2 = (140 MeV)2
We now have four equations and four unknowns that can be solved for En , E , pn , and p .
10.P.36
p
f
p
i
40

p
px x
Apply the Momentum Principle to the system in the x and y directions. in the x-direction,
p
= p cos 40 + p + cos

i f

MeV MeV
3000 = 1510 cos 40 + p + cos
c c
23
In the y-direction,
pi,y = pf,y
0 = p
sin 40 p sin
+
f
p sin = p
sin 40
+
f
Solve the above equations for the two unknowns, and p .

+
MeV
p = 2083
+ c
q = 27.8
To calculate the mass of the X + particle, we need its energy. Use the Energy Principle. It is a closed system.
Ei = Ef
E + Erest,p+ = E + E
i f f
Where
1
E = ((E )2 + (p
)2 ) 2
i rest
i
1
= ((140 MeV)2 + (3000 MeV)2 ) 2
= 3003 MeV
1
E = ((140 MeV)2 + (1510 MeV)2 ) 2
f
= 1516 MeV
So
E = E + Erest,p+ E
f i f
= 3003 MeV + 938 MeV 1516 MeV

= 2425 MeV
Calculate the mass of the X + particle.

24
E 2 (pc)2 = (Erest )2
2
Erest = (2425 MeV)2 (2083 MeV)2
Erest = 1242 MeV
So m+ = 1242 c2 .
MeV
In kg, this is
19
(1242 106 eV)( 1.610
eV
J
)
m+ =
(3 108 m/s)2
= 2.2 1027 kg
This is 1242 MeV

938 MeV = 1.3 times the mass of a proton.
10.P.37
(a) Apply the Energy Principle. It is a closed system.
Esys = 0
Ei = Ef
Ee + Ep+ = E
E = 9.03 GeV + 3.10 GeV
= 12.13 GeV
Apply the Momentum Principle to get p . Since ~Fnet = 0,
~psys,i = ~psys,f
p1 p2 = p
GeV GeV
9.03 3.10 = p
c c
GeV
p = 5.93
c
Use E 2 (pc)2 = Erest

2
to get Erest .
s 2
GeV
Erest = (12.13 GeV)2 5.93 c2
c
= 10.58 GeV
25
(b) It is relativistic.
E = mc2
E
=
mc2
12.13 GeV
=
10.58 GeV
= 1.15
Use
1
= q
v2
1 c2
and solve for v which gives v = 1.48 108 m/s 12 c.

(c) Apply the Momentum Principle in the x direction.
pi,x = pf,x
p = 2pB cos
5.93 GeV
c
pB =
2 cos
Apply the Energy Principle.
E = 2EB
12.13 GeV
EB =
2
= 6.07 GeV
Use E 2 (pc)2 = Erest

2
.
2
2 5.93 GeV
(6.07 GeV) = (5.28 GeV)2
2 cos
Solve for cos .
cos = 0.99
= cos1 (0.99)
= 8.1
26
10.P.38
(a) Here are some initial calculations that will help you develop your program. Of course, you can use VPython to do the
calculations for you rather than doing them by hand.
To find the distance of closest approach for a head-on collision, apply the Energy Principle. Initially, the alpha
particle is very far away so Ui 0. At the closest distance during the collision, Kalpha = 0 and Kgold 0 (since
its mass is so much larger than the alpha particle). It is a closed system, so
Esys = 0
Ei = Ef
Uelec,i + Ki = Uelec,f + Kf
Kalpha,i = Uelec,f
1 qalpha qgold
Kalpha,i =
4o rf
19 19
9 Nm
2

1 eV 2(1.602 10 C)79(1.602 10 C)
(10 106 eV) = 9 10
1.6 1019 J C2 rf
14
rf = 2.27 10 m
A reasonable starting distance is 100 times rf . Then, the initial electric potential energy at this distance is 1/100
14 12
of the total energy of the system. Specifically, ri = 100(2.27 10 m) = 2.27 10 m
The alpha particle has a nonrelativistic speed. The initial speed of the alpha particle is
Ki = 1/2mvi2
r
2K
vi =
m
v
u
u 2(10 106 eV) 1 eV
t 1.610 19 J
=
41.67 1027 kg
7
= 2.2 10 m/s
One way to answer this is to determine how long it would take for the alpha particle to hit the gold nucleus,
assuming it travels at constant speed. Then set t to be a small percentage of this value, perhaps 1/1000 of this
value.
0.001ri
t =
vi
22
= 1 10 s
If the initial distance between the alpha particle and gold nucleus is ri and if there are 1000 time steps just to
travel ri , then the time interval between starting the collision and closed approach is 1000 time steps, or 1 103 t.
Of course, you want the simulation to run for about twice this time, which would allow an alpha particle in a
head-on collision to rebound and return back to its starting point (approximately). Thus, a maximum time for
19
the time scale would be 2(1 103 t = 2 10 s.
27
The maximum momentum is the initial momentum of the system, which is simply the initial momentum of the
alpha particle.
p2i
Ki =
2malpha
p
palpha,i = 2malpha Ki
s
27 1 eV
= 2(6.68 10 kg)(10 106 eV)
1.6 1019 J
19
= 1.46 10 kg m/s
12
A distance equal to 2 times their initial distance, 2ri = 2ri = 4.54 10 m, will work.
(b) A sample program is shown below. You will notice that the total x-momentum and total y-momentum are constant.
Also, all calculations in part(a) are handled in the program by VPython. This is a superior method to doing it by hand
because you can easily change initial conditions, such as the initial kinetic energy, and have an accurate simulation
without having to do additional calculations by hand. In the example below, autoscaling is used for the graphs.
4
5 #p h y s i c a l c o n s t a n t s
6 qe =1.6 e 19 #magnitude o f c h a r g e o f e l e c t r o n
7 NA=6.02 e23 #Avogadro ' s number
8 o o f p e z=9e9 #E l e c f o r c e c o n s t a n t , 1/(4 p i e p s i l o n )
9
10 #p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s
11 qAlpha=2qe
12 qGold=79 qe
13 mGold=197/NA/1000
14 mAlpha=4/NA/1000
15
16 #i n i t i a l v a l u e s
17 KeV=1e7 #Ki i n eV
18 K=KeV qe #Ki i n J
19 pAlpha=s q r t ( 2 mAlphaK)
20 vAlpha=pAlpha /mAlpha
21
22 r f=o o f p e z qAlpha qGold /K

23 r i =100 r f
24 b=r f #impact parameter
25
26 #t u r n o f f a u t o c a l i n g
28 #s e t t h e s i z e o f t h e window
29 s c e n e . r a n g e =1.2 r i
30
31 t=0
32 dt =0.001 r i / vAlpha
33
34 a l p h a=s p h e r e ( pos=v e c t o r ( r i , b , 0 ) , r a d i u s =0.02 r i , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )

35 g o l d=s p h e r e ( pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , r a d i u s=a l p h a . r a d i u s , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )
28
36
37 g o l d . p=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
38 a l p h a . p=v e c t o r ( pAlpha , 0 , 0 )
39
40 t r a i l A l p h a=c u r v e ( c o l o r=a l p h a . c o l o r )
41 t r a i l G o l d=c u r v e ( c o l o r=g o l d . c o l o r )
42
43 graphPx=g d i s p l a y ( x =430 ,y=0, width =400 , h e i g h t =400 ,

44 t i t l e = 'p_x vs t f o r a l p h a p a r t i c l e , g o l d n u c l e u s , and t h e system ' ,
45 x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
46 y t i t l e= 'p_x ( kg m/ s ) ' ,
48
49 pxAlphaCurve=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graphPx , c o l o r=a l p h a . c o l o r )

50 pxGoldCurve=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graphPx , c o l o r=g o l d . c o l o r )
51 pxTotalCurve=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graphPx , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
52
53 graphPy=g d i s p l a y ( x =430 ,y =400 , width =400 , h e i g h t =400 ,

54 t i t l e = 'p_y vs t f o r a l p h a p a r t i c l e , g o l d n u c l e u s , and t h e system ' ,
55 x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
56 y t i t l e= 'p_y ( kg m/ s ) ' ,
58
59 pyAlphaCurve=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graphPy , c o l o r=a l p h a . c o l o r )

60 pyGoldCurve=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graphPy , c o l o r=g o l d . c o l o r )
61 pyTotalCurve=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graphPy , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
62
63
64
65 print " I n i t i a l k i n e t i c e n e r g y o f t h e a l p h a p a r t i c l e ( eV ) : " , KeV

66 print ""
67 print " Impact parameter b (m) : " , b
68 print ""
69
70 while 1 :
71 rate (1000)
72 r=a l p h a . posg o l d . pos
73 rmag=mag( r )
75
76 Falpha=o o f p e z qAlpha qGold /rmag 2 r u n i t

77 a l p h a . p=a l p h a . p+Falpha dt
78 a l p h a . pos=a l p h a . pos+a l p h a . p/mAlpha dt
79
80 Fgold=Falpha
81 g o l d . p=g o l d . p+Fgold dt
82 g o l d . pos=g o l d . pos+g o l d . p/mGold dt
83
84 #u p d a t e t r a i l s
85 t r a i l A l p h a . append ( pos=a l p h a . pos )
86 t r a i l G o l d . append ( pos=g o l d . pos )
87
88 #u p d a t e g r a p h s
89 pxAlphaCurve . p l o t ( pos=(t , a l p h a . p . x ) )
29
90 pxGoldCurve . p l o t ( pos=(t , g o l d . p . x ) )
91 pxTotalCurve . p l o t ( pos=(t , a l p h a . p . x+g o l d . p . x ) )
92
93 pyAlphaCurve . p l o t ( pos=(t , a l p h a . p . y ) )
94 pyGoldCurve . p l o t ( pos=(t , g o l d . p . y ) )
95 pyTotalCurve . p l o t ( pos=(t , a l p h a . p . y+g o l d . p . y ) )
96
97 #c a l c u l a t e s c a t t e r i n g a n g l e
98 t h e t a=atan2 ( a l p h a . p . y , a l p h a . p . x )
99
100 #end l o o p a f t e r s c a t t e r i n g has o c c u r r e d

101 i f ( rmag>2 r i ) :
102 break
103
104 t=t+dt
105
106 print " S c a t t e r i n g a n g l e ( deg ) : " , t h e t a 180/2/ p i
For a very small scattering angle, b should be large. For a value of b that is 10 times the distance of closest
approach, the scattering angle is 6 . If b = 100rf , then the scattering angle is 0.4 . In this case, the alpha particle
appears to go straight past the gold nucleus without being deflected.
14
If b = 0.5rf = 1.14 10 m, then the scattering angle is 90 .
An impact parameter less than 0.5rf will result in backscattering. For example, if b = 0.1rf , then = 160 .
(c) To check the accuracy of our model, graph the total energy of the system. You will notice a dip (and subsequent peak)
during the interaction. This is due to numerical error during the interaction when numerical precision is needed the
most. Decreasing t by a factor of 10 to t = 1/10000ri /valpha certainly improves the precision, and the energy graph
is more clearly constant (though a small wiggle in the graph still appears). Certainly one can further reduce t though
the simulation slows down since more time steps must be calculated. An example program with energy graph is shown
below.
4
5 #p h y s i c a l c o n s t a n t s
6 qe =1.6 e 19 #magnitude o f c h a r g e o f e l e c t r o n
7 NA=6.02 e23 #Avogadro ' s number
8 o o f p e z=9e9 #E l e c f o r c e c o n s t a n t , 1/(4 p i e p s i l o n )
9
10 #p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s
11 qAlpha=2qe
12 qGold=79 qe
13 mGold=197/NA/1000
14 mAlpha=4/NA/1000
15
16 #i n i t i a l v a l u e s
17 KeV=1e7 #Ki i n eV
18 K=KeV qe #Ki i n J
19 pAlpha=s q r t ( 2 mAlphaK)
20 vAlpha=pAlpha /mAlpha
21
22 r f=o o f p e z qAlpha qGold /K

23 r i =100 r f
30
24 b=0.1 r f #impact parameter

25
26 #t u r n o f f a u t o c a l i n g
28 #s e t t h e s i z e o f t h e window
29 s c e n e . r a n g e =1.2 r i
30
31 t=0
32 dt =0.0001 r i / vAlpha
33
34 a l p h a=s p h e r e ( pos=v e c t o r ( r i , b , 0 ) , r a d i u s =0.02 r i , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )

35 g o l d=s p h e r e ( pos=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , r a d i u s=a l p h a . r a d i u s , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )
36
37 g o l d . p=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
38 a l p h a . p=v e c t o r ( pAlpha , 0 , 0 )
39
40 t r a i l A l p h a=c u r v e ( c o l o r=a l p h a . c o l o r )
41 t r a i l G o l d=c u r v e ( c o l o r=g o l d . c o l o r )
42
43 graphPx=g d i s p l a y ( x =430 ,y=0, width =400 , h e i g h t =400 ,

44 t i t l e = 'p_x vs t f o r a l p h a p a r t i c l e , g o l d n u c l e u s , and t h e system ' ,
45 x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
46 y t i t l e= 'p_x ( kg m/ s ) ' ,
48
49 pxAlphaCurve=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graphPx , c o l o r=a l p h a . c o l o r )

50 pxGoldCurve=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graphPx , c o l o r=g o l d . c o l o r )
51 pxTotalCurve=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graphPx , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
52
53 graphPy=g d i s p l a y ( x =430 ,y =400 , width =400 , h e i g h t =400 ,

54 t i t l e = 'p_y vs t f o r a l p h a p a r t i c l e , g o l d n u c l e u s , and t h e system ' ,
55 x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
56 y t i t l e= 'p_y ( kg m/ s ) ' ,
58
59 pyAlphaCurve=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graphPy , c o l o r=a l p h a . c o l o r )

60 pyGoldCurve=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graphPy , c o l o r=g o l d . c o l o r )
61 pyTotalCurve=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graphPy , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
62
63 graphE=g d i s p l a y ( x=0,y=430 , width =400 , h e i g h t =400 ,

64 t i t l e = 'E vs t f o r t h e system ' ,
65 x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
66 y t i t l e= 'E ( eV ) ' ,
68
69 ECurve=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graphE , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )

70
71
72 print " I n i t i a l k i n e t i c e n e r g y o f t h e a l p h a p a r t i c l e ( eV ) : " , KeV

73 print ""
74 print " Impact parameter b (m) : " , b
75 print ""
76
77 while 1 :
31
78 # rate (1000)
79 r=a l p h a . posg o l d . pos
80 rmag=mag( r )
82
83 Falpha=o o f p e z qAlpha qGold /rmag 2 r u n i t

84 a l p h a . p=a l p h a . p+Falpha dt
85 a l p h a . pos=a l p h a . pos+a l p h a . p/mAlpha dt
86
87 Fgold=Falpha
88 g o l d . p=g o l d . p+Fgold dt
89 g o l d . pos=g o l d . pos+g o l d . p/mGold dt
90
91 Kalpha=mag( a l p h a . p ) 2/2/ mAlpha

92 Kgold=mag( g o l d . p ) 2/2/mGold
93 K=Kgold+Kalpha
94 U=o o f p e z qAlpha qGold /rmag
95 E=U+K
96
97 #u p d a t e t r a i l s
98 t r a i l A l p h a . append ( pos=a l p h a . pos )
99 t r a i l G o l d . append ( pos=g o l d . pos )
100
101 #u p d a t e g r a p h s
102 pxAlphaCurve . p l o t ( pos=(t , a l p h a . p . x ) )
103 pxGoldCurve . p l o t ( pos=(t , g o l d . p . x ) )
104 pxTotalCurve . p l o t ( pos=(t , a l p h a . p . x+g o l d . p . x ) )
105
106 pyAlphaCurve . p l o t ( pos=(t , a l p h a . p . y ) )

107 pyGoldCurve . p l o t ( pos=(t , g o l d . p . y ) )
108 pyTotalCurve . p l o t ( pos=(t , a l p h a . p . y+g o l d . p . y ) )
109
110 ECurve . p l o t ( pos=(t , E/ 1 . 6 e 19) )

111
112 #c a l c u l a t e s c a t t e r i n g a n g l e
113 t h e t a=atan2 ( a l p h a . p . y , a l p h a . p . x )
114
115 #end l o o p a f t e r s c a t t e r i n g has o c c u r r e d

116 i f ( rmag>2 r i ) :
117 break
118
119 t=t+dt
120
121 print " S c a t t e r i n g a n g l e ( deg ) : " , t h e t a 180/ p i
(d) Now you will see the advantage of defining initial conditions and constants and using VPython to do all calculations.
Change the mass of the gold atom to 1 (times Avodagros number divided by 1000) and change the charge of the gold
nucleus to 1 (times the magnitude charge of an electron). Run the simulation again with b = 0 (a head-on collision).
The first observation you might make is that there is no backscattering at all (even for a head-on collision). Another
observation is that alpha particles that do scatter must be very close to the proton. At an impact parameter of b = rf ,
the alpha particle only scatters at 12 , for example. For gold, the scattering angle was larger for a given impact
parameter.
1
11.X.1
The angular momentum is in the y direction.
11.X.2
(a) ~LD = h0, 0, 50i kg m/s
(b) ~LE = h0, 0, 50i kg m/s
(c) ~LF = h0, 0, 50i kg m/s
(d) ~LG = h0, 0, 0i kg m/s
(e) ~LH = h0, 0, 30i kg m/s
11.X.3
(a) out of page
(b) ~LA = ~rA ~p1 sin = d1 p1 sin

(c) out of page
(d) ~LA = ~rA ~p2 sin 90 = d2 p2

11.X.4
~

Lrot = I |~
|
2 2
= M R2
5 Earth Earth 86400 s
2 24
6
2
6 10 kg 6.4 10 m
5 86400 s
33
7.1 10 kg m /s
2
11.X.5
(a) Both have equal angular momenta by symmetry.

2
~
d
Ltrans,A = m o

2
md2 o
=
4
2
(0.4 kg) (0.6 m) (20 rad/s)
0.72 kg m2 /s
4
directed into page
2
(b) ~Ltotal,A = 1.44 kg m2 /s, directed into page

(c)
2
d 1
I = 2m = md2
2 2
1 2
(0.4 kg) (0.6 m)
2
0.072 kg m2
(d) directed into page
(e)
~

Lrot = I
~o

0.072 kg m2 (20 rad/s)

1.44 kg m2 /s
directed into page
(f) They are equal!
(g)
1 2
Krot = I
~o
2
1 2
0.072 kg m2 (20 rad/s)

2
14.4 J
11.X.6
(a) ~Lrot = 0. The particles dont move relative to the center of mass.

(b)
~

Ltrans,B = ~r ~p sin 90

cm cm
= 2m1 b2
2
2 (0.4 kg) (15 rad/s) (0.9 m)
9.72 kg m2 /s
directed into page
(c) ~Ltotal,B 9.72 kg m2 /s directed into page

11.X.7
3
(a)
~

Lrot = Icm
~2

1
= md2 ~2

2
2
0.5 (0.4 kg) (0.6 m) (20 rad/s)
1.44 kg m2 /s
directed into page
(b) ~Ltrans,B 9.72 kg m2 /s directed into page

(c) Just add the rotational and translational angular momenta. ~Ltotal,B 11.16 kg m2 /s directed into page

11.X.8
Translational angular momentum is nonzero and directed into the page. Rotational angular momentum is zero. The center
of mass moves relative to A, but the stripe doesnt move relative to the center of mass.
11.X.9
Translational angular momentum is nonzero and directed into the page. Rotational angular momentum is nonzero and
directed into the page. The stripe moves relative to the center of mass.
11.X.10
Translational angular momentum is nonzero and directed out of the page. Rotational angular momentum is nonzero and
directed out of the page.
11.X.11
~rA ~F

~A =

~

= ~rA F sin
(3 m) (4 N) (0.5)
6 Nm
~
6 Nm
F
3m
2N
11.X.12
~L = ~LA,i + ~A t
A,f
h3, 5, 2i kg m2 /s + h10, 12, 20i N m (0.1 s)

h4, 3.8, 0i kg m2 /s
4
11.X.13
In both cases, the momentum and position are perpendicular and both angular momenta are directed into the page.
~L = ~r1 m ~v1

trans,1
~L = ~r m ~v

trans,2 2 2
Conservation of angular momentum gives:
~r1 ~v1 = ~r2 ~v2

~v ~r

= 2
1
~v ~r
2 1
11.X.14
If its far from other objects, then there is no torque exerted on the star, so its angular momentum remains constant.
11.X.15
The net torque on Earth (if it is perfectly spherical) is zero, so its angular momentum remains constant.
11.X.16
Assume the wheel has an initial angular velocity i,z , which could be zero.
(a)
~L = ~Lclay + ~Lwheel
sys,c
Lz,c = ~ri ~pi + Ii,z

z
= Rmv sin 45 + M R2 i,z

Rmv
= + M R2 i,z
2
(b) Since ~net 0 during the small time interval of the collision, then ~Lsys is constant. So,
Rmv
Lsys,f,z,c = + M R2 i,z
2
(c)
Lsys,f,z,c = If,z
= (mR2 + M R2 )f,z
= (m + M )R2 f,z

Rmv

2
+ M R 2
i,z
f,z =
(m + M )R2
5
(d) The linear momentum of the system changes due to the force by the axle on the system during the collision. That is,
~F 6= 0 during the collision.
net
11.X.17
~ = ~r ~F
|~ | = r F
= RF
= (0.08 m)(10 N) = 0.8 N m
Use right-hand rule to get the direction. The torque causes clockwise rotation, so the torque is in the -z direction. ~ =
h0, 0, 0.8i N m.
11.X.18
(a)
~L = I~

rot
~L 1
= M R2 ~
rot
2
1
= (0.4 kg)(0.08 m)2 h0, 0, 20i rad/s
2
m2
= h0, 0, 0.0256i kg
s
(b)
~Lrot
~CM =
t
Lrot,z
CM,z =
t
Lz,f = Lz,f + z t
m2
= 0.0256 kg (0.8 N m)(0.2)
s
m2
= 0.186 kg
s
(c)
Lz,f = Iz,f
2
0.186 kg ms
z,f = = 145 rad/s
2 (0.4 kg)(0.08 m)
1 2
Note that it sped up by a factor of 7 during the time interval of 0.2 s

6
11.X.19
Apply the angular momentum principle about its CM.
~Lrot
~net =
t
Only one force exerts a torque on the system, the one acting at the end of the rod.
Lz
z =
t
Lz
F r sin =
t
Lz
F = t
r sin
2.5104 kg m2
s
= 0.001 s
(0.06 m sin 30 )
2
0.25 kg ms2
=
(0.06 m) sin 30
= 8.33 N
~F = 0 since the forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Thus ~v is constant.
net CM
11.X.20
Sketch a new picture with the new origin about which to calculate torque and angullar momentum.
r A A r A F
vCM
Figure 1: a sketch of the situation
~L = ~Ltrans + ~Lrot
= ~rA ~p + I~

Lz = RmvCM + Iz
7
~A = ~rA ~F = 0 since ~rA is parallel to ~F.

Apply the angular momentum principle about point A.
d~LA
~net,n =
dt
d
0 = (RmvCM + Iz )
dt
d~v d
0 = Rm CM + I z
dt dt
FT dz
0 = Rm +I
m dt
dz
0 = RFT + I
dt
dz FT R
=
dt I
dz FT R
= 1
dt 2MR
2
dz 2F
= T
dt MR
The negative sign indicates that, if z,i = 0, then z,f is in the -z direction. That is, it rotates clockwise at an increasing rate.
it results from the fact that vCM in the +x direction correlates with clockwise rotation (z in the -z direction).
11.X.21
About a point on the left end, the net torque is
net,z = FN d1 M2 g(d1 + d2 ) = 0
(FN M2 g)d1 = M2 gd2
From the Momentum Principle applied to the system, ~Fnet = 0.
~F = FN (M2 M1 )g = 0
net
FN = (M2 M1 )g
Substitute into torque equation for FN
((M2 + M1 )g M2 g)d1 = M2 gd2

M1 gd
1 = M2 gd
2
M1 d1 = M2 d 2
This is the same result as if torques are calculated about the axle of the see-saw.
11.X.22
8
(a) Apply the Angular Moentum Principle.
Lrot,z
net,z =
t
0
z I(f )
FR = I = i
t t
F Rt
f = 1
2MR
2
F t
= 1
2MR
(15 N)(0.6 s)
= 1
2 (6 kg)(0.3 m)
= 10 rad/s
(b)
0
+ f
avg = i
2
f
=
2
= 5 rad/s
(c)
= avg t
= (5 rad/s)(0.6 s)
= 3 rad
(d) The arclength is s = R, so s = (0.3 m)(3 rad) = 0.9 m is the distance through which the wheel turned. 0.9 m of string
came off the wheel.
11.X.23
m2
[L] = kg
s
Multiply by s
s to get
m2
[L] = kg s
s2
m
= kg 2 m s
s
= Nm s
= Js
9
This is the unit for ~.
11.X.24
The torque on the gyroscope about the support, in this case, is
|~ | = M gl sin
Where L is the distance from the support to the CM and is the angle of the axle from vertical. Use ~Lrot = I and

dt = ~Lrot . Then apply the angular momentum principle.

d~L
d~L

|~ | =

dt
M gR sin = I
M gL sin
=
I
M gR
=
I
where R = L sin
11.X.25
The origin must not be a point along a straight line that goes through the momentum vector of the object, and the origin
must not be at the location of the object. So a child running with a velocity of h0.5, 0, 0i m/s at the location 0 10m has a
non-zero angular momentum.
11.X.26
i j k

5 3 0 = k(10 (12)) = 22k

2 0

4
11.X.27
In all cases, use ~LA = ~r ~p.
(1)
~L = < , h, 0 > < px , 0, 0 >
m2
= h0, 0, 700i kg
s
(2)
~L = < 0, h, 0 > < px , 0, 0 >
m2
= 700 kg
s
10
(3)
~L = < +, h, 0 > < px , 0, 0 >
m2
= 700 kg
s
(4)
~L = < , 0, 0 > < 0, py , 0 >
m2
= 450 kg
s
(5)
~L = 0
(6)
~L = < , 0, 0 > < px , 0, 0 >
= 0
(7) It is easiest to use Lz = r |~p| with the sign determined by the right-hand rule, + for clockwise rotation and - for
counterclockwise rotation.
Lz = d(|~p|)
= (27 m)(25 kg m/s)
m2
= 675 kg
s
11.X.28
~L = ~r ~p
A A
i j k

= h0, 0, 198i kg m
2

= 9 9 0

12 10 s
0

11.X.29
~L = ~rA ~p
A
= < 6, 6, 0 > < 11, 13, 0 >

m2
= h0, 0, 144i kg
s
11
11.X.30
[I] = kg r2
[] =
rad/s
m2
[L] = kg
s
[p] = kg m/s
11.X.31
(a)
|~p| = m |~v|
= mR
2
= mR
T
2

= (40 kg)(24 m)
20 s
= 302 kg m/s
~p = h300, 0, 0i kg m/s
(b)
~r = h0, 24, 0i m
(c)
~r = h0, 24, 0i m
(d)
~

LA = |~r | |~p|
= (24 m)(300 kg m/s)
m2
= 7200 kg
s
(e) It is in the x,y plane, the plane of the Ferris Wheel in this case.
(f) Because the wheel rotates counterclockwise (because ~vF is in the +x direction), Lz is in the +z direction. Thus,
2
LA,z = 7200 kg ms
12
(g)
~L = ~rA ~p
A
3 2 1

:) 0= k((24 m)(+300 kg m ))
2

= 1 1 1 = k(xp yp

1
y
x
s
1 1

~L m2
= (7200 kg )k
A
s
2
so LA,z = 7200 kg ms
(h) Since |~r | and |~p| are constant, then ~L is constant and ~LA = 7200 kg ms
2

11.X.32
(a)
~

Lrot = I
1 2

= M R2
2 T
m2
= 2.72 kg
s
Use the right-hand rule to get the direction.
~L m2
= h0, 2.72, 0i kg
rot
s
L2rot
Krot =
2I
L2rot
=
2( 21 M R2 )
= 14.2 J
(b)
~

Lrot = I
2 2

= M R2
5 T
2 2

= (22 kg)(0.7 m)2
5 0.5 s
m2
= 54 kg
s
13
Use the righ-hand rule to get the direction.
~L m2
= h54, 0, 0i kg
rot
s
L2rot
Krot =
2I
L2rot
Krot =
2( 25 M R2 )
= 338 J
(c)
~

Lrot = I
1 1 2

= M L2 + M R2
12 4 T
1 1 2

= (5 kg)(0.7 m)2 + (5 kg)(0.06 m)2
12 4 0.03 s
= (0.209 kg m2 )(209 rad/s)
m2
= 43.7 kg
s
Use the right-hand rule to get the direction.
~L m2
= h43.7, 0, 0i kg
rot
s
L
Krot =
2I
2
43.7 kg ms
=
2(0.209 kg m2 )
= 105 J
11.X.33
L2rot
Krot =
2I
2
(36 kg ms )2
=
2(19 kg m2 )
= 34.1 J
11.X.34
14
(a)
1
I = M R2
2
1
= (16 kg)(0.15 m)2
2
= 0.18 kg m2
(b)
1 2
Krot = I
2
2
1 2

= (0.18 kg m )
2
2 0.5 s
= 14.2 J
(c)
~

Lrot = I
2

= (0.18 kg m2 )
0.5 s
m2
= 2.26 kg
s
11.X.35
I = 2I1 + 2I2
(a)
I = 2m1 r12 + 2m2 r22
= 2(0.29 kg)(0.08 m)2 + 2(0.82 kg)(0.16 m)2
= 0.0457 kg m2
(b)
2 2
= = = 6.98 rad/s
T 0.9 s
(c)
~

L = I
m2
= 0.319 kg
s
15
11.X.36
(a)
I = I1 + I2
I = 2mr2
= 2(1.7 kg)(0.15 m)2
= 0.0765 kg m2
(b)
~

Lrot = I
2

= (0.0765 kg m ) 2
0.5 s
m2
= 0.91 kg
s
(c)
L2rot
Krot =
2I
2
(0.961 kg ms )
=
2(0.0765 kg m2 )
= 6.28 J
11.X.37
(a)
v = R
= (0.1 m)(80 rad/s)
= 8 m/s
(b)
~L = ~r1 ~p1
trans,1,A
~
Ltrans,1,A = |~r | |~p|

= (0.1 m)(0.5 kg)(8 m/s)

m2
= 0.4 kg
s
~L points into the page, according to the right-hand rule. If the barbell is in the x,y plane, then ~L is in the -z direction.
So,
16
~L m2
= h0, 0, 0.4i kg
trans,1,A
s
(c) Same mass, same |r |, same speed, so
~L m2
= h0, 0, 0.4i kg
trans,2,A
s
(d)
~L = ~Ltrans,1,A + ~Ltrans,2,A
total,1,A
m2
= h0, 0, 0.8i kg
s
(e)
1
Ktrans,1 = m v2
2 1 1
p21
=
2m1
1
= (0.5 kg)(8 m/s)2
2
= 16 J
(f)
1
Ktrans,2 = m v2
2 2 2
= 16 J
(g)
Ktotal = Ktrans,1 + Ktrans,2

= 32 J
(h)
0
I =
Irad
>+ I + I

1 2
= m1 r12 + m2 r22
= 2mr2
= 2(0.5 kg)(0.1 m)2
= 0.01 kg m2
17
(i)
~ is in the -z direction since the barbell rotates clockwise in the x,y plane.
(j)
~L = I~

rot
= (0.01 kg m2 )h0, 0, 80i rad/s

m2
= h0, 0, 0.8i kg
s
~
m2
Lrot = 0.8 kg
s
(k) It is the same as ~Ltrans .

(l)
1 2
Krot = I
2
1 m2
= (0.01 kg )(80 rad/s)
2 s
= 32 J
(m) It is the same as if we calculated the kinetic energy of each particle and added them together.
11.P.38
(a)

2 ~r
~

ES
LEarth,Sun = MEarth ~rES |~v| = MEarth ~rES

T
2
2 ~rES MEarth

=
T
11
2 24

2 1.5 10 m 6 10 kg

3.15 107 s
40
2.7 10 kg m2 /s
(b) From 11.X.4 we have

~
33
Lrot,Earth 7.1 10 kg m2 /s

7
This is 2.6 10 times smaller than the translational angular momentum.
11.P.39
(a)
~ptotal = m1 ~v1 + m2 ~v2 = m ~v1 + ~v2

h29.4, 0, 0i kg m/s
18
(b)
~ptotal
~vcm =
2m
h49, 0, 0i m/s
(c)
~L = ~r1 ~p1 +~r2 ~p2
A,total
h0, 0, 25.9i kg m2 /s
(d)
~L = ~r1,cm ~p1 +~r2,cm ~p2
rot
h0, 0, 4.95i kg m2 /s
(e)
~L = ~rcm,A ~ptotal
trans,A
h0, 0, 30.9i kg m2 /s
Check: ~LA,total = ~Ltrans,A + ~Lrot
(f)
~pf = ~pi + ~Fnet t

h32.9, 0, 0i kg m/s
11.P.40
(a)
~ptotal = m ~v1 + ~v2

(b)
~ptotal ~v + ~v2
~vcm = = 1
2m 2
(c)
~L = ~r1 ~p1 +~r2 ~p2
A,total
= 0, 0, m ~v1 (d + h) + 0, 0, m ~v2 h

(d)
~L = ~r1,cm ~p1 +~r2,cm ~p2
rot
d d

= 0, 0, m ~v1
+ 0, 0, m ~v2

2 2
19
(e)
~L = ~rcm,A ~ptotal
trans,A
d

= 0, 0, 2m ~vcm h +

2
(f)
~pf = ~pi + ~Fnet t

m ~v1 + ~v2 + ~F1 ~F2 t, 0, 0
D E
=
(g)
~L = ~r1,cm ~p1,f +~r2,cm ~p2,f
rot,f
d ~

= 0, 0, m ~v1 + F1 t +
2
d ~

0, 0, m ~v2 F2 t
2
11.X.41
~L is constant if the net torque on the system is zero. Of the net torque is zero in the x-direction and non-zero in the y-direction,
then the y-component of ~L will change. Suppose there is a wrench that is rotated in the x-z plane with an increasing angular
speed. Then there is a non-zero torque in the y-direction and Ly changes though Lx and Lz are constant.
11.X.42
A planet orbiting the Sun is a good example. The planet has translational angular momentum due to its center-of-mass orbit
about the Sun, and it has rotational angular momentum due to its spin about its axis.
11.X.43
A barbell rotates clockwise about its center to the axis of the barbell. The center of mass of the barbell moves in a circle
about a point in the same plane as the barbell. If vtrans , rot , and I are chosen correctly, then ~Ltrans = ~Lrot and ~Ltot = 0.
11.X.44
(a)
= ~rA ~F sin

~A

= (3 m)(8 N) sin 51
= 18.7 N m
(b)
~A = ~rA ~F

~
18.7 N m
F =
3m
= 6.22 N
20
11.X.45
The torque about location A is zero if the force acts at location A or if the force acts along a line that passes through the
point A.
11.X.46
y

F
F
B x C
A
If ~F acts at location B, then A is in the -z direction.

If ~F acts at location C, then A is in the +z direction.
11.X.47
In all cases the direction of A,z is given by the right-hand rule. Clockwise rotation is a torque in the -z direction; counter-
clockwise rotation is a torque in the +z direction.
(1)
A,z = Fh
= (25 N)(14 m)
= 350 N m
(2) Note that (1), (2), and (3) all exert the same torque because they are along the same line and are the same distance
from point A. A,z = 350 N m.
(3)
A,z = 350 N m
(4)
A,z = F
= (25 N)(9 m)
= 225 N m
21

(5) A,z = 0 since ~rA = 0.

(6) A,z = 0 since |~r | = 0
(7)
A,z = +Fd
= (25 N)(13 m)
= 325 N m
11.X.48
d~
so if ~A = 0, then ~LA is constant.
L
(A) ~A = dt
A
11.P.49
~L = ~LA,i + ~A t
A,f
~L = ~rA ~p1 = 0, 0, xm ~vi

A,i
~A = ~rA ~F = h0, 0, xmgi

~L
D E
= 0, 0, xm ~vf

A,f
~vv = ~vi + gt

which is equivalent to
d |~v|
= g
dt
11.P.50
The net torque on the rock is zero since ~r and ~F are collinear, so angular momentum is conserved.
~rA,1 ~p1 = ~rA,2 ~p2

d1 ~p1 sin = d2 ~p2 sin 90

d1
~p = ~p sin

2
d2 1
13
4.5 10 m 17

1.35 10 kg m/s sin 126
1.3 10 m 13
17
3.8 10 kg m/s
11.X.51
22
(a)
~L = ~LC,wheel,i + ~LC,clay,i
C,i

Lc,i,z = Ii + ~rC ~pi sin

1
= ( M R2 )i + m ~vi R sin 45

2
1 2
= (4.8 kg)(0.9 m)2 (0.33 rad/s) + (0.5 kg)(0.9 m)( )
2 2
m2 m2
= 0.642 kg + 0.318 kg
s s
m2
= 0.323 kg
s
(b) The support exerts a force on the axle, but this force exerts no torque about C on the system. The gravitational force
on the wheel exerts no torque about C on the system. The only torque on the system is the gravitational force on m.
However, during the small time interval of the collision, ~LC is approximately constant. Thus,
~L = ~LC,i
C,f
~L m2
= 0.323 kg
C,f
s
(c)
~L = ~LC,f,wheel + ~LC,f,clay
C,f
LC,z,f = Iwheel f + Iclay f

1
= M R2 f + mR2 f
2
1
= ( M R2 + mR2 )f
2
2
0.323 kg ms
f =
2 (4.8 kg)(0.9 m) + (0.5 kg)(0.9 m)
1 2 2
= 0.138 rad/s
(d) Before the collision, ~pi,sys = ~pi,clay which is downward. After the collision, ~pf,sys = ~pf,clay which is downward and to
the left and its y-component is less than ~pi,clay . Thus, the support exerts a force that is upward and to the left on the
system. Thus, the answer is (A).
11.X.52
23
(a)
~L = ~LC,wheel,i + ~LC,clay,i
C,i
LC,z,i = Iwheel i + (~rC ~pclay,i )z

1
= (5 kg)(0.6 m)2 (0.51 rad/s) + (h0.36, 0.48, 0i m < 0, (0.4 kg)(0.51 m/s), 0 >)z
2
m2 m2
= 0.459 kg + 0.0734 kg
s s
m2
= 0.386 kg
s
(b) During the small time interval of the collision, the net torque is negligible, and the angular momentum is constant. So,
LC,z,f = LC,z,i
m2
= 0.386 kg
s
(c)
LC,z,f = LC,z,f,wheel + LC,z,f,clay
= Iwheel f + Iclay f
1
= ( M R2 + mR2 )f
2
1
= ( (5 kg)(0.6 m)2 + (0.4 kg)(0.6 m)2 )f
2
= (1.04 kg m2 )f
2
0.386 kg ms
f =
1.04 kg m2
= 0.371 rad/s
(d) The linear momentum of the clay changes as a result of the collision, but the wheel does not due to the force by the
support. As a result, there is a net force and therefore the linear SORRY DR T, THE PAGE CUT OFF HERE
11.X.53
(a) (A) and (D) are true.

(b)
LC,z,i = LC,z,device,i + LC,z,clay,i

= Ii + ~rC |~p| sin

= 8mball R2 i Rmclay vi,clay sin 130

= 8(0.8 kg)(1.4 m)2 (0.23 rad/s) (1.4 m)(0.2 kg)(9 m/s) sin 135
m2 m2
= 2.89 kg 1.78 kg
s s
m2
= 1.11 kg
s
24
(c) During the small time interval of the collision, ~L is constant, so
m2
LC,z,f = 1.11 kg
s
(d)
Lz,f = Idevice f + Iclay f
= (8mdevice R2 + mclay R2 )f
= (12.9 kg m2 )f
2
11.1 kg ms
f =
12.9 kg m2
= 0.0858 rad/s
(e) The support exerts a net force on the device-only system that is upward and to the right. Thus, the linear momentum
of the clay changes. In this case, pclay,y decreases, so (D) is correct.
L2
(f) Calculate Ki and Kf . Ki = Kwheel,i + Kclay,i = 21 I 2 + 12 mclay v2 = 0.332 J + 8.1 J = 8.1 J. And Kf = 2z,fJ = 0.047 J.
i i
Kinetic energy is definitely lost, resulting in an increase in thermal energy. This is true for any sticky collision. (C) is
correct.
11.X.54
(a) (A) (Note: r = 0.4 cos 45 = 0.4

2
), (C), (D), and (E) are true.
(b) Apply the angular momentum principle. Note that angular momentum is conserved during the small time interval of
the collision. Let C be the center of the device.
:0
LC,z,i = LC,z,i,device + LC,z,i,clay

= Rmclay vi sin 135

2
= (0.4 m)(0.066 kg)(10 m/s)
2
m2
= 0.187 kg
s
m2
LC,z,f = LC,z,i = 0.187 kg
s
= (Idevice + Iclay )f
= (8mball R2 + mclay R2 )f
= (0.395 kg m2 )f
2
0.187 kg ms
f =
0.395 kg m2
= 0.474 rad/s
25
The linear speed of a ball is |~v| = R || = 0.19 m/s
11.P.55
system = bullet + stick
(a) The (linear) momentum isnt constant because there is an external force on the system from the axle. During the
collision, the point of contact between the hole in the stick and the axle shifts to the left and slightly down.
(b) The center of the axle is the best point to choose so that the force from the axle will not produce a torque.
(c)
~L = ~LA,f
A,i

m ~vi L = f
Istick + Ibullet ~

1

m ~vi L = M L2 + mL2 ~ f

3
1

m ~vi L = L2 M + m ~ f

3
~v

m
f = 1 i

M + m L
~
3
(d)
1 2
Ki = m ~vi
2
1 2
Kf = Istick + Ibullet ~f

2
1 2 m

= ~vi
2 3M + m
1
1 2 m

K = m ~vi 1

2 3M + m
1
The loss is dissipated as thermal energy.
(e) HELP HELP HELP HELP
11.P.56
~pf = ~pi = ~Fnet t

D E
M vx , M vy , 0 + hm |~v| cos , m |~v| sin , i = h0, 0, 0i
D E Dm m E
~v = vx , vy , 0 = |~v| cos , |~v| sin , 0
M M
Use the center of the satellite as the reference for calculating angular momentum. All angular momentum components are
in the +z direction so we can just deal with those components.
26
~L = ~Li + ~net t
f
I |~
| + Rm |~v| sin = I ~

o
Rm |~v| sin
| =
|~
~o
M R2
m |~v| sin
=
~o
MR
11.P.57
Angular momentum is conserved since there is no torque. Choose A at Suns center.
~L = ~LA,2
A,1
~r m ~v = ~r m ~v sin

1 1
2 2
~r ~v
~v = 1 1

2 ~r sin
2
11.P.58
(a) Choose A at the center of the axle.
1
m |~v| R =
M R2 + mR2
2
1

m |~v| = M R + mR
2
m |~v|
= 1
2 M R + mR
(b) The loss shows up as an increase in thermal energy.
(c)
~pf ~pi = mR m |~v|

M
= m |~v|
M + 2m
The change in (linear) momentum was caused by the force by the axle.
(d) We can consider only z components of angular momentum.
R R

Idisk 2 + m 2 = mr |~v|
2 2
m |~v|
2 =
2M + 14 m R
1

(e) The increase comes form the childs expenditure of chemical energy.
(f) Taking m 30 kg and |~v| 4 m/s and M 565 kg (estimated from a three meter diameter, a one centimeter thickness,
and irons density) gives 14 rad/s.
27
11.P.59
(a) A, B, D, and E are true
(b)
~

LA,i = m |~v| R
97.8 kg m2 /s
(c) With no torque, ~LA wont change. So its still 97.8 kg m2 /s.

(d)
m |~v|
| =
|~
2MR
+ mR
1
0.727 rad/s
(e)
| T
|~ = 2
2
T =
|
|~
8.64 s
(f)
M 1

2
K = m |~v|
M + 2m 2
30.6 J
(g) B
(h)

~pf = m |~
| R

~vf = |~
| R

1.24 m/s
(i) zero
(j) zero
(k)
M

px = m |~v|
M + 2m
26.6 kg m/s
(l) C
28
(m)
m |~v|
f =

2M + 14 m R
1
~
1.22 rad/s
(n)
!
4m 1
3 2
2
K = m |~v|
2M
1
+ 14 m 2M + m
1 2

+24.0 J
(o) The child expends chemical energy.
11.P.60
(a) Apply the Angular Momentum Principle to the person/barbell system. Since the net torque on the system is zero, then
its angular momentum is constant. Assume that ~L is in the z-direction.
~L = ~Lf,sys
i,sys
Li,z,person + Li,z,barbells = Lf,z,person + Lf,z,barbells

(Iperson,i + Ibarbells,i )i,z = (Iperson,f + Ibarbells,f )f,z
Estimate Iperson as a cylinder of mass 50 kg and radius 0.25 m rotating about its axis. Estimate the barbells as point
particles of mass 5 kg initially at a distance ri = 0.75 m pulled into a distance of rf = 0.
1 1 0
( M R2 + 2mr2 )i = ( M R2 + 2mr 2
>
)f
2 i 2 f
1
M R 2
+ 2mr 2
!
2
f = i
i
2MR
1 2
2 (50
kg)(0.25 m)2 + 2(5 kg)(0.75 m)2 2
1
=
2 (50 kg)(0.25 m)
1 2 2s
7.19 kg m2

= (3.14 rad/s)
1.56 kg m2
= (4.6)(3.14 rad/s)
= 14 rad/s
2
T = = 0.45 s
f
This is roughly 1
4 the initial period, and the person rotates about SORRY DR T, THE PAGE CUT OFF AGAIN
29
(b)
Krot = Kf,rot Ki,rot

1 1
= I 2 Ii 2
2 f f 2 I
1 1 m2
= (1.56 kg m2 )(14 rad/s)2 (7.19 kg )(3.14 rad/s)2
2 2 s
= 150 J 35 J
= 115 J
Since you and the barbells are a closed system,
Esys = 0
Krot Einternal = 0
Einternal = 115 J
So you expend about 100 J of energy in pulling the barbells inward.
11.P.61
(a) In figure 11.93, estimate the arms of the skater as point particles of mass 5 kg at a distance of 0.4 m from the axis of
rotation. Estimate the outstretched leg as a 10 kg mass at a distance of 0.8 m from the axis of rotation. Estimate the
torso as a cylinder of mass 30 kg and radius 0.25 m. In figure 11.94, after bringing her arms and legs inward, estimate
her torso and arms as having mass 40 kg and the same radius, and estimate her bent leg as two 5 kg particles at a
distance of 0.5 m. Apply the Angular Momentum Principle with i = 2 rad/s.
Lz,f = Lz,i
(Itorso+arms + Ibent leg
)z,f = (Itorso + Iarms + Ileg )z,i
1 1
Itorso = m R2 = (30 kg)(0.25 m)2 = 0.938 kg m2
2 torso torso 2
Iarms = 2marms rarms
2
= 2(5 kg)(0.4 m)2 = 1.6 kg m2
Ileg = mleg r2 = (10 kg)(0.8 m)2 = 6.4 kg m2
leg
1 1
Itorso+arms,f = M R2 = (40 kg)(0.25 m)2 = 1.25 kg m2
2 2
Ibent leg
= 2mleg,f r2 = 2(5 kg)(0.2 m)2 = 0.4 kg m2
leg,f
30
Ii z,i
z,f =
If
0.938 kg m2 + 1.6 kg m2 + 6.4 kg m2

= (2 rad/s)
1.25 kg m2 + 0.4 kg m2
8.9 kg m2

= (2 rad/s)
1.7 kg m2
= (5.4)(2 rad/s)
= 34 rad/s
Note: the skater rotates about 5 times faster. Interestingly, this is approximately equivalent to the results of Problem
11.P.60 with a person on a stool holding barbells.
(b)

1 1
= I 2 Ii 2
2 f f 2 i
1 1
= (1.7 kg m )(34 rad/s)2 (8.9 kg m2 )(2 rad/s)2
2
2 2
= 983 J 176 J
= 807 J
Apply the Energy Principle to the skater.
Esys = 0
Krot + Einternal = 0
Einternal = Krot
= 807 J
The skater expends about 800 J to perform this maneuver.
11.P.62
Apply the Momentum Principle. Treat the barbell as a particle located at its center of mass with total mass 2m1 . Since the
net force on the barbell/m2 system is zero, then the linear momentum is conserved. Define +x to the right, +y to the top
of the page, and +z outward.
x:
~psys,i = ~psys,f
p1,i,x + p2,i,x = p1,f,x + p2,f,x
2m1 v1 + m2 v2 cos 2 = m1 v3 cos 3 + m2 v4 cos 4
31
y:
*+0 p
p1,i,y
= p1,f,y + p2,f,y
2,i,y
m2 v2 sin 2 = 2m1 v3 sin 3 m2 v4 sin 4
Apply the Momentum Principle to the system of barbell + m2 . Since the net torque on the system is zero, then ~Lsys is
conserved. ~L is in the z-direction since the motion is in the x,y plane. Calculate ~L about the center of the barbell.
z:
L1,i,z + L2,i,z = L1,f,z + L2,f,z

:0
L1,trans,i,z :0
+ L1,rot,i,z + (~r2 ~p2 )z =
L1,trans,f,z
+ L1,rot,f,z + (~r2 ~p4 )z

Note that ~Ltrans barbell about its center is zero since ~v is the center-of-mass velocity.
I1,z 1,i,z + (< 0, b, 0 > < m2 v2 cos 2 , m2 v2 sin 2 , 0 >)z = I1,f 1,f,z + (< 0, b, 0 > < +m2 v4 cos 4 , m2 v4 sin 4 , 0 >)z
2 2
L L
2m1 1 + bm2 v2 cos 2 = 2m1 2 + bm2 v4 cos 4
2 2
We now have the following three equations. Given all other quantities, the unknowns v3 , 3 , and 2 can be found.
2m1 v1 + m2 v2 cos 2 = m1 v3 cos 3 + m2 v4 cos 4

m2 v2 sin 2 = 2m1 v3 sin 3 m2 v4 sin 4
2 2
L L
2m1 1 + bm2 v2 cos 2 = 2m1 2 + bm2 v4 cos 4
2 2
11.P.63
Apply the Momentum Principle to determine vCM . Since ~Fnet = 0 for the system, then ~pCM is constant.
~psys,i = ~psys,f
(2M )~vCM,i = (2M )~vCM
~vCM,i = ~vCM,f
Use a weighted average to calculate ~vCM,i

32
M v1 M v2
vCM,i,x =
2M
1
= (v v2 )
2 1
Thus, vCM,f,x = 21 (v1 v2 ) and vCM,f,y = vCM,f,x = 0.
Apply the Angular Momentum Principle to calculate about the center of mass. Since ~net = 0, ~Lsys stays constant.
Calculate ~L about the center of mass of the system.
~L = ~Lsys,f
sys,i
~L = ~L1,i + ~L2,i
sys,i
= ~r1,CM ~p1,i +~r2,CM ~p2,i

Lsys,i,z = r1, ~p1 r2, ~p2

d d
= M v1 M v2
2 2
1
= dM (v1 + v2 )
2
Thus, Lsys,f,z = 21 dM (v1 + v2 ). After the collision, the asteroids stick together and rotate about their center of mass. Each
asteroids angular momentum can be calculated as ~Ltrans + ~Lrot where ~Ltrans is the angular momentum of the asteroids center
of mass (point particle) and ~Lrot is due to the asteroids rotation about its own center of mass. The asteroids angular speed
about its center is equal to the asteroids center of mass angular speed about the center of mass off the system (Much like
Earths Moon, for example).
For a single asteroid,
~L = ~Ltrans + ~Lrot
1
L1,z = RM v I
2
= RM v M R2
5
2
= RM (R) M R2
5
7
= MR 2
5
For both asteroids, since they have the same mass and radius, Lsys = 2L1 = 14
5 M R .
2
Since ~net = 0 during the collision, ~Lsys,i = ~Lsys,f and
1 14
dM (v1 + v2 ) = M R2
2 5
5 d
= (v + v2 )
28 R2 1
33
As a check, note that the units are s1 as expected.
11.P.64
(a) Apply the Momentum Principle to the system of satellite and space junk. Since ~Fnet = 0, then ~psys is constant.
x:
~psys,i = ~psys,f
p1,i,x + p2,i,x = p4,f,x + p3,f,y
M v1 mv2 = M vx mv3 cos
M v1 mv2 + mv3 cos
vx =
M
y:
p1,i,y + p2,i,y = p4,f,y + p3,f,y

0 = M vy + mv3 sin
mv3 sin
vy =
M
Apply the Angular Momentum Principle to the system. Calculate ~L about the center of the satellite. ~L is in the
z-direction.
~L = ~Lsys,f
sys,i
~L *0 ~ :0
+ Lrot,1,i + ~Ltrans,2,i =
Ltrans,1,f
+ Lrot,1,f + Ltrans,3,f

trans,1,i
I1 1 + (~r2 ~p2 )z = I2 + (~r3 ~p3 )z
I1 1 + Rmv2 = I2 + (< 0, R, 0 > < mv3 cos , mv3 sin , 0 >)z
I1 + Rmv2 = I + Rmv3 cos
I1 + Rmv2 + Rmv3 cos
=
I
(b)
Esys = 0
Krot + Ktrans + Einternal = 0
Einternal = Krot Ktrans
= (Krot + Ktrans )

1
= I( 2 12 )
2
34
Ktrans = Ktrans,f Ktrans,i

1 1 1 1
= mv32 + M v2 ( mv22 + M v12 )
2 2 2 2
1 1
= m(v3 v2 ) + M (v v1 )
2 2 2 2
2 2
where v2 = vx2 + vy2 for M after the collision. Thus,
1 1 1
Einternal = I(12 2 ) + m(v22 v32 ) + M (v12 v2 )
2 2 2
11.P.65
(a) Apply the Momentum Principle to the system of satellite and space junk. Since ~Fnet = 0, ~psys is constant. Define 1 to
be the junk and 2 to be the satellite.
~psys,i = ~psys,f
x:
p1,i,x + p2,i,x = p1,f,x + p2,f,x

m1 v1,i,x + m2 v2,i,x = m1 v1,f,x + m2 v2,f,x
(4.1 kg)(2200 m/s) + (205 kg)(2600 m/s) = (4.1 kg)(1300 m/s) + (205 kg)v2,f,x
v2,f,x = 2582 m/s
y:
p1,i,y + p2,i,y = p1,f,y + p2,f,y

0 = m1 v1,f,y + m2 v2,f,y
m1 v1,f,y
v2,f,y =
m2
(4.1 kg(480 m/s))
=
205 kg
= 9.6 m/s
Since m1 is deflected upward, then the satellite must be deflected downward; it is indeed. So,
~vf,satellite h2580, 9.6, 0i m/s

35
(b) ~vf,CM = ~vi,CM since ~p is constant.
m1 v1,i + m2 v2,i
=
m1 + m2
(4.1 kg)(2200 m/s) + (205 kg)(2600 m/s)
vi,CM,x =
209.1 kg
= 2506 m/s
vi,CM,y = 0
vi,CM,z = 0
So ~vf,CM h2510, 0, 0i m/s
(c)
2
Isat = M R2
5
2
= (205 kg)(4.8 m)2
5
= 1880 kg m2
(d)
Lrot,z = I1
= (1890 kg m2 )(2 rad/s)
m2
= 3780 kg
s
(e) (A), (B), (C), and (D) are true.

(f)
~L = ~rD ~p1,i
D,trans
LD,trans,z = +r |~p|
= +(4.8 m)(4.1 kg)(2200 m/s)
m2
= +4.33 104 kg
s
~L m2
= 0, 0, 4.33 104 kg

D,trans,i
s
(g)
~L = ~rD ~p1,f
D,trans
= < 0, R, 0 > (4.1 kg)h1300, 480, 0i m/s

m2
= 0, 0, 2.56 104 kg

s
36
(h) Since the net torque on the satellite/junk system about D is 0, ~L is constant. Calculate ~L about D. Note: trans,satellite =
0 and rot,junk = 0.
~L = ~Lsys,i
sys,f
L1,trans,i,z + L2,rot,i,z = L1,trans,f,z + L2,rot,f,z

m2
m 2
m2
4.33 104 kg 3780 kg = 2.56 104 kg + L2,rot,f,z
s s s
m2
Lz,rot,f = 1.39 104 kg
s
Note that it is positive, thus the satellite is now spinning counterclockwise as a result of the collision.
(i)
Lz,rot,f = If
2
1.39 104 kg ms
f =
1890 kg m2
= 7.35 rad/s
(j) (A) because Lrot,z is positive.
11.P.66
(a) Apply the Momentum Principle. Since the ice is nearly frictionless, ~Fnet = 0 and ~psys is constant.
~psys,i = ~psys,f
x:
mvi cos i = mvf cos f + M vx
y:
mvi sin i = mvf sin f + M vy
so
m(vi cos i + vf cos f )

vx =
M
37
m(vi sin i + vf sin f )

vy =
M
(b) Apply the Angular Momentum Principle. Since ~net = 0 for the system, ~L is constant. Calculate ~L about the center of
the stick. The distance from the CM of the stick to the dotted line through the initial velocity vector is r = d cos i .
The distance for vf is r = d cos f
~L = ~Lsys,f
sys,i
Lm,trans,i,z = Lm,trans,f,z + If,z

r,i mvi = r,f mvf + If,z
1
d cos i mvi d cos f mvf = M L2 f,z
12
md(vi cos i + vf cos f )
f,z =
12 M L
1 2

| =
|~
12 M L
1 2
and the direction of

~ is in the -z direction, < 0, 0, 1 >.
(c) It is a closed system, so Esys = 0.
Esys = 0
K + Einternal = 0
Einternal = K
= (Ktrans + Krot )
= Ki,trans Kf,trans + Ki,rot Kf,rot
1
Km,i = mv2
2 i
1
Km,f = mv2
2 f
1
Ktrans,stick,f = M v2
2
1 2
Krot,stick,f = I
2
1 1
= ( M L2 ) 2
2 12
1
= M L2 2
24
m2 d2 (vi cos i + vf cos f )2
=
6ML
1 2
Thus, Eint = 12 m(v2 v2 ) 12 M v2 24 M L

1 2 2
where v = vx2 + vy2
i f
38
11.P.67
(a) See the solution to 11.P.66. Apply the results to obtain the following:
m(vi cos i + vf cos f )

vx =
M
(0.06 kg)((200 m/s) cos 26 + (60 m/s) cos 82 )
=
1.3 kg
= 8.68 m/s
m(vi sin i + vf sin f )

vy =
M
(0.06 kg)((200 m/s) sin 26 + (60 m/s) sin 82 )
=
1.3 kg
= 1.3 m/s
(b)
z =
12 mL
1 2
(0.6 kg)(0.2 m)((200 m/s) cos 26 + (60 m/s) sin 80 )

=
12 (1.3 kg)(0.4 kg)
1 2
= 166 rad/s 26 rev/s
(c)
1 1
Eint = m(v2 + v2 ) M L2 2
2 i f 2
1 1 1
= (0.06 kg)(200 602 ) (1.3 kg)(8.682 + 1.32 ) (1.3 kg)(0.4 m)2 (166 rad/s)2
2
2 2 24
= 1092 J 50.1 J 239 J
= 803 J
The internal energy increases about 800 J as a result of the interaction.
11.P.68
Apply the Angular Momentum Principle about the axle to the system of balls and bullet. ~net = 0 about the axle since the
only external force is the force by the axle. Thus, ~Lsys is constant.
~L = ~Lsys,f
sys,i
~L = ~Lf,bullet + ~Lf,balls
i,bullet
39
z:
(~r ~pi,bullet )z = Ibullet f Iballs f

= mR2 f 2M1 R12 f 2M2 R22 f
(0.002 kg)(h0.155, 0.58, 0i m) (h550, 0, 0i m/s) = ((0.002 kg)(0.6 m)2 + 2(1.2 kg)(0.6 m)2 + 2(0.4 kg)(0.2 m)2 )f
m2
0.638 kg = (0.896 kg m2 )f
s
f = 0.712 rad/s
Note that the device spins clockwise, so z is negative. Also, Lf,bullet,z is negligible since m << M .
11.P.69
While in the air, ~net = 0 about his center of mass. Thus, ~Lrot is constant.
~L = ~Lrot,f
rot,i
z:
Ii i = If f
where i is his angular speed while tucked and f is his angular speed while untucked. We must estimate his initial angular
speed. Suppose he is rotating for a time less than 1.4 s, perhaps 1.0 s is a good approximation. Estimate his tucked radius
as about 0.4 m. So,
3 rev
i =
1.0 s
rev 2 rad
= (3 )( ) = 6 rad/s 20 rad/s
s 1 rev
He can be modelled as a sphere with I = 25 M R2 . After straightening, he can be modelled as a rotating bar with length 2 m
i
and radius 0.85 m. So, If = 12
1
M L2 + 14 M R2 . Thus,
f
Ii i = If f
2 1 1
M R2 i = ( M L2 + M R2 )f
5 i 12 4 f
Assume that M 75 kg. Then,

40
2 1 1
(75 kg)(0.4 m)2 i = ( (75 kg)(2 m)2 + (75 kg)(0.25 m)2 )f
5 12 4
(4.8 kg m2 )(200 rad/s) = (25 kg m2 + 1.17 kg m2 )f
5

f (20 rad/s)
25
= 0.2(20 rad/s)
= 4 rad/s
Note that he is spinning at less than 1 revolution per second. Thus, he might not be perfectly vertical when entering the
water and causing a splash. A vertical entry and small splash requires perfect timing.
11.P.70
(a) Apply the Energy Principle to the asteroid-Earth-Sun system. It is a closed system, so Esys = 0. Far away, Ugrav 0.
Also, Kf,E and Kf,S 0.
Ei = Ef
0 = Kf + Ugrav,EA,f + Ugrav,SA,f
1 GmME GmMS
0 = mv2
2 f RE rorbit
! 21
2GME 2GMS
vf = +
RE rorbit
Nm2 Nm2
! 12
2(6.7 1011 kg2
)(6 1024 kg) 2(6.7 1011 kg2
)(2 1030 kg)
= +
6.4 106 m 1.5 1011 m
m2 m2 1
= (1.26 108 + 1.79 109 2 ) 2
s 2 s
= 4.37 104 m/s
Note that the gravitational potential energy of the asteroid-Earth pair was not negligible.
(b) The impact changes the rate of rotation of the Earth. Use the Angular Momentum Principle. During the small t of
the impact, ~net on the asteroid-Earth system about Earths center-of-mass is approximately zero, so ~L about Earths
center is constant.
~L = ~Lf
i
~L + ~Lrot,E,i = ~Lrot,asteroid,f + ~Lrot,E,f

asteroid,i
z:
41
(~r ~pi,asteroid )z + IE i,z = Iast f,z + IE f,z

2 2
|~r| ~pi sin + M R2 i,z = (mR2 + M R2 )f,z

5 5
2 2 2

mRv1 sin (180 30 ) + M R
2
= (mR + M R2 )f,z
2
5 24 h 5
(2 1021 kg)(6.4 106 m)(4.37 104 m/s) sin (180 30 ) +
2 2

(6 1024 kg)(6.4 106 m)2 =
5 (24 h)( 3600
1h )
s
2
((2 1021 kg)(6.4 106 m)2 + (6 1024 kg)(6.4 106 m)2 )f,z
5
m2 m2
2.80 1032 kg + 7.15 1033 kg = (9.84 1037 kg m2 )f,z
s s
f,z = 7.55 105 rad/s
2
T = = 83, 220 s

= 23.1 h
The change in the length of a day due to the collision is approximately 1 hour.
11.X.71
In all cases, use ~ = ~r ~F and z = r F where the sign is determined by the right-hand rule.
(a)
z = +M1 gd1
N
= (90 kg)(9.8 )(0.8 m)
kg
= 706 N m
(b)
z = M2 gd2
= 535 N m
(c) z = 0 since |~r| = 0.

(d)
z = grav,1,z + grav,2,z
= 706 N m 535 N m
= 171 N m
(e) Since the net torque is in the +z direction, then Lz is positive and z is positive. The see-saw will begin rotating
counterclockwise (B).
42
(f)
z = 0
706 N m M2 gd2 = 0
706 N m
d2 =
(42 kg)(9.8 kg
N
)
= 1.72 m
11.X.72
(a) (B) in Figure 11.106 is the correct free-body diagram, since mboard is negligible.
(b)
A = A,grav,z
= mgrA
N
= (5 kg)(9.8 )(3 m)
kg
= 147 N m
(c) (A) and (C) are correct.
11.X.73
Define the point C to be the center of the barbell. Apply the Angular Momentum Principle. Only the left force exerts a
torque on the system.
LC,z
C,z =
t
LC,z
+FrC sin 35
=
t
2
3.5 104 kg ms
=
0.004 s
= 0.0875 N m
0.0875 N m
F =
(0.11 m) sin 35
= 1.39 N
11.P.74
Apply the Angular Momentum Principle to the disk about its axle. Calculate torque about the axle. The only force that
exerts a torque is the force by the string which is tangent to the disk.
43
~L
~net =
t
Lz
z =
t
Iz
Fstring R =
t
(1.5 kg m2 )(z,f (2 rad/s))
(25 N)(0.2 m) =
0.1 s
z,f = 3.67 rad/s
It is rotating faster in the -z direction.
11.P.75
The net force on the object is zero because its momentum ~p is not changing. It is in equilibrium. Thus F = M g. Now, apply
the Angular Momentum Principle; calculate torque and angular momentum about the center of the object. The only torque
is due to the string.
Lz
z =
t
I(f,z i,z )
FR =
t
Note that we do not know t, so this does not help us calculate f,z . Thus, apply the Energy Principle to the disk. Neglect
Q.
W = Esys
Wby F
= Krot
1 2 1 2
F(y y0 ) I I
=
2 f 2 i
1
M g(y y0 ) = I( 2 2 )
2 f i
2M g(y y0 )
2 = + 2
f
s I i
2M g(y y0 )
f = + 2
I i
11.P.76
There are two ways to approach this problem:
(1) Apply both the Momentum Principle and Angular Momentum Principle.
(2) Apply the Energy Principle to the point particle system and the real system of the yo-yo.
The following solution uses the first approach. Choose the system to be the yo-yo. Apply the Momentum Principle.
44
~F ~p
=
net
t
py
Fnet,y =
t
vCM
(FT Mtotal g) = Mtotal
t
As the wheel is displaced -y, it rotates a distance 2r in the +z direction (i.e. counterclockwise). Thus, vCM,y = z r and
vCM,y = rz .
z
(FT Mtotal g) = Mtotal r
t
Now, apply the Momentum Principle. Calculate ~ and ~L about the CM of the disk.
~L
~net =
t
Lz
net,z =
t
z
FT r = I
t
1 1 z
FT r = (2( M R2 ) + mr2 )
2 2 t
z
Solve for t from the Momentum Principle and substitute.
z Mtotal g FT
=
t Mtotal r
Substitute this quantity into the Angular Momentum Principle.
1 (M g FT )
FT r = (M R2 + mr2 ) total
2 Mtotal r
FT Mtotal r
= Mtotal FT
M R2 + 12 mr2
Mtotal g
FT = M r2
total
M R2 + 12 mr 2
+1
Be sure to check the units to verify that you will get Newtons. In this case, FT has the units of the numerator, Mtotal g,
which is Newtons.
45
(2M + m)g
FT = (2M +m)r 2
M R2 + 12 mr 2
+1
11.P.77
See the solution for 11.P.75. The results from 11.P.75 are used below.
s
2M g(y y0 )
f = + 2
I i
! 21
2(1.2 kg)(9.8 kg )(0.66
N
m 0.25 m) + (12 rad/s)2
=
0.06 kg m2
= 50.6 rad/s
8 rev/s
11.P.78
(a) Apply the Momentum Principle to the apparatus, in the x-direction.
px
Fnet,x =
t
m(vf,x *) 0
vi,x

F =
t
mvf,x
=
t
Note that this doesnt work because we dont know t. Thus, use the Energy Principle! Treat the apparatus as a point
particle.
Z
Ktrans = ~F ~r
net CM
*0
Kf,trans + Ki,trans = FxCM

1
M v2 = Fd
2 total CM,f s
2Fd
vCM,f =
Mtotal
2Fd
r
vCM,f =
M + 4m
46
0
Esys =
W + Q
7

Ktrans + Krot = ~F ~rhand
* 0= Fx
Fd + Krot,f Krot,i

hand

1 2
Fd + I = F(w + d)
2 f
1 1
Fd + (4mb2 + M R2 ) 2 = F(w + d)
2 2 f
12
Fw

f =
2mb2 + 14 M R2
Note that f,z is negative since it rotates clockwise. Compare this to 9.P.33 in chapter 9. It m = 0, the result should
be the same. Indeed it is.
(c) Apply the Angular Momentum Principle to the apparatus, about its CM.
Lz
rot,z =
t
z
FR = I
t
FRt
z =
I
FRt
=
(4mb2 + 12 M R2 )
Note that z is negative, meaning that it increases in the -z direction.
11.P.79
Sketch a picture of the object and ramp. Define +x to be parallel, down the ramp and +y to be perpendicular to the ramp,
as shown in Figure 3. Also, sketch a force diagram for the object, showing the forces acting on the object. Note that there are
only two forces: the force by the ramp on the object and the gravitational force by Earth on the object. However, the force
by the ramp can be drawn as a parallel component (friction) and a perpendicular component (called the normal component;
here normal means perpendicular).
FN
+y
Ff
+x
Fgrav
Figure 3: The ramp, coordinate system, and force diagram for Problem 11.P.79.
47
(a) Apply the momentum principle to the object:
~F d~
p
=
net
dt
~F d~
p
+ ~Fgrav =
ramp
dt
Write this in component form:
dpx
x-component: Fgrav,x + Framp,x =
dt
dv
M g sin() Ff = M CM,x
dt
dpy
y-component: Fgrav,y + Framp,y =
dt
M g cos() + FN = 0
FN = M g cos()
We will find out later that the y-components of the forces are not needed. Now, apply the Angular Momentum Principle
to the object, about the center of mass CM . Friction is the only force that exerts a torque on the object about its CM.
This torque is in the z direction (i.e. into the page). The angular momentum is also in the z direction since the
object turns clockwise.
d~LCM
~CM =
dt
d
Ff R = (ICM CM )
dt
d
Ff R = ICM CM
dt
The center of mass velocity in the +x direction is related to the angular speed by vCM,x = CM R. Substitute for into
the above equation.
dCM
Ff R = ICM
dt
ICM dvCM,x
Ff R =
R dt
ICM dvCM,x
Ff =
R2 dt
Note that this is the correct calculation for the frictional force. You cannot use Ff = k FN because the object is not
sliding. In fact, the frictional force is less than the kinetic frictional force (if it were sliding).
We will use the following two results in later calculations and can simplify them into one equation:
48
dvCM,x
From the Momentum Principle: M g sin() Ff = M
dt
ICM dvCM,x
From the Angular Momentum Principle: Ff =
R2 dt
Substitute the force of friction into the Momentum Principle:
dvCM,x
M g sin() Ff = M
dt
I dvCM,x dvCM,x
M g sin() CM = M
R2 dt dt
I dv
M g sin() = (M + CM ) CM,x
R 2 dt
dvCM,x M g sin()
=
dt (M +
I
CM
)
R2
(b)
dvCM,x M g sin() 1
hoop: aCM,x = = = g sin
dt (M + R2 )
M R2 2
dvCM,x M g sin() 2
solid disk: aCM,x = = = g sin
dt (M +
1
2 MR
2
) 3
R2
dvCM,x M g sin() 5
solid sphere: aCM,x = = = g sin
dt (M +
2
5 MR
2
) 7
R2
Note that the sphere has the greatest center-of-mass acceleration.
(c) aCM does not depend on mass, so two hoops will reach the bottom at the same time.
The sphere has the greatest center-of-mass acceleration, so it will reach the bottom of the ramp first.
(d) Treat the object as a point particle. Assume that the particle is displaced x. Then,
Ktrans = Wby net force

1
M v2 0 = (M g sin Ff )x
2 CM
1 I dvCM

M v2 = M g sin CM x
2 CM R2 dt
Take the derivative of both sides with respect to time. Note that dt (vCM )
d 2
= 2vCM dvdt
CM
. This is the chain rule. Thus,
49
d 1 d I dvCM

M v2 = M g sin CM x
dt 2 CM dt R2 dt
dv ICM dvCM dx

M vCM CM = M g sin 2
dt R dt dt
dv I dvCM

M vCM CM = M g sin CM vCM
dt R2 dt
dv I dvCM
M CM = M g sin CM
dt R2 dt
dvCM M g sin()
=
dt (M + R
I
2 )
CM
This agrees with what we obtained from the Momentum Principle and Angular Momentum Principle.
For the real system, ~Framp does no work because the force does not act through a displacement (the object rolls without
slipping). Thus
Ktrans + Krot = W
1 1
M v 2 + ICM 2 = M g sin()x
2 CM 2 CM
1 1 v 2
M v2 + I CM
= M g sin()x
2 CM 2 CM R 2
1 I

M + CM v2 = M g sin()x
2 R2 CM
Take the derivative of both sides with respect to time. Again, note that dt (vCM )
d 2
= 2vCM dvdt
CM
.
d 1 ICM d

M+ 2 v 2
= (M g sin()x)
dt 2 R CM dt
I dv dx

M + CM vCM CM = M g sin()
R2 dt dt
I dv

M + CM vCM CM = M g sin()vCM
R 2 dt
dvCM M g sin()
=
dt (M +
I
CM
)
R2
This is the result obtained using the point-particle model as well as what we obtained from the Momentum Principle
and Angular Momentum Principle.
11.P.80
(a) Treat the apparatus as a point particle and apply the Energy Principle.
50
Z
Ktrans = ~F ~r
net CM
*0
Kf,trans + Ki,trans = FxCM

1
M v2 = Fd
2 total CM,f s
2Fd
vCM,f =
Mtotal
s
2(21 N)(0.037 m)
=
(1.2 kg + 4(0.4 kg))
= 0.745 m/s
0
Esys= W + Q
7

Ktrans + Krot = ~F ~rhand
* 0= Fx
Fd + Krot,f Krot,i

hand

1 2
Fd + I = F(w + d)
2 f
1 1
Fd + (4mb2 + M R2 ) 2 = F(w + d)
2 2 f
12
Fw

f =
2mb2 + 14 M R2
12
(21 N)(0.032 m)

=
2(0.4 kg)(0.14 m)2 + 14 (1.2 kg)(0.11 m)2
= 5.90 rad/s
This is the angular speed. Note that the angular velocity f,z is negative since it rotates clockwise, so f,z = 5.90 rad/s.
(c) Apply the Angular Momentum Principle to the apparatus, about its CM.
Lz
rot,z =
t
z
FR = I
t
FRt
z =
I
FRt
=
(4mb2 + 12 M R2 )
(21 N)(0.11 m)(0.045 s)
=
0.386 kg m2
= 2.69 rad/s
The new angular speed is + = 5.90 rad/s + 2.69 rad/s = 8.59 rad/s. This makes sense because its rotating
faster in the z direction.
51
11.P.81
(a) Apply the Momentum Principle to the apparatus. It is in equilibrium, ~Fnet = 0. Thus, the upward force of tension
on the rod is equal in magnitude to the gravitational force by Earth on the system. So, ~FT,string = (m1 + m2 )g =
(0.484 kg + 0.273 kg)(9.8 N/kg) = 7.42 N.
(b) Call the mass on the left end m1 and the other mass m2 . Define the origin x = 0 to be the left end of the rod. In order
to be balanced, the net torque on the system must be zero. As a result, the x-component of the center of mass of the
system must be at the location of the string. The x-component of the center of mass is
m1 x1 + m2 x2
xCM =
m1 + m2
0 + (0.273 kg)(0.49 m)
=
(0.484 kg + 0.273 kg)
= 0.177 m
This is closer to the left end of the rod, which makes sense because the mass at the left end is greater than the mass
at the right end. If they were equal masses, then the center of mass would be in the geometric center of the rod.
11.P.82
(a) Apply the Energy Principle to the system. Treat the system as a point particle.
Ktrans = ~Fnet ~rCM

Ktrans = F xCM
Kf,trans = Fd
1
(M + 2m)v 2 = Fd
2 CM
s
2F d
vCM =
(M + 2m)
(b) Apply the Energy Principle to real system.
Esys = W
Ktrans + Krot + Einternal = F (d + s)
1
F d + If 2 + Einternal = F (d + s)
2
1
Einternal = F s If 2
2
2 !
1 1 L
Einternal = Fs M R + 2m
2
2
2 2 2
1
Einternal = Fs M R2 + mL2 2

4
52
(c) Apply the Angular Momentum Principle to the system. I remains constant since the balls do not slide.
~LCM
~CM,net =
t
z
z = I
t
2 !
1 L z
F R = M R + 2m
2
2 2 t
1 z
F R = M R2 + mL2
2 t
2F Rt
z =
M R2 + mL2
z is negative since the system rotates counterclockwise and z is negative since the additional torque on the system
is negative. Thus, |z | increases by an amount
2F Rt
|z | =
M R2 + mL2
11.X.83
The Bohr model correctly predicted the quantized energy levels of hydrogen and as a result correctly predicted absorption
and emission lines for hydrogen. It also correctly predicted that angular momentum (translation) is quantized; however, it
did not get the angular momentum quantum number correct. (It turns out that in the ground state, L=0.)
11.X.84
~

Ltrans = N~

= 3(1.05 1034 J s)
= 3.15 1034 J s
= 1.97 1015 eV s
11.X.85
A familiar example is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which relies on the spin of protons in hydrogen. Another example
of (future) technology based on spin is quantum computing, where spin states can be used as bits (or qbits, actually).
11.P.86
(a) Rotational kinetic energy of the molecule is

53
L2
Krot =
2I
l(l + 1)~2
=
2I
Calculate I for two point particles rotating at distances r1 and r2 from the center of mass. Then, I for the carbon and
oxygen atoms is
I = mc rc2 + mo ro2
Since mcarbon moxygen , approximate the center of mass to be at the center of the molecule. Then,
I mc R2 + mo R2 (mc + mo )R2
The masses of carbon and oxygen are:
12 g 1 mol 1 kg

mc = = 2 1026 kg
1 mol 6 1023 atoms 1000 g
16 g 1 mol 1 kg

mo = = 2.67 1026 kg
1 mol 6 1023 atoms 1000 g
Approximate the bond length to be roughly the diameter of a hydrogen atom which is twice the Bohr radius, or
2(0.53 1010 m). So, the moment of inertia of the molecule is approximately
I (mc + mo )R2
= (2 1026 kg + 2.67 1026 kg)(0.53 1010 m)2
= 1.3 1046 kg m2
l(l + 1)~2
Krot =
2I
l(l + 1)(1 1034 J s)2
=
2(1.3 1046 kg m2 )
= l(l + 1)(3.6 1023 J)
= l(l + 1)(2.2 104 eV)
For l = 1, Krot = 2(3.6 1023 J) = 7 1023 J = 4.4 104 eV. This can be written as 0.44 meV (i.e. milli eV).
For l = 2, Krot = 6(3.6 1023 J) = 21.6 1023 J = 13 104 eV, which is 1.3 meV.
The lowest energies are shown in Table 1.
54
Table 1: Approximate rotational kinetic energies for a CO molecule
l Krot (meV)
0 0
1 0.44
2 1.3
3 2.6
4 4.4
5 6.6
(b) The spacing between successive levels increases with increasing quantum number l. The lowest energy emission line is
when the molecule transitions from l = 1 to l = 0. Then Ephoton = |Krot | = 0.44 meV. This is in the microwave
region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The next higher energy emission line is when the molecule transitions from l = 2 to l = 1. Then Ephoton = |Krot | =
|0.44 meV 1.33 meV| = 0.86 meV = 8.9 104 eV.
Therefore, the two lowest energy emission lines are at approximately 0.45 meV and 0.9 meV. You can keep adding
0.45 meV to find the higher energy lines, which will be at approximately 1.35 meV, 1.8 meV, etc. Of course these are
approximate because we assumed the center of mass to be at the geometric center of the molecule, which isnt exactly
right.
(c) Electronic energy levels are on the order of a few eV. Vibrational energies are on the order of tenths of electron-volts
(IR region), and rotational energies are on the order of milli electron-volts. There are so many possible rotational states
and vibrational states for a given electronic state that they are hardly distinguishable and appear as a band.
11.P.87
(a) Follow the derivation in Section 11.10. In all equations, substitute Ze in place of e for the charge of a proton. Thus, e2
becomes (Ze)e = Ze2 , for example. Then for a single-electron atom,
2
1
4o Z 2 e4 m
E =
2N 2 ~2
Z (13.6 eV)
2
=
N2
(b) In this case, use
2
1
4o Z 2 e4 m
E =
2N 2 ~2
with Z = 82 and m = 207melectron .

55
2
N m2
9 19 27
9 10 C2 (82)2 (1.602 10 C)4 (207)(1.673 10 kg)
E =
2N 2 (1.055 10 34
J s)2
3.05 10 J 12
=
N 2
1.9 107 eV 19 MeV

= =
N2 N2
In a transition from N = 2 to N = 1, the energy of the emitted photon is
Ephoton = Eatom
= E2 E1
1 1
= (19 MeV)( 2)
22 1
= 14.3 MeV
(c) Starting with the Bohr model for H, substitute Ze for the charge of a proton. The Bohr radius becomes
N 2 ~2
r =
4 Ze m
1 2
o
34
(1.055 10 J s)2
= N2 9 N m2
(9 10 C2 )(82)(1.602 10 19
C)2 (207)(1.673 1027 kg)
= N 2 (3.09 1015 m)
For the ground state, N = 1 and r = 3.1 1015 m. For closely packed nucleons, V N Vnucleon . Or, see the
solution to 6.P.104(c), where rnucleus (1.3 1015 m)N 1/3 . In this case, N = 86 + 126 = 208 nucleons. So,
rnucleus = 7.7 1015 m. In this case, the Bohr radius of the muons orbit is within the nucleus of the atom, which is
surprising.
11.P.88
(a) The rotational kinetic energy is
L2
Krot =
2I
l(l + 1)~2
=
2I
3~2
For l = 0, Krot = 0. For l = 2, Krot = I . Apply the Energy Principle to the photon emission.
56
Ephoton = K2 K0
2~2
=
I
3~2
I =
Ephoton
34
3(1.055 10 J s)2
=
(87 103 eV)(1.602 1019 C/eV)
= 2.38 1054 kg m2
(b) I = 52 M R2 , assuming it is a sphere.

27
The mass of the nucleus is M 160mproton = 160(1.673 10 kg) = 2.67 1025 kg, and its radius is
r
5I
R =
2M
s
5(2.38 1054 kg m2 )
=
2(2.67 1025 kg)
= 4.7 1015 m
(c) R (1.3 1015 m)(160)1/3 = 7 1015 m. The calculation in part (b) is 2/3 of the estimated radius. The nucleus is
likely not spherical.
11.X.89

Given the same applied torque and same spin angular speed, then since = I CM
, the smaller moment of inertia disk will
precess at a greater rate. Thus, the lower mass aluminum will have a greater precession angular speed.
11.P.90
(a) You have to apply a torque to change the direction of the rotational angular momentum. This torque is much larger
than the small torque that is adequate to rotate a nonspinning object, so it feels funny because youre not used to
an object fighting back when you try to change its orientation. If you move in such a way that you dont change the
direction of the spin axis, no torque is required.
(b) Apply the Angular Momentum Principle. From a side view, the torque about the support due to the gravitational force
on the gyroscope is in the -z direction. As a result, the change in angular momentum of the spinning wheel is also in
the -z direction which causes the axis of the wheel to swing in that direction, thus precess counterclockwise from a
top view. See Figure 4.
(c) In this case, the initial angular momentum is pointing inward along the radius of the wheel toward the support. As
a result, the change in angular momentum which is in the -z direction causes a new angular momentum that has a -z
component. This swings the axis of the wheel out of the page, causing clockwise precession. See Figure 5.
11.P.91
ot used to an object fighting back when you try to change its orientation. If you move in such
dont change the direction of the spin axis, no torque is required.
are graphical explanations of clockwise and counterclockwise precession. Note that the torque 57
e same in both cases, so the angular momentum change 'L rot is in the same direction but is
rent initial angular momentum vectors.
Precession
counterclockwise
ove seen from above
New Lrot New Lrot

Lrot = cmt
Top view Top view
Lrot = I Lrot = I
FN = mg FN = mg
Side view
Lrot = I
f Side view f
rot = I
Lrot = cmt Lrot = cmt
mg mg
Figure 4: A gyroscope precessing counterclockwise (top view and side view).
(a) Various methods to measure the spin angular speed are possible depending on the equipment you have and precision
that you hope to attain. One technique to use is video analysis. For a very fast rotating gyroscope, you might need a
high-speed camera. Place a visible mark on the rim of the gyroscope and orient your camera so that it is facing the
plane of the gyroscope wheel. Measure the radius of the gyroscope to use for calibration. When analyzing the video,
graph x vs. t and you will see a sinusoidal function. Fit a cos() or sin() curve to the data and from the curve fit,
determine the spin angular frequency. You can use the same technique with a different orientation of the camera to
measure the precession rate (angular frequency).
There are other techniques for measuring spin angular frequency and precession frequency. For example, you could
use a small piece of tape that strikes a microphone every time the wheel turns 1 revolution. Then, you could use an
oscilloscope to look at the microphone signal and measure the period between peaks of the signal. Alternatively, you
could use a flag on the wheel that passes through an IR beam (called a photogate) and measure the period between
clock readings when the IR is blocked.
It will be useful in your experiment to have a consistent method for initially starting the gyroscope to spin that will
yield a repeatable value for the spin angular frequency. You may want to wrap a string around its axle and attach an
object to the string. Let the object fall a distance h, and if the string does not slip on the axle, the gyroscope will have
a spin frequency that depends on h.
(b) Theory: With the gyroscope axis at an angle to the vertical, the net external torque about the center of mass (ignoring
the small frictional force at the support) is mgRsin. The vertical component of the rotational angular momentum
doesnt change in magnitude or direction during the precession, but the horizontal component can be thought of as a
rotating vector with magnitude Lrot,hor = Lrot sin. (See Figure 6.)
Therefore we have
d~L

= Lrot sin = cm = mgRsin
rot
dt

cause youre not used to an object fighting back when you try to change its orientation. If you m
a way that you dont change the direction of the spin axis, no torque is required.
58 (b, c) Here are graphical explanations of clockwise and counterclockwise precession. Note th
direction is the same in both cases, so the angular momentum change 'L rot is in the same dir
added to different initial angular momentum vectors.
Precession P
clockwise coun
seen from above seen
New Lrot New Lrot

Lrot = cmt
Top view Top view
Lrot = I Lrot = I
FN = mg FN = mg
Side view
Lrot = I
f Side view f
Lrot = I
Lrot = cmt Lrot = cmt
mg mg
Figure 5: A gyroscope precessing counterclockwise (top view and side view).
mgR mgR
= =
Lrot I
This is the same precession rate that we predict for horizontal precession. The same sin factor appears in the torque
and in the angular momentum, and the two effects cancel.
11.P.92
(a) It precesses clockwise. Use the following reasoning:
(a) Use the right-hand rule to determine the direction of ~Lrot,i for the wheel.
(b) Use the right-hand rule to determine the direction of ~ about the post due to the gravitational force by Earth on
the wheel.
(c) ~ and ~Lrot are proportional and are therefore in the same direction. Add ~Lrot to the head of ~Lrot,i .
(d) Sketch ~Lrot,f from the tail of ~Lrot,i to the head of ~Lrot .
(e) Sketch the new axis of the wheel.
(f) Observe whether the axis has precessed clockwise or counterclockwise.
See Figure 7 which illustrates the initial angular momentum, change in angular momentum, and final angular momentum
after a small t.
59
rimentquantitative
gyroscope axis at an angle T to the vertical, the net ex-
center of mass (ignoring the small frictional force at
T . The vertical component of the rotational angular Lrot
nge in magnitude or direction during the precession, Lrot,ver
ponent can be thought of as a rotating vector with
ot sin T . ch11-Wiley October 7, 2009 19:37
Lrot,hor
= :L rot sin T = W cm = mgR sin T
470 Chapter 11 Angular Momentum
mgR mgR
: = ----------- = ----------- FN = mg
L rot IZ much the spin unavoidably changes due to friction while at 30 radians/s. It is supported in a cage (n
you are quickly changing the angle. What do you con- way that without an added weight it does
on rate that we predict for horizontal precession. The
clude about the dependence
R of the precession rate on the mass of 0.2 kg is hung from the axis at a dis
rs in the torque and in the angular momentum, angle,
and assuming the same spin rate at these different an- the center of the rotor.
mg
gles? Whatf is the theoretical prediction for the depen-
dence of the precession rate on angle (for the same spin
rate)?
11.P.92 A bicycle wheel with a heavy rim is mounted on a 30
lightweight axle, and one end of the axle rests on top of a post. Spin 30 rad/s
cm
The wheel is observed to precess in the horizontal plane. With
18
the spin direction shown in Figure 11.115, does the wheel pre-
cess clockwise or counterclockwise? Explain in detail, including 0.2
appropriateFigure 6: Side view of the gyroscope.
diagrams.
15
cm
0.06
L
L
i
Spin Figure 11.117 A gyrosco
(a) Viewed from above, does the gyros

CCW clockwise or a (2) counterclockwis
does the top end of the axis move (1
CW (2) into the page in the next instan
soning.
(b) How long does it take for the gyro
complete precession?
Figure 11.115 A bicycle wheel on a pivot.

Figure 7: Precession of the gyroscope, with relevant vectors. Computational Problem
11.P.95 In Chapter 3 you may have written
11.P.93 A solid wood top spins at high speed on the floor, with
the motion of a planet going around a fixed
a spin direction shown in Figure 11.116. you will build on that program.
(a) Use initial conditions that produce a
11.P.93
each step calculate the translational
"
L of the planet with respect to
(a) The rotational angular momentum points into the floor (right hand rule). The net external torquetrans,A about the center of
to be in the orbital plane but outsid
mass is into the page, so the change in rotational angular Smomentum
pin
is into the page. This means
this that
in twothe tip(iofand
ways theii below), an
rotational angular momentum vector moves into the page, and the tail moves out of the page. Sowords
the top precesses
what you observe:out
of the page. As viewed from above, the top precesses clockwise. See Figure 8. " trans,A as an arrow with
(i) Display L
(b) Higher spin rate would mean that Lrot would be bigger, but in the same time t the change in spin ~Lrotthewould
throughout orbit. Since the
~

is quite different from the ma
Figure 11.116 A wood or steel top. tances involved, you will need t
some factor to fit it on the screen
(ii) Graph the component of L " trans,A
orbital plane as a function of tim
(a) Using appropriately labeled diagrams, explain the direc-
(b) Repeat part (a), but this time choose
tion of motion of the top (you do not need to explain the
B at the center of the fixed star, an
magnitude). "
60
op
gular momentum points into the floor (right hand rule).
about the center of mass is into the page, so the change FN = mg
Sp
omentum is into the page. This means that the tip of the in
entum vector moves into the page, and the tail moves out
L = t
precesses out of the page. As viewed from above, the top rot cm
mg
ould mean that Lrot would be bigger, but in the same time Lrot = I
Lrot would be the same (same torque). So the rotational
tor direction would change less in the same time interval,
ess less rapidly.
Figure 8: A solid wood (or steel) top, with relevant vectors.
ade of steel instead of wood, the torque would be larger due to a larger mg, but the
entum (with the same spin rate) would also be larger by the same factor (larger I pro-
herefore the precession rate would be the same for the steel top as for the wood top
be the same (same torque). So the rotational angular momentum vector direction would change less in the same time
city is the same).
interval, and the top would precess less rapidly.
(c) If the top were made of steel instead of wood, the torque would be larger due to a larger mg, but the rotational angular
momentum (with the same spin rate) would also be larger by the same factor (larger I proportional to larger m).
Therefore the precession rate would be the same for the steel top as for the wood top (if the spin angular velocity is
the same).
11.P.94
Since it does not precess without the added weight, the gravitational force on the rotor exerts no torque on the rotor (basically,
there is another torque that cancels, or balances, this torque). So the only torque on the rotor is due to the weight of mass
hanging at the end of the rotor.
(a) To determine which way it precesses, do the following:

(1) Sketch ~L i
(2) Sketch ~L in the direction of ~ due to the hanging mass.

(3) Add ~Li + ~L to get ~Lf . Note that, since ~L is into the page, then ~Lf has a component into the page.
(4) Determine which way the rotor has precessed. Since the direction of of rotation of the rotor means that ~L points
"down the axis" toward the pivot, then if ~L gets a component into the page
Thus, it precesses clockwise.
(b) The rotational angular momentum of the rotor about its center of mass is
~

Lrot = I
The torque on the rotor due to the mass at its end about the CM of the rotor is
= ~F r

z

= mgL sin 30
61
where L is the distance of the CM of the rotor to the top end where m is hanging. This torque produces a change in
angular momentum according to the angular momentum principle.
d~L
~ =
dt
The translational angular momentum doesnt change; however, the direction of ~Lrot about the CM does change. Since
~
~L = I is constant, then dLrot is simply the change in its direction: ~L dL which is L where is the rate that

rot dt rot dt rot
~L rotates (i.e. the rate the vector itself is rotating, or rather, precessing). Thus,
rot
|~ | = Lrot
mgL sin = I
mgL sin
=
I
(0.2 kg)(9.8 kg )(0.18 m) sin 30
N
=
(0.06 kg m2 )(30 rad/s)
= 0.098 rad s
The time for 1 revolution is T = 2

= 64 s. Thats about 1 minute, which seems like a slowly precessing gyroscope.
11.P.95
(a) About a point A in the orbital plane that is outside the orbit, there is a non-zero torque (about A) on the planet and
therefore the planets angular momentum changes. The example VPython program below shows the angular momentum
changing as the planet orbits the star. (The planet is called Earth and the star is called Sun though the orbit is different
than Earths actual orbit.) An arrow is used to depict the angular momentum vector and Lz is plotted on the graph.
Both the arrow and the graph of Lz shows the angular momentum changing. In fact it oscillates between positive and
negative values during the orbit, as expected for a point outside the orbit. If point A is inside the orbit, then Lz will
not change directions. It will be positive for a counterclockwise orbit and negative for a clockwise orbit.
4

7 G=6.67 e 11
8
9 #t h e o r i g i n f o r c a l c u l a t i n g a n g u l a r momentum
10 A=v e c t o r ( 1 . 5 au , 1 . 5 au , 0 )
11 Larrow=arrow ( pos=A, c o l o r=c o l o r . white , a x i s=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 1 ) )
12

15
16 Sun .m=2e30
17 Earth .m=6e24
62
18
21
23 Earth . v =1.2 v e c t o r ( 0 , s i , 0 )
25
26 t=0
27 dt =0.01T
28
29 #c r e a t e t h e t r a i l
31
32 #c a l c u l a t e a s c a l e f o r t h e a n g u l a r momentum arrow
33 s c a l e =3au /1 e+41
34
35 #c r e a t e t h e a n g u l a r momentum ( z ) graph
36 graphLz=g d i s p l a y ( x=430 , y=0, width =400 , h e i g h t =400 ,
37 t i t l e = 'L_z vs t f o r t h e system ' ,
38 x t i t l e= ' t ( s ) ' ,
39 y t i t l e= 'L_z ( kg m^2/ s ) ' ,
41
42 LzCurve=g c u r v e ( g d i s p l a y=graphLz , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )

43
44 while 1 :
45 rate (100)
48
49 rmag=mag( r )
52
54 Fnet = Fgrav
55
56 #c a l c u l a t e a n g u l a r momentum
57 rA=Earth . posA
58 L=c r o s s ( rA , Earth . p )
59 Larrow . a x i s=L s c a l e
60 LzCurve . p l o t ( pos=(t , L . z ) )
61

67
68 t=t+dt
(b) If point A is at the position of the star, then the line of action of the force on the planet passes through point A and
the torque on the planet about point A is zero. As a result, the planets angular momentum is constant. Take the same
63
program in part (a) and change the vector location of point A to be the same as the star (called Sun in the program).
Both the arrow and the graph show that the angular momentum of the planet is constant about this point.
(c) Now the angular momentum vector for the planet has non-zero x, y, and z components. The angular momentum vector
appears to precess, but note that all three components are changing, so the angle the vector makes with the z-axis is
certainly not constant.
1
12.X.01
This would be: 3000, 0300, 0030, and 0003, if just one oscillator has all three quanta of energy, for a total of 4 arrangements.
If two oscillators have one quantum of energy, then 2100, 2010, 2001, 1200, 0210, 0201, 0021, 0120, 1020, 0012, 0102, and
1002 are possible for a total of 12 arrangements.
If three oscillators have one quantum of energy, then 1110, 0111, 1011, and 1101 are possible, for a total of 4 arrangements.
Thus, there are 4 + 12 + 4 = 20 ways to arrange 3 quanta among 4 oscillators.
12.X.02
The permutations are: 123, 132, 213, 231, 312, 321, for a total of 6 possible arrangements. This is 3! = 6.
12.X.03
The ten unique ways of ordering the balls are: RRRGG, GRRGR, GRRRG, RGRGR, RGRRG, RRGGR, RRGRG, GGRRR,
RGGRR, and GRGRR.
12.X.04
In all cases, there are 3 oscillators. For:
4 quanta:
(4 + 2)!
= = 15
4!2!
3 quanta:
(3 + 3 1)!
= = 10
3!2!
2 quanta:
(2 + 2)!
= =6
2!2!
1 quanta:
(2 + 1)!
= =3
1!2!
0 quanta: = 1 because the state is 000.
12.X.05
2

5.41088 year
You will have to watch it for 1.7 1096 s. This is (1.7 1096 s) 1 year
107 s = 5.4 1088 year. This is 1010 5 1078
times the age of the Universe.
12.X.06
ln(1 ) = ln(1) = 0. As q1 increases, ln(1 ) increases.
ln(2 ) = 2.77 1081 = 188. As q2 decreases (from 100 to 0), ln(2 ) decreases until reaching 0 (at q2 = 0).
ln(1 2 ) = ln(1 ) + ln(2 ) = 188. Because at q1 = 0 (q2 = 100), ln(1 2 ) = 0 + ln(2 ) = ln(2 ) = 188.
12.X.07
It is highly improbably for this to occur and would be a state with less entropy. But we know from the 2nd Law of
Thermodynamics that the system tends toward maximum entropy. Thus, it would violate the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics.
(Ice has less entropy than water at the same temperature.)
12.X.08
Q
S =
T
Q 5000 J
T = = = 500 J/K
S 10 J/K
12.X.09
Calculate the change in entropy during the melting process.
Q 335 J
S = = = 1.23 J/K
T 273 K
The entropy increased as a result of melting the ice. Thus, water has a higher entropy than ice at the same temperature.
This makes sense because there are more ways to arrange the energy for liquid water than for ice.
12.X.010
Consider the water and metal to be a closed system. The water gains energy E = (400 g)(4.2 J/g/K)(2 K) = 3360 J. Thus,
the metal loses 3360 J.
|E|
cwater =
m |T |
|3360 J|
= = 1.9 J/g/K
(100 g)(18 K)
12.X.011
The specific heat per atom at room temperature is
3
C 3kB = 3(1.38 1023 J/K) = 4.14 1023 J/K/atom

E atom
C =
T
E atom
T =
C
(100 W)(6 s) 1 mol 63.5 g 1
=
4.14 1023 J/K/atom 6 1023 atom 1 mol 300 g
= 5.1 K
Note that a T of 1 K is equivalent to a T of 1 C. Thus, Tf = Ti + T = 20 C + 5.1 C = 25.1 C.
12.X.012
At low C, T is high for a given transfer of energy T . If the source loses energy |E|, then the sink gains energy |E|.
But the sink is supposed to be very cold in order to cool the sample. If it gains a high amount of energy |E|, then it will
not remain cold. Its temperature will increase.
12.X.013
23
At room temperature, T 300 K, so kB T = (1.381 10 J
K )(300 K) = 4.14 1021 J = 0.026 eV 1/40 eV.
12.X.014
The Boltzmann factor is eE/(kB T ) .
If E = 0, eE/(kB T ) = 1.
0.05 eV
If E = 0.05 eV, eE/(kB T ) e 0.026 eV = 0.15.
E/(k T ) 0.1 eV
If E = 0.1 eV, e B e 0.026 eV = 0.021.
12.X.015
The most probable height is the one where eM gy/(kB T ) = e1 , so M gy = kB T . At a room temperature of T = 300 K and
if the air molecule is diatomic nitrogen N2 , then

1 kg 23

M = 2 (14 g/mol) 6.022 10 mol1 = 4.7 1026 kg
1000 g
M gy = kB T
kB T
y =
Mg
23

J
1.381 10 K (300 K)
=
(4.7 1026 kg) (9.8 N/kg)
= 9000 m = 9 km
12.X.016
At y = 8848 m, M gy kB T (see solution to 12.X.15). Thus, the Boltzmann factor is e1 = 0.37, and the density of air
molecules at this height is approximately 37% of the density at sea level.
4
12.X.017

The mass of a helium atom is 0.004 kg
mol
1 mol
61023 atoms = 6.7 1027 kg.
23

J
3 kB T 3 1.381 10
(293 K) K
v2 = = = 1.81 106 m2 /s2
m 6.7 1027 kg
p
vrms = v2 = 1350 m/s
12.X.018

0.028 kg 1 mol
m = = 4.67 1026 kg
mol 6 1023 atoms
23

J
3 kB T 3 1.381 10 K (293 K)
v2 = = 26
= 2.6 105 m2 /s2
m 4.67 10 kg
p
vrms = v2 = 510 m/s
12.X.019
1+2+3+4
x = = 2.5
4
12 + 2 2 + 3 3 + 4 2
x2 = = 7.5 = 2.74
4
12.X.020
2GMmoon
vesc =
R
v moon
u 2 6.6742 1011 N m2 7 1022 kg
u
t kg2
=
1.74 106 m
= 2380 m/s
The rms speed of N2 , which is the most abundant molecule in air, at room temperature is 510 m/s (see solution to 12.X.18).
This is far less than Earths escape speed but much closer to Moons escape speed.
12.X.021
As the rms speed of molecules increases with temperature, moving molecules will interact with nearby molecules in less time
and therby transfer a disturbance (i.e. wave) with greater speed. As a result, the speed of sound in a gas should increase
with temperature.
If you double the temperature of a gas, then
vrms increases by 2 = 1.4, which is a 40% increase, since
vrms T . Thus, the speed of sound should also increase by 2, or 40%.
5
12.X.022
For a monatomic gas, it has no rotational kinetic energy or vibrational kinetic energy (because each molecule of the gas is
a single, point-like atom); therefore, the only contributions to its specific heat capacity comes from the translational kinetic
energy and gravitational potential energy (which is negligible). Since the translational kinetic energy has three quadratic
terms which each contribute 1/2kB T , then the specific heat capacity (per molecule) at constant volume is 3/2kB T .
12.X.023
3/2kB T
1/2kB T
(a) At high T, translation (3/2kB T ), rotation (2/2kB T ), and vibration (2/2kB T ) contribute to the energy to give CV =
7/2kB .
(b) In this case, the vibrational energy is constant. Only translation (3/2kB T ) and rotation (2/2kB T ) contribute to the
energy and CV = 5/2kB .
(c) In this case, only translation contributes to the average energy an amount 3/2kB T . Then, CV = 3/2kB .
2
(d) The rotational energy is L2I . Deuterium has the same angular momentum and larger moment of inertia than hydrogen.
AS a result, the lowest rotational energy state is lower than that of hydrogen and the transition from CV = 5/2kB T to
3/2kB T will occur at a lower temperature.
12.X.024
1100, 1010, 1001, 0110, 0101, 0011, 2000, 0200, 0020, 0002.
There are 10 arrangements of the quanta. Check this with:
(q + N 1)!
=
q!(N 1)!
5! 20
= = = 10
2!3! 2
This confirms that we thought of all possible arrangements.
12.X.025
If you flip 10 coins and 5 of them come out to be heads, then there are 10! different arrangements of the coins. But there
are 5! permutations of heads among each other and 5! permutations of tails among each other. Therefore, the number of
distinct ways to get 5 heads is
10! 20
= = = 252
5!5! 2
For no heads, there is only 1 possible arrangement.
12.X.026
3 atoms is modeled by 3 3 = 9 oscillators. So, to arrange 4 quanta among 9 oscillators, the number of different ways to
arrange them is
6
(4 + 9 1)! 12!
= = = 495
4!8! 4!8!
12.X.027
Each atom is modeled by 3 oscillators , so there are 6000 3 = 18, 000 oscillators.
12.X.028
Each atom is modeled by 3 oscillators , so there are (8.7 105 )/3 = 2.9 105 atoms.
12.X.29
23
The mass ofa lead atom is m = (0.207 kg/mol)/(6.022 10 mol1 ) = 3.44 1025 kg. One quantum of energy is
E = ~0 = ~ km.
r
k
E = ~
m
s
34
20 N/m
= 1.055 10 Js
3.44 1025 kg
= 8.04 1022 J
= 5.03 103 eV
12.X.30
(a) The number of ways to arrange q quanta among N one-dimensional oscillators is
(q + N 1)!
=
q!(N 1)!
(4 + 6 1)!
=
4!(6 1)!
= 126
(b) The probability of being in the state 000004 is 1/126. If you have 48,000 objects, then the number of objects in the
state 000004 is approximately (1/26) 48, 000 = 381.
12.P.031
0 heads: 5!
0!5! = 1.
1 heads: 5!
1!4! = 5.
2 heads: 5!
2!3! = 10.
3 heads: 5!
3!2! = 10.
4 heads: 5!
4!1! = 5.
5 heads: 5!
5!0! = 1.
7
Figure 1: Number of ways vs. Number of heads
A bar chart of the results is shown in Figure 1.
12.X.032
The energy distribution has a very low probability of occurring, so we would not expect to observe it in practice.
12.X.033
We use ln() because differs by many orders of magnitude for various number of quanta, and graphing ln() will produce
a more slowly varying graph.
12.X.034
Since T1 = dEdSint , a higher temperature system is a system for which dS
dEint is small, that is a system for which the entropy
changes little with increasing energy.
12.X.035
It makes it difficult to cool materials, because cooling generally requires a heat sink that is cooler than the material being
cooled. A heat sink is most effective if it has a high specific heat capacity because it can absorb a lot of thermal energy with
very little increase in temperature. But at low temperatures, a heat sink has low heat capacity and its temperature may
increase a large amount when it absorbs even a small amount of thermal energy.
12.X.036
8
According to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, the entropy of the (closed) system of the blocks will increase until it
reaches a maximum. Thus, the entropy of the system at any time after the blocks come into contact will be greater than
S1 + S2 . Thus, S > 45 J/K.
12.X.037
(D) This is thermal equilibrium.
12.X.038
(a)
S = kB ln()

23 J
= 1.381 10 ln(60)
K
= 5.65 1023 J/K
(b)
S = k ln()
B
23 J
= 1.381 10 ln(122)
K
= 6.62 1023 J/K
(c) At any time later than this, S > S1 + S2 = 1.23 1023 J/K. Thus, at this instant, S = SA + SB = 1.23 1023 J/K.
12.P.039
The mass of a single atom is

1 mol
m = (0.185 kg) = 3.07202 1025 kg
6.0221 1023 atoms
(a) The energy of one quantum is
r
k
Equantum = ~
m
s
34
360 N/m
= 1.055 10 Js
3.07202 1025 kg
= 3.61006 1021 J
q
(b) The total energy is E = qEquantum = q~ mk
= q 3.61006 1021 J . Note that this means that the change in energy

for the system for a change in quanta of 1 is simply E = 3.61006 1021 J. This will be E for each of the gray
boxes in the table, and it is what you will use to calculate temperature.
The entropy is S = kB ln(). Use this to calculate the entropy for each of the gray boxes. The temperature is given by
1/T ES
. The resulting data table (using these equations) is shown in Table 2.
int
9
q # ways E (J) S (J/K) E ( J) S (J/K) T (K)

20 4.91 1026 7.22012 1020 8.48557 1022
3.610 1021 3.040 1023 118.7
21 4.44 10 27
7.58112 10 20
8.7896 10 22
3.610 1021 2.982 1023 121.0

22 3.85 10 28
8.30314 10 20
9.08783 10 22
Table 1: Data and results for 12.P.39.
12.P.040
The mass of a single atom is

1 mol
m = (0.064 kg) = 1.06275 1025 kg
6.0221 1023 atoms
(a) The energy of one quantum is
r
k
Equantum = ~
m
s
34
112 N/m
= 1.055 10 Js
1.06275 1025 kg
= 3.42358 1021 J
q
(b) The total energy is E = qEquantum = q~ k
= q 3.424 1021 J . Note that this means that the change in energy for

m
the system for a change in quanta of 1 is simply E = 3.424 1021 J. This will be E for each of the gray boxes in
the table, and it is what you will use to calculate temperature.
The entropy is S = kB ln(). Use this to calculate the entropy for each of the gray boxes. The temperature is given by
1/T ES
. The resulting data table (using these equations) is shown in Table 2.
int
q # ways E (J) S (J/K) E ( J) S (J/K) T (K)

20 4.91 1026 6.84716 1020 8.48557 1022
3.424 1021 3.040 1023 112.6
21 4.44 10 27
7.18952 10 20
8.7896 10 22
3.424 1021 2.982 1023 114.8

22 3.85 10 28
7.53188 10 20
9.08783 10 22
Table 2: Data and results for 12.P.40.
(c) The heat capacity is
Eatom
C =
T
10
Esystem
where Eatom = . The system in this case is the block of copper, and the change in the energy of the block is
Natoms
q q
in steps of one quantum of energy, Eblock = ~ m k
. So, the change in the energy of an atom is 1/Natoms (~ m k
).
Then,
q
k
(1/Natoms )~ m
C =
T
(1/100) 3.42358 1021 J

=
(114.8 112.6) K
= 1.56 1023 J/K/atom
This is less than 3kB as expected.

Convert this to a per mole basis:
23

C = 1.556 1023 J/K/atom 6.022 10 mol1
= 9.37 J/K/mol
This is less than the specific heat capacity (per mole) at room temperature (24 J/K/mol), as expected since C decreases
with temperature.
12.P.041
(a) The energy of one quantum is also the change in energy of the system when it gains one quantum of energy, so
E = 4 1021 J.
For 4 quanta and 18 oscillators, the number of ways to distribute the energy is
(4 + 18 1)!
=
4!17!
= 5985
and the entropy is
S = kB ln()
J
23
= (1.381 10 ) ln(5985)
K
= 1.2008 1022 J/K
For 5 quanta distributed among the same number of oscillators, the number of ways to distribute the energy is
(5 + 18 1)!
=
5!17!
= 26334
and the entropy is

11
S = kB ln()
J
23
= (1.381 10 ) ln(26334)
K
= 1.4054 1022 J/K
The change in entropy for a change in energy of one quanta is S = 1.4054 1022 J/K 1.2008 1022 J/K =
2.05 1023 J/K.
The temperature is approximately
1 S

T Eint
Eint
T
S
4 1021 J

2.05 1023 J/K
195.1 K
(b) Repeat the above calculations for 8 and 9 quanta of energy. The change in energy (1 quantum) is the same, but we
need to calculate the change in entropy.
For 8 quanta, = 1, 081, 575 and S = 1.9183 1022 J/K.
For 9 quanta, = 3, 124, 550 and S = 2.0648 1022 J/K.
41021 J
This gives an approximate temperature of T 1.4651023 J/K = 273.1 K.
(c) The heat capacity (per atom) is
Eatom
C =
T
Esystem
where Eatom = Natoms . The system in this case is the nanoparticle consisting of 6 atoms, and the change in the
energy of the nanoparticle is in steps of one quantum of energy, Enanoparticle = (8.5 5.5)(4 1021 J) = 1.2 1020 J.
So, the change in the energy of an atom is (1/6)(1.2 1020 J) = 2 1021 J.
The heat capacity in this range of energies is approximately
Eatom
C =
T
2 1021 J
=
(273.1 195.1) K
= 2.6 1023 J/K/atom
This is less than the high temperature limit of 3kB = 4.2 1023 J/K as expected.
12.P.042
12
(a) There are 10 atoms. Using the Einstein model, there are three oscillators for each atom, for a total of 3 10 = 30
oscillators.
Since the energy is quantized, Eint = qEquantum , and the quanta of energy contained in the atoms is:
18 1023 J
q =
1.5 1023 J
= 12 quanta
The number of ways of distributing 12 quanta of energy across the oscillators in the 10 atoms is:
(12 + 30 1)!
=
12!29!
= 7.899 109 ways
The entropy for this number of microstates is:
S = kB ln()

23 J
= 1.381 10 ln(7.899 109 )
K
= 3.147 1022 J/K
(b) The temperature is
1 S

T Eint
Eint
S
T
18 1023 J

87 K
2.07 1024 J/ K
12.P.043
Define the system to be the two blocks. Block 1 is the copper block, and Block 2 is the aluminum block. It is a closed
system, so the total energy is conserved. Apply the energy principle, using the specific heat C in units of J/K/atom. Note
that C = Eatom /T .
Esys = 0
E1 + E1 = 0
Natoms,1 Eatom,1 + Natoms,1 Eatom,1 = 0
Natoms,1 C1 T1 + Natoms,2 C2 T2 = 0
The number of atoms in each block is:

13
23
N1 = (50 g)(1 mol/63.5 g)(6.022 10 mol1 ) = 4.74 1023 atoms
23
N2 = (100 g)(1 mol/27 g)(6.022 10 mol1 ) = 2.23 1024 atoms
The specific heat for each substance (per atom) is approximately 3kB = 4.14 1023 J/K/atom in the high temperature
limit. Substitute these values and the initial temperatures and solve for the final temperature of the system.
Natoms,1 C1 T1 + Natoms,2 C2 T2 = 0
23
4.14 1023 J/K/atom (Tf 308 K) 2.23 1024 atoms 4.14 1023 J/K/atom (Tf 293 K)

4.74 10 atoms =
Tf = 295.6 K
= 22.6 C
This is between the initial temperatures of 20 C and 35 C as expected.
12.P.044
Using the density, mass, and Avogadros number, you can calculate the diameter of a copper atom, assuming a closely packed
balls model. Using Youngs modulus and the ball-spring model of a solid, you can calculate the spring stiffness.
Calculate the mass of one copper atom.
63 g/mol
mCu =
6.022 1023 mol1
22
mCu 1.05 10 g
Now, use the density () and the atoms mass to calculate an approximate interatomic spacing, assuming a cubic atom.
m
r
d 3 Cu

s
1.05 1022 g 8 10
d 3 3
2.27 10 cm 2.27 10 m
9 g/cm
Finally, use Youngs modulus and interatomic spacing to calculate the interatomic stiffness.
ks Yd
11
10

ks 1.2 10 N/m2 2.27 10 m 27 N/m
In the Einstein model of an atom, the spring stiffness if 4 times this, or 108 N/m.
There is a conceptual way to solve the problem. If kB T is comparable to a quantum of energy, then the fact that the energy
is quantized is not important, and it is effectively the high temperature limit. In this case,
p
kB T ~ k/m
34
p
1.055 10 Js (108 N/m)/(1.05 1025 kg)
T J
1.381 1023 K
= 245 K
The problem can be solved more accurately as well. A general outline of the procedure for solving this problem is given in
Section 12.6 of the textbook. It is easiest to write a program and solve it numerically. The program developed for 12.P.72 is
a good start and can be modified. The program generally does the following:
14
(1) Begin with zero quanta.

(2) Increase the energy by one quantum (E = ~ k/m).
p
(3) Calculate the increase in entropy.

(4) Calculate the temperature as the slope (T = E/S).
(5) Calculate the specific heat for each change in temperature.
(6) Repeat steps (2)-(5).
The reason were solving it numerically is that it is best to increase the energy only one quantum at a time, and we dont
know how many quanta will be needed to reach the high-temperature approximation for C.
A sample program is shown below. The high temperature approximation for C becomes somewhat accurate at around T =300
to 400 K.
4 from v i s u a l . f a c t o r i a l import
5
6 #a l l d a t a i n t h i s program i s f o r c o p p e r
7
8 w=700 #window w i d t h i n p i x e l s
9 maxQuanta = 300 #maximum quanta
10
11 #number o f atoms i n t h e b l o c k
12 Natoms=35
13 #number o f o s c i l l a t o r s i n t h e b l o c k
14 N = 3Natoms
15
16 #c o n s t a n t s
17 kB=1.38 e 23 #J/K
18 hbar = 1 . 0 5 e 34 #m^2 kg / s
19 rho=9 #d e n s i t y i n g /cm^3
20 M=63.5 #molar mass i n g /mol
21 NA = 6 . 0 2 2 e23 #Avogradro ' s number i n atoms /mol
22 V=M/ rho /NA #volume i n cm^3
23 d=V ( 1 / 3 ) #d i a m e t e r i n cm
24 d=d /100 #d i a m e t e r i n m
25 Y=1.2 e11 #Young ' s modulus
26 k_s=Yd #s p r i n g s t i f f n e s s from Y
27 k = 4k_s #s p r i n g s t i f f n e s s i n E i n s t e i n model
28 m = M/NA/1000 #mass o f an atom i n kg
29
30 #p r i n t t o c h e c k c a l c u l a t i o n s
31 print d , k , m
32
33 #c r e a t e t h e graph windows and c u r v e s t o be g r a p h e d

34 graph1 = g d i s p l a y ( width=w, h e i g h t=w/ 2 , x t i t l e= 'T (K) ' , y t i t l e= 'C ( J/K/atom ) ' )
35 c u r v e 1 = g c u r v e ( d i s p l a y=graph1 . d i s p l a y , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan )
36 data1 = g d o t s ( d i s p l a y=graph1 . d i s p l a y , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )
37 l i m i t C u r v e 1 = g d o t s ( d i s p l a y=graph1 . d i s p l a y , c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
38
39 N m i c r o s t a t e s=0
15
40 qList = [ ]
41 TList = [ ]
42
43 #c a l c u l a t e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e b l o c k o f c o p p e r
44 for q in r a n g e ( 0 , maxQuanta+1) :
45 i f q >0: #o n l y c a l c u l a t e f o r q>0
46 S i = kBmath . l o g ( omega ) #p r e v i o u s e n t r o p y f o r b l o c k
47 omega=combin ( ( q+N1) , (N1) )
48 i f q >0:
49 S f = kBmath . l o g ( omega )
50 dS = SfS i
51 T = hbar s q r t ( k/m) /dS
52 TList . append (T)
53 #Note t h a t t h e r e a r e maxQuanta1 v a l u e s o f T i n t h e T L i s t
54
55 #c a l c u l a t e h e a t c a p a c i t y and graph C v s . T
56 for i in r a n g e ( 1 , l e n ( TList ) ) : #n o t e t h a t t h e l i s t s t a r t s w i t h 1 i n s t e a d o f 0
57 dT = TList [ i ] TList [ i 1] #f i n a l T i n i t i a l T
58 C = hbar s q r t ( k/m) /Natoms/dT #C p e r atom
59 c u r v e 1 . p l o t ( pos=( TList [ i ] , C) )
60 l i m i t C u r v e 1 . p l o t ( pos=( TList [ i ] , 3 kB) )
12.P.045
(a) This solution does not have data since the experiment was not performed. However, the calculations will be explained
below.
In your experiment, you will measure or calculate the quantities in Table 3:
Initial temperature of water, Ti (K)

Final temperature of water, Tf (K)
Volume of water, V (mL)
Mass of water, m (g)
Power of microwave, P (W)
Time interval for water to boil, t (s)
Table 3: default
Calculate the energy output by the microwave during the time interval that it was on.
E = P t
Apply the energy principle to the water. Assume that all of the energy output by the microwave is absorbed by the
water.
Ewater = P t
mCwater,pergram Twater = P t
P t
Cwater,pergram =
mTwater
16
This will give you the heat capacity of water in units of J/K/gram.
(b) There are a number of assumptions in part(a) that will cause the approximation in part (a) to be inaccurate. Here are
just a couple of ideas to consider.
(1) The energy absorbed by the water is less than the energy output by the microwave. The microwave and air warm
as a result of dissipated electrical energy, and the air and cup inside the microwave also absorb thermal energy. Thus,
the estimate for Twater will be too high, and the calculation for Cwater,pergram will be too low.
(2) The microwave does not heat the environment evenly. As a result, some of the water will absorb less energy than
other parts of the water. The estimate for Twater will be too high, and the calculation for Cwater,pergram will be too
low.
(3) Your measurement for the time interval could be off by 10-30 seconds (out of a few minutes of total time). You may
not be able to see clearly when the water reaches 100 C. If you leave the water in the microwave for too long, then it
will absorb more energy, yet its temperature will remain constant at 100 C. The additional energy absorbed by the
water causes evaporation. If your measurement of t is too large and if mass is lost, both of these errors will result in
a calculation for C that is too high.
12.P.046
(a) The first iron nanoparticle (particle 1) has four atoms. Using the Einstein model for the nanoparticle, it is made up of
4 3 = 12 oscillators. The second iron nanoparticle has 2 atoms, and thus 6 oscillators in the model. The total quanta
of energy is q = q1 + q2 = 1 + 2 = 3.
In problem 4.P.52, the spring stiffness in a ball-spring model of iron was found using Youngs modulus to be 46 N/m.
In the Einstein model of a solid, the springs would have stiffness four times this, or 184 N/m.
When the two nanoparticles come into contact, quanta can be exchanged between atoms. To find the number of ways
to arrange the energy in particle 1,
(q1 + N1 1)
1 =
q1 !N1 !
For particle 2,
(q2 + N2 1)
2 =
q2 !N2 !
To solve the problem, we must vary q1 from 0 to 3 and calculate for each case the number of ways of arranging the
energy. Though not required by the problem, the entropy for each particle can be calculated using S1 = kB ln(1 ) and
S2 = kB ln(2 ).
You can use a spreadsheet or VPython program to do the calculations and create the graphs. Likewise, you can do it
by hand. Its only four calculations. Results are shown in Table 4.
A graph (with lines connecting the data points) is shown in Figure 2.
(b) The equilibrium temperature occurs when the entropy is at a maximum, which is for q1 = 2 quanta. To calculate the
temperature of the first particle, use 1/T S/Eint . The change in the energy is due to the addition of one quantum
(from q = 1 to q = 2), and the change in entropy is S = kB ln 1 .
Use the spring stiffness for iron calculated from Youngs modulus in problem 4.P.52 which is 46 N/m. In the Einstein
model, the springs should have stiffness 4(46 N/m)=184 N/m. The mass of an iron atom (calculated in problem 4.P.52)
is 9.3 1025 kg. The change in the energy of particle 1 is
17
q1 1 , ln(1 ) q2 2 , ln(2 ) ln(1 2 )

0 1.0 0.0 3 56.0 4.02535169074 4.02535169074
1 12.0 2.48490664979 2 21.0 3.04452243772 5.52942908751
2 78.0 4.35670882669 1 6.0 1.79175946923 6.14846829592
3 364.0 5.89715386764 0 1.0 0.0 5.89715386764
Table 4: Data to be calculated and plotted for 12.P.46.
Figure 2: Graph of data in problem 12.P.46.
p
Eint = ~ k/m
s
34
184 N/m
= 1.055 10 Js
9.3 1025 kg
= 1.48 1021 J
The change in entropy, using data from part (a), is
S = k ln()
B
23 J
= 1.381 10 ln(6.148 5.529)
K
= 8.55 1024 J/K
So, the temperature is approximately

18
E
T
S
1.48 1021 J
=
8.55 1024 J/K
= 174 K
This is an approximation because the previous equation assumes a constant temperature and is only valid for for small
changes in entropy (and energy).
12.P.047
(a) Model each object as a one-dimensional oscillator connected to a rigid wall. Thus, the system consists of five one-
dimensional oscillators. The number of different ways that q quanta can be distributed among N=5 oscillators is
(q + N 1)
=
q!N !
The entropy for a given number of microstates is S = kB ln(). Calculate and S for different values of q from 0 to
5. A spreadsheet is quite helpful for repetitive calculations like this. The results are shown in Table 5.
q N S
0 5 1 0
1 5 5 2.22E-23
2 5 15 3.74E-23
3 5 35 4.91E-23
4 5 70 5.87E-23
5 5 126 6.68E-23
Table 5: Results for problem 12.P.47(a).
(b) One quanta of energy is
r
kmodel
Equanta = ~
m
r
4ks
= ~
m
s
34
4(15 N/m)
= 1.055 10 Js
4 1026 kg
= 4.09 1021 J
As the energy changes from q = 3 quanta to q = 5 quanta, the temperature at the midpoint of the interval (q = 4) is
approximately
E
T
S
2(4.09 1021 J)
=
(6.68 1023 J/K 4.91 1023 J/K)
= 462 K
19
(c) Calculate the temperature at the midpoint of each quantum interval around q = 4 (e.g. from q = 3 to q = 4 and from
q = 4 to q = 5). Use the change in energy and change in temperature during this interval to calculate the specific heat
using
Eatom
C =
T
For a one quantum change in energy, Eobject = Esys /Nobjects = (4.09 1021 J)/5 = 8.17 1022 J.
From q = 3 to q = 4:
E
T
S
4.09 1021 J
=
(5.87 1023 J/K 4.91 1023 J/K)
= 426 K
From q = 4 to q = 5:
E
T
S
4.09 1021 J
=
(6.68 1023 J/K 5.87 1023 J/K)
= 505 K
Eatom
C =
T
8.17 1022 J
=
(505 426) K
= 1.03 1023 J/K/object
(d) Since it is composed only of 1-D oscillators, the high temperature limit of the specific heat capacity should be C = kB .
23
This gives a high temperature limit in this case of C = 1.381 10 K per object. Our answer in part (c) is less than
J
this limit, as expected. (Note that for 3-D oscillators, you get a factor of three so that the high temperature limit is
C = 3kB .)
The reason is that in the high-temperature limit, each quadratic term in the energy contributes 21 k to the per-object
heat capacity. In a one-dimensional oscillator the energy is 12 mv 2 + 12 ks x2 , so there are 2 quadratic terms, and we predict
23
that C = 2( 21 kB ) = kB = 1.381 10 K . A more detailed analysis of the high-temperature limit in this case shows
J
23
that the heat capacity should be C = [(N 1)/N ]kB = 45 (1.381 10 J
K ) = 1.1 10
23
J/K, so the temperature of
462 K is already in the high-temperature range. Note that in a macroscopic system (N 1)/N would be essentially 1
(since N >> 1), and the high-temperature heat capacity would be kB .
12.P.048
20
(a) Apply the Momentum Principle, treating the system as a single particle located at its center of mass.
~F ~p
=
net
t
This a vector equation, so write it in component form. Only the x-direction is needed. ~Fnet =< F, 0, 0 >, ~vi =<
vi , 0, 0 >, and ~vf =< vf , 0, 0 >. Thus, in the x-direction.
(M + m)vf (M + m)vi
F =
t
F
vf = vi + t
(M + m)
(b) Apply the Angular Momentum Principle to the wheel. Since the wheel is a cylinder rotating about its center of mass,
its moment of inertia about this rotation axis is I = 12 M R2 . Define the +z direction to be out of the page. The torque
on the wheel due to F is in the z direction, the torque on the wheel due to f is in the +z direction, and the initial
and final angular velocities of the wheel are in the z direction. Apply the Angular Momentum Principle to the wheel
about the z axis.
Lz
net,z =
t
I(f ) I(i )
F R + f R =
t
(F + f )Rt = If + Ii
Ii + (F + f )Rt
f =
I
(F + f )Rt
= i + 1
M R2
2
2(F + f )
= i + t
MR
(c) Apply the Energy Principle.

First, consider the point-particle system. Treat the system of box, wheel, and block as a single particle located at its
center of mass. Then the Energy Principle applied to this particle is
Ktrans = W
Ktrans = F |~rcm |
Ktrans = Fx
Next, consider the actual system of the box, wheel, and block. The system gains translational kinetic energy, rotational
kinetic energy, and thermal energy. The work done is the dot product of the applied external force and the displacement
through which the applied force acts.
21
W =
Ktrans + Krot + Etherm

1 2 1 2
Fd = Fx + I I + Etherm
2 f 2 i
1
Etherm = F (d x) I(f2 i2 )
2
1
= F (d x) M R2 (f2 i2 )
4
(d) Use the definition of specific heat capacity to calculate the change in temperature of the block and wheel.
Eatom
C =
T
Esys /Natoms
=
T
The number of atoms in the block and wheel is

1 mol 23

Natoms = (1.2 kg) 6.022 10 mol1
0.0558 kg
= 1.30 1025 atoms
Look up C for iron, C 25.1 J/K/mol. Convert this to units of J/K/atom by multiplying by Avogadros number.
23
C = (25.1 J/K/mol)(6.022 10 mol1 ) = 4.168 1023 J/K/atom.
The change in temperature of the system for the given change in thermal energy is
Esys /Natoms
C =
T
8 104 J/1.3 1025 atoms
T =
4.168 1023 J/K/atom
= 148 K
Thus, the final temperature is Tf = 350 K + 148 K = 498 K.
12.X.49
-1 1
e = 0.0368
e
-10000 1 44
e = 10000 3.72 10
e
-0.01 1
e = 0.01 0.990
e
12.X.50
22

23 J
kB T 1.381 10 (293 K)
K
21
4.04 10 J
1
eV
40
12.X.51
Since H2 and O2 are diatomic gases, their c vs. T graphs should be very similar to figure 12.53.
12.X.52
Air, which is mostly nitrogen, has more internal energy because there are more degrees of freedom (vibrational and rotational)
than for helium.
12.X.53
A, B, and D are true. C is false.
12.X.54
Consider a system consisting of a tiny single oscillator in contact with a much larger object. The system has a fixed amount
of energy. When energy is taken from the tiny object and given to the larger object, the systems entropy increases because
there are many ways to distribute that energy among the oscillators in the larger object. Taking energy from the larger object
and giving it to the smaller object results in fewer ways to distribute that energy and thus lowers the systems entropy. The
Boltzmann distribution gives the probability of finding a particular amount of energy in the single oscillator.
12.X.55
Higher temperature means higher average speeds and more interactions will occur in a given time interval.
12.X.56
(a)
1
v = vpeak (750 500) + 500
5
550 m/s
(b) vrms is bigger

(c) approximately one tenth
12.X.57
E/k T
B
P e
18 23

1.63210 J/ 1.38110 J (7000 K)
K
e
8
4.6 10
23
12.X.58
A and F are the correct choices.
12.X.59
M gy kB T
kB T
y
Mg
21
4.04 10 J

N
(0.01 kg) 9.8 kg
20
4.1 10 m
12.X.60
M gy kB T
kB T
y
Mg
21
4.04 10 J

20 N
2 10 kg 9.8 kg
0.0206 m
12.X.61
The speed of sound in the gas increases.
12.P.062
(a) An atom in a monatomic gas only has translational kinetic energy. Thus, the average translational kinetic energy per
atom is
3
K trans = k T
2 B
23
If Q = 580 J of energy is added to 1 mole of gas, then the average increase in energy per atom is 580 J/6.022 10 mol1 =
9.63 1022 J. The change in temperature corresponding to this increase in energy per atom is
9.63 1022 J
T = 3
2 kB
9.63 1022 J
= 3 J
2 (1.381 1023 K )
= 46.5 K
24
(b) The rotational energy of the gas contributes 22 kB to the specific heat of the gas. Thus, the specific heat at high
temperatures will be approximately C = 32 kB + 22 kB = 52 kB .
Eatom
C =
T
Eatom
T =
C
9.63 1022 J
= 5 23 J
2 (1.381 10 K)
= 27.9 K
3/2
Note that this is 3/5 (i.e. 5/2 ) of the change in temperature for the monatomic gas.
(c) The rotational energy terms contribute 22 kB to the specific heat of the gas, and the vibrational energy terms contribute
2 kB . Thus, the specific heat at high temperatures will be approximately C = 2 kB + 2 kB + 2 kB = 2 kB .
2 3 2 2 7
3/2
This results in a change in temperature that is 3/7 (i.e. 7/2 )of the change in temperature for the monatomic gas.
Therefore, T = 3/7(46.5 K) = 19.9 K.
Examine the results. Since the specific heat for a diatomic gas is larger than a monatomic gas, its temperature increases
less for a given increase in thermal energy, which is consistent with the calculations.
12.P.063
(a) The density of a gas is proportional to eM gy/(kB T ) . Assuming constant temperature (which is a poor approximation),
the ratio of the density of the atmosphere at height y to the density of the atmosphere at sea level y0 is
M gy
k T
N e B
= M gy0
N0 k T
e B
M gy M gy0
k T + k T
= e B B
kM gT (yy0 )
= e B
Lets use a single air molecule of diatomic nitrogen N2 and a temperature of T = 300 K, though these are both
approximations.
N kM gT (yy0 )
= e B
N0
(4.71026 kg)(9.8 N/kg)
(5104 m)
= e 4.141021 J
= 0.0038
= 0.38%
Your answer will depend on what you used for the mass of a molecule of air and what you chose for the air temperature.
(b) The air density at sea level is about 1.23 kg/m3 . So the density at an altitude of 50 km would be 0.0038(1.23 kg/m3 ) =
0.0047 kg/m3 . Calculate the number of air molecules for this density. Use the molar mass of diatomic nitrogen. In one
cubic centimeter of air at this altitude,
25

1 kg 23

M = 2 (14 g/mol) 6.022 10 mol1 = 4.7 1026 kg/molecule
1000 g
1 m3

3
1 molecule 3
N = 0.0047 kg/m (1 cm )
4.7 1026 kg (100)3 cm3
= 1 1017 molecules
(c)
N kM gT (yy0 )
= e B
N0
(4.71026 kg)(9.8 N/kg)
(yy0 )
1 106 = e 4.141021 J
(4.7 1026 kg)(9.8 N/kg)

ln(1 106 ) = (y y0 )
4.14 1021 J
(y y0 ) = 1.2 105 m
= 120 km
12.P.064
Consider a gas of monatomic hydrogen. The energy required to remove a ground-state electron from a hydrogen atom is
13.6eV = 2.18 1018 J. For a the average atom in a plasma of hydrogen to be ionized, then the average kinetic energy of an
atom would have to be greater than 13.6 eV, in order for atomic collisions to have enough kinetic energy to ionize an atom.
3
K trans = k T
2 B
3 23 J
1.381 10 T 2.18 1018 J
2 K
T 1 105 K
For comparison, note that the Suns corona is about 3 million kelvin, which easily high enough to create a plasma. Due to
its high temperature, a star is mostly a plasma.
12.P.65
(a) Helium experiences the greater temperature rise because it has fewer degrees of freedom than air.
(b)
E
T = 3
2 N kB
100 J
3
mol1 1.4 1023 J/K
23

6.022 10
2
8K
12.P.66
26
(a) The rotational energy spacing is
L2y
!
L2x
Erot = K = +
2I 2I
At minimum, we can excite the molecule above the rotational ground state by increasing Lx from 0 to ~:
!
L2x ~2

2I 2I
For rotational states to make a contribution to the heat capacity, the temperature must be large enough to excite
rotational states. Therefore we have very roughly
~2
kB T
2I
~2
I
2kB T
T 80 K
The moment of inertia is

2
d ~2
I = 2M
2 2kB T
where d is the internuclear distance and M is the mass of one nucleus (just a proton in this case). Now just solve for d.
s
~2
d
M kB T
s
34 1
1.055 10 Js
1.7 1027 kg 1.4 1023 J/K (80 K)

10
0.8 10 m
This is in remarkably good agreement with the known sizes of atoms and molecules.
(b) For vibrational motion, model the hydrogen molecule as two simple quantized harmonic oscillators, each with a mass
M (one proton) and a spring half the length of the full spring representing the interatomic force, so that the effective
spring stiffness for each oscillator is 2ks . The energy spacing for vibrational states is
r
2ks
Evib = ~
M
For vibrational states to make a contribution to the heat capacity, the temperature must be large enough to excite
these states. Therefore we have very roughly
r
2ks
~ kB T
M
with T 2000 K. Now solve for ks .

27
2
M kB T

ks
2 ~
27
23
2
1.7 10 kg 1.4 10 J/K (2000 K)

1.055 1034 J s

2
60 N/m
This is roughly comparable to the effective interatomic spring stiffnesses found for aluminum and lead.
12.P.67 Two assumptions: that the molecules are close enough to Earth to use mg as the approximate force; that the
atmospheres temperature is constant
GM m
E mgy y
R2
E/k T GM m y/k T
B R2 B 1
e e
3
GM my
kB T
R2 ln(3)
GM my
T
R2 kB ln(3)
11
22
22
3

6.7 10 Nm2 /kg2 1.5 10 kg 28 1.7 10 kg 50 10 m
2
1.4 1023 J/K ln(3)

1.2 106 m
108 K
12.P.68
We need the moment of inertia for a thin hollow shell. We can get this by integration: I = 25 M R2 .
2
~
L
Krot =
2I
`(` + 1)~2
=
2I
`2 ~2

2I
3`2 ~2

4M R2
kB T
Solve for `.
28
s
4M R2 kB T
`
3~2
v
u 4(60) 12 103 kg 3.5 1010 m 2 1.381 1023 J
u
K (3 K)
t 2
(3) 1.055 1034 J s
27
12.P.069
(a) The following VPython program can be used to calculate the number of ways to distribute the four quanta among
the two atoms and visualize the data as a histogram. It results in the same distribution given in Figure 12.15 of the
textbook.
5
8 quanta=4 #number o f quanta
9 N=3 #number o f o s c i l l a t o r s f o r each atom
10
11 #c r e a t e t h e graph window
12 graph = g d i s p l a y ( xmin=0, xmax=quanta , width=w, h e i g h t=w/ 2 , x t i t l e= ' number o f quanta i n
atom 1 ' , y t i t l e= ' t o t a l number o f m i c r o s t a t e s ' )
13
14 #c r e a t e t h e h i s t o g r a m
15 h i s t o g r a m = g v b a r s ( d e l t a =0.5 , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )
16
18
19 print " quanta i n atom 1 " , " quanta i n atom 2 " , "number o f ways t o d i s t r i b u t e quanta
among t h e two atoms "
20 f o r q1 in r a n g e ( 0 , quanta +1) :
21 q2=quantaq1
22 omega1=f a c t o r i a l ( q1+N1)/ f a c t o r i a l ( q1 ) / f a c t o r i a l (N1)
23 omega2=f a c t o r i a l ( q2+N1)/ f a c t o r i a l ( q2 ) / f a c t o r i a l (N1)
24 N m i c r o s t a t e s = omega1omega2
25 print q1 , q2 , N m i c r o s t a t e s
26 h i s t o g r a m . p l o t ( pos=(q1 , N m i c r o s t a t e s ) )
(b) The following VPython program plots a histogram for the given scenario. The results agree with Fig. 12.21 from the
textbook. Its necessary to use the combinatorial function combin() in order to calculate the number of microstates.
Otherwise, Python will not be able to do the calculation. See the VPython documentation at:
http://vpython.org/contents/docs/visual/factorial.html
for an explanation of the cominatorial and factorial functions.

29

5
8 quanta =100 #number o f quanta
9 #number o f o s c i l l a t o r s f o r each b l o c k
10 N1=300
11 N2=200
12
b l o c k 1 ' , y t i t l e= ' t o t a l number o f m i c r o s t a t e s ' )
15
16 #c r e a t e t h e c u r v e t h a t w i l l be used f o r t h e h i s t o g r a m ; b a r s a r e not used i n t h i s c a s e

17 h i s t o g r a m = g v b a r s ( d e l t a =0.5 , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )
18
20
21 print " quanta i n b l o c k 1 " , " quanta i n b l o c k 2 " , " t o t a l number o f m i c r o s t a t e s "
22 fo r q1 in r a n g e ( 0 , quanta +1) :
23 q2=quantaq1
24 omega1=combin ( ( q1+N11) , ( N11) )
25 omega2=combin ( ( q2+N21) , ( N21) )
27 print q1 , q2 , N m i c r o s t a t e s
28 h i s t o g r a m . p l o t ( pos=(q1 , N m i c r o s t a t e s ) )
The distribution of quanta for which the probability (number of microstates in this case) is half as large as the most
probable case (60-40) is the state for which the number of microstates is (6.866 10114 )/2 = 3.433 10114 . This is
nearest to the probability of finding 66 quanta in the first atom and 34 quanta in the second atom, for which there are
3.76 10114 microstates.
(c) Use the program from part (b). Vary N 1 and N 2 in the program for different numbers of oscillators. Results for a few
choices of N 1 and N 2 are shown in Table 6.
N1 N2 ratio (N1 : N2 ) q1 q2 N (# of microstates)
250 250 1:1 50 50 6.73 10114
300 200 3:2 60 40 6.87 10114
400 100 4:1 80 20 8.39 10114
480 20 24:1 97 3 1.74 10115
Table 6: The most probable distribution of quanta (q1 and q2 ) for a given number of oscillators (N1 and N2 ) in each block
for a total of 100 quanta and 500 oscillators.
Its important to try the case where the ratio N1 /N2 is quite large. Youll notice that the histogram narrows, and its
maximum increases as the ratio increases.
12.P.070
The following VPython program calculates and graphs the natural log of the number of microstates. It also finds the value
of q1 (the number of quanta in atom 1) for which ln(1 2 ) is a maximum.
30

5
8 #number o f o s c i l l a t o r s f o r each b l c c k
9 N1=300
10 N2=200
11
b l o c k 1 ' , y t i t l e= ' t o t a l number o f m i c r o s t a t e s ' )
14
15 #c r e a t e t h e h i s t o g r a m by p l o t t i n g v e r t i c a l b a r s f o r each d a t a p o i n t
16 c u r v e 1 = g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan )
17 c u r v e 2 = g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )
18 c u r v e 3 = g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . magenta )
19
21 q1List = [ ]
22 microstatesList = [ ]
23
24 #c a l c u l a t e t h e number o f m i c r o s t a t e s f o r t h e v a r i o u s d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f quanta
25 for q1 in r a n g e ( 0 , quanta +1) :
26 q2=quantaq1
27 omega1=combin ( ( q1+N11) , ( N11) )
28 omega2=combin ( ( q2+N21) , ( N21) )
30 c u r v e 1 . p l o t ( pos=(q1 , math . l o g ( omega1 ) ) )
31 c u r v e 2 . p l o t ( pos=(q1 , math . l o g ( omega2 ) ) )
32 c u r v e 3 . p l o t ( pos=(q1 , math . l o g ( N m i c r o s t a t e s ) ) )
33 q 1 L i s t . append ( q1 )
34 m i c r o s t a t e s L i s t . append ( math . l o g ( N m i c r o s t a t e s ) )
35
36 #f i n d t h e v a l u e o f q1 f o r which t h e m i c r o s t a t e s i s a maximum
37 for i , v a l u e in enumerate ( m i c r o s t a t e s L i s t ) :
38 i f v a l u e==max( m i c r o s t a t e s L i s t ) :
39 maxValue=v a l u e
40 q1atMax=q 1 L i s t [ i ]
41
42 print "max l n (Omega_1Omega_2)=" , maxValue , " f o r q1=" , q1atMax
The printed value of q1 for which ln(1 2 ) is a maximum represents the most probable energy of the first block when it is
in thermal equilibrium with the second block.
12.P.071
The temperature of a block is given by
dS
1/T =
dEint
31
The entropy of a block is S = kB ln(). Since the change in internal energy for a change in one quantum is Eint =
p
q~ k/m (and q = 1), then
S
1/T p
~ k/m
Our previous program (in problem 12.P.70) can easily be modified to calculate entropy. However, we need to calculate the
derivative of the entropy with each change in the quantum. Though this is best done with a highly accurate numerical
derivative, we will simply use the Euler method for finding the derivative. This is found with the approximation above. For
a change of one quantum in the atom, assume that the temperature is the slope of a straight line
p
~ k/m
T
S
The program will have to be modified to calculate the initial entropy and final entropy for each interval of one quantum. An
example program is shown below.
5
8
10 N1=300
11 N2=200
12
14 kB=1.38 e 23 #J/K
15 hbar = 1 . 0 5 e 34 #m^2 kg / s
16 k = 64 #N/m s p r i n g s t i f f n e s s
17 m = 0 . 0 2 7 / 6 . 0 2 e23 #mass o f an aluminum atom i n kg
18
20 graph = g d i s p l a y ( xmin=0, xmax=quanta , width=w, h e i g h t=w/ 2 , x t i t l e= ' q_1 ' , y t i t l e= 'T_1, T_2
(K) ' )
21
22 #c r e a t e t h e h i s t o g r a m by p l o t t i n g v e r t i c a l b a r s f o r each d a t a p o i n t
23 c u r v e 1 = g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan )
24 c u r v e 2 = g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )
25
27 q1List = [ ]
28
29 #c a l c u l a t e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e b l o c k s
30 for q1 in r a n g e ( 0 , quanta +1) :
31 q2=quantaq1
32 i f q1 >0: #o n l y c a l c u l a t e f o r q1>0
32
33 S i 1 = kBmath . l o g ( omega1 ) #p r e v i o u s e n t r o p y f o r b l o c k 1
34 S i 2 = kBmath . l o g ( omega2 ) #p r e v i o u s e n t r o p y f o r b l o c k 2
35 omega1=combin ( ( q1+N11) , ( N11) )
36 omega2=combin ( ( q2+N21) , ( N21) )
38 i f q1 >0:
39 #f o r b l o c k 1
40 S f 1 = kBmath . l o g ( omega1 )
41 dS1 = Sf1S i 1
42 T1 = hbar s q r t ( k/m) /dS1
43 c u r v e 1 . p l o t ( pos=(q1 , T1) )
44 #f o r b l o c k 2
45 S f 2 = kBmath . l o g ( omega2 )
46 dS2 = (Sf2S i 2 ) #n o t e s i g n i s r e v e r s e d s i n c e S2 i n c r e a s e s t o t h e l e f t on t h e
graph
47 T2 = hbar s q r t ( k/m) /dS2
48 c u r v e 2 . p l o t ( pos=(q1 , T2) )
49 print q1 , q2 , T1 , T2
After running the program, you will find that the temperature curves cross at nearly q1 = 60 which agrees with the maximum
of the entropy which also occurs for q1 = 60. This corresponds to an equilibrium temperature of approximately T = 161 K.
Because the Euler method is an approximation, the curves do not cross at exactly q1 = 60.
The significance of the point where the curves cross is that this is the equilibrium temperature (or rather, the most probable
equilibrium temperature). The total entropy is a maximum at this point, so the system of blocks increases in entropy as it
comes to equilibrium.
12.P.072
A general outline of the procedure for solving this problem is given in Section 12.6 of the textbook. The program in 12.P.71
can be used to calculate the temperature for various numbers of oscillators in a single block (of aluminum or lead). Store the
data in a list (or an array). Then, calculate the heat capacity for each change in temperature by using
Eatom
C =
T
Esystem
where Eatom = Natoms . The system in this case is the block of metal, and the change in the energy of the block is in
q q
steps of one quantum of energy, Eblock = ~ m k
. So, the change in the energy of an atom is 1/Natoms (~ mk
).
After finding the temperature for a given number of quanta, the change in temperature for a change in quanta of 1 can be
calculated. Then,
q
k
(1/Natoms )~ m
C =
T
where T is the change in temperature for a one quantum increase in energy of the block.
A sample program is given below for aluminum. (To change it for lead, you merely have to change the mass, spring stiffness,
and experimental data.) For a limited range, our theoretical model fits the data fairly well. The approximate spring stiffness
was 4(16 N/m) = 64 N/m. Decreasing the stiffness slightly to about 61 N/m seemed to improve the curve fit. For greater
accuracy, the rms (root mean squared) could be calculated to find the best value of k to produce the best curve fit.
33
Note that the curve fit is poor for very low temperature and for very high temperature. Also, note that the curve does
approach the 3kB limit for high temperature.

5
6 #a l l d a t a i n t h i s program i s f o r Aluminum
7
9 maxQuanta = 300 #maximum quanta
10
11 #number o f atoms i n t h e b l o c k
12 Natoms=35
13 #number o f o s c i l l a t o r s i n t h e b l o c k
14 N = 3Natoms
15
17 kB=1.38 e 23 #J/K
18 hbar = 1 . 0 5 e 34 #m^2 kg / s
19 #k = 64 #N/m s p r i n g s t i f f n e s s o f an aluminum atom
20 k = 61
21 m = 0 . 0 2 7 / 6 . 0 2 e23 #mass o f an aluminum atom i n kg
22
23 #c r e a t e t h e graph windows and c u r v e s t o be g r a p h e d

24 #f i r s t s e t o f g r a p h s i s f o r C on a p e r atom b a s i s
25 graph1 = g d i s p l a y ( width=w, h e i g h t=w/ 2 , x t i t l e= 'T (K) ' , y t i t l e= 'C ( J/K/atom ) ' )
26 c u r v e 1 = g c u r v e ( d i s p l a y=graph1 . d i s p l a y , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan )
29
30 #second s e t o f g r a p h s i s f o r C p e r mole b a s i s
31 graph2 = g d i s p l a y ( y=w/2+20 , width=w, h e i g h t=w/ 2 , x t i t l e= 'T (K) ' , y t i t l e= 'C ( J/K/mol ) ' )
32 c u r v e 2 = g c u r v e ( d i s p l a y=graph2 . d i s p l a y , c o l o r=c o l o r . magenta )
35
37 qList = [ ]
38 TList = [ ]
39
40 #c a l c u l a t e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e b l o c k s
41 for q in r a n g e ( 0 , maxQuanta+1) :
42 i f q >0: #o n l y c a l c u l a t e f o r q>0
43 S i = kBmath . l o g ( omega ) #p r e v i o u s e n t r o p y f o r b l o c k
44 omega=combin ( ( q+N1) , (N1) )
45 i f q >0:
46 S f = kBmath . l o g ( omega )
47 dS = SfS i
48 T = hbar s q r t ( k/m) /dS
49 TList . append (T)
50 #Note t h a t t h e r e a r e maxQuanta1 v a l u e s o f T i n t h e T L i s t
51
34
52 #c a l c u l a t e h e a t c a p a c i t y and graph C v s . T
53 for i in r a n g e ( 1 , l e n ( TList ) ) : #n o t e t h a t t h e l i s t s t a r t s w i t h 1 i n s t e a d o f 0
54 dT = TList [ i ] TList [ i 1] #f i n a l T i n i t i a l T
55 C = hbar s q r t ( k/m) /Natoms/dT #C p e r atom
56 CperMole = C 6 . 0 2 e23
57 c u r v e 1 . p l o t ( pos=( TList [ i ] , C) )
58 c u r v e 2 . p l o t ( pos=( TList [ i ] , CperMole ) )
59 l i m i t C u r v e 1 . p l o t ( pos=( TList [ i ] , 3 kB) )
60 l i m i t C u r v e 2 . p l o t ( pos=( TList [ i ] , 3 kB 6 . 0 2 e23 ) )
61
62
63 #p l o t d a t a g i v e n i n t h e d a t a t a b l e i n t h e t e x t b o o k
64 TdataList = [ 2 0 , 40 , 60 , 80 , 100 , 150 , 200 , 250 , 300 , 400]
65 CperMolList = [ 0 . 2 3 , 2 . 0 9 , 5 . 7 7 , 9 . 6 5 , 1 3 . 0 4 , 1 8 . 5 2 , 2 1 . 5 8 , 2 3 . 2 5 , 2 4 . 3 2 , 2 5 . 6 1 ]
66 CperAtomList = [C/ 6 . 0 2 e23 f o r C in CperMolList ]
67 for i in r a n g e ( 0 , l e n ( T d a t a L i s t ) ) :
68 data1 . p l o t ( pos=( T d a t a L i s t [ i ] , CperAtomList [ i ] ) )
69 data2 . p l o t ( pos=( T d a t a L i s t [ i ] , CperMolList [ i ] ) )
12.P.073
Begin with the program used for problem 12.P.69(b) and modify it to calculate the FWHM (Full Width at Half Max) and
the fractional width at half max. A sample program is shown below. It uses a loop to change the number of quanta and
calculate the fractional width at half max. It stores the data in a text file so that it can easily be potted.
5
7 N1=300
8 N2=200
9
10 #open a f i l e f o r w r i t i n g d a t a t o
11 d a t a f i l e = open ( "12p073data . t x t " , "w" ) ;
12
13 q u a n t a L i s t=r a n g e ( 1 0 , 1 2 1 , 1 0 ) #quanta =120 w i l l be t h e max

14
15 for quanta in q u a n t a L i s t :
16
18 q1List = [ ]
19 microstatesList = [ ]
20
21 f o r q1 in r a n g e ( 0 , quanta +1) :
22 q2=quantaq1
23 omega1=combin ( ( q1+N11) , ( N11) )
24 omega2=combin ( ( q2+N21) , ( N21) )
26 q 1 L i s t . append ( q1 )
27 m i c r o s t a t e s L i s t . append ( N m i c r o s t a t e s )
28
29 #f i n d t h e v a l u e o f q1 f o r which t h e m i c r o s t a t e s i s a maximum
35
30 for i , v a l u e in enumerate ( m i c r o s t a t e s L i s t ) :
31 i f v a l u e==max( m i c r o s t a t e s L i s t ) :
32 maxValue=v a l u e
33 q1atMax=q 1 L i s t [ i ]
34
35 #c a l c u l a t e t h e h a l f max
36 HM = maxValue /2
37
38 #f i n d t h e range o f m i c r o s t a t e s a t HM
39 FWHMList = [ ]
40 for i in r a n g e ( 1 , l e n ( m i c r o s t a t e s L i s t ) ) : #s t a r t a t i =1 i n s t e a d o f 0
41 i f m i c r o s t a t e s L i s t [ i 1]<=HM and m i c r o s t a t e s L i s t [ i ]>=HM: #f i n d where m i c r o s t a t e s
i n c r e a s e s p a s t HM
42 FWHMList . append ( q 1 L i s t [ i ] )
43 i f m i c r o s t a t e s L i s t [ i 1]>=HM and m i c r o s t a t e s L i s t [ i ]<=HM: #f i n d where m i c r o s t a t e s
d e c r e a s e s p a s t HM
44 FWHMList . append ( q 1 L i s t [ i ] )
45 FWHM = FWHMList[1] FWHMList [ 0 ]
46 fracWidth = FWHM/q1atMax
47
48
49 print " f a c t i o n a l width a t h a l f max= " , fracWidth , " f o r quanta= " , quanta
50 print >>d a t a f i l e , quanta , " \ t " , fracWidth
51
52 datafile . close ()
For a system of two blocks with 100 quanta distributed among N1 = 300 oscillators and N2 = 200 oscillators, the fractional
width is 0.22. Try this with a different number of quanta and make a data table of results. Graph the fractional width vs.

1/ q and do a curve fit to see if the relationship holds. Here are the results for q 120. Larger values of q in my case led
to overflow errors in VPython.
quanta N1 + N2 factional width

10 300 200 0.5
20 300 200 0.416666666667
30 300 200 0.388888888889
40 300 200 0.291666666667
50 300 200 0.3
60 300 200 0.25
70 300 200 0.261904761905
80 300 200 0.229166666667
90 300 200 0.222222222222
100 300 200 0.216666666667
110 300 200 0.19696969697
120 300 200 0.194444444444
Table 7: The fractional width for various quanta distributed among two blocks with 300 and 200 oscillators, respectively.
The data was plotted, and the best-fit curve was found, using f ractional width = A
quanta
where A is the fit constant. The
data is somewhat scattered, and the curve fit seems to be best for larger quanta.
12.P.074
36
A sample program with extensive comments is shown below. The mass and spring stiffness used in the simulation are for an
aluminum atom.
(a) If the initial locations in the x, y, and z directions are the same, then it will oscillate in a straight line. If the initial
locations for x, y, and z are different, then the atom will oscillate in a plane.
(b) The atom will still oscillate in a plane. Interesting patterns called Lissajous figures can be seen for integer ratios of
frequencies for the springs along different axes.

3
4 #a d j u s t t h e s c e n e i n c l u d i n g t h e camera v i e w
5 s c e n e . width =700
6 s c e n e . h e i g h t =700
7 s c e n e . f o r w a r d=v e c t o r ( 0.6 , 0.6 , 1)
8
9 #t h e u n s t r e t c h e d l e n g t h o f a s p r i n g
10 #i t i s a l s o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l e n g t h t o use f o r t h e s i z e o f w a l l s , e t c .
11 d = 1 e 10
12
13 #i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s and c o n s t a n t s f o r t h e atom
14 r i = v e c t o r ( d / 2 , d / 4 , 0 ) #i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n
15 v i = v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) #i n i t i a l v e l o c i t y
16 N_A = 6 . 0 2 e23 #Avogradro ' s number
17 m = 0 . 0 2 7 /N_A #mass o f an atom i n kg
18
19 #c o n s t a n t s f o r s i z e s , c o l o r s , e t c .
20 t h i c k n e s s = d/20
21 w a l l C o l o r=c o l o r . gray ( 0 . 8 )
22 w a l l O p a c i t y =0.2
23 atomColor=c o l o r . cyan
24 atomRadius=d/10
25 s p r i n g C o l o r=c o l o r . o r a n g e
26 s p r i n g R a d i u s=d/12
27 k = 16 #s p r i n g s t i f f n e s s i n N/m
28
29 #c r e a t e t h e r i g i d w a l l s
30 w a l l 1 = box ( pos=(d , 0 , 0 ) , width=2d , h e i g h t =2d , l e n g t h=t h i c k n e s s , c o l o r=w a l l C o l o r , o p a c i t y
=w a l l O p a c i t y )
31 w a l l 2 = box ( pos=(d , 0 , 0 ) , width=2d , h e i g h t =2d , l e n g t h=t h i c k n e s s , c o l o r=w a l l C o l o r ,
o p a c i t y=w a l l O p a c i t y )
32 w a l l 3 = box ( pos =(0 ,d , 0 ) , width=2d , h e i g h t=t h i c k n e s s , l e n g t h =2d , c o l o r=w a l l C o l o r , o p a c i t y
=w a l l O p a c i t y )
33 w a l l 4 = box ( pos =(0,d , 0 ) , width=2d , h e i g h t=t h i c k n e s s , l e n g t h =2d , c o l o r=w a l l C o l o r ,
34 w a l l 5 = box ( pos =(0 ,0 , d ) , width=t h i c k n e s s , h e i g h t =2d , l e n g t h =2d , c o l o r=w a l l C o l o r ,
35
36 #t h i s i s t h e " f r o n t window" on t h e box ; i t s o p a c i t y i s z e r o which makes i t i n v i s i b l e

37 w a l l 6 = box ( pos =(0 ,0 , d ) , width=t h i c k n e s s , h e i g h t =2d , l e n g t h =2d , c o l o r=w a l l C o l o r , o p a c i t y
=0)
38
39
37
40 #c r e a t e t h e atom
41 atom = s p h e r e ( pos=r i , c o l o r=atomColor , r a d i u s=atomRadius )
42
43 #c r e a t e t h e s p r i n g s ; s e t t h e i r p o s i t i o n a t t h e w a l l s i n c e t h i s doesn ' t change

44 spring1 = h e l i x ( name=" s p r i n g 1 " , pos=(d , 0 , 0 ) , r a d i u s=s p r i n g R a d i u s , c o l o r=s p r i n g C o l o r )
45 spring2 = h e l i x ( name=" s p r i n g 2 " , pos=(d , 0 , 0 ) , r a d i u s=s p r i n g R a d i u s , c o l o r=s p r i n g C o l o r )
46 spring3 = h e l i x ( name=" s p r i n g 3 " , pos =(0 ,d , 0 ) , r a d i u s=s p r i n g R a d i u s , c o l o r=s p r i n g C o l o r )
47 spring4 = h e l i x ( name=" s p r i n g 4 " , pos =(0,d , 0 ) , r a d i u s=s p r i n g R a d i u s , c o l o r=s p r i n g C o l o r )
48 spring5 = h e l i x ( name=" s p r i n g 5 " , pos =(0 ,0 , d ) , r a d i u s=s p r i n g R a d i u s , c o l o r=s p r i n g C o l o r )
49 spring6 = h e l i x ( name=" s p r i n g 6 " , pos =(0 ,0 , d ) , r a d i u s=s p r i n g R a d i u s , c o l o r=s p r i n g C o l o r )
50
51 #c r e a t e a l i s t o f s p r i n g s t o use i n l o o p s
52 springs = [ spring1 , spring2 , spring3 , spring4 , spring5 , spring6 ]
53
54 #c r e a t e a t r a i l
55 t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=atom . c o l o r )
56
57 #s e t p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s p r i n g s
58 for sp in s p r i n g s :
59 sp . t h i c k n e s s = sp . r a d i u s /5
60 sp . a x i s = atom . pos sp . pos
61 sp . k = k #t h e s p r i n g s t i f f n e s s
62 sp . F = v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) #t h e f o r c e by t h e s p r i n g on t h e atom
63 #you can use an i f s t a t e m e n t l i k e t h e one b e l o w t o change t h e s t i f f n e s s o f i n d i v i d u a l
springs
64 i f ( sp . name==" s p r i n g 1 " or sp . name==" s p r i n g 2 " ) :
65 sp . k=k
67 sp . k=k /4
69 sp . k=k /9
70
71 omega = s q r t ( k/m) #n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y i s used t o c a l c u l a t e a r e a s o n a b l e d e l t a t

72 T = 2 p i /omega #p e r i o d
73 dt = T/100 #time s t e p f o r n u m e r i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n
74
75 #s i m u l a t e motion
76 t=0
77 Fnet = v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
78 atom . v = v i
79 atom .m = m
80 atom . p = atom .matom . v
81 while 1 :
82 rate (100)
83 #c a l c u l a t e n e t f o r c e on t h e atom
84 Fnet = v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
85 for sp in s p r i n g s :
86 sp . a x i s = atom . pos sp . pos #v e c t o r l e n g t h o f s p r i n g
87 a x i s H a t = norm ( sp . a x i s ) #d i r e c t i o n o f a x i s
88 l e n g t h=mag( sp . a x i s ) #l e n g t h o f s p r i n g
89 s = l e n g t h d #d i s t a n c e s t r e t c h e d ; + f o r s t r e t c h and f o r compressed
90
91 #c a l c u l a t e t h e f o r c e by t h e s p r i n g on t h e atom
92 sp . F = sp . k s a x i s H a t
38
93
94 #c a l c u l a t e t h e n e t f o r c e
95 Fnet = Fnet + sp . F
96
97 #u p d a t e momentum and p o s i t i o n o f t h e atom

98 atom . p = atom . p+Fnet dt
99 atom . v = atom . p/atom .m
100 atom . pos = atom . pos + atom . v dt
101 t r a i l . append ( pos=atom . pos )
102 t=t+dt
1
13.X.1
Since faster molecules escape, the average kinetic energy of the remaining molecules decreases and thus so does the temper-
ature.
13.X.2
1
3D flow rate = nAv
4
1 25
3
2
2.68 10 molecule/m3 () 1 10 m (500 m/s)
4
22
1.05 10 molecule/s
13.X.3
A nitrogen molecule has a mass of about 28 g/mol and nitrogens density at room temperature is about 1.145 kg/m3 .
M 28 g/mol 23
m 23 1 5 10 g
NA 6.022 10 mol
26
5 10 kg
26
m 5 10 kg 26
v 4.4 10 m3
1.145 kg/m3
9
L 3
v 3.5 10 m
13.X.4
P = nkB T
25
23 J

3
2.68 10 molecule/m 1.381 10 (273 K)
K
5
1.01 10 N/m2
13.X.5
V1
W = N kB T ln
V2
23
23 J

18
6.02 10 molecule 1.381 10 (293 K) ln
K 12
986 J
Q 986 J
Eint = 0
2
13.X.6
Cp = C V + kB
3 2
= kB + kB
2 2
5
= k
2 B
13.X.7
T CV /kB V = K
!C /k
V B
PV
V = K
N kB
P CV /kB V CV /kB V = 0K
1+k /C
PV B V = P V CP /CV
To get that last step, note that 1 + kB /CV = CV /CV + kB /CV = CP /CV .
13.X.8
TH TL
Q = A
L
2
2 (100 K)
(400 W/K/m) 1 10 m
(0.3 m)
13.3 W
335 J
t 25 s
13.3 W
Suniverse > 0
13.X.9
TL
Eff = 1
TH
1 f rac273373 0.27
13.X.10
TL
Eff = 1
TH
1 f rac298573 0.48
3
13.X.11
TL
Eff = 1
TH
1 f rac276293 0.06
(50 W) (0.06) 3W
50 W + 3 W 53 W
13.X.012
The work done by the engine (i.e. heat pump) per joule of leakage is
W TL
= 1
QH TH
273 + 5 K
= 1
273 + 20 K
= 1 0.95
= 0.05
Thus, the heat pump must do 0.05 J of work for each joule of leakage from the house. Remember that this is a maximally
efficient heat pump.
13.X.013
Convert temperatures to kelvins, so TH = 573 K and TL = 298 K. The non-reversible-engine maximum-power efficiency is
r
W TL
1
QH TH
r
298 K
1
573 K
0.28 = 28%
This is close to the observed efficiency of 30%.
13.X.014

The rms displacement is rrms =
p
vd t = (500 m/s)(7 108 m) 1 s = 0.0059 m = 5.9 mm.
13.X.015
The leak rate L in molecules per second is related to the other variables by
L = nAv
4

The area is R2 . The average speed is proportional to the T . Thus, L n, L R2 , and L T . Doubling n, will
increase L by a factor
of 2. Doubling
R will increase L by a factor of 4. Doubling T will increase L by a factor of 2. Thus,
L increases by (2)(4)( 2) = 8 2.
13.X.16
Chlorine is a diatomic gas (Cl2 ). The mass of a chlorine molecule is
23
m = 2(0.035 kg/mol)/(6.022 10 mol1 )
= 1.18 1025 kg
The 3D flow rate is
1
3D flow rate = nAv
4
1
= nR2 (0.92vrms )
4 r
1 2
3kB T
= nR (0.92)
4 m s
J
1 25 3 2 3(1.381 1023 K )(273 K)
= (2.68 10 molecules/m )(0.002 m) (0.92) 25
4 1.18 10 kg
= 2.40 1022 molecules/s
13.X.17
The mean free path is independent of temperature, so it remains the same even though the temperature is increased.
13.X.18
The mean free path for N2 is 7 108 m at STP. The mass of a nitrogen molecule is
23
m = 2(0.014 kg/mol)/(6.022 10 mol1 ) = 4.65 1026 kg
Assuming a temperature of 273 K,
r
3kB T
vrms =
s m
J
3(1.381 1023 K )(273 K)
= 26
4.65 10 kg
= 493m/s
The average speed is v = 0.92vrms = 454 m/s. Use the definition of average speed to calculate the average time interval
between collisions.
5
d
v =
t
d
t =
v
7 108
=
454 m/s
= 1.5 1010 s
13.P.19
(a) Lets write the density as n = n0 eAv/(4V )t . The initial density is ninitial = n(t = 0) = n0 e0 = n0 (1) = n0 . Thus, the
constant n0 is the initial density n(t = 0).
Take the derivative d
dt (nV ) using the chain rule. Note that V is constant since the container is rigid.
d dn dV
(nV ) = V +n
dt dt dt
0
d dn dV
(nV ) = V +n
dt dt dt
Calculate dt .
dn

dn Av
= n0 eAv/(4V )t
dt 4V
Av
= n
4V
Substitute into the equation for d

dt (nV ).
d dn
(nV ) = V
dt dt
Av
= nV
4V
1
= nAv
4
This agrees with the differential equation given in the question.
(b) Assume STP to find the initial density of molecules using the ideal gas law. For helium, it is 2.68 1025 molecules/m3 ,
and a molecules average speed is about 1200 m/s. (See pg. 515 from the textbook.) Assume that most of the molecules
have leaked out when the density is 1% of the initial density. Then, n/n0 = 0.01. Use the results from part (a) to
calculate t.
6
n
= eAv/(4V )t
n0

n Av
ln = t
n0 4V
!
(0.0005 m)2 (1200 m/s)
ln(0.01) = t
4 43 (0.15 m)3

t = 276 s
= 4.6 min
13.P.20
(a) It is because the lower mass U-235 atoms escape at a slightly higher rate than the U-238 atoms.
1
leakage rate = nAv
4
1
= nA(0.92vrms
4 r !
1 3kB T
= nA(0.92)
4 m

Thus, the leakage rate is proportional to 1/ m.
(b) At each stage, the initial leakage rates compare like this:
#U 235 mU(238)F
s r
s 6
352
#U 238
= = = 1.0043
mU(235)F 349
s 6
If we let all of the gas leak through, there will be no enrichment of the U-235. So as a practical matter, lets assume
that we let about half of the gas through, with an enrichment factor of about 1.002.
(c) In a multistage process, the gas diffuses through a series of connected compartments, each with an enrichment factor
of about 1.002, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Multistage process of gas diffusion through a series of connected compartments.
For every diffusion stage, the concentration of U-235 is slightly enriched. To get a 3% enrichment, the gas needs to
diffuse through N stages:
7
3%
(1.002)N = = 4.3
0.7%
N log(1.002) = log(4.3)
log(4.3)
N = = 730 stages
log(1.002)
13.P.21
Assuming you had been living on the spacecraft in comfort, lets assume that
the spacecraft was filled with the usual mixture of N2 and O2 (mass per molecule about 30 grams)
the air density was that of sea-level Earth atmosphere
the temperature was room temperature (about 300 K)
The leak rate involves the average center-of-mass speed v of the molecules, and v vrms . Calculate the mean speed of a
molecule.
The mass of a molecule is
23
m = (0.030 kg/mol)/6.022 10 mol1 = 4.98 1026 kg
1 3
mv 2 = k T
2 2 B
p
vrms = v2
r
3kB T
=
s m
J
3(1.381 1023 K )(300 K)
=
4.98 1026 kg
= 500 m/s
The initial leak rate is
1
leak rate = nAv
4
1 6 1023 molecules
= (4 103 m)2 (500 m/s)
4 (22.4 103 cm3 )(1 106 m3 /cm3 )
= 2 1023 molecules/s
The original number of molecules was

8
6 1023 molecules
N = (8 3 3 m3 ) 2 1027 molecules
(22.4 103 cm3 )(1 106 m3 /cm3 )
Initially we lose a fraction of about 2 1023 /2 1027 = 104 of our air every second. With the crude approximation that this
rate is constant, we would lose all of the air in about 104 seconds, or a little less than 3 hours. How much air do we need to
live? A reasonable guess would be at least the air density found at the top of Mt. Everest, which at a height of about 9000
meters can be shown to be about one-third the density at sea level. So under the constant-rate approximation, we only have
about 2 hours to repair the leak. Actually we have somewhat longer, because as the air density drops, so does the leak rate.
But to be on the safe side, lets make sure that we repair the leak in less than 2 hours.
13.P.22
(a) 22.4 liters = 0.0224 m3 . Use the ideal gas law
PV = (moles)RT
(moles)RT
P =
V
(1 mol)(8.3 J/K)(273 K)
=
0.024 m3
5
= 1.0 10 Pa
23
(b) The mass of a single molecule is m = (0.004 kg/mol)/6.022 10 mol1 = 6.64 1027 kg.
The average translational kinetic energy is
3
K trans = k T
2 B
1 3
mv 2 = kB T
2 2
p
vrms = v2
r
3kB T
=
s m
J
3(1.381 1023 K )(273 K)
= 27
6.64 10 kg
= 1300 m/s
(c) The leak rate is
1
leak rate = nAv
4
1
= nA(0.92vrms )
4
1 6.022 1023 atoms

= (1 108 m2 )(0.92)(1300 m/s)
4 0.0224 m3
= 8.03 1019 atoms/s
9
In 5 seconds, (8.03 1019 atoms/s)(5 s) = 4.01 1020 atoms leave the container.
(d) Assume that the air in the room is at the same temperature and pressure. At STP, the density of air in molecules per
cubic meter is 2.68 1025 molecules/m3 . This is the same as the density of helium in the container.
The mass of an air moleculeis approximately 28 g/mol (nitrogen gas) which
is 7 times the mass of hydrogen. The rms
speed is proportional to 1/ m, so the rms speed of air molecules is 1/ 7 times the rms speed of hydrogen.

Therefore, the leak rate that air enters the container will be 1/ 7 times the leak rate the helium exits the container,
and the number of helium atoms that exit the container will be greater than the number of air molecules entering the
container in the same time interval.
(e) Assume constant temperature and neglect the increase in air molecules due to air entering the container. The ideal gas
law is P V = (# atoms)kB T . Thus,
kB T
P = (atoms)
V
Since the number of helium atoms inside the container decreases slightly in 5 seconds, the pressure inside the container
will decrease slightly in 5 seconds.
13.P.23
Let M = mass of the meteor, m = density of meteor (8 grams per cm3 ), R = radius of meteor (10 m or 100 m), vm = speed
of meteor (104 m/s), rhoa = density of air, n = the number density of air, m = mass of an air molecule.
Follow the line of reasoning that lead to calculating the pressure in a gas. In a time t, the meteor will run through a
distance vm t and a volume (R2 )(vm t) in which are found n(R2 )(vm t) air molecules. Compared to the high speed
of the meteor, each air molecule is practically standing still, but in a collision with the meteor an air molecule typically
acquires a speed of about 2vm (like a bowling ball hitting a ping pong ball; see Chapter 9). The momentum change of each
air molecule is m(2vm ) 0, which is the same magnitude as the momentum change of the meteor in the collision. (Were
ignoring some sines or cosines having to do with where the air molecule collides with the spherical meteor, and the direction
of the molecule after the collisionwere getting an approximate result.)
Neglecting gravity for the moment (well check this later), we have for the meteor
dP d(M vm ) [n(R2 )(vm t)](2mvm ) 2

= = = 2nmvm (R2 )
dt dt t
2
dvm nmvm R2
= 2
dt M
The minus sign represents the fact that the meteors speed is decreasing due to air resistance.
Note that nm is the # of molecules per unit volume times the mass of one molecule, or the mass per unit volume, which is
the density of the air a . Also, the mass of the meteor is the density of iron times the volume of the meteor. Therefore we
can rewrite the previous result:
2
dvm a v m (R2 ) 2
3 a v m
= 2 =
dt m ( 34 R3 ) 2 m R
If the radius R = 10 m, we have dt = 2.6 10 m/s .

dvm 3 2
If the radius R = 100 m, we have dvdtm = 2.6 102 m/s2 .

10
Both of these rates of change of the meteor speed are huge compared to g = 9.8 m/s2 . Here is a situation where the air
resistance force is much larger than the gravitational force M g, which we may safely ignore! The meteor slows down to some
terminal speed rather than speeding up until terminal speed is reached, as is the case for a body falling from rest.
You could do a numerical integration using the air resistance force to see about how fast the meteor would be going after
plunging through the entire atmosphere, taking into account the changing density of the air with altitude (though at low
speeds our model of the air standing still is poor). A refinement of the model would take into account the fact that the meteor
gets so hot that its outer surface is continually melting and blowing away, so the mass (and radius) get smaller. Fortunately,
most meteors shrink to nothing before reaching the ground. Only very large meteors get through the atmosphere.
13.X.24
The work done on the gas if V2 = 2V1 is

V1
W = N kB T ln
V2

1
= N kB T ln
2
The natural log of 1/2 is negative, so the work done on the gas is negative. Apply the Energy Principle to the gas, and
assume its a closed system. Then
Egas = 0
W +Q = 0
Q = W
= N kB T ln (2)
(Note that ln 1/2 = ln 2.) The result is positive, showing the energy was transferred to the gas from the surroundings as a
result of a temperature difference between the gas and its surroundings.
13.X.25
The work done on the gas if V2 = (1/2)V1 is

V1
W = N kB T ln
V2
= N kB T ln (2)
The natural log of 2 is positive, so the work done on the gas is positive. Apply the Energy Principle to the gas, and assume
its a closed system. Then
Egas = 0
W +Q = 0
Q = W
= N kB T ln (2)
The result is negative, showing the energy was transferred from the gas to the surroundings as a result of a temperature
difference between the gas and its surroundings.
11
13.P.26
V2
Q = N kB T ln
V1
23
23 J

20
2 6.02 10 /mol 1.381 10 (293 K) ln
K 11
2910 J
W 2910 J
Eint = 0
13.P.27
(a) Assume that there is too little time for heat to be transferred to the system, so Q = 0. This is called and adiabatic
process. Then,
T (CV /kB ) V = constant

(C /k ) (C /k )
Tf V B Vf = Ti V B
Vi
For a monatomic gas such as helium CV = 3/2kB , so
3/2 3/2
Tf Vf = Ti Vi
Since, T (CV /kB ) V = constant, then as the volume of the gas increases, its temperature decreases. So, we expect the
final temperature to be less than the initial temperature.
The volume of a cylinder of gas is V = R2 L where L is the length of the cylinder. Thus,
3/2 3/2
Tf R2 Li = Ti R2 Li
2/3
3/2 0.2 m
= (293 K)
0.32 m
= 214 K
(b) Treat the helium gas as an ideal gas. Calculate the number of molecules in the gas using the initial values of pressure,
temperature, and volume and the ideal gas law.
PV = N kB T
PV
N =
kB T
(1 105 Pa)(0.05 m)2 (0.2 m)
N = J
(1.381 1023 K )(293 K)
= 3.88 1022 molecules
12
The work done by you on the gas is negative because the force you exert on the piston is to the right and the displacement
of the piston is to the left. Also, according to the Energy Principle Esys = W + Q. Since Q = 0 in this case and
since the gas only has thermal energy, then Etherm = W . The gas cools, so it loses thermal energy and Etherm is
negative. As a result, W must also be negative.
Apply the Energy Principle to the gas (as the system). The change in thermal energy is simply Etherm = N CV T .
Thus the Energy Principle gives:
Etherm = W
W = N CV T
= (3/2)kB N T
3 23 J
= (3.88 1022 molecules) (1.381 10 )(214 293 K)
2 K
= 63.4 J
(c) The force by you on the piston is equal in magnitude to the force by the gas on the piston since the piston is in
mechanical equilibrium. The gas exerts a force on the piston of magnitude F = P A. The pressure is given by the ideal
gas law. Thus,
F = PA
N kB T
= R2
V
N kB T
= R2
R2 L
N kB T
=
L
23
J
(3.88 1022 molecules)(1.381 10 K )(214 K)
=
0.32 m
= 358 N
(d) As the temperature increases to room temperature, the pressure of the gas will increase due to the ideal gas law with
constant volume. As a result, you will have to exert a larger force on the gas.
F = PA
N kB T
= R2
V
N kB T
= R2
R2 L
N kB T
=
L
23
J
(3.88 1022 molecules)(1.381 10 K )(293 K)
=
0.32 m
= 490 N
(e) If you do this very slowly, then the temperature of the gas will be constant since the gas will be in thermal equilibrium
with its surroundings at all times during the process. This is called an isothermal process. As you compress the gas,
you will have to exert an increasingly larger force.
13
The pressure of the gas is given by the ideal gas law.
PV = N kB T
N kB T N kB T
P = =
V R2 L
23
J
(sci3.8822 molecules)(1.381 10 K )(293 K)
=
(0.05 m)2 (0.25 m)
= 7.99 104 Pa
The force by you on the piston is equal in magnitude to the force by the gas on the piston since the piston is in
mechanical equilibrium. The gas exerts a force on the piston of magnitude F = P A.
F = PA
= (7.99 104 Pa)(0.05 m)2
= 628 N
13.P.28
Assume that you pump the tire in a small enough time interval that no heat is transferred from the surroundings. Thus,
Q = 0. This is called an adiabatic process.
Model the system as if you are taking N molecules in a volume Vi at atmospheric pressure (15 psi) and room temperature
(293 K) and compressing it, and placing it inside a volume Vf inside the tire. For an adiabatic compression,
3/2 3/2
Ti Vi = Tf Vf
Substitute for volume as a function of pressure and temperature using the ideal gas law.
3/2 N kB Ti 3/2 N kB Tf
Ti = Tf
Pi Pf
3/2 N kB Ti 3/2 N kB Tf
Ti = Tf
Pi Pf
3/2 Ti 3/2 Tf
Ti = Tf
Pi Pf
5/2 5/2
Ti Tf
=
Pi Pf
2/5
Pf
Tf = Ti
Pi
2/5
65psi
(293 K)
15psi
1.8(293 K)
527K = 254 C
14
This seems like a very high estimate. Typically a bicycle pumps temperature increases as it is pumping. So, clearly not all
of the work done on the system of gas and pump goes into increasing the temperature of the gas. The pump also warms up
and transfers thermal energy to the surroundings.
13.X.29
L . Suppose that the area is multiplied by a factor 1/2 and the length is multiplied by a factor 2/3, then Q changes by a
Q A
factor (1/2)/(2/3) = 3/4. The energy transfer rate for the new aluminum bar will be 3/4 of the transfer rate of the original
aluminum bar.
13.X.30
The engine takes energy from the high-temperature source, does work on its surroundings, and transfers energy to the low-
temperature sink (ice). Apply the Energy Principle to the engine. Since the engine does work on its surroundings, the work
done on the engine (by the surroundings) is negative.
Eengine = 0
QH QL + W = 0
QH 400 J 1000 J = 0
QH = 1400 J
The low-temperature sink (ice) has a temperature of 273 K. For a reversible engine,
QH QL
=
TH TL
QH
TH = TL
QL
1400 J
= (273 K)
400 J
= 956 K
13.X.31
The efficiency of a maximum power engine is
r
W TL
1
QH TH
Since TH is very close to TL , write TL = TH T , where T is the small difference. Then
r
W TH T
1
QH TH
r
T
= 1 1
TH
The binomial approximation is that (1 x)1/2 1 (1/2)x. Use this approximation since T /TH is small.
15

W 1 T
1 1
QH 2 TH
1 T

2 TH
Now, substitute T = TH TL .
W 1 (TH TL )

QH 2 TH

1 TL
1
2 TH
In a given time interval t,

W 1 TL
1
QH 2 TH
The ratio W/QH is defined as the efficiency. So the efficiency of a maximum power engine is

1 TL
efficiency 1
2 TH

Since the efficiency of a reversible engine is 1 TL
TH , then
1
efficiency = efficiency
maximum power 2 reversible engine
13.P.32
Note the following log identity: ln(y/x) = ln(y) ln(x) = ln(x/y). We will use this identify a few times during this
derivation.
It helps if you sketch a graph of P as a function of V for the reversible process described in parts (a)(d) of this question.
Be sure to label the axes because it will help you ensure that you label your values correctly in each part.
The goal is to derive an equation for parts (a)(d) and then use these equations to show that Q TH = TL . Note that in
H QL
the textbook, QL is defined as the energy transferred from the engine to the surroundings (i.e. the sink), which is positive.
QL
However, because we typically define Q as the heat transferred to the system, I define QL to be negative, and then Q
TH = TL .
H
I will prove this equation.

For each part, you apply Esys = W + Q. In this case, the system only has thermal (internal) energy, so N kB T = W + Q.
You will also need to repeatedly use the ideal gas law P V = N kB T .
16
(a) The temperature is constant, the change in internal energy is zero. Apply the Energy Principle.
Esys = W +Q
0 = W + QH
QH = W
Z V2
= P dV
V1
Z V2
N kB TH
= dV
V1 V

V2
= N kB TH ln
V1

QH V2
= N kB ln
TH V1
Thats the left side of the equation we are trying to prove.

(b) No heat is transferred to the system, so Q = 0. Application of the Energy Principle to this adiabatic process gives:
T 3/2 V = constant
3/2 3/2
TH V2 = TL V3
3/2
TH V3
3/2
=
TL V2
(c) This part is just like part (a) except that the integral is from V3 to V4 , the temperature is TL , and the heat transferred
is QL . Thus, conservation of energy gives:

QL V4
= N kB ln
TL V3
(d) This is an adiabatic process, just like part (b). The initial temperature is TL at volume V4 , and the final temperature
is TH at volume V1 . Thus,
3/2 3/2
TL V4 = TH V1
3/2
TH V4
3/2
=
TL V1
Now, you have to combine the above equations. First, note that parts (a) and (d) are the same, thus
3/2
TH V3 V4
3/2
= =
TL V2 V1
V3 V4
=
V2 V1
V3 V1 = V2 V4
V2 V3
=
V1 V4
17
Now, start with the equation in part (a).

QH V2
= N kB ln
TH V1
Substitute, V2
V1 = V4 .
V3

QH V3
= N kB ln
TH V4

V4
= N kB ln
V3
Now, note that this is the negative of part (c). So,

QH V4
= N kB ln
TH V3
QH QL
=
TH TL
The negative sign is a result of the fact that if QH is positive, QL is negative, and the negative sign is required for the
equality. In parts (a) and (b), Q was defined as the heat transferred to the gas. Thus, the negative sign is required
based on this definition of Q.
1
14.X.1
10
A typical electron clouds radius is approximately 1 10 m.
14.X.2
Protons and electrons are constituents of ordinary matter.
14.X.3
A proton would experience a force with the same magnitude as that experienced by the electron, but in the opposite direction.
14.X.4
A neutron at the same location would experience no electric force.
14.X.5
~r = ~robs ~rsource
~r = h0.1, 0, 0i m h0, 0, 0i
~r = h0.1, 0, 0i m
|~r| = 0.1 m
r = ~r/ |~r| h0.1, 0, 0i m/0.1 m
r =h1, 0, 0i
~
1 Q
E =
4o |~r|2
9
9 Nm 1 10 C
2

~

E = 9 10
C2 (0.1 m)
2

900 N/C
~ r h900, 0, 0i N/C
~ E

E
14.X.6
~
3
E = 1.4 10 N/C
|~r| = 0.15 m
~
1 |Q|
E =
4o |~r|2
~ 2

E |~r|
|Q| = 1
4o
3

1.4 10 N/C 0.15 m2

|Q| N m2
9 109 C2
9
|Q| 3.5 10 C
2
9
Since the the field points toward the particle, the particles charge must be negative. Therefore, Q 3.5 10 C.
14.X.7 Treat the sphere as a particle.
~
1 |Q|
E =
4o |~r|2

5 109 C
9 Nm
2

~

E 9 10
C2 (0.04 m)
2
~
4
E 2.8 10 N/C
14.X.8 Treat the sphere as a particle.
~
10

Fon sphere by particle = 8 10 C (500 N/C)

7
4 10 N
14.X.9 Note this problem only asks for magnitudes.
(a)
~
1 es
E
4o |~r|3

1.602 1019 C 2 1010 m
9 Nm
2

9 10
C2

3
2 108 m
4
3.6 10 N/C
4
(b) This fields magnitude will be twice that of the field in the previous part, 7.2 10 N/C.
14.X.10
(a) The forces magnitude will be smaller by a factor of 8. In other words, the new forces magnitude will be 1
8 that of the
old forces magnitude.
(b) The forces magnitude would triple.
(c) The forces magnitude would double and its direction would change by 180 .
14.X.11
~
4
E 3.6 10 N/C
~ ~
19
4

F = e E 1.602 10 C 3.6 10 N/C
~
15
F 5.8 10 N
3
14.X.12
The dipole wants to be horizontal with its dipole moment parallel to the applied electric field. The negative pole must be on
the left.
14.X.13
~ ~

F = e E
19

1.602 10 C (5000 N/C)
16
8 10 N
14.X.14
~ ~

F = |q| E
~

F
|q| =
~
E
15

1.6 10 N

(5000 N/C)
19
3.2 10 C
14.X.15
The relationship is that the force by an electric field on a particle of charge q is ~Fby E-field on q = q E.
~ The unit of force is
newtons (N) and the unit of electric field is newtons per coulomb (N/C).
14.X.16
~ ~

F = |q| E
16
~
3.8 10 N
E =
1.602 1019 C
= 2375 N/C
14.X.17
(a) h. For a proton, the force on the proton is in the same direction as the electric field.
(b) d. For an electron, the force on the electron is in the same direction as the electric field.
4
14.X.18
~F = ~
qE
19
= (1.602 10 C)(< 0, 280, 0 > N/C)
= < 0, 4.48 1017 , 0 > N
14.X.19
~ ~

F = |q| E
19
~
3.7 10 N
E =
1.602 10 19
C
= 2.31 N/C
14.X.20
~F = ~
qE
19
= (1.602 10 C)(< 2 104 , 2 104 , 0 > N/C)
= < 3.2 1015 , 3.2 1015 , 0 > N
14.X.21
~F ~
= qE
~ = < 8 10 , 3.2 10 ,19 4.8 1016 > N
17 16
E
1.602 10 C
= < 500, 2000, 3000 > N/C
14.P.22
(a) It is negative since the electric field vectors point toward the charged particle.
(b) The force on the particle at point B is opposite the electric field at point B and thus points down and to the left,
radially away from the particle within the dashed circle.
(c)
~
E
E = ~

E
< 2000, 2000, > N/C
= q
2 2 2
(2000 N/C) + (2000 N/C) + (0 N/C)
= < 0.707, 0.707, 0 >
Note that you can determine the answer without doing a calculation because the angle of the vector with respect to
the x-axis (or y-axis) is 45 . As a result the unit vector is < cos 45, cos 45, 0 >.
5
(d)
~F = ~
qE
= (7 109 C)(< 2000, 2000, > N/C)
= < 1.4 105 N, 1.4 105 N, 0 > N
(e) It is opposite the unit vector for the electric field. Thus, F =< 0.707, 0.707, 0 >. Note that this is down and to the
left as predicted in part (b).
14.P.23
~ and ~F are in the same direction for a positively charged particle.

(a) h, because E
(b) (Note: that there likely an error in the exponent for the y-component of the force vector. Also, the signs of the given
force do not match the picture. The solution below uses ~F =< 4 105 , 4 105 , 0 > N.)
~F ~
qE=
~ = < 4 10 , 4 10 , 0 > N
5 5
E
5 109 C
= < 8000, 8000, 0 > N/C
q
~ 2 2 2
(c) E = (8000 N/C) + (8000 N/C) + (0 N/C) = 1.13 104 N/C
~ and ~F are in the opposite direction for a negatively charged particle.

(d) d, because E
(e)
~F = q E
~
~F = (6 109 C)(< 8000, 8000, 0 > N/C)
= < 4.8 105 , 4.8 105 , 0 > N
(f) The electric field points upward and to the left (arrow h). Since it points toward a negatively charged (source) particle,
then the negatively charged (source) particle must be at location 1.
14.P.24
A particle accelerates in the direction of the (net) force on the particle; therefore, the force on the particle is in the +z
direction. Since the particle is negatively charged, the force on the particle is in the opposite direction of the electric field,
so the electric field at the location of the particle is in the -z direction. Use Newtons second law (the Momentum Principle)
to calculate the force on the electron, and use F~ = q E ~ to calculate the electric field at the location of the electron.
~F d~p
=
net
dt
~F = m~a
by E-field
31
= (9.109 10 kg)(< 0, 0, 1.6 1016 > m/s2 )
= < 0, 0, 1.46 1014 N >
6
~F = qE~
~F
~
E =
q
< 0, 0, 1.46 1014 N >
=
1.602 1019 C
= < 0, 0, 9.13 104 > N/C
14.P.25
d~p

~

Fnet =
dt
~

Fby E-field = m |~a|

27
= (1.673 10 kg)(9 1011 m/s2 )
= 1.50 1015 N
~ ~

F = |q| E
~

~
F
E =
|q|
1.50 1015 N
=
1.602 1019 C
= 9.38 103 N/C
14.P.26
(a) At location P, hold the charged object and release it from rest at one end of the meterstick. Watch the direction of
motion and then align the meterstick along this direction. Again, release the object from rest from the end of the
meterstick. Measure the time elapsed (on the stopwatch) as it travels a small distance along the meterstick. What is
small? It depends on the average acceleration of the object. If its acceleration is small, then 1 m will be fine. If its
acceleration is large, then perhaps 0.1 m should be used. The astronaut should measure the distance travelled d and
the time interval t. A good experimentalist will make the measurement for multiple trials and calculate the average
time elapsed.
(b) The force on the particle may not be constant (because the electric field at the location of the object may be different
as the object moves). However, for a small time interval, we will assume constant force. Define the +x direction to be
the direction of motion of the object. Use the following procedure to calculate the electric field:
(1) Use vavg,x = d/t to calculate the average x-velocity of the object.
(2) Use vavg,x = (vi + vf )/2 to calculate the final x-velocity of the object.
(3) Use the Momentum Principle to calculate the net force on the object. Fx = M vx /t.
(4) Use F~ = q E
~ to calculate the electric field.
Note that this procedure only works for small time interval because we are assuming a constant net force on the object.
7
14.X.27
A particle cannot exert a force on itself. In the equation F~ = q E,
~ the electric field at the location of the particle q is due to
other charges.
14.X.28
~ 1 q
E = r
4o |~r|2
Note that ~r = ~rlocation ~rparticle . In this case, the particle is at the origin, so ~r = ~rlocation .
N m2 (5 109 C)

~
E = 9 10
9
< 1, 0, 0 >
C2 (0.4 m)2
= h281, 0, 0i N/C
14.X.29
~ 1 q
E = r
4o |~r|2
Note that ~r = ~rlocation ~rparticle . In this case, the particle is at the origin, so ~r = ~rlocation .
q
2 2 2
|~r| = (0.1) + (0.1) + (0) m
= 0.141 m
~r
r =
|~r|
= < 0.707, 0.707, 0 >
N m2 (4 109 C)

~
E = 9 10
9
< 0.707, 0.707, 0 >
C2 (0.1 m)2
= h2550, 2550, 0i N/C
14.X.30
~
1 |q|
E =
4o |~r|2
19
9 Nm 1.602 10 C
2

= 9 10
C2 (1 1010 m)2
= 1.44 1011 N/C
8
14.X.31
~
1 |q|
E =
4o |~r|2
19
9 Nm 1.602 10 C
2

= 9 10
C2 (1 1010 m)2
= 1.44 1011 N/C
14.X.32
(a) The electric field at B due to the proton at A is the same (because the source of the field did not change). So, the field
~ .
is E1
(b) The force on the lithium nucleus is 3~F1 since F~ = q E.

~
(c) Itll change the force, but not the E-field.
(d) The electric field at B due to the proton at A is the same (because the source of the field did not change). So, the field
~ .
is E1
(e) The force on the electron is ~F1 since the electron and (original) proton have the same magnitude charge.

(f) f, because the electron is negatively charged so F~ is opposite E.

~
14.X.33
(a) The electric field outside the sphere is the same as if the sphere is a point particle at its center. Thus,
~
1 |q|
E =
4o |~r|2
9 Nm 2 109 C
2

= 9 10
C 2 (0.04 m)2
= 1.13 104 N/C
14.X.34
The force by the particle on the sphere is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force by the sphere on the
particle. Thus, find the force by the sphere on the particle. The electric field outside the sphere is the same as if the sphere
is a point particle at its center. Call the charge of the sphere Q and the charge of the particle q. The magnitude of the force
on the particle by the sphere is
9
~ ~

Fon particle by sphere = |q| E

sphere

|Q|
= |q|
r2
|q|
= |Q| 2
r
~

= |Q| E

particle

= 9 1010 C (470 N/C)

= 4.23 107 N
14.X.35
~ 1 q
E = r
4o |~r|2
Note that ~r = ~robservation location ~rparticle .
~r = h0.2, 0, 0i m h0.4, 0, 0i m
= h0.2, 0, 0i m
|~r| = 0.2 m
~r
r =
|~r|
= < 1, 0, 0 >
N m2 (1 109 C)

~
E = 9 10
9
< 1, 0, 0 >
C2 (0.2 m)2
= h225, 0, 0i N/C
14.P.36
(a) ~rparticle = h0.6, 0.7, 0.2i m
(b) ~robservation location = h0.5, 0.1, 0.5i m
(c)
~r = h0.5, 0.1, 0.5i m h0.6, 0.7, 0.2i m

= h1.1, 0.6, 0.3i m
q
2 2 2
(d) |~r| = (1.1) + (0.6) + (0.3) m = 1.29 m
10
(e)
~r
r =
|~r|
= < 0.854, 0.466, 0.233 >
(f)
9 Nm (9 109 C)
2

~

E = 9 10
C2 (1.29 m)2
= 48.8 N/C
1 q
= 48.8 N/C
4o |~r|2
(g)
~ 1 q
E = r
4o |~r|2
= (48.8 N/C) < 0.854, 0.466, 0.233 >
= h41.7, 22.7, 11.4i N/C
14.P.37
(a) ~rparticle = h0.8, 0.7, 0.8i m
(b) ~robservation location = h0.5, 1, 0.5i m

(c)
~r = ~robservation location ~rparticle
= h0.5, 1, 0.5i m h0.8, 0.7, 0.8i m
= h0.3, 0.3, 0.3i m
q
2 2 2
(d) |~r| = (0.3) + (0.3) + (0.3) m = 0.520 m
(e)
~r
r =
|~r|
= < 0.577, 0.577, 0.577 >
(f)

1.602 1019 C
9 Nm
2

~

E = 9 10
C2 (0.52 m)2
= 5.33 109 N/C
11
1 q
= 5.33 109 N/C
4o |~r|2
(g)
~ 1 q
E = r
4o |~r|2
= (5.33 109 N/C) < 0.577, 0.577, 0.577 >
= 3.08 109 , 3.08 109 , 3.08 109 N/C

14.P.38
~
1 |q|
E =
4o |~r|2
9 Nm
2

|q|
1.2 103 N/C = 9 10
C2 (0.12 m)2
|q| = 1.92 109 C
The electric field points toward the charged particle; therefore, the particle is negatively charged and q = 1.92 109 C.
14.P.39
The electric field points in the +x direction and points toward a negative charge. Thus the charged particle must be to the
right, in the +x direction, from the point where the electric field is measured.
~
1 |q|
E =
4o |~r|2
9 Nm 1C
2

1 103 N/C = 9 10
C 2
|~r|
2
|~r| = 3000 m
The electric field points toward the charged particle; therefore, the position of the particle is to the right and ~r =< 3000, 0, 0 >
m. Note that 1 C of charge is an enormous amount of charge because it yields a fairly strong electric field at a large distance
(3000 m) away from the charge.
14.P.40
(a) The electric field points in the +y direction and points away from a positive charge. Thus the charged particle must
be below" point C in the y direction from point C.
~
1 |q|
E =
4o |~r|2
19
9 Nm 1.602 10 C
2

1 106 N/C = 9 10
C 2
|~r|
2
|~r| = 3.79 108 m

12
The electric field points away from the positively charged particle; therefore, the position of the particle is ~r =<
0, 3.79 108 , 0 > m.
(b) The electric field points toward the negatively charged particle, so the particle must be above" point C, in the +y
direction from point C. Thus, ~r =< 0, 3.79 108 , 0 > m.
(c) If the electron is above" point C, on the +y axis, and the proton is below point C on the y axis, then the
superposition of the electric field due to each particle yields a net electric
field that is twice the electric field due to
just one of the particles. Since E 1/r2 , then r must be increased by 2 in order to counteract the doubling of the
field. So, the proton is at ~r =< 0, 5.36 108 , 0 > m, and the electron is at ~r =< 0, 5.36 108 , 0 > m. Use
these distances to calculate the electric field due to each particle, and then sum the fields. You should find that the net
E-field is 1 106 N/C in the +y direction.
14.P.41
(a) The electric field points in the +y direction and points away from a proton. Thus the proton must be below this
point, in the y direction.
~
1 |q|
E =
4o |~r|2
19
9 Nm 1.602 10 C
2

4104 N/C = 9 10
C2 |~r|
2
|~r| = 5.92 107 m
The electric field points away from the proton; therefore, the position of the proton is ~r =< 0, 5.92 107 , 0 > m.
(b) The electric field points toward an electron, so the electron must be above the origin, in the +y direction. Thus,
~r =< 0, 5.92 107 , 0 > m.
14.P.42
(a)
~ 1 q
E = r
4o |~r|2
The particle is at ~rparticle = 7 109 , 4 109 , 5 109 m, and the observation location is at ~robservation location =

5 109 , 5 109 , 4 109 m.

The position of the observation location relative to the particle is

= 5 109 , 5 109 , 4 109 m 7 109 , 4 109 , 5 109 m

= 12 109 , 9 109 , 9 109 m

13
q
2 2 2
|~r| = (12) + (9) + (9) 109 m
= 1.75 108 m
~r
r =
|~r|
= < 0.686, 0.514, 0.514 >
~ 1 q
E = r
4o |~r|2

1.602 1019 C
9 Nm
2

= 9 10 < 0.686, 0.514, 0.514 >
C2 (1.75 108 m)
2
= (4.70 106 N/C) < 0.686, 0.514, 0.514 >

= 3.23 106 , 2.42 106 , 2.42 106 N/C

(b)
~F ~
= qantiproton E
19
= (1.602 10 C)( 3.23 106 , 2.42 106 , 2.42 106 N/C)

= < 5.17 1013 , 3.87 1013 , 3.87 1013 > N
14.P.43
~ 1 q
E = r
4o |~r|2

= h0.1, 0.1, 0i m < 0, 0, 0 >
= h0.1, 0.1, 0i m
q
2 2 2
|~r| = (0.1) + (0.1) + (0) m
= 0.141 m
14
~r
r =
|~r|
= < 0.707, 0.707, 0 >
~ 1 q
E = r
4o |~r|2
9 Nm 3 109 C

2

= 9 10 2 < 0.707, 0.707, 0 >
C2 (0.141 m)
= (1360 N/C) < 0.707, 0.707, 0 >
= h960, 960, 0i N/C
14.P.44
The electric field points in the +x direction. If it is due to a positively charged particle, then it points away from the particle,
and the charged particle must be to the left, in the x direction, from the point where the electric field is measured. Both
q and |~r| are unknowns, so you must simply choose a value for one of these variables. Suppose we use q = qproton . Then, the
particle must be at a distance
~
1 |q|
E =
4o |~r|2

1.602 1019 C
9 Nm
2

1 103 N/C = 9 10
C2 |~r|
2
|~r| = 1.2 106 m
The electric field points away from the charged particle; therefore, the position of the particle is to the left and ~r =<
1.2 106 , 0, 0 > m.
If the field is due to a negatively charged particle, like an electron for example, then the electron must be to the right
of the point where we calculate the field since the field points toward the particle. In this case, using q = qelectron , ~r =<
1.2 106 , 0, 0 > m.
14.P.45
The electric field points in the +y direction. Since it points toward an electron, then the electron must be in the +y direction
from the point where the electric field is measured. The electron must be at a distance given by
~
1 |q|
E =
4o |~r|2

1.602 1019 C
9 Nm
2

160 N/C = 9 10
C2 |~r|
2
|~r| = 3 106 m
The electric field points toward the electron; therefore, the position of the electron is upward, and ~r =< 0, 3 106 , 0 > m.
14.P.46
15
(a) The electric field points in the +y direction and points away from a proton. Thus the proton must be below" point C
in the y direction from point C.
1 |q|
~

E =
4o |~r|2
19
9 Nm 1.602 10 C
2

1 10 N/C =
6
9 10
C2 |~r|
2
|~r| = 3.79 108 m
The electric field points away from the proton; therefore, the position of the proton is ~r =< 0, 3.79 108 , 0 > m.
(b) The electric field points toward the electron, so the electron must be above" point C, in the +y direction from point
C. Thus, ~r =< 0, 3.79 108 , 0 > m.
(c) The electron is above" point C on the +y axis, and the proton is below point C on the y axis. If at their current
locations, then they each will produced an electric field of 1 106 N/C in the +y direction. The superposition of the
electric field due to each particle yields a net electric field that is 2 106 N/C, or twice the electric field due to just one

of the particles. Since we want a net electric field of 1 106 N/C and since E 1/r2 , then r must be increased by 2
in order to counteract the doubling of the field. So, the proton is at ~r =< 0, 5.36 108 , 0 > m, and the electron is
at ~r =< 0, 5.36 108 , 0 > m.
To check your work, use these distances to calculate the electric field due to each particle, and then sum the fields. You
should find that the net E-field is 1 106 N/C in the +y direction.
14.P.47
(a) A lithium nucleus accelerates in the direction of the (net) force on the particle; therefore, the force on the particle (by
the electric field) is in the +x direction. Since the nucleus is positively charged, the force on the particle is in the same
direction of the electric field, so the electric field at the location of the nucleus is in the +x direction.
(b) Use Newtons second law (the Momentum Principle) to calculate the force on the nucleus, and use F~ = q E ~ to calculate
the electric field at the location of the nucleus. Note that the mass of a proton and the mass of a neutron are nearly
equal (to 3 significant figures).
~F d~p
=
net
dt
~F = m~a
by E-field
27
= 7(1.673 10 kg)(< 3 1013 , 0, 0 > m/s2 )
= < 3.51 1013 , 0, 0 > N
~F ~
= qE
~
~ = F
E
q
< 3.51 1013 , 0, 0 > N
=
3(1.602 1019 C)
= < 7.31 105 , 0, 0 > N/C
16
(c) If the electric field is due to the positively charged helium nucleus, then it points away from the nucleus. This means
that the helium nucleus is to the left of the lithium nucleus, in the x direction. It is at a distance given by
~
1 |q|
E =
4o |~r|2
19
9 Nm 3(1.602 10 C)
2

7.31 105 N/C = 9 10
C2 |~r|
2
|~r| = 7.69 108 m
The helium nucleus is to the left of the lithium nucleus at the location ~r = 7.69 108 m relative to the the lithium
nucleus.
14.P.48
(a) Sketch the He nucleus and proton along the +x axis as shown in Figure 1. Place the point X at the origin. The He
nucleus is to the left of the origin and the proton is to the right of the origin. The position vector for the helium nucleus
is ~r = 1 1010 m.

E
E
proton He
X
He nucleus proton
Figure 1: A He nucleus and a proton. The origin is at the point X.
The electric field due to the helium nucleus at point X is to the right. The E-field due to the proton at point X is to
the left. They sum to zero to give zero net electric field. The field due to each particle is equal in magnitude, and they
are opposite in direction. Thus,
~ ~

EHe = E

proton

1 q 1 q proton
He2 =
4o 4o
2
~rHe ~rproton

1 2qproton 1 qproton
=
4o 2 4o
2
~rHe ~rproton

2
~rHe
2
~rproton =

2
~rHe

~rproton =

2
= 7.07 1011 m
Since the proton is to the right of the origin, then its position is ~r =< 7.07 1011 , 0, 0 > m.
17
(b) The electron must be on the same side of the origin as the helium nucleus, so that it creates a field at the origin that
is to the left in order to balance the E-field due to the helium nucleus and give a zero net field. (See Figure 2.) Since
its charge is the same as the proton, it will be the same distance from the origin as the proton in part (a). Thus, its
position is ~r =< 7.07 1011 , 0, 0 > m.

E
E
electron He
X
electron
He nucleus
Figure 2: A He nucleus and a proton. The origin is at the point X.
14.X.49
The simplest case is two equally charged particles in opposite directions and equidistant from the point where the net electric
field is zero. See Figure 3.

E
E
2 1
X
proton 1 proton 2
Figure 3: The net E-field at point X is zero.
14.P.50
(a)
~ 1 q
E = r
4o |~r|2
Q1 is at ~rparticle = h0, 0.03, 0i m, and the observation location is at the location of Q3 which is ~robservation location =
h0.04, 0, 0i m.

= h0.04, 0, 0i m h0, 0.03, 0i m
= h0.04, 0.03, 0i m
18
q
2 2 2
|~r| = (0.04) + (0.03) + (0) m
= 0.05 m
~r
r =
|~r|
= < 0.8, 0.6, 0 >
~ 1 Q1
E = r
4o |~r|2
9 Nm 4 106 C

2

= 9 10 < 0.8, 0.6, 0 >
C2 (0.05 m)
2
= (1.44 107 N/C) < 0.8, 0.6, 0 >

= 1.15 107 , 8.64 106 , 0 N/C

(b) The electric field due to Q2 at the location of Q3 points in the y direction. Its magnitude is
~
1 |q|
E =
4o |~r|2
1 3 106 C
=
4o (0.03 m)2
= 3 107 N/C
~ =< 0, 3 107 , 0 > N/C.

So, the E-field vector is E
(c) Sum the electric fields due to Q1 and Q3 .
~
E = 1.15 107 , 8.64 106 , 0 N/C + < 0, 3 107 , 0 > N/C

net
= 1.15 107 , 2.13 107 , 0 N/C

(d)
~F ~
= Q3 E
net
= 2 106 C ( 1.15 107 , 2.13 107 , 0 N/C)

= h23.0, 42.6, 0i N/C
(e) The electric field due to Q1 at the location of A points in the +y direction. Its magnitude is
~
1 |q|
E1 =
4o |~r|2
1 4 106 C
=
4o (0.03 m)2
= 4 107 N/C
19
~ =< 0, 4 107 , 0 > N/C.

So, the E-field vector is E1
(f) The electric field due to Q2 at the location of A is given by

= h0.04, 0.03, 0i m
q
2 2 2
|~r| = (0.04) + (0.03) + (0) m
= 0.05 m
~r
r =
|~r|
= < 0.8, 0.6, 0 >
~ 1 Q2
E = r
2
4o |~r|2
9 Nm 3 106 C

2

= 9 10 < 0.8, 0.6, 0 >
C2 (0.05 m)
2
= (1.08 107 N/C) < 0.8, 0.6, 0 >

= 8.64 106 , 6.48 106 , 0 N/C

(g) The electric field due to Q3 at the location of A points in the +x direction. Its magnitude is
~
1 |Q3 |
E3 =
4o |~r|2
1 2 106 C
=
4o (0.04 m)2
= 1.125 107 N/C
~ =< 1.125 107 , 0, 0 > N/C.

So, the E-field vector is E 3
(h) Sum the electric fields due to Q1 , Q2 , and Q3 .
~
E = < 0, 4 107 , 0 > N/C + 8.64 106 , 6.48 106 , 0 N/C+ < 1.125 107 , 0, 0 > N/C

net
= 2.61 106 , 3.35 107 , 0 N/C

(i)
~F = ~
qE
= (3 109 C)( 2.61 106 , 3.35 107 , 0 N/C)

= 7.83 103 , 0.101, 0 N/C

20
14.P.51
~ =E
(a) The net electric field is E ~ +E~ . Find the E-field due to each ion and sum them.
Cl Fe
The electric field due to Cl at the location A points in the +x direction. Its magnitude is
~
1 |q|
E =
4o |~r|2
19
1 1.602 10 C
=
4o (100 109 m)2
= 1.44 105 N/C
~ =< 1.44 105 , 0, 0 > N/C. The electric field due to Fe3+ at the location A points in the
So, the E-field vector is ECl
+x direction. Its magnitude is
~
1 |q|
E =
4o |~r|2
19
1 3(1.602 10 C)
=
4o (300 109 m)2
= 4.8 104 N/C
~ =< 4.80 104 , 0, 0 > N/C. This gives a net electric field of
So, the E-field vector is EFe
~
E = < 1.44 105 , 0, 0 > N/C+ < 4.80 104 , 0, 0 > N/C
net, A
= < 1.92 105 , 0, 0 > N/C
~ has the same magnitude but points in the x direction. E

(b) At point B, E ~ is
Cl Fe
~
1 |q|
E =
4o |~r|2
19
1 3(1.602 10 C)
=
4o (500 109 m)2
= 1.73 104 N/C
~ =< 1.73 104 , 0, 0 > N/C. This gives a net electric field of
So, the E-field vector is EFe
~
E = < 1.44 105 , 0, 0 > N/C+ < 1.73 104 , 0, 0 > N/C
net, B
= < 1.27 105 , 0, 0 > N/C
(c)
~F ~
= qE
19
= (1.602 10 C)(< 1.92 105 , 0, 0 > N/C)
= < 3.07 10 14
, 0, 0 > N
21
14.P.52
(a)
* +
1 Q
~
E = 0, 22 , 0
2
4o ~r
12
+
* 8 106 C
9 Nm
2 D 7
E
0, 9 10 , 0 0, 4.5 10 , 0 N/C
C2 4 102 m
2

1 Q3 3 4

~
E = , ,0
4o ~r 5 5
3
2
13

5 106 C
9 Nm 3 4
2
D E
7 7
9 10 , , 0 1.08 10 , 1.44 10 , 0 N/C
C2 5 102 m
2 5 5

~ ~ +E ~ 1.08 107 , 3.06 107 , 0 N/C

D E
E net
= E 1 2
(b)
~F = Q1 E~
1,23 net
6
D 7 7
E
3 10 C 1.08 10 , 3.06 10 , 0 N/C
h32.4, 91.8, 0i N
(c)
* +
Q

~ 1
E = 12 , 0, 0
1
4o ~r
1
6

3 10 C
* +
Nm 2

9
9 10 2 , 0, 0
C2 3 102 m
D 7
E
3 10 , 0, 0 N/C
1 Q2 3 4

~
E = , ,0
4o ~r 5 5
2
2
2

8 106 C
9 Nm 3 4
2

9 10 , ,0
C2 5 5
2
5 102 m
D 7 7
E
1.73 10 , 2.30 10 , 0 N/C
* +
~ 1 Q3
E = 0, ,0
3
4o ~r 2
3
+
* 5 106 C
9 Nm
2

0, 9 10 2 , 0
C2 4 102 m
D 7
E
0, 2.81 10 , 0 N/C
~
D 7 7
E
E net
4.73 10 , 0.51 10 , 0 N/C
22
(d)
~F = ~
(2e) E

net 19
D 7 7
E
2 1.602 10 C 4.73 10 , 0.51 10 , 0 N/C
D 11 12
E
1.52 10 , 1.63 10 , 0 N/C
14.P.53 Outside the ball, treat the ball as a particle. Inside the ball, the electric field due to the charge on the ball is zero.
(a)
D 2 2
E
ball: ~r = ~robs ~rsource 3 10 , 6 10 , 0 m
2
|~r| 6.71 10 m
r = h0.447, 0.894, 0i
~ 1 Qball
E = r
ball
4o |~r|2
~
E h2683, 5367, 0i N/C
ball
D 2 2
E
particle: ~r = ~robs ~rsource 4 10 , 6 10 , 0 m
2
|~r| 7.21 10 m
r = h0.555, 0.832, 0i
~ 1 Qparticle
E = r
particle
4o |~r|2
~
E h4800, 7200, 0i N/C
particle
~
E h7483, 1833, 0i N/C
net
(b) The arrow should point toward the upper right.
14.X.54
Q is the charge of the distant object. q is the magnitude of the charge of each particle of the dipole. s is the distance of
separation for the particles that make up the dipole. r is the distance from the center of the dipole to the distant object.
14.X.55
The formula given in the problem is an approximation for r >> s. However, in this case r = 1.5s and therefore the
approximation is not valid.
14.X.56
The E-field vectors shown are for an electric dipole. The longest field vectors shown (on the +y axis, relative to the center
of the circle) are for the electric field along the axis of a dipole. They point away from the positive charge and toward the
negative charge. Thus, the dipole is oriented vertically with the +q along the +y axis and q along the y axis, if the
origin is defined to be the center of the dipole.
14.X.57
23
(a) e. The dipole moment vector p~ points upward in the +y direction. Since point A is on the perpendicular bisector of
the dipole, the electric field at point A points opposite p~ which is in the y direction.
(b) a. Since point B is along the axis of the dipole, the electric field at point B points in the same direction as the dipole
moment, in the +y direction.
14.X.58
(a) c. The electric field due to the dipole is to the left, so the force on the electron is to the right.
(b) g. The electric field due to the dipole is to the right, so the force on the electron is to the left.
14.X.59
(a) g. The electric field along the axis of the dipole is in the same direction as the dipole moment.
(b) c. The electric field along the axis of the dipole is in the opposite direction as the dipole moment.
14.X.60
The point where the field is calculated is along the perpendicular bisector of the dipole. The dipole moment is in the +x
direction, so the E-field at this point is in the x direction. Since r >> s in this case, calculate the approximate E-field at
the given point.
~
1 qs
E
4o r3
19
9 Nm (1.602 10 C)(6 1010 m)
2

9 10
C 2
(5 108 m)
3
6910 N/C
~ < 6910, 0, 0 > N/C.

Thus, E
14.X.61
The point where the field is calculated is along the perpendicular bisector of the dipole. Since r >> s in this case, calculate
the approximate magnitude of E-field at the given point.
~
1 qs
E
4o r3
19
9 Nm (1.602 10 C)(2 1010 m)
2

9 10
C 2
(3 108 m)
3
1.07 104 N/C
14.X.62
(A) true
24
(B) true
(C) false
(D) false
(E) true
14.X.63
(a) Point A is along the axis of the dipole. Since r >> s, use the approximate equation for the magnitude of the electric
field.
~
1 2qs
E
4o r3
9 Nm 2(6 109 C)(0.003 m)
2

9 10
C2 (0.05 m)
3
64.8 N/C
(b) Point B is along the perpendicular bisector of the dipole. Since r >> s, use the approximate equation for the magnitude
of the electric field.
~
1 qs
E
4o r3
9 Nm (6 109 C)(0.003 m)
2

9 10
C2 (0.05 m)
3
32.4 N/C
Note that it is one-half the electric field at point A, due to symmetry.
14.X.64
Since d >> s, then the electric field varies as 1/d3 . If you triple the distance d, then the electric field changes by a factor
1/33 = 1/27.
14.X.65
Since d >> s, then the electric field varies as 1/d3 . If you change the distance d by 1/2, then the electric field changes by a
factor 1/(1/2)3 = 8. Thus F = 8F0 .
14.X.66
(a) The electric field at the location of Q is due to the dipole, and it remains the same. Since the force on Q due to the
field is F = |q| E, then increasing |q| by 9 will increase the magnitude of the force by a factor of 9; therefore, F = 9F0 .
(b) Yes, the force on 9Q is opposite the force on Q and in this case will be in the +x direction.
25

E F
F
E due to ball
on ball due to dipole on dipole
Figure 4: Electric field and force vectors for exercise 14.X.67.
14.X.67
A sketch of all vectors is shown in Figure 4.
(a) The electric field due to the dipole at the location of the ball is in the +x direction, in the same direction as the dipole
moment.
(b) Since Q is negative, the force on the ball by the electric field is in the -x direction, opposite the electric field at this
location.
(c) The electric field due to the ball at the location of the dipole is in the x direction, toward the ball, since it is negatively
charged.
(d) The force by the ball on the dipole is to the right because the force on q (which is to the right) is greater than the
force on +q (which is to the left). This is consistent with Newtons second law, that in an interaction the objects exert
forces on each other that are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
14.X.68
The force on the ball by the dipole is directly proportional to the electric field created by the dipole. The electric field by
the dipole depends on 1/r3 , for r >> s. If the distance r is doubled, then the electric field changes by a factor 1/23 = 1/8.
Therefore the force also changes by 1/8.
14.X.69
p = qs
p
s =
q
6.3 1030 C
=
1.602 1019 C
= 3.94 1011 m
This is less than the diameter of a hydrogen atom which is about 1 1010 m which shows that HF is not actually composed
of two separated charges of +e and e.
26
14.P.70
* +
~ 1 2 |e| s
E 0, ,0
dipole
4o |~r|3
* +
2
~F 1 2 |e| s
0, ,0
proton by dipole
4o |~r|3
2 +
* 2 1.602 1019 C 6 10
10
m
9 Nm
2

0, 9 10 ,0
C2
3
4 108 m
D 15
E
0, 4.43 10 , 0 N
14.P.71
* +
~ 1 2 |e| s
E 0, ,0
dipole
4o |~r|3
* +
2
~F 1 2 |e| s
0, ,0
proton by dipole
4o |~r|3
2 +
* 2 1.602 1019 C 2 10
10
m
9 Nm
2

0, 9 10 ,0
C2
3
3 108 m
D 15
E
0, 3.42 10 , 0 N
14.P.72
(a)
* +
~ 1 4 |e| s
E 0, ,0
dipole
4o |~r|3
* +
2
~F 1 4 |e| s
0, ,0
proton by dipole
4o |~r|3
2 +
* 4 1.602 1019 C 7 10
10
m
9 Nm
2

0, 9 10 ,0
C2
3
3 108 m
D 14
E
0, 2.40 10 , 0 N
27
(b)
* +
~ 1 2 |e| s
E 0, ,0
dipole
4o |~r|3
* +
2
~F 1 2 |e| s
0, ,0
electron by dipole
4o |~r|3
2 +
* 2 1.602 1019 C 7 10
10
m
9 Nm
2

0, 9 10 ,0
C2
3
3 108 m
D 14
E
0, 1.20 10 , 0 N
14.P.73 Denote the leftmost dipole with subscript 1 and the other dipole with subscript 2.
~
E ~ +E
= E ~
net
1 2
1 |e| s 1 2 |e| s

0, , 0 + 0, , 0
4o d3 4o d3
1 3 |e| s

0, ,0
4o d3
14.P.74 Denote the leftmost dipole with subscript 1 and the other dipole with subscript 2.
~
E = ~ +E
E ~
net
*1 2
+ * +
1 Q1 s1 1 2 Q2 s2

0, , 0 + 0, ,0
4o d31 4o d32
+
* 18 109 C 0.4 103 m
9 Nm
2

0, 9 10 ,0 +
C2
3
24 102 m
+
* 2 7 109 C 0.3 103 m
9 Nm
2
0, 9 10 ,0
C2
3
16 102 m
h0, 4.69, 0i N/C + h0, 9.23, 0i N/C
h0, 4.54, 0i N/C
14.P.75
(a) The right end of the dipole must be positively charged.

28
(b)
* +
~ 1 Q
E = , 0, 0
particle
4o |~r|2
~
E = ~
E ~
+E = h0, 0, 0i
net particle dipole
* +
1 Q 1 |q| s

~
E = ~
Eparticle = , 0, 0 , 0, 0
dipole
4o |~r|2 4o d3
|q| s Q
=
d3 |~r|
2
Qd3
|q| = 2
s |~r|
9

3
1 10 C (0.1 m) 8
2 8.3 10 C
0.3 103 m (0.2 m)

14.P.76
9 8
The change in the
electric9field
took
45 10 s to propagate to you, and it propagated at speed 3 10 s .
m
So the charge
8
must have been 45 10 s 3 10 ms 13.5 m away.
14.P.77
(a) The eight points shown are at a radius of 0.5 nm from the center of the dipole. In your program, loop through angles
around a circle of constant radius. Repeat the calculation for the y-z plane. Heres a sample VPython program.
3
4 ##t h i s i s t h e c h a r g e s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e d i p o l e
5 s = 0 . 2 e9
6
7 ##t h e s e a r e t h e d i p o l e p a r t i c l e s ; t h e y w i l l be f i x e d i n s p a c e
8 q1 = s p h e r e ( pos=(s / 2 , 0 , 0 ) , r a d i u s=s / 1 0 , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )
9 q2 = s p h e r e ( pos=(+s / 2 , 0 , 0 ) , r a d i u s=s / 1 0 , c o l o r=c o l o r . b l u e )
10 q1 . q = 1.6 e 19
11 q2 . q = 1 . 6 e 19
12
13 #d e t e r m i n e r a d i u s and a n g l e o f c i r c l e on which Enet w i l l be c a l c u l a t e d

14 #a l s o d e f i n e o t h e r c o n s t a n t s
15 R = 0 . 5 e9
16 d t h e t a = p i /4
17 o o f p e z = 9 e9
18 s c a l e =4e 20
19
20 t h e t a=0
21
22 while t h e t a <2 p i :
23 # observation point
24 r_obs = v e c t o r (R c o s ( t h e t a ) , R s i n ( t h e t a ) , 0 )
25
26 #c a l c E f i e l d due t o q1
29
27 r = r_obs q1 . pos
28 rmag = mag( r )
29 r h a t = r /rmag
30 E1 = o o f p e z ( q1 . q ) / rmag 2 r h a t
31
34 rmag = mag( r )
37
38 #use s u p e r p o s i t i o n t o g e t n e t E f i e l d
39 Enet = E1 + E2
40
41 #draw an arrow a t t h e o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t t h a t r e p r e s e n t s t h e E f i e l d a t t h a t
point
42 arrow ( pos=r_obs , a x i s=Enet s c a l e )
43
44 #i n c r e m e n t t h e t a
45 theta = theta + dtheta
46
47 #r e p e a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n f o r a c i r c l e i n t h e yz p l a n e
48 #r e s e t t h e t a t o 0
49 t h e t a=0
50
51 while t h e t a <2 p i :
52 # o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t i n yz p l a n e
53 r_obs = v e c t o r ( 0 , R s i n ( t h e t a ) , R c o s ( t h e t a ) )
54
57 rmag = mag( r )
60
63 rmag = mag( r )
66
68 Enet = E1 + E2
69
70 #draw an arrow a t t h e o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t t h a t r e p r e s e n t s t h e E f i e l d a t t h a t
point
71 arrow ( pos=r_obs , a x i s=Enet s c a l e )
72
73 #i n c r e m e n t t h e t a
74 theta = theta + dtheta
Note that all points in the y-z plane at a distance R from the dipole are along a perpendicular bisector for the dipole.
As a result, the E-field is uniform for points at constant distance R in the y-z plane. You can see this quite easily by
running the previous program and rotating the scene.
30
(b) Predicting the motion before running the simulation is a challenge. Physics students and professors alike will most
often predict that the particle will collide with a particle in the dipole. However, the particle actually oscillates about
one end of the dipole. Take the program in part (a) and embed the code for calculating the electric field inside a loop
for iterating the motion of the mobile particle.
3
5 s = 0 . 2 e9
6
10 q1 . q = 1.6 e 19
11 q2 . q = 1 . 6 e 19
12
13 proton = s p h e r e ( pos = ( 0 , 0 . 3 e 9 ,0) , r a d i u s=q1 . r a d i u s / 2 , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )

14 proton . q = 1 . 6 e 19
15 p r o t o n .m = 1 . 6 7 e 27
16 proton . v = vector (0 ,0 ,0)
17 proton . p = p r o t o n .m p r o t o n . v
18
19 o o f p e z = 9 e9
20
21 t = 0
22 dt = 1 e 17
23
24 t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=p r o t o n . c o l o r )
25
27
28 while 1 :
29 rate (1000)
31 r_obs = p r o t o n . pos
32
35 rmag = mag( r )
38
41 rmag = mag( r )
44
46 Enet = E1 + E2
47
48 #n e t f o r c e on p r o t o n
49 Fnet = p r o t o n . q Enet
50
31
51 #motion
52 p r o t o n . p = p r o t o n . p + Fnet dt
53 p r o t o n . v = p r o t o n . p / p r o t o n .m
54 p r o t o n . pos = p r o t o n . pos + p r o t o n . v dt
55
56 t r a i l . append ( pos=p r o t o n . pos )

57
58 ##Break t h e l o o p i f t h e p a r t i c l e c r a s h e s i n t o t h e d i p o l e
59 i f (mag( p r o t o n . posq1 . pos )<q1 . r a d i u s or mag( p r o t o n . posq2 . pos )<q2 . r a d i u s ) :
60 break
(c) The total energy (not including the potential energy of the dipole itself) of the system is the kinetic energy of the proton
and the potential energy of the proton-electron pair and the proton-proton pair. At t = 0, the kinetic energy is zero
and the potential energy is zero (because the two potential energy terms sum to zero due to the fact that the proton
is equidistant from each particle of the dipole). Therefore, the total energy is zero. The program below calculates and
graphs the kinetic energy, potential energy, and total energy. Note that the total energy remains constant and zero.
4
6 s = 0 . 2 e9
7
11 q1 . q = 1.6 e 19
12 q2 . q = 1 . 6 e 19
13
14 proton = s p h e r e ( pos = ( 0 , 0 . 3 e 9 ,0) , r a d i u s=q1 . r a d i u s / 2 , c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )

15 proton . q = 1 . 6 e 19
16 p r o t o n .m = 1 . 6 7 e 27
17 proton . v = vector (0 ,0 ,0)
18 proton . p = p r o t o n .m p r o t o n . v
19
20 o o f p e z = 9 e9
21
22 t = 0
23 dt = 1 e 17
24
25 t r a i l =c u r v e ( c o l o r=p r o t o n . c o l o r )
26
27 ##c r e a t e a graph
29 t i t l e =" e n e r g y " ,
30 x t i t l e=" t ( s ) " ,
31 y t i t l e="E ( J ) " ,
33
34 ##f u n c t i o n s t o be g r a p h e d
35 Ugraph=g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . magenta )
36 Kgraph=g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan )
37 Egraph=g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
38
32
40
41 while 1 :
42 rate (1000)
44 r_obs = p r o t o n . pos
45
47 r 1 = r_obs q1 . pos
48 rmag1 = mag( r 1 )
49 r h a t 1 = r 1 /rmag1
50 E1 = o o f p e z ( q1 . q ) / rmag1 2 r h a t 1
51
53 r 2 = r_obs q2 . pos
54 rmag2 = mag( r 2 )
55 r h a t 2 = r 2 /rmag2
57
59 Enet = E1 + E2
60
61 #n e t f o r c e on p r o t o n
62 Fnet = p r o t o n . q Enet
63
64 #motion
65 p r o t o n . p = p r o t o n . p + Fnet dt
66 p r o t o n . v = p r o t o n . p / p r o t o n .m
67 p r o t o n . pos = p r o t o n . pos + p r o t o n . v dt
68 t = t + dt
69
70 U1 = o o f p e z p r o t o n . q q1 . q/rmag1
71 U2 = o o f p e z p r o t o n . q q2 . q/rmag2
72 U=U1+U2
73
74 K = 1/2 p r o t o n .mmag( p r o t o n . v ) 2
75
76 E = K+U
77
78 Ugraph . p l o t ( pos=(t ,U) )

79 Kgraph . p l o t ( pos=(t ,K) )
80 Egraph . p l o t ( pos=(t , E) )
81
82
83 t r a i l . append ( pos=p r o t o n . pos )

84
85 ##Break t h e l o o p i f t h e p a r t i c l e c r a s h e s i n t o t h e d i p o l e
86 i f (mag( p r o t o n . posq1 . pos )<q1 . r a d i u s or mag( p r o t o n . posq2 . pos )<q2 . r a d i u s ) :
87 break
(d) The potential energy is a negative (as expected) and the kinetic energy is positive. The total energy is zero. The
kinetic energy and potential energy curves both oscillate. The potential energy is a maximum when the kinetic energy
is a minimum, which occurs when the proton is at the perpendicular bisector of the dipole. The potential energy is a
minimum and the kinetic energy is a maximum when the proton crosses the axis of the dipole.
33
14.P.78
(a) Use a charge of q = 1.6 1019 C and a separation of s = 1 1010 m (0.1 nm). By visual inspection, the graphs
deviate at about a distance of 0.4 nm from the center of the dipole, which would be x = 4s. To quantify the difference,
compute the % difference and print it. At x = 4.08 1010 m, the percent difference is 3%. Heres a sample VPython
program.
4
6 s = 1 e 10
7
11 q1 . q = 1.6 e 19
12 q2 . q = 1 . 6 e 19
13
14 o o f p e z = 9 e9
15
16 ##c r e a t e a graph
18 t i t l e ="E f i e l d a l o n g t h e a x i s o f a d i p o l e " ,
19 x t i t l e=" r (m) " ,
20 y t i t l e=" | E | (N/C) " ,
22
23 ##f u n c t i o n s t o be g r a p h e d
24 Egraph=g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . w h i t e )
25 Eapproxgraph=g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . y e l l o w )
26
27 x =0.2 e9
28 dx=s /100
29
30 print "x" , " Exact E f i e l d " , "ApproxE f i e l d " , "% d i f f from e x a c t E f i e l d "
31
32 while x <0.5 e 9:
33
35 r_obs = v e c t o r ( x , 0 , 0 )
36
38 r 1 = r_obs q1 . pos
39 rmag1 = mag( r 1 )
40 r h a t 1 = r 1 /rmag1
42
44 r 2 = r_obs q2 . pos
45 rmag2 = mag( r 2 )
46 r h a t 2 = r 2 /rmag2
34
48
50 Enet = E1 + E2
51
52 #c a l c u l a t e a p p r o x i m a t e f i e l d u s i n g t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n t h a t r>>s
53 Enetapprox = o o f p e z 2 q2 . q s / abs ( x ) 3
54
55 Egraph . p l o t ( pos=(x , mag( Enet ) ) )

56 Eapproxgraph . p l o t ( pos=(x , Enetapprox ) )
57
58 x=x+dx
59
60
61 print x , mag( Enet ) , Enetapprox , abs (mag( Enet )Enetapprox ) /mag( Enet ) 100
1
15.X.01
19 19
The net charge is zero because 6(1.602 10 C) + 6(1.602 10 C) = 0.
15.X.02
19
The net charge of the chloride ion is 1.602 10 C because the number of electrons is 1 greater than the number of
protons.
15.X.03
At points outside the atom, the net electric field is the superposition of the electric field due to each charged particle (i.e.
each electron and each proton). If you model the atoms electron cloud as a uniformly charged sphere, then the electric field
due to the electron cloud is the same as if all of the negative charge is concentrated at its center. As a result, at points
outside the atom, the fact that the electron cloud is approximately 100,000 times larger than the nucleus is irrelevant.
An alternative, albeit related, argument is that according to the superposition principle, the net electric field at a location
is the sum of the electric fields due to all charged particles. The electric field due to each charged particle does not depend
on the presence of other charged particles. Thus, the electric field due to the protons in the nucleus does not depend on
the presence of the electron cloud. As always, the proof is that experimental results verify that the superposition principle
works.
15.X.04
In an induced dipole, the distance between the charges depends on the strength of the applied field. Since p = E, then
if you model the induced dipole as a proton and electron separated by a small distance s, then qelectron s = E. Clearly, s
depends on E.
15.X.05
p = E
qs = E
(1 1040 C m)(3 106 N/C)
s =
1.602 1019 C
= 1.9 1015 m
Note that this is on the order of the size of a nucleus.
15.X.06
The force by a charged particle on Atom A would be greater because Atom A has a greater polarizability and F depends on
.
15.X.07
F 1/r5 . Doubling the distance causes the force to change by a factor 1/25 = 1/32.
15.X.08
2
Your finger is modeled as an insulator. When a negatively charged tape comes near to your finger, the atoms in your finger
become polarized. The negatively charged electron clouds shift away from the tape, leaving the neutral atoms as induced
dipoles with the positive side toward the tape. As a result, the induced dipoles in your finger attract the negatively charged
tape.
15.X.09
v = uEnet
= 7.91 108 m/s/(N/C) (190N/C)

= 1.50 105 m/s
Note that this is only 0.15 mm/s which is much slower than the speed of electrons in between collisions.
15.X.10
v = uEnet
v
Enet =
u
1 103 m/s
=
4.5 103 m/s/(N/C)
= 0.22 N/C
15.X.11
(a) Because it is a metal sphere, the negative surface charge shifts toward the positively charged particle that was brought
near to the metal sphere, as shown in Figure 1.

E
E
ext charge surface charge

E =0
net
Figure 1: Surface charge on a negatively charged metal sphere.
(b) The electric field (at the center of the metal sphere) due to the positively charged particle is away from the particle, as
shown in Figure 1.
(c) At all points inside the sphere, the electric field due to the surface charge is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
to the electric field due to the positively charged particle, since the net electric field is zero for a conductor in static
equilibrium.
3
(d) The net electric field is zero since the charge on the metal sphere is in static equilibrium.
15.X.12
(a) Because it is a metal sphere, the surface charge polarizes when the sea of electrons in the metal cylinder shifts away
from the negatively charged pen, as shown in Figure 2.
F
E
E
by pen on cylinder pen surface charge

E =0
net
Figure 2: Surface charge on a neutral metal sphere.
(b) The force on the cylinder is toward the pen, as shown in Figure 2. The negatively charged pen polarizes the cylinder
so that the two objects attract.
(c) The electric field at the center of the cylinder due to the pen is toward the pen, since the pen is negatively charged.
(d) At all points inside the sphere, the net electric field is zero since the sphere is a conductor in static equilibrium. Thus,
at all points inside the sphere, the electric field due to the surface charge is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
to the electric field due to the negatively charged pen.
(e) The net electric field is zero since the charge in the metal sphere is in static equilibrium.
(f) The electric field due to the pen induces atomic dipoles within the plastic cylinder, with the negatively charged electron
cloud of each atom shifting away from the pen. The induced dipole moments will align with the electric field and will
thus point toward the pen. (See Figure 3.)
F +- +-
by pen on cylinder
+- +-
+- +-
Figure 3: Induced dipoles within the plastic cylinder.
The force by the pen on the cylinder is to the left (toward the pen) because the negatively charged pen attracts the
induced dipoles in the plastic cylinder. It is attractive because the attractive force on the positive side of an induced
dipole is slightly greater than the repulsive force on the negative side of the induced dipole, since the positive side is
closer to the pen.
4
15.EXP.13
15.EXP.13 15.EXP.27 are experiments.
15.X.28
A, C, D, and F are true.
15.X.29
B and C are reasonable. Neutrons have no charge, and the energy required to remove a proton from a nucleus is too high to
occur with charged tape.
15.X.30
The statement is incorrect because it doesnt account for the fact that the electron cloud can shift in response to electric
fields. When the electron cloud shifts, the atom becomes polarized and acts as a dipole. It can then interact with a charged
object.
15.X.31
The given statement does not indicate that the positive charge also repels the positive side of the induced dipoles. The force
on the negative side of the molecule is attractive and the force on the positive side is repulsive. However, the force on the
negative side is greater (since it is closer), resulting in a net force on the dipole that is attractive.
15.X.32
The energy required to remove a proton from the nuclei of atoms is very large, so rubbing his finger along the tape does
not provide enough energy to remove a proton. The energy required to remove an electron (actually a negatively charged
chloride ion) from Jacks finger is much less. Thus, negative charge is transferred from Jack to the tape until the tapes total
charge is neutral (it has no excess protons).
15.X.33
B and C. There are two possible reasons for attraction. (1) The tape and pen are oppositely charged, and (2) one object is
charged (the pen) and the other object is neutral (the tape). In case (2), the excess charge on the pen causes polarization of
the molecules in the tape, resulting in attraction.
15.X.34
B and C are correct. The electron cloud shifts away from the direction of the field (since the force on the negative charge is
opposite the E-field), causing the neutral atom to be a dipole. It has an induced dipole moment where induced refers to
the fact that the dipole moment is a result of the atoms interaction with the E-field.
15.X.35
(a) 2, because the electron cloud of the neutral atom will shift away from the negatively charged particle.
(b) g, because the dipole moment of the neutral atom points to the left and the electric field due to the induced dipole at
points along the axis of the dipole is in the same direction as the dipole moment.
(c) c, because the force on a negatively charged particle is opposite the electric field at its location.
5
(d) g. There are multiple explanations including: (1) Newtons second law says that interacting objects will exert equal
magnitude forces on each other, in opposite directions; (2) superposition of forces on side of the dipole results in a
net force in the direction of the force on the side of the dipole that is nearest the charged particle.
15.X.36
A, because a greater polarizability results in a greater induced dipole moment and a greater force on the point charge.
15.X.37
The force by a dipole on a charged particle varies as 1/r5 . Multiple the distance r by a factor of 3 will change the force by a
factor of 1/35 = 1/243. Thus the ratio of the new force to the old force is F 0 = F0 /243.
15.X.38
A.
15.X.39
This statement is false. The electric field at the center of the dipole due to the charged particle points to the right, away
from the positively charged particle. The electric field at the location of the particle due to the dipole also points to the right
because it points in the same direction as the dipole moment of the dipole.
15.X.40
The force by the induced dipole and the force by the permanent dipole both depend on the dipole moment of the dipole.
However, the induced dipole moment depends on distance from the particle. As distance between the neutral atom and
charged particle increases, the induced dipole moment decreases which further decreases the force between the dipole and
particle.
15.P.41
The net electric field at locations within the glass is toward the electron and causes induced dipoles within the glass. As a
result, the glass will attract the electron. Since the force by the proton and the force by the glass are in the same direction,
the net force on the electron is greater than the force by the proton on the electron. Inserting the glass slab, increased the
net force on the electron. A picture with force vectors is shown in Figure 4.
F
proton
+- +-
F
glass
Figure 4: Forces on an electron.
15.P.42
(a) The field made by the polarized carbon atom, at the location of the pen, is
6
1 2s(4e)
Ecarbon =
4o h3
where h is the distance between the pen and the carbon atom and s is the charge separation at the instant when the
paper is picked up.
Approximating the charged pen by a point charge, the force exerted by the carbon atom on the pen is
Fby carbon on pen = |Qpen |Ecarbon

1 8seQ
=
4o h3
For the paper to be lifted and moved at a constant velocity, the upward force on the carbon atom by the pen must be
equal to the downward gravitational force on the carbon atom (this comes from Newtons second law, the Momentum
Principle). Use this to solve for the charge separation s.
Felec, pen = Fgrav

1 8seQ
= mg
4o h3
mgh3
s =
4 8Qe
1
o
(b) A charged piece of tape is about 10 nC, or 1 108 C. The mass of a carbon atom is (0.012 kg/mol)(1 mol/6
1023 atoms) = 2 1026 kg. The charge separation is
mgh3
s =
4 8Qe
1
o
(2 1026 kg)(9.8 N/kg)(0.01 m)3

=
(9 109 NC m )8(1 108 C)(1.602 1019 C)
2
2
= 1.7 1015 m
Note that this is on the order of the diameter of the nucleus (1015 m).
(c) The induced dipole moment of the carbon atom is p = qs = Epen . Treat the pen as a point particle. Then
qs = Epen
1 Q

(4e)s =
4o h2
4esh2
=
4 Q
1
o
= 1.2 1039 C m/(N/C)
This is within a factor of 10 of the measured value. Considering the numerous approximations, this is a reasonable
result.
7
(d) We made the following assumptions:
(a) The end of the pen can be treated as a point particle.

(b) The charge on the pen is 108 C.
(c) The only forces on the carbon atom are the gravitational force (by Earth) and the electric force by the electric
field of the pen. The force sby other polarized atoms in the paper are neglected.
(d) s << h so we can use 1/r3 dipole approximation (which turns out to be an excellent approximation since s was
shown to be on the order of the size of the nucleus)
(e) The paper is mainly carbon.
15.P.43
(a) The force by the polarized carbon atom on the electron has a magnitude
2
1 2e2

F =
4o r5
According to the Momentum Principle, ~Fnet = m~a. Assume that the only force on the electron is that of the carbon
atom.
~

F = m |~a|
~

F
|~a| =
m
2
1 2e2

=
4o mr5
Substitute constants to calculate a.
19
2
2 2 2 1.96 10 C m/(N/C) 1.602 10 C
40
9 Nm

a = 9 10
C2 (9.11 1031 kg)(1 106 m)5
894 m/s2
(b) Since a 1/r5 , then doubling the initial distance will change the initial acceleration by a factor 1/25 = 1/32.
15.P.44
(a) The forces on the left dipole are shown in Figure 5; similar forces act on the right dipole. There is also a large attraction
between the two charges of the left dipole, but this is balanced by whatever internal force holds the dipole ends apart.
(This could be a stick if a macroscopic dipole; for a molecule such as HCl the stability of the dipole is fully explainable
only in terms of quantum mechanics.)
The two repulsive forces (F2 ) are equal, because the two +q charges are a distance r apart, and so are the two q
charges. The attraction F1 is the largest of the forces (distance r s), and the attraction F3 is the smallest of the forces
(distance r + s).
8
14.P.67 Two permanent dipoles
F2 F1
q q +q
F2 +q
F3
Fnet
(a) We show the forces on the left dipole; similar forces act on the right dipole. There is also a large
attraction between the two charges ofFigure
the left5:dipole,
Forcesbutonthis
particles.
is balanced by whatever internal force holds
the dipole ends apart. (This could be a stick if a macroscopic dipole; for a molecule such as HCl the
stability of the dipole is fully explainable only in terms of quantum mechanics.)
(b) The netThe
force
twoon the leftforces
repulsive dipole(Fis:
2) are equal, because the two +q charges are a distance r apart, and so are the
two q charges. The attraction F1 is the largest of the forces (distance rs), and the attraction F3 is the
smallest of the forces (distance r+s).
Fnet,x = F1 + F3 2F2
(b) Solution I -- Here is a straight-forward (brute-force) calculation of the net force on the left dipole:
1 2 1 1 2

= q +
1 o 2 (r1 s)2 1(r + s)22 r2
4
Fnet F1 F3 2F2 q superposition of individual forces
4SH10 2 rr2 (r
s2+ s) r2 +sr22 (r r2
s)2 (r + s)2 (r s)2

= q
4 (r s)2 (r + s)2 r2
1 2 r 2 r s 2 or s42 r2 23r s22r2 s 24
Fnet q 1 2 r2 + 2r 2 s 2+ r s + r common 2r3 s + r2denominator
s2 2(r4 2r2 s2 + s4 )

4SH 0 = rq s r s r
4o (r s)2 (r + s)2 r2
1 2 r =
4
2r 3 s 1 r 2 s22 r 4 6r
22rs32s
r2s s 2r4 2r 2 s 2 s 4
2 42

Fnet q q expand numerator
4SH 0 4o (rrs)s
22(r + s)22 r2 2
r s r

1 2 6r 2 s 2 2 s4
In the denominator,
Fnet sqis small 2compared to r and in the numerator s4 is small compared to 6r2 s2 . Thus, for small s,
simplify
4SH 0 r s r s 2 2

r
1 6r 2 s 2 1 6s 2 1 2 that6r ss << r

2 2
Fnet | q 2 6 q 2 4 F use approximation
4SH 0 r 4SH 0 r net,x 4 q r6
o
Solution II -- A somewhat more physical approach is to1 consider 6s the force exerted to the right on the q
2
q2
charge by the right dipole (F1F2), using the known formula4o forr4the force exerted on a point charge by a
dipole, which in this case is a distance rs/2 away. We can 1 do6qthe s same for the force exerted to the left on
2 2
the +q charge by the right dipole (F2F3), which is4 a distance
o
r r+s/2 away. (Note that the s in the
4
numerator is the separation of the charges in the right dipole, whereas the s in the denominator is the
separation of the charges in the left dipole; if you like, you could give them different symbols to keep
straight what approximations are being made.)
15.X.45
1 2q 2 s 1 2q 2 s 1 2 1 1 object and a neutral object. As a result,
Attraction occursFnet
for oppositely charged
objects, but it also occurs
2 q s for a
charged superposition (dipoles)
attraction is not a good4SH
test
0 for
2
s 3
r the 4SHof0 charge.
sign r 2
s 3 4SH 0

r
s 3
2
r s 3
2

15.X.46 1 22
r s 3 r s 3
2
Fnet 2q s 3 common denominator
SH

3
4
a. The electron clouds of neutral
0 atoms
r s arer repelled
s by the negative charge on the surface.

2 2

15.X.47
1
3

2 s s 2

s 3 3

2 s s 2
r 3r 2 3r 2 2 r 3r 2 3r 2 2
s 3

Fnet 2q 2 s expand
4 SH
(a) 2. The electron clouds
0 of neutral

atoms are repelled
s 3
r by rthe
2
s 3
negative charge on the surface of the tape.
2

(b) g. It pointsnumerator
in the direction of the dipole moment of the induced dipoles in your hand.
(c) c. The charge on the tape is negative, so the force on the charge is opposite the electric field at its location.
9
(d) g. The force on the hand is opposite the force on the tape.
15.P.48
(a) c. The electric field along the perpendicular bisector of the dipole is opposite its dipole moment.
(b) c.
(c) 1.
(d) 1.
(e) 2 and 4.
(f) c.
(g) g.
(h) c. The net electric field is slightly less than the electric field due to the dipole.
(i) 1.
(j) 3.
15.X.49
b. For a conductor, the charge will be on the surface and the negatively charged electron sea shifts away from the electric
field, in the direction of the force.
15.X.50
e. The force on the negatively charged sea of electrons is opposite the electric field.
15.X.51
f. Point A is equidistant from the charged spheres, so the net electric field due to the spheres is zero. However, the neutral
iron block becomes polarized, with the negative surface charge on the opposite sides of the block, away from the charged
spheres. The sides of the block closest to point A are positively charged. The electric field at point A thus points away from
the block which is arrow f.
15.X.52
(a) a. The electron sea shifts opposite the electric field.
(b) b. The electric field induces dipoles in the neutral atoms in the plastic.
15.X.53
A, D, and E are zero.
15.X.54
A, C, and E are true.
10
15.X.55
v = E
= (0.0077 (m/s)/(N/C))(0.053 N/C)
= 4.08 104 m/s
15.X.56
v = E
v
E =

3.7 107 m/s
=
8.09 108 m/s/(N/C)
= 4.57 N/C
15.X.57
The external charge creates an electric field everywhere in the water. Water molecules have permanent dipoles and will align
with the applied electric field.
Carbon tetrachloride molecules are not permanent dipoles. When the electric field is applied to carbon tetrachloride, the
electron cloud in the molecule will shift in the opposite direction of the applied electric field, thus inducing a molecular dipole
moment for each carbon tetrachloride atom.
15.X.58
Atoms inside the plastic block become induced dipoles with the negative side of the dipoles on the right and the positive side
of the dipoles on the left.
For the copper block, the sea of electrons shifts to the left, toward the positively charged particle. As a result, the surface of
the block on the left becomes negatively charged, and the surface of the block on the right becomes positively charged.
15.X.59
Table 1: Experiments
Description Insulator Conductor Salt water

Mobile Charges No Yes Yes
Individual atoms or Entire sea of mobile electrons Both positive and negative
Polarization
molecules polarize move ions move
Equilibrium ~
E nonzero inside ~
E = 0 inside ~
E = 0 inside
net net net
Location of excess Anywhere on or inside mate-
Only on surface Only on surface
charge rial
Distribution of Spread out over entire sur- Spread out over entire sur-
Located in patches
excess charge face face
15.X.60
11
(a) In general, the sea of electrons shifts toward the positively charged particle and away from the negatively charged
particle, with a higher concentration of negative surface charge near the positively charged particle and a higher
concentration of positive surface charge near the negatively charged particle.
(b) See Figure 6.

E 1
E 2

E surface charge

E 1
Figure 6: E-field vectors at point A.
~ +E
The sum, E ~ , is shown with gray arrows.
1 2
~ points toward q1 and is comparitively

(c) The net electric field at point A is zero since the conductor is in equilibrium. E 1
smaller, due to the larger distance, than E ~ , and E~ points away from q2 and is comparitively larger than E ~ . The
2 2 1
~ ~
electric field due to surface charge must be opposite to E1 + E2 so that the sum is zero for a conductor in static
equilibrium.
15.X.61
(a) 1.
(b) 3.
(c) 2.
15.X.62
(a) A
(b) Both B and C
(c) C
(d) B
(e) A, Case (1).
15.X.63
12
(a) B
(b) 3
15.P.64
(a) c
(b) c
(c) c
(d) 2
~ ~

(e) E net
> Ep .
(f) c
15.P.65
(a) They swing toward each other because the charged sphere attracts the neutral sphere. After touching, half of the excess
electrons are transferred from the charged sphere to the previously neutral sphere. Then, they repel because they have
the same charge. Since they are metal spheres, the excess electrons are spread evenly over the entire sphere (as long as
they arent close enough to significantly interact with each other.)
(b) If the block is wide enough to be very near the spheres, then each sphere will be attracted to the neutral block and will
touch the block. There will be a larger density of charge on the side of each sphere that is touching the block. If the
block is short, then the repulsion between spheres will not be overcome by the much smaller force of attraction between
the neutral block and charged spheres.
(c) At point C, a neutral atom will not be polarized because the net electric field due to the spheres is zero. At A, it is
polarized with the negative side of the dipole to the right. At B, the induced dipole is like A, but the induced dipole
moment is smaller. At point E, the negative side of the induced dipole is shifted to the left. At point D, the induced
dipole is oriented like point E except that it has a smaller dipole moment.
15.P.66
(a) A sketch of the net E-field at the given points is shown in Figure 7. At each point, the net electric field is the superposition
of the electric field due to each particle. Due to conservation of charge, the silk cloth becomes negatively charged
after rubbing the glass ball. They act as a dipole.
(b) The net electric field at all points inside the block is zero, since the block is in static equilibrium. The sea of electrons
shifts to the right, causing negative surface charge on the right side of the block and positive surface charge on the left
side of the block.
(c) At each point, there is an induced dipole oriented in the direction of the electric field vector in Figure 7. The positive
side of the induced dipole at each point is in the direction of the electric field at that point.
(d) The electric field at the location of the glass ball due to the silk cloth is to the left (toward the negatively charged
~ ~

cloth). The electric field due to the induced dipoles of the insulator is also to the left. Thus, Enet > Esilk .
15.P.67
13
Figure 7: Net electric field at given points.
(a) The total initial charge on the sphere is (1.6 1019 C)(1 1010 electrons) = 1.6 109 C. After touching, each
sphere has a charge of 1/2(1.6 109 C) = 0.8 109 C. Treat each sphere as a point particle. Then, the force on
sphere 1 is
~ ~

F1 = |q1 | E2

9 N m2 0.8 109 C
= (0.8 109 C)(9 10 )
C2 (0.2 m)2
= 1.44 107 N
The force is repulsive since each sphere has the same charge.
(b) The spheres are conductors. The excess charge is on the surface. When they get close to each other, the excess electrons
on each sphere repel and a greater concentration of charge is found on the sides of the spheres that are furthest from each
other. As a result, the spheres charge is no longer uniformly distributed, and the spheres can not be treated as point
particles. The effective distance between the spheres is slightly greater than their center-to-center distance, resulting
in a force that is slightly less than what one expects for point particles or spheres with uniform charge distribution.
15.P.68
(a) The steel ball and gold foil (basically, the entire electroscope conductor) becomes polarized. The part nearest the rod
is negatively charged, and the gold foil leaves become positively charged and repel one another.
(b) Now when close to the glass rod, the foil leaves have less charge. This means that the electroscope is negatively charged.
A greater density of electrons is on the top, near the glass rod. A smaller density of electrons on the leaves cause them
to still be spread apart, but less than before. This means that the block that contacted the electroscope was negatively
charged.
15.P.69
(a) The metal block will be polarized with positive surface charge on the left side, near the sphere, and negative charge on
the surface on the right side, away from the sphere.
14
(b) Because it is a conductor in static equilibrium, E ~ ~

= 0 everywhere inside the block. At its center, E is in the x
net sphere
~
direction. Therefore, E must be in the +x direction.
surface chage
(c)
~
E = 0
net
~
E ~
+E = 0
surface charge sphere
~
E ~
= E
surface charge sphere
1 |Q|
= < , 0, 0 >
4o |~r|2
9 Nm 8 109 C
2

= < 9 10 , 0, 0 >
C2 (0.15 m)2
= < 3200, 0, 0 > N/C
15.P.70
At all locations in the neutral metal, there is a net electric field due to the charged plastic spheres that is to the right (since
the E-field due to the sphere on the left dominates). As a result, the metal sphere becomes polarized with the left side
negative and the right side positive. This causes an additional attractive force on the left plastic sphere that is to the right.
Thus, the net electric force on the left plastic sphere is slightly less than F (slightly because the force due to the polarized
metal sphere is much smaller than F ).
The polarization of the metal sphere causes an additional repulsive, rightward force on the plastic sphere on the right. As a
result, the net electric force on the right sphere is slightly greater than F .
15.P.71
(a) The uniformly plastic shell can be modeled as a point particle at its center. It creates an electric field at B that is in
the x direction. Its magnitude is
~
1 Q
Esphere =

4o (R + b)2
Write the E-field as a vector.
~ 1 Q
E = < , 0, 0 >
sphere
4o (R + b)2
The vertically oriented dipole (call this dipole 1) has a dipole moment p = qs in the +y direction. Point B is on the
perpendicular bisector of the dipole, so the electric field due to the dipole is in the y direction. Its magnitude is
~
1 p
Edipole 1 =

4o (L + R + b)3

15
~ 1 p
E = < 0, ,0 >
dipole 1
4o (L + R + b)3
The horizontally oriented dipole (call this dipole 2) has a dipole moment p = qs in the +x direction. Point B is on the
axis of the dipole, so the electric field due to the dipole is in the +x direction. Its magnitude is
~
1 2p
Edipole 2 =

4o (L + R + b)3
~ 1 2p
E = < , 0, 0 >
dipole 2
4o (L + R + b)3
Sum these E-field vectors to find the net electric field at point B.
~
E ~
= E ~
+E ~
+E
net sphere dipole 1 dipole 2
~ 1 2p 1 Q 1 p
E = < , ,0 >
net
4o (L + R + b)3 4o (R + b)2 4o (L + R + b)3
(b) The expressions for the dipole E-fields are approximate, based on the assumption that L >> s.
~ points to the right (+x) and downward (y). Since E
(c) E ~ = 0 inside a conductor in static equilibrium, then, the
4 net
~ and points to the left (x)
electric field due to the surface charge is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to E 4
and upward (+y).
(d) The surface charge distributions in such a way to produce an electric field that is to the left (x) and upward (+y). As
a result, the electron sea in the metal sphere will shift to the right and downward. Thus negative surface charge piles
up at the fourth quadrant of the sphere and positive surface charge piles up on the second quadrant of the sphere.
(e) Note that the distance from the center of the dipoles to point A is L + b where b is the distance from the center of the
metal sphere to point A.
~
E = 0
net
~
E ~
+E ~
+E = 0
dipole 1 dipole 2 surface charge
~
E = ~
(E ~
+E )
surface charge dipole 1 dipole 2
1 2p 1 p
= < , ,0 >
4o (L + b)3 4o (L + b)3
1 2p 1 p
= < , ,0 >
4o (L + b)3 4o (L + b)3
Notice that the direction is in agreement with the answer to part (d).
16
15.P.72
The sphere is neutralized, not the charge on the sphere. The sphere had excess charge. While touching the sphere, either
electrons flowed from the sphere to your hand or electrons (actually chloride ions) flowed from your hand to the sphere, until
the total (net) charge on the sphere was zero.
15.P.73
Because you are standing on insulators, you do not transfer any excess charge to the ground. When touching the sphere,
excess charge distributes over the sphere and your body. Since you have a much greater surface area than the sphere, then
there will be very little surface charge left on the sphere. (Technically, the charge on the sphere is not exactly zero.)
15.X.74
There arent any mobile charges on the surface of the tape (the tape is an insulator), so what is likely to happen is that
the charged U tape will attract ions from your finger. For example, if the U tape is negative, positive sodium ions will be
deposited onto the surface of the tape (if the tape is positive, negative chloride ions will be deposited). That makes the net
charge of the U tape much smaller (maybe almost zero), so now it will have little effect on other objects.
15.X.75
Charging by induction is when you charge an object without touching it. With two conductors in contact, they can be
polarized, causing one conductor to become positively charged and the other conductor to become negatively charged. Then,
they can be separated and each conductor will have a net charge.
For insulators, the atoms in the insulator polarize due to an applied electric field. There is no flow of charge. As a result,
insulators cannot be charged by induction.
15.P.76
(a) 2.5 nC, which is half the initial charge of block B. The reason is that the charge distributes itself uniformly across both
blocks while they are touching.
(b) 3. Only electrons are mobile (and the conductors do not have positrons).
15.P.77
A, B, and D.
15.P.78
B, C, and G.
15.P.79
(a) O because any excess charge spreads over your body and the net charge on the sphere is nearly zero.
(b) N.
In 6, the sphere must be negatively charged because the sphere and rod repel. In 5, the block must be negatively
charged because the sphere and block repel. In 4, the sphere became negatively charged because it touched the block.
In 3, the sphere was attracted to the block because at this moment, the sphere was neutral. The reason that the sphere
is attracted to the negatively charged block is that the sphere becomes polarized when the negatively charged electron
sea shifts away from the block.
17
(c) K. The sphere is negatively charged. However, the charge is mobile; therefore, there is a greater density of negative
charge away from the negatively charged block.
(d) K. The reason is similar to part (c).
15.P.80
The process is called charging by induction. Follow the steps below:
(1) Push B and C together so that they touch.

(2) Bring A around to the right of C and bring it close to C, but not touching C. The system of B and C becomes polarized
with the electron sea moving to the right, toward A. Then C will be negatively charged, and B will be positively
charged, though the net charge of the system of B and C is still zero. (The system did not gain or lose charge.)
(3) Separate B and C.
(4) Remove A.
Now, B will be positively charged, and C will be negatively charged.
15.P.81 14.P.51 Two spheres and a pen

We will present particular solutions, but these are not the only valid schemes.
(a) A picture of
(a)the pen and spheres is shown in Figure 8.
- -
+
+ -
Plastic pen - - + Spheres in contact,
rubbed through A B
- - + - polarized by pen
hair is negative +
+ - -
While keeping the pen in place, separate the two spheres.

Figure
They 8:
areAcharged
charged pen brought
equally near tosince
and oppositely, conducting
for each spheres.
electron that
moved from A to B, there was left behind one electron deficiency.
While keeping the pen in place, separate the two spheres. They are charged equally and oppositely, since each electron
that moved from A to B leaves a deficit of one electron.
(b)
(b) Follow the steps shown in Figure 9.
Another way to do this is to charge one sphere by -
+ induction, move hand andTouch
pen away, and bring the two spheres in
here,
contact with each other to share
Plastic pen the positive +
charge equally.
- - + A B neutralizing
rubbed
It is not really adequate to charge - - by+induction, then charge the other
throughone sphere by induction. The amount of charge
this region
+
deposited on a spherehair
whenis negative +
charged by induction depends on exactly
- how close the pen is to the sphere. However, after
charging both spheres by induction, you could touch the two spheres together and let the positive charge be distributed
equally between the two spheres.
+ - Remove finger,
15.P.82 + so net charge
- - + A it close Bto the front
Suppose that the comb is negatively charged. -As- you + hold object,
of two spheresthe electron sea shifts toward the
+ and the back object
back object, leaving the front object positively charged - negatively
is positive charged. The objects are separated,
+
and the comb is removed. As a result, the front object remains positively charged and the back object remains negatively
charged.
15.P.83 + + Positive charge

distributed equally,
Remove pen A B
since the two spheres
+ +
are identical
moved from A to B, there was left behind one electron deficiency.
18
(b)
-
+ Touch here,
Plastic pen +
- - + A B neutralizing
rubbed through - - + this region
hair is negative +
+ -
+ - Remove finger,
+ so net charge
- - + A B
- - + of two spheres
+ - is positive
+
+ + Positive charge
distributed equally,
Remove pen A B
since the two spheres
+ +
are identical
Now simply separate the two spheres: they are charged equally positive.
Figure 9: Giving two spheres equal positive charge, in problem 15.P.81.

Another way to do this is to charge one sphere by induction, move hand and pen away, and bring the two
spheres in contact with each other to share the positive charge equally.
B It
(a) Sphere14.P.59 is not really
A bouncing
becomes adequate to charge
ballSince
polarized. one sphere
the electron sea by induction,
in B moves tothen
thecharge
right, the other
then theby induction.
left side of BThe amountpositively
becomes
of charge deposited on a sphere when charged by induction depends on exactly how close
charged and the right side of B becomes negatively charged. When B is polarized, it affects A. The positivelythe pen is to the charged
(a) sphere.
ChargedHowever,
sphere A after
polarizes neutral
charging bothsphere B. Since
spheres by positiveyou
induction, sidecould
of B (deficiency
touch the twoof spheres
electrons) is nowand
together
side of B attracts additional negative charge in A to its right side so that A is no longer uniformly charged. A sketch
closer to Apositive
letFigure
the than negative side of B (excess of electrons), sphere A is somewhat polarized by B, with more
is shown in 10. charge be distributed equally between the two spheres.
negative charge on side closer to B.
A B
Figure 10: Charged distributions on two spheres.

(b)
Step 1: The small ball is polarized by
(b) Step 1:both
The Asmall
andball
B. isIt polarized by both
more A and B.
is attracted A It is attracted more strongly toB A than to B, because A is actually
chargedstrongly
negative, whereas B is only
to A than to B, because A ispolarized, so the ball moves toward A.
Step 2:actually charged
The ball negative,
touches A, and whereas B
gains negative charge
FA as excess electrons spread out over (A+ball). Now ball is
is only
negative, so it polarized,
is repelled so by the ball attracted
A, and moves to B (positive side of B is F
closer than negative side, so net attraction to
B
B). So toward
the ballA.moves toward B.
Step 3: The ball touches B, transferring negative charge to B. Now B is slightly negative. The system of (ball+B) is
polarized by sphere A, so the ball ends up positive, and is attracted to A, as well as experiencing a net repulsion by B.
So the ball moves back toward A.
Step 2: The ball touches A, and gains

negative charge as excess electrons
spread out over (A+ball). Now ball is
negative, so it is repelled by A, and
attracted to B (positive side of B is FA
closer than negative side, so net A
B
19
Step 4: This process continues until A and B have nearly the same amount of charge. At this point, the net force on
the ball is no longer large enough to move it toward one sphere, and the process stops.
15.X.84
The electric field is created by some other charge, lets call it Q3 , which is perhaps a charged sphere for example. That
uniformly charged sphere can be treated as a point particle at its center. When a small charge Q1 is brought near, the sphere
Q3 will become slightly polarized. When a large charge Q2 is brought near, the sphere Q3 will become even more polarized.
As a result, the sphere will not be uniformly charged and cannot be treated as a point particle. The charge on the sphere,
on average, must have moved closer to Q2 causing the electric field E at the location of Q2 to increase.
15.X.85
A.
15.X.86
D.
15.X.87
A. The L-U tape system is initially uncharged (Qtotal = 0). After ripping them apart, the total charge must still be zero. A
closed system cannot gain or lose charge.
15.P.88
When you bring an uncharged plastic pen within 10 cm of either the U tape or the L tape you see a slight attraction. The
reason is that the pen is uncharged and is an insulator. Each charged piece of tape polarizes the atoms in the pen, creating
induced dipoles, which are attracted to both the positively charged and the negatively charged tape. (Charged particles
always exert an attractive force on a neutral atom.)
Next you rub the pen through your hair, which is known to charge the pen negatively. Now, the negatively charged pen will
attract the positively charged piece of tape (because they have opposite charge) and repel the negatively charged piece of
tape (because they have the same charge).
1
16.X.1
9 2 4
Using |Q| 2.5 10 C, L 0.4 m, and |~r| 1 10 m the exact expression gives E
~
1.12 10 N/C.
16.X.2
Yes it does. E always decreases with increasing |~r| and never increases.
~
16.X.3
2 9
(a) Use R 5 10 C, and z 0.1 m. The
m, |Q| 35 10 fields of the two rings will add and the net field will point
4
toward the negatively charged ring. Its magnitude will be E 2.25 10 N/C.
~
~ The particle experiences a force of magnitude 1.13 104 N directed toward the positively charged ring.
(b) ~F = q E.
(c) The fields of the two rings will add to zero.
16.X.4
6 3 3
Use R 0.2 m, Q 6 10 C, z 1 10 m first then 3 10 m.
6
~
E1 2.69 10 N/C
6
~
E2 2.66 10 N/C
16.X.5
6 3 2
Use R 0.2 m, Q 6 10 C, z 2 10 m first then 5 10 m.
3
6
6
For z 2 10 m, the exact expression and two approximations give, respectively, E
~ ~
2.67 10 N/C, E 2.67 10 N/C,
6
and E
~
2.70 10 N/C.
2
6
6
For z 5 10 m, the exact expression and two approximations give, respectively, E
~ ~
2.05 10 N/C, E 2.03 10 N/C,
6
and E
~
2.70 10 N/C.
16.X.6
3 6 |Q|/A
Use R 0.5 m, s 1 10 3 10 N/C, and E o .
~ ~
m, E
5 3
Assume a circular area and solve for |Q| to get 2.08 10 C. The fringe field has an approximate magnitude of 3 10 N/C.
16.X.7
|Q|/A |Q|
The magnitude of the field of either plate, which is nearly uniform, is E 2 2 LW . The magnitude of the force
~
o o
|Q|2
on the other place, which has charge |Q|, is just ~F |Q| E 2 LW . Of course, the direction is such that the plates are
~
o
attracted to each other.
16.X.8
2
There are more charged particles farther away than there are nearby, and this balances the contributions of the fewer nearby
charged particles.
16.X.9

At 3 cm from center, E is zero because youre inside both shells. At 7 cm from center, the net field is just that of a 25 nC
~
4 4
particle, 4.59 10 N/C radially inward. At 10 cm from center, the net field is that of a +39 nC particle, 3.51 10 N/C
radially outward.
16.X.10
You can only integrate over the region of space that contains charge, so the limits of integration must be L2 to + L2 .
16.X.11
|~r| is just 0.04 m.
16.X.12
We could probably use either the exact expression or its approximate form depending on our tolerances. Therefore, (C).
16.X.13
The proposed expression doesnt give the correct dimensions or units for electric field. Therefore, it is most probably incorrect.
16.X.14
Although this expression is dimensionally correct, the field cant be proportional to the length of the cubes edge.
16.X.15
Due to symmetry, arrow a would be correct only if were on the midline. Therefore, the best choice is arrow h even though
its deviation from vertical is probably exaggerated.
16.X.16
3
The exact expression gives E
~
1.65 10 N/C.
16.X.17
Q
(a) charge per length will be 2A
Q
(b) dQ = 2A dx
(c) ~r = ~robs -~rsource = h0, y, 0i-hx, 0, 0i = hx, y, 0i
(d) |~r| = x2 + y 2
p
(e) the integration variable will be x
16.X.18
3
(a) each segment will have length 0.12 m

5 0.024 m
10
(b) each segment will have charge 2 nC
5 4 10 C
(c) Q = Q
L N
L
= Q
N
(d) N = L
dL
(e) Q = Q
N = Q
L dL
16.X.19
(a) each segment will have length y 1.7 m

8 0.2125 m
(b) ~r3 = 0, 23 y, 0 h0, 0.31875, 0i m

8 9
(c) Q = Q
N 210
8
C
2.5 10 C
(d) Treating the segment as a particle and applying the expression for a particles field gives E
~ h34.61, 15.76, 0i N/C.
3
Note there are two components!
(e) By symmetry the arrow must perpendicular to the rod and must point toward the rod (negatively charged!), therefore
choice (g) is the best.
16.X.20
4 4
The exact expression gives E 1.90 10 N/C. The approximate expression gives E 1.93 10 N/C. These values
~ ~
differ by only 1.6%.
16.X.21
The correct order is C, B, D, A.
16.P.22
(a) Treat piece 1 as a particle positioned at its geometric center and calculate the particles electric field. E
~
1
h2880, 2160, 0i N/C
(b) Treat piece 2 as a particle positioned at its geometric center and calculate the particles electric field. E
~
2
h0, 10000, 0i N/C
(c) By symmetry, piece 3 will have an electric field with the same y component, but opposite x component, as that of piece
1. E
~ h2880, 2160, 0i N/C
3
(d) Add up the contributions from three pieces to get the net field at A. E
~
net
h0, 14320, 0i N/C
(e) To improve accuracy, use more segments. As the number of segments approaches infinity and the size of each segment
approaches zero, the summation will more accurately approximate the actual electric field.
16.P.23
(a) Since the rod is positively charged, each chunk of charge will produce an electric field that points to the right.
4
(b) L is the rods length, d is the distance from the right end of the rod to the observation location, x is the distance from
the origin to an arbitrary chunk of charge, and L + d x is the distance from an arbitrary chunk to the observation
location. Each chunk produces a field
~ 1 Q
E = h1, 0, 0i
4o (L + d x)2
Q
1 L x
= h1, 0, 0i
4o (L + d x)2
(c)
Z x=L
1 Q dx
E = h1, 0, 0i 2
4o L x=0 (L + d x)
u=d
du
Z
1 Q 1 Q 1 1 L
= h1, 0, 0i = h1, 0, 0i =
4o L u=L+d u2 4o L d L+d d(L + d)
1 Q
=
4o d(L + d)
(d) At great distances (d >> L) the field approaches that of a particle as expected.
16.X.24
Think of a disk as made up of concentric rings. Calculate the electric field of each ring. Add up the contributions of all the
rings to approximate the electric field of the disk.
16.X.25
Q Q Q
Q = s = R =
L 2R 2
The limits of integration would be 0 to 2.
16.X.26
The net field at the rings center must be zero by symmetry. The field due to any arbitrary chunk will be nulled out by the
diametrically opposite chunks field. The expression derived in the text reduces to zero when the observation location is at
the rings center, just as expected.
16.X.27
Option 4 is the best option.
16.X.28
By fringe field, we mean the electric field just outside one of the two plates of a capacitor, near that plates center.
16.X.29
5
Heres one way to think of it. As you move away from the charged disk, you see more charge in your field of view. This
contributions of this additional charge to the net electric field balance the increasing distance from the disk (which should
reduce the net field).
16.X.30
The 1/z 2 behavior applies only for the electric field of a particle, not for extended charge distributions. As you get farther
away from a particle, the amount of charge you see doesnt change, unlike moving away from a large, uniformly charged
disk.
16.X.31
Between the plates, the plates electric fields are in the same direction and therefore are additive. Outside the plates, the
plates fields are in opposite directions and thus oppose each other. There is a weak dependence on distance that accounts
for a small fringe field outside the plates.
16.X.32
4
(a) The net field will have magnitude 3.048 10 N/C and will be directed toward the center of the negatively charged
ring.
4
(b) The net force on the particle will have magnitude 2.743 10 N and will be directed toward the center of the positively
charged ring. ~Fnet and E
~
net
must oppose each other because the particle experiencing the field has a negative charge.
16.X.33
(a) The key here is to realize that x = 0.06 m rather than 0.12 m. The right rings field at the midpoint will be E
~
right

h57603, 0, 0iN/C.
(b) The left ring will create a field of the same magnitude and direction as the field of the right ring. E
~
left
h57603, 0, 0iN/C
(c) These fields will add, so the net field at the center will be E
~
net
h115206, 0, 0iN/C.
D 4
E
(d) The charged particle will experience a net force of 2.304 10 , 0, 0 N. Note that ~Fnet and E
~
net
must oppose each
other since the particle is negatively charged.
16.X.34
If the two rings have the same charge, the net field halfway between them must be zero.
16.X.35
6
(a) E
~
2.031 10 N/C
6
(b) E
~
2.012 10 N/C
(c) These values differ by only 0.96%, which is probably not significant.
16.X.36
6
6
(a) E
~
2.795 10 N/C
6
(b) E
~
2.760 10 N/C
(c) These values differ by only 1.3%, which is probably not significant.
16.X.37
6
(a) E
~
3.0713 10 N/C
6
(b) E
~
3.0713 10 N/C
6
(c) E
~
3.1500 10 N/C
(d) The first two are essentially identical to five significant figures, while the third differs by about 2.5%.
(e) The least accurate approximation is comparable to the most accurate approximation very, very close to the disk.
16.P.38

|Q|/R2 6 5 5
Using E with E 3 10 N/C, R 0.47 m, we get |Q| 1.84 10 C or Q 1.84 10 C.
~ ~
o
16.P.39

|Q|/R2 |Q|/R2 6 3
Using E with 3 10 N/C, R 0.51 m, and s 2 10 m we get E
~ s
~
5882 C.

fringe 2o R o fringe
16.X.40

|Q|/R2 6 4
Using E with E 3 10 N/C, R 1.1 m, we get |Q| 1.01 10 C.
~ ~
o
16.P.41
(a) Each chunk has position hR cos , R sin , 0i and contributes an electric field that will point from the origin to the rod
(negatively charged rod).
(b) Treat each chunk as a particle and calculate E.

~ The result is
~ 1 |Q|
E = hcos , sin , 0i
4o R2
(c) Evaluate each components integral separately.

=
1 |Q| 1 |Q|
Z
Ex = cos d = sin
4o R2 =0 4o R2
=
1 |Q| 1 |Q|
Z
Ey = sin d = (1 cos )
4o R2 =0 4o R2
(d) Units are correct. E~ points toward the rods midpoint as dictated by symmetry. For small values of , E 0. For
y
small , the field approaches that of a particle as expected.
7
16.P.42
(a) As the particle enters the region between the plates, it will deflect downward due to its interaction with the electric
field. Upon leaving the plates, its trajectory will not change at all and will remain linear.
|~Fnet | |q||E
~|
16
(b) At low speeds, ~Fnet m |~a| or |~a| m 1.8 10 m/s2

m
9
|Q|/A
(c) Treat the plates as a capacitor, and get the magnitude of the charge from E o . The result is |Q| 3.18 10
~
C.
The upper plate must be negatively charged given the direction of E. ~
16.P.43
Treat the glass cylinder as a series of concentric rings. Put the origin at the cylinders left end. Let R be the cylinders
radius, L be the cylinders length, x be the distance of an arbitrary ring from the origin, x be the width of that same ring,
w x be the distance from the ring to the observer location. The observer location is on the cylinders central axis. Each
ring will will make a contribution to the net electric field:
1 (w x)Q
Ex = 23
4o
2
(w x) + R2
1 (w x) Q
L x
= 23
4o
2
(w x) + R2
2 2
1 Q x=L (w x) dx 1 Q u=(wL) +R du
Z Z
Ex = 23 = 4 2L
4o L x=0 2 u=w2 +R2 u3/2
(w x) + R2 o
where the substitution u = (w x)2 + R2 is done to evaluate the integral.

The final result is
!
1 Q 1 1
Ex = p
4o L (w L)2 + R2 w 2 + R2
16.P.44

Q Q
(a) The field at the observer location is just the sum of the fields of the left plate, right plate, and rod. Ex = right
2o R2
left
.
* +
Q Q Q Q
E = 1
4o R
rod
. So E =
~ right
2o R2
left
, 1 rod
4o R ,0 .
y
R2 +(L/2)2 R2 +(L/2)2
8
(b)
~F = ~
qE
*
Qright Qleft
+
1 Qrod
~F = e , ,0
2o R2
q
4o 2
R2 + (L/2)
R
*
Qleft
+
Qright 1 Qrod e
~F = e , ,0
2o R2
q
4o 2
R R2 + (L/2)
16.P.45
(a) The electron sea will shift to the right making the right side slightly negative and the left side slightly positive.
(b) The net electric field inside the foil is zero. E

~
disk
points to the left and E
~
foil
points to the right.
(c)
~
E ~
= E ~
+E
net disk foil
|Q| /R2

~
d
Edisk 1

2o R

~
|q| /r2
Efoil
o

|q| |Q| d
1
o r2 2o R2 R
r2

d
|q| |Q| 1
2R2 R
16.P.46 This problem reduces to an integral over an angle. You can measure angles relative to the +xaxis but this solution
measures angles relative to the +yaxis. Locate a piece of the curved rod by the angle is makes with the +yaxis.
(a)
~r = ~robs ~rsource
~r = h0, 0, 0i hR sin , R cos , 0i
~r = hR sin , R cos , 0i
|~r| = R
r = hsin , cos , 0i
~ 1 Q
E = hsin , cos , 0i
4o R2

Q = Q

~ 1 Q
E = hsin , cos , 0i
4o R2
Z =
1 Q 1 2Q
Ex = 2
sin d =
4o R =0 4o R2
Z =
1 Q
Ey = cos d = 0
4o R2 =0
9
The ycomponent must be zero by symmetry and performing the integral for Ey confirms this. Also, since Q is a
negative number, Ex points to the left.
(b)

1 2Q
~pf = ~pi + ~Fnet t = h0, 0, 0i + q , 0, 0
4o R2

1 4eQ
~pf = t, 0, 0
4o R2
Remember that weve taken Q to be a negative number so the final momentum is actually points to the right.
16.P.47 This problem illustrates the power of the superposition principle. Consider the positively plate to be on the left
and the negatively charged plate to be on the right. Their inner surfaces are parallel and separated by distance s. Each
plate has thickness t and radius R. The outer surface of the positively charged plate has charge + |q|. The inner surface
of the positively charged plate has charge + |Q|. The inner surface of the negatively charged plate has charge |Q|. The
outer surface of the negatively charged plate has charge |q|. Let the electric field of the charge on the outer surface of the
positively charged plate be E~ . Let the electric field of the charge on the inner surface of the positively charged plate be E
1
~ .
2
Let the electric field of the charge on the inner surface of the negatively charged plate be E ~ . Let the electric field of the
3
charge on the outer surface of the negatively charged plate be E ~ .

4
Consider a point inside the positively charged (left) plate at the plates center. The net electric field at this point must be
zero. But this net field is also the vector sum of the fields of all the charges on all surfaces of the plates. At our chosen point
inside the left plate, E
~ points to the left and E
2
~ ,E
1
~ , and E
3
~ all point to the right. Each field has a different magnitude,
4
but we know all four fields must sum to zero. Proceed as follows:

~ |q| /A t/2
E 1
1
2o R

~ |Q| /A t/2
E 1
2
2o R

~ |Q| /A s + t/2
E 1
3
2o R

~ |q| /A s + 3t/2
E 1
4
2o R
~
E = ~ ~
E +E +E +E ~ ~ = ~0
net 1 2 3 4
~ ~ ~ ~
E1 E2 + E3 + E4 = 0
After considerable, but simple, algebra (which students should be asked to work out!) we can solve for |q| in terms of |Q|.
s/R
|q| = |Q|
2 Rs 2 Rt

If t R (the plates are very thin compared to their radius) and if s R (the inner surfaces are very close together compared
to their radius) then we have
s
|q| |Q|
2R
10
Gausss law (chapter 22) provides a more physically elegant, but conceptually more difficult, solution.
16.P.48
(a)
~F ~ + qE
= q E ~
- +

1 2(Q/L) 1 2(Q/L)
q , 0, 0 + q , 0, 0
4o x 2s 4o x + 2s

1 2Qq 1 1
Fx +
4o L x 2s x+ s
! 2
1 2Qq s 1 2Q |~p|
Fx 2
4o L 2
x 4 s 4o Lx2
(b)
|~p|
Fx = Ex
x 6 30

1 10 N/C 6 10 Cm 22
6 10 N
1 102 m

22
Fx 6 10 N 4
ax 2 10 m/s2
m (0.0018 kg/mol)/6.022 1023 mol1
(c)
16.P.49
(a) At the foils center, the pens electric field points up and the fields due to the positive and polarized surfaces of the foil
both point down. Assume static equilibrium.
6
(b) One way to estimate the charge on the end of the pen is to assume the maximum possible electric field in air, 3 10 N/C,
and estimate the corresponding amount of charge to make this field near the pen.
9
2 ~
Q 4o Rpen Ebreakdown 5 10 C

The magnitude of the force on the foil due to Earth must equal the magnitude of the force on the foil due to the pens
field. The latter is equal to the force on the pen by the field due to the foil. Let the foils thickness be t and q be the
magnitude of the charge on one of the foils surfaces and h be the distance from pen to foil.
11
1 2qt
mg = Q
4o h3
2
!
1 2t 1 Rfoil
h3 = Q Q
4o mg 4 h2
2 2
1 rRfoil Q
h5 =
4o 2mg
1 tR2 Q2
h5 = foil
4o 2 R2 t g
foil
1 Q2
h5 =
4o 2g
h 4.3 mm
Youll need to look up aluminums density. It may seem a bit surprising that so many factors cancel out. Notice however
that if the foil were twice as thick (but still quite thin), the amount of surface charge +q and q would be about the
same, but their separation t would be twice as great, so the electric force on the foil would be twice as great, which
compensates for the foil being twice as heavy. Also notice that if the area of the foil were twice as big (related to Rfoil ),
the charges +q and q would be twice as big, and the electric force would be twice as big, which would compensate
for the weight being twice as big.
(c) One of us performed the experiment with a pen whose diameter was about 8 mm and found that we could pick up the
foil when the distance from the foil center to the pens center was about 5 mm.
16.P.50 Treat the speck as an induced dipole oriented perpendicular to the wire. The orientation of the speck depends on
the sign of the wires charge (negative pole closest to the wire if the wire is positive, positive pole closest to the wire if the
wire is negative). Assume the speck is a single atom. See note below for a justification for this. Also use the approximate
expression for the wires electric field since the wire is long and the speck is relative close to the wires middle, and let |q| be
the charge on either end of the induced dipole. Let m be the mass of one carbon atom.
12
(a)
~F 1 2(Q/L) |q|

4o d 2s
near

~F 1 2(Q/L) |q|

4o d + 2s
far

~F 1 1 1
2(Q/L) |q| s s
net
4o d 2 d+ 2
!
s s
1 d+ 2 d + 2
2(Q/L) |q| s
4o d 2 d + 2s
1 |q| s
2(Q/L) 2
4o d

~
E

1 wire

2(Q/L)
4o d2
2
1 2
4 (Q/L) 3
4o d

~
Fnet
|~a|
m
2
1 2
4 (Q/L) 3
4o d m
Cm
!2 40
9 Nm
2 2 7
1.96 10

0.4 10 C N/C
9 10 4
C2 0.8 m 3 (12 g/mol) (1103 kg/g)
1.5 102 m

6.0221023 mol1
m/s
0.008
s
Note that this is the acceleration per atom. If the speck contains N carbon atoms, then the total force will be N times
the force found above. However, the total mass will also then be N times the mass of one carbon atom. The factors of
N will divide to one so the acceleration of the whole speck is the same as that for a single carbon atom.
(b) The acceleration is inversely proportional to distance cubed, do doubling the distance decreases the acceleration by a
factor of eight.
16.X.51
The net electric field is zero everywhere inside the ball so there is no molecular polarization.
16.X.52
The field inside any charged sphere, due to the charges on the spheres surface, is zero. There may be fields present due to
charges other than those on the surface though.
16.X.53
(a) The metal ball will polarize with the right side being more negative than the left side. The molecules in the plastic ball
will polarize with their positive ends pointing toward the metal balls center.
13
(b)
9

9 Nm 2 7 10 C
~
E = 9 10 2 7780 N/C
plastic
C2 9 102 m
(c) The net electric field inside the metal ball is zero.
(d) E
~
charges
= 7780 N/C
16.X.54
For FB = 0.04 N, a uniformly charged rod. For FB = 0.0799 N, a uniformly charged disk. For FB = 0.01 N, a dipole. For
FB = 0.02 N, a point charge or a uniformly charged hollow sphere (outside the sphere).
16.X.55
A and B are true. C is not true.
* +
~ 1 Q
E = , 0, 0
ball
4o |~r|2
8

9
* +
9 Nm
2 10 C
9 10 2 , 0, 0
C2 (0.09 m)
D 5
E
1 10 , 0, 0 N/C
16.X.56
(a) uniformly charged disk, near the center
(b) uniformly charged rod, near the midpoint
(c) single particle
(d) dipole, far away
(e) force of a charged particle on an induced dipole
16.P.57
D 5
E
(a) The net field is just that of the dipole since the charges on the shell contribute nothing. E
~
net
5 10 , 0, 0 N/C
(b) If the shell were metal, the net electric field at the center would be zero. The charge on the surface would redistribute
itself so as to cancel the dipoles field at the center.
(c) The left side would be more positive than the right side due to polarization.
14
16.P.58
C is applicable, the other choices are not. We should be able to use the most approximate expression for the disks electric
field to estimate the charge.

~

~ |Q| /R 2 F
E
2o e

2o ~F R2

5
|Q| 1.56 10 C
e
The glass must be positively charged since it attracts the negatively charged ion.
16.P.59
(a)

~ |Q| /A 2 |Q| /A
E = , 0, 0 + , 0, 0
A
2o 2o

3 |Q| /A
= , 0, 0
2o
(b)

~ 3 |Q| /A 1 |q|
E = , 0, 0
B
2o 4o 9r2
(c)

~ 3 |Q| /A 1 |q| 1 |q|
E = + cos 45 , cos 45 , 0
C
2o 4o 9r2 4o 9r2
16.P.60
(a) Dipoles in the plastic will polarize and orient themselves radially, with their negative ends pointing toward the center.
(b) There will be no polarization inside the glass sphere since the net electric field there is zero.

(c) E will be unchanged.
~
P
(d) The metal will polarize so as to have negative charge on its inner surface and positive charge on its outer surface.
(e) The net electric field inside the metal is zero, so the charge on its inner surface must be the opposite of that on the
glass sphere.
(f) E
~ will be unchanged since the outer surface of the metal will be the same as that on the glass sphere.
P
16.P.61
15

(a) The more charge on the sphere, the larger the electric field E in the surrounding air, and if E is large enough, the
~ ~

air will become conducting. E is largest near the surface of the sphere, so if the field exceeds the breakdown limit
~
anywhere, it will certainly be above the limit near the surface.
(b) The critical charge Q is that charge that makes the field very near the surface equal the critical field.

~ 1 Q 6
E = 2
3 10 N/C
4o R
6

3 10 N/C R2
Q =
9 109 N m
2
C2
6 10
For R = 0.1 m, Q = 3.3 10 C For R = 0.001 m, Q = 3.3 10 C
16.P.62
(a) Inside the big sphere, the only contribution to the net field is from the small sphere.

1 Q small

EA,x =
4o |~r|2
9
9 Nm
2

1 10 C
9 10 2 249 N/C
C2 (0.19 m)
EA,y = 0
(b) At B, both spheres contribute as though they are particles.

9
N m2

~
9 4 10 C
Ebig = 9 10 2 424 N/C
C2 (0.2915 m)
9
N m2 1 10 C

~ 9
Esmall = 9 10 2 400 N/C

C2 (0.15 m)
15
tan
25
15
sin
29.15
25
cos
29.15

~
25
EB,x = Ebig cos 424 N/C 364 N/C
29.15

~ ~
EB,y = Ebig sin E

small

15
424 400 N/C 182 N/C
29.15
(c)
19
17
FB,x = eEB,x 1.602 10 C (364 N/C) 5.82 10 N
19
17
FB,y = eEB,y 1.602 10 C (182 N/C) +2.91 10 N
16
16.P.63

(a) E
~
=0

1 Q1
(b) E r 2 , directed toward the center
~
= 4
o

(c) E
~
=0

1 Q2 Q1 +Q3
(d) E , directed away from the center
~
= 4 r2
o

(e) To make E =0 inside the metal, Q2 must be the opposite of Q1 . So Q2 =+5 nC.
~
(f) There is no molecular polarization because there is no net field inside the plastic.
16.P.64

1 |q|s
(a) Only the dipole contributes. E directed to the right.
~
4o L3
(b) The net field would be zero. The right side of the ball would be slightly more positive than the left side. The dipole
field points to the right and the field of the charges on the ball points to the left.
16.P.65
(a) Because the observation location is inside the left balloon, the field due to the charges on the left balloon is zero.
~
E ~
= E ~
+E
net rod right
~ 1 2(Q/L)
E h0, 1, 0i
rod
4o |~r|

1.3 106 C
9 Nm
2

9 10 2 h0, 1, 0i
C2 (4 m) (0.03 m)
D 5
E
0, 1.95 10 , 0 N/C
~ 1 |q|
E = h1, 0, 0i
right
4o |~r|2
8
9 Nm
2

2 10 C
9 10 2 h1, 0, 0i
C2 (0.006 m + 0.02 m + 0.012 m)
D 5
E
1.25 10 , 0, 0 N/C
D 5 5
E
~
E 1.25 10 , 1.95 10 , 0 N/C
net
(b)

~
|~p| = qs = E net
q
41 2 2
7.4 10 m2 /Nm2 /C2 1.25 105 + 1.95 105 N/C
35
1.7 10 Cm
35
|~p| 1.7 10 Cm 16
s 1.1 10 m
absq 1.6 1019 C
17
16.P.66
At the balls center, the wire creates an electric field E

~
wire
that polarizes the ball, making it an induced dipole with dipole
moment ~p. The new dipole ball will create an electric field E ~
ball
at the wire. The force on the wire due to the dipole (ball)
is the charge on the wire multiplied by the dipoles field at the wire. By reciprocity, this is equal to the force on the dipole
due to the wire.

~
1 2Q/L
Ewire

4o ~d

~
|~p| = E wire

~
1 2 |~p|
Eball
4o ~ 3

d

~
1 2 Ewire

3
4o ~
d
2
1 4(Q/L)
4
4o ~
d

~ ~
Fwire Q E

ball

2
4Q2 /L

1
4
4o ~
d

~Fball

16.P.67
(a) See part (b)

(b) The proton is in equilibrium, so E =
~ ~
Ecloud .

applied

~
1 es
Eapplied =

4o R3

~
E

1 applied

=
4o R3
10
3
R 3 1 10 m
=
1
9 109 NC m
2
4o
2
40
1.1 10 C m/N/C
18
(c)

~
es = E

applied

~
E

applied

s =
e
41 6
7.4 10 C m/N/C 1 10 N/C

1.6 1019 C
16
5 10 m
(d)

~
E

~ es applied

eE = ks = k = k
applied
e e
19
2
e 2 1.6 10 C
k =
7.4 1041 C m/N/C
350 N/m
(e) Doubling the polarizability would halve the spring stiffness.
16.P.68
19
(b)
.01 m
15.P.26 Charged tape .03 z

(a) 1. Cut up distribution into pieces and draw 'E. Problem statement m
specifies 3 pieces, each 2 cm wide by 4 cm high. 'E for top piece is
.02 m shown in diagram. It is clear from the diagram that we only need the x
component, since the y components will cancel. y d
2. Algebraic expression for 'E for each piece: Consider each piece as
.04 a point charge, located at center of rectangle. Then: T
m x
1 'Q
'E , and we want x - component :
d 4SH 0 d 2
y 1 'Q
'Ex cos T
T 4SH 0 d2
x
'E x d
2 2
x y , and cos T
x
d 2
x y
x
2
, and 'Q Q A 'A
(where Q = total charge on tape,
'E
A = total area, 'A = 'y'z = area of small piece.) 3. Add up all the contri
'Ex
1
Q 'A
A x 1 Q
x
2
4SH 0 x y
2
4SH0 A 'A 3 This
x y2
2

x2 y2
2
1
4. Add up all contributions: 4SH0
Since we are at point in middle, y and z components of E will add up to zero, and Enet will be in x direction. We

3
1 Q xi
only need to find x-component of 'E for each piece. E x 'E x A 'A
4SH 0 3 As before, only the pa
i 1
i i
x 2
y 2 2
there are actually only
For this calculation, Piece x
N m 2 4 u 10 C 8
1 Q 1 .03 m
A 'x'y
9 u 10

9
2 .02m.04m
.02m.12m
4SH0 C 2 .03 m
2
120 N m 3 .03 m
C
Only the last term depends on distance, so we'll calculate it for each piece: 4 .03 m
5 .03 m
Piece x y z x/(x2+y2)1.5
6 .03 m
1 .03 m .04 m 0 240 7 .03 m
2 .03m 0.00 m 0 1111 8 .03 m
3 .03 m .04 m 0 240
Total: 1591
So E x

120
C
N m 2
1591 m -2 1.91 u 105
N
C 4. Check that result is
4. Check that result is reasonable: (a) The units come out right (N/C). (b) This is less than the critical field for possible value. The uni
breakdown of air (3x106 N/C), so it is a possible value. (c) Also, a point charge of 4x10-8 C located 3 cm away (c) In general, the mo
would make a field of (9x109)(4x10-8)/(.01)2 = 4x105 N/C, and our E is smaller than that, as it should be, since answer from (b) is clos
almost all of the tape is farther away than 3 cm.. because taking one larg
20
(d) We wrote a computer program to calculate Ex for a number of different ways of cutting up the tape. The table
gives the results. Here ny is the number of pieces in the y direction (height), and nz is the number of pieces in the z
direction (width).
ny nz Ex (N/C)
3 1 1.909x105 (part a)
4 2 1.722x105 (part b)
8 4 1.726x105
20 4 1.725x105
100 10 1.721x105
200 20 1.721x105
Eventually we do not gain much by adding more pieces.
16.P.69
3
4 # constants
5 L = 1
6 N = 60 # number o f p i e c e s
7 Q = 1 e8
8 R = 0.05
9 o o f p e z = 9 e9
10 E s c a l e = 3 e5
11 d e l t a x = L / N # l e n g t h o f each p i e c e
12 deltaQ = Q / N # c h a r g e on each p i e c e
13
14 # make an a r r a y o f o b s e r v e r l o c a t i o n s
15 a n g l e s = [ 0 , p i / 3 , 2 p i / 3 , pi , 4 p i / 3 , 5 p i / 3 ]
16 nx = 6
17 x p o s i t i o n s = a r a n g e (L/ 2 ,L/2+L/ 5 0 ,L/nx )
18 obsloc = [ ]
19 for x in x p o s i t i o n s :
20 f o r t h e t a in a n g l e s :
21 a = arrow ( pos=v e c t o r ( x ,R c o s ( t h e t a ) ,R s i n ( t h e t a ) ) , a x i s = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) ,
22 color =(1 ,0.7 ,0) )
23 o b s l o c . append ( a )
24
25 # make t h e rod an a r r a y o f p o i n t c h a r g e s
26 rod = [ ]
27 n = 1 # f i r s t sphere
28 while n <= N:
29 a = s p h e r e ( pos=v e c t o r ((L/ 2 ) +(2n1)L/ ( 2 N) , 0 , 0 ) , r a d i u s=d e l t a x / 2 ,
30 c o l o r=c o l o r . red , q=deltaQ )
31 rod . append ( a )
32 n = n + 1
33
21
34 # g e t Enet a t each o b s e r v e r l o c a t i o n
35 for Earrow in o b s l o c :
36 for p t c h a r g e in rod :
37 r = Earrow . pos p t c h a r g e . pos
38 E = norm ( r ) 9 e9 p t c h a r g e . q/mag( r ) 2
39 Earrow . a x i s = Earrow . a x i s + E s c a l e E
1
17.X.01
The speeds are non-relativistic, so it is valid to use K 12 mv 2 .
(a)
1
Ki = mv 2
2 i
1 27
= (1.673 10 kg)(3000 m/s)2
2
= 7.52 1021 J
1 eV

Ki = 7.52 1021 J = 0.0470 eV

1.6 1019 J
(b)
1
Kf = mv 2
2 f
1 27
= (1.673 10 kg)(5000 m/s)2
2
= 2.09 1021 J
1 eV

Kf = 2.09 10 20
J = 0.130 eV

1.6 1019 J
(c)
K = Kf Ki
= 1.34 1020 J
K = 0.083 eV
17.X.02
K = 4 1017 J since the kinetic energy decreased.
K = Kf Ki
Kf = Ki + K
= 4.5 1017 J 4 1017 J
= 5 1018 J
2
1
Kf mvf2
2
r
2K
vf
m
s
2(5 1018 J)
=
9.109 1031 kg
= 3.31 106 m/s
Note that the electrons speed is non-relativistic, thus validating our use of the approximation K 12 mv 2 .
17.X.03
(a)
U = Wint
~
~ l
= q E
= q(Ex x + Ey y + Ez z)
= qEy y
19
= (1.602 10 C)(3500 N/C)(3 103 m)
= 1.68 1018 J
(b) For the system of proton and plates, E = 0 since it is a closed system.
U + K = 0
K = U
= (1.68 1018 J) = 1.68 1018 J
(c)
0
K = Kf
K
>
i
Kf = 1.68 1018 J
1
Kf mvf2
2
r
2K
vf
m
s
2(1.68 1018 J)
=
1.673 1027 kg
= 4.49 104 m/s
The final speed is non-relativistic, thus justifying the use of K 21 mv 2 .
17.X.04
3
(a)
U = Wint
= q E ~
~ l
= q(Ex x + Ey y + Ez z)
= qEy y
19
= (1.602 10 C)(3500 N/C)(3 103 m)
= 1.68 1018 J
(b) For the system of electron and plates, E = 0 since it is a closed system.
U + K = 0
K = U
= (1.68 1018 J) = 1.68 1018 J
(c) Note that the initial speed of the electron is non-relativistic. Since it is slowing down, its final speed is also non-
relativistic.
K = Kf Ki
1
Kf = mv 2 + K
2 i
1 31
= (9.109 10 kg)(4 106 m/s)2 + 1.68 1018 J
2
= 7.29 1018 J 1.68 1018 J
= 5.61 1018 J
1
Kf mvf2
2
r
2K
vf
m
s
2(5.61 1018 J)
=
9.109 1031 kg
= 3.51 106 m/s
The electron slowed down as expected, since K is negative.
17.X.05
(a)
~l = ~rA ~rB
= < 0.4, 0, 0 > m < 0.2, 0, 0 > m
= < 0.6, 0, 0 > m
4
V = E ~
~ l
= (Ex x + Ey y + Ez z)
= Ex x
= (500 N/C)(0.6 m)
= 300 V
(b) For a proton,
U = qV
19
= (1.602 10 C)(300 V)
= 4.8 10 17
J
= 300 eV
(c) For an electron,
U = qV
19
= (1.602 10 C)(300 V)
= 4.8 1017 J
= 300 eV
17.X.06
(a) ~l is perpendicular to E,
~ thus V = 0.
(b) U = 0 since V = 0.
(c) U = 0 for the same reason as part (b).
17.X.07
Ey V
y for small y.
V
Ey =
y
3 V
=
(3.52 m 3.50 m)
= 150 V/m
17.X.08
~ is in the x direction, away from the positively charged plate and toward the negatively charged plate. V is positive
E
because the path ~l is opposite E.
~
5
17.X.9
~ is in the +x direction, parallel to the dipole moment. V is negative since ~l and E
E ~ are in the same direction.
17.X.10
(a)
V A to B = V A to C + V C to B
VB VA = (VC VA ) + (VB VC )
~ ~l ) + (E
= (E ~ ~l )
1 1 2 2
= E1,x x1 E2,x x2
= (650 N/C)(1.3 m 0.5 m) (350 N/C)(1.7 m 1.3 m)
= 520 V + 140 V
= 380V
(b)
V B to A = V A to B
VA VB = (VB VA )
= (380 V)
= 380 V
17.X.11
The potential difference only ~
occurs across the gaps. Since E is the same across the gaps and since the gap width (s)
~
decreased, then |V | = E s decreases.
17.X.12
(a)
V A to B = VB VA
= (VB Vsurface ) (Vsurface VA )
= E2,x (xB xsurface ) + 0
= (50 N/C)(0.02 m)
= 1.0 V
(b)
V B to A = V A to B
= 1.0 V
17.X.13
V = V 1 + V 2 + V 3 + V 4 and V 2 = V 4 = 0 since d~l is perpendicular to E
~ along path 2 and path 4. So, calculate
V 1 and V 2 .
6
Z rf
V 1 = ~ d~l
E
ri
Zr2
1 q
= dr
4o r2
r1
r2
1 q
=
4o r

r
1
1 1 1

= q
4o r2 r1
Likewise,
1 1 1

V 2 = q
4o rf ri
1 1 1

= q
4o r1 r2
Summing the potential differences along the path gives V = V1 + V2 = 0.
17.X.14
Z
V = ~ d~l
E
~ and d~l are parallel, so

E
Z Z
V = Edl = E dl = EL
~

|V | = E L
~
|V | 0.01 V V
E = = = 0.025
L 0.4 m m
17.X.15

In this case, z >> R and z 2 + R2 z 2 = z.
1 Q
Vring
40 z
This is the potential due to a pt. charge at a distance z from the pt. charge.
7
17.X.16
The total potential difference is the sum of the potential difference across the gaps and the insulator. So,
V = Vgap 1 + Vinsulator + Vgap 2

1 1
(6 V) 1
= (6 V) + 3 + (6 V)
3 K 3
2V
= 2V+ +2V
2.5
= 4.8 V
17.X.17
1
energy density = 0 E 2
2
s
2(10 m2 )
J
E =
(8.85 1012 NC m2 )
2
= 1.50 106 N/C
17.X.18
1 C2
energy density = (8.85 1012 )(3 106 N/C)
2 N m2
J
= 40 3
m
17.X.19
The center is the same distance R from each point charge on the surface. The point charge q creates a potential V at the
center that is
1 q
V =
40 R
X
V = V for all pt. charges
X 1 q
=
40 R

1 1 X
= q
40 R i=1
1 Q
V =
40 R
8
17.X.20
1
K mv 2
2
1
= (1.67 1027 kg)(3725 m/s)2
2
= 1.16 1020 J
1 eV

= (1.16 10 20
J)
1.6 1019 J
= 0.0725 eV
17.X.21
1
K mv 2
2
r
2K
v
m
s
2(4.4 1018 J)
=
9.11 1031 kg
= 3.11 106 m/s
Note that this is non-relativistic (i.e. v << c) so it is valid to approximate the kinetic energy using K 12 mv 2 .
17.X.22
(a)
1
K mv 2
2
1
= (9.11 1031 kg)(6000 m/s)2
2
= 1.64 1025 J
(b)
1
K mv 2
2
1
= (1.67 1027 kg)(6000 m/s)2
2
= 3.01 1020 J
Note that the proton has a larger kinetic energy since it has a greater mass.
9
17.X.23
(a)
1 q1 q2
Uel =
40 r
N m2 (1.6 1019 C)2

= (9 109 )
C2 9 109 m
= 2.56 1020 J
(b) Uel = 2.56 1020 J since qelectron = qproton
17.X.24
A, B, C, D are true. (G) is only true for oppositely charged objects; it is not true for like-charged objects.
17.X.25
K = Kf Ki
1
= 0 mv 2
2
1
= (1.67 1027 kg)(300 m/s)2
2
= 7.52 1023 J
17.X.26
Uel is positive, so q1 and q2 have the same sign. A, B, D, and E are possible.
17.X.27
Uel is negative, so q1 and q2 are oppositely charged. F and G are possible.
17.X.28
Electric potential is a scalar field due to a single charged particle. Electric potential energy is the energy of interaction of a
pair of charged particles. The potential energy of the pair of particles can be written as the product of the charge of particle
1 times the scalar field produced by particle 2 at the location of particle 1.
17.X.29
Unit of Uel is joule and unit of V is volt.
17.X.30
10
(a)
l = ~rf ~ri
= ~rA ~rB
= h0.5, 0, 0i m h0.5, 0, 0i m
= h1, 0, 0i m
(b)
V ~ ~l
= E
= Ex x
= (750 N/C)(1 m)
= 750 V
(c)
U = qV
= (1.6 1019 C)(750 V)
= 1.2 1016 J
= 750 V
(d)
U = qV
= (1.6 1019 C)(750 V)
= 1.2 1016 J
= 750 V
17.X.31
(a) (1)
~l = ~rC ~rB
It points in the -y direction, though its magnitude cannot be determined since ~rC is unknown.
(2)
V ~ ~l
= E
= 0
11
(3)
U = qV
= 0
(4)
U = qV
= 0
17.X.32
(1)
~l = ~rB ~rA
= h0.4, 0, 0i m h0.3, 0, 0i m
= h0.7, 0, 0i m
(2)
V ~ ~l
= E
V
= ((850 )(0.7 m))
C
= 595 V
(3)
U = qV
= (1.6 1019 C)(595 V)
= 9.52 1017 J
= 595 eV
(4)
U = 9.52 1017 J
= 595 eV
Since q is negative.
12
17.X.33
This problem cannot be solved since ~rC is unknown and ~l = ~rA ~rC .
17.X.34
~l = ~rf ~ri
= h5, 6, 12i m h2, 7, 5i m
= h3, 1, 7i m
V = ~ ~l
E
= ((1000 N/C)(3 m) + (200 N/C)(1 m) + (510 N/C)(7 m))
= (3000 + 200 + 1270) V
= 1530 V
17.X.35
V = ~ ~l
E
where ~l is across the plates
V = Ex x
~

|V | = E s
where s is the plate separation
~
|V |
E =
s
36 V
=
1 103 m
V
= 3.6 104
m
17.X.36
(a) Apply the Energy Principle. Since it is a closed system,

13
E = 0
U + K = 0
qV + K = 0
K = qV
= (1.6 1019 C)(44 V)
= (e)(44 V)
= 44 eV
K = Kf Ki . Since Ki = 0, then Kf 44 eV.

(b) (2) is correct. (1) is impossible.
17.X.37
~

|V | = E s
= (3 106 N/C)(3 103 m)
= 9 103 V
17.X.38
~

|V | = E s
~
|V |
E =
s
30 V
=
2 103 m
V
= 1.5 104
m
17.X.39
(a)
~l = h0.6, 0, 0i m
V = E ~ ~l
= (350 N/C)(0.6 m)
= 210 V
14
(b)
U = qV
= (1.6 1019 C)(2100 V)
= 3.36 1016 J
= 2100 eV
(c) U = 3.36 1016 J since q is 1.6 1019 C.
17.X.40
(a)
~l = ~rA ~rC
= h0.4, 0, 0i m h0.2, 0.3, 0i m
= h0.6, 0.3, 0i m
V ~ ~l
= E
= ((350 N/C)(0.6 m) + (350 N/C)(0.3 m))
= 210 V 105 V
= 315 V
(b)
U = qV
= (1.6 1019 C)(315 V)
= 5.04 1017 J
= 315 eV
(c)
U = (1.6 1019 J)(315 V)

= 5.04 1017 J
= 315 eV
17.X.41
15
~l = ~rf ~ri
= h3, 5, 9i m h2, 5, 4i m
= h1, 0, 5i m
V = ~ ~l
E
= ((1000 N/C)(1 m) + 0 + (500 N/C)(5 m))
= (1000 V + 2500 V)
= 1500 V
17.X.42
(a) Apply the Energy Principle. Its a closed system.
U + K = 0
K = U
= qV
= (1.6 1019 C)(35 V)
= 5.6 1018 J
= 35 eV
Since K = Kf Ki and Ki = 0, then Kf = 35 eV.

(b) The proton would move in the opposite direction, with V = 35 V in order to have the same final kinetic energy as
the electron.
17.X.43
(a)
~l = ~rA ~rB
= h0.2, 0.1, 0i m h0.7, 0.1, 0i m
= h0.5, 0, 0i m
V ~ ~l
= E
= ((760 N/C)(0.5 m))
= 380 V
16
(b)
~l = ~rC ~rA
= h0.7, 0.4, 0i m h0.2, 0.1, 0i m
= h0.5, 0.5, 0i m
V ~ ~l
= E
= ((760 N/C)(0.5 m) + (380 N/C)(0.5 m))
= 380 V + 190 V
= 570 V
(c)
U = qV
= 2(1.6 1019 C)(570 V)
= 1.82 1016 J
= 1140 eV
17.P.44
B is at a higher potential since VB > VA .
~ points toward lower potential so E

E ~ points to the left in the picture.
V = E ~ d~l = E
~ ~l for constant electric field. For a path from A to B, ~l =< x, 0, 0 >.
R
V = Ex x
V
Ex =
x
1.5 V
=
0.01 m
V
= 150
m
17.P.45
17
E = 0
U + K = 0
qV + K = 0
(e)V + K = 0
K = eV
= (1.6 1019 C)(15000 V)
= 2.4 1015 J
K = Kf Ki
0
1 1 >
= mv2 mv 2
2
r
f 2
i
2K
vf =
m
s
2(2.4 1015 J)
=
9.11 1031 kg
= 7.26 107 m/s
Note that this is almost 14 the speed of light. The electron could be considered relativistic, yet the non-relativistic approxi-
mation for kinetic energy was used. If you use K = E mc2 = ( 1)mc2 , then = 1.029 and v = 7.10 107 m/s. This is
the more accurate answer.
17.P.46
~ points toward lower potential. B is at lower potential since V V is negative. Thus, E

(a) E ~ points to the right. Possibly,
B A
QB is negative and QA is positive if it is a capacitor.
(b)
V = Ex x
Q/A
V = s
0
where s = 0.1 mm and Q = QA = QB .
Q V 0
=
A s
C2
(10 V)(8.85 1012 N m2 )
=
(0.1 103 m)
Q C
= 8.85 107 2
A m
18
If R = 0.1 m, then A = R2 = 0.0314 m2 , and
C
Q = (8.85 107 )(0.0314 m2 )
m2
= 2.78 108 C
If this is a capacitor, then R = 0.1 m, QA = 2.78 108 C and QB = 2.78 108 C would produce the given potential
difference across the plates. As long as R >> s, then you can choose any R and solve for Q.
17.P.47
We can do an exact treatment with few approximations. Break the problem into three parts: (1) find vf upon exiting the
accelerating plates; (2) find ~vf and y during the deflection plates; (3) find y during the region after the reflection plates
before hitting the screen.
(1)
E = 0
U + K = 0
qV + K = 0
eV + K = 0
K = eV
Assume Ki 0, so
Kf = (1.6 1019 C)(18000 V)

= 2.88 1015 J
1
Kf = mv2
2
r
f
2K
vf =
m
s
2(2.88 1015 J)
=
9.11 1031 kg
= 7.95 107 m/s
This is relativistic. Thus, K 21 mv 2 cannot be used. Instead, use K = E mc2 = ( 1)mc2 . Thus,
K
= +1
mc2
2.88 1015 J
= +1
(9.11 1031 kg)(3 108 m/s)
= 1.035
1
= q
1 vc2
2
19
So vf = 7.74 107 m/s.
(2) In between the deflecting plates,
~

|V | = E s
~
40 V
E =
0.003 m
V
= 1.33 104
m
V
Ey = 1.33 104
m
~F = q E,
~ so
V
Fy = (1.6 1019 C)(1.33 104 )
m
= 2.13 1015 N
Fx = 0 so vx is constant, 7.74 107 m/s. The time interval to cross the plates is given by
x
vx =
t
x
t =
vx
L
=
vx
0.08 m
=
7.74 107 m/s
= 1.03 109 s
vy after exiting the plates is found from the Momentum Principle.
mvy
Fnet,y =
t
m(vf,y vi,y )
=
t
mvf,y
=
t
Fnet,y t
vf,y =
m
(2.13 1015 N)(1.03 109 s)
=
9.11 1031 kg
= 2.42 106 m/s
20
To get y, use the mean velocity.
(vf,y + vi,y )
vavg,y =
2
vf,y
=
2
2.42 106 m/s
=
2
= 1.21 106 m/s
vavg,y = t ,
y
so
y = vavg,y t
= (1.21 106 m/s)(1.03 109 s)
= 0.00125 m
(3) After leaving the deflection plates, the velocity of the electron is constant. Find the time interval to hit the screen.
x
vx =
t
x
t =
vx
0.3 m
=
7.74 107 m/s
= 3.88 109 s
y
vy =
t
y = vy t
= (2.42 106 m/s)(3.88 109 s)
= 0.00939 m
The total deflection is the deflection while traveling through the plates plus the y-displacement after leaving the
deflection plates.
y = y1 + y2
= 0.00125 m + 0.00939 m
= 0.0106 m
This is about 1 cm. Note that neglecting the y-displacement between the deflecting plates would have resulted in
roughly 10% error.
21
17.X.48
Z
V = ~ d~l
E
~ points toward the sphere, and d~l points toward the sphere. Thus, E
E ~ d~l is positive, and V is negative.
17.X.49
V ~ d~l
= E
V = Ex x
|V | = Ex |x|

E = 2200 V

x
0.28 m
V
= 7860
m
Note that Ex = 7860 m.

V
17.X.50
(B) is true.
17.X.51
V = ~ ~l
E
~ and ~l are in the same direction, then E

If E ~ ~l is positive and V is negative.
(A) is true. E~ ~l is negative, so V is positive.
17.X.52
(c) is true.
~ ~l = 0 if E
E ~ and ~l are
17.X.53
(a) ~l = ~rB ~rC so ~l points in the +x direction.

~ and ~l are in the same direction, E
~ is in the +x direction. Since E
(b) E ~ ~l is positive and V = V V is negative.
D C
17.X.54
22
(a) ~l = ~rA ~rB , so ~l points in the -y direction, toward the rod.

~ and ~l are in the same direction, E
~ points toward the rod (in the -y direction). Since E
(b) E ~ ~l is positive and
V = VA VB is negative.
17.X.55
(c) is true. V = 1 q
40 r so V decreases as r increases, and VB > VA .
17.X.56
V = VD VC
1 q 1 q
=
40 rD 40 rC
!
1 1 1
= q
40 rD rC
N m2 1 1

= (9 10 9
)(4 109 C)
C2 0.06 m 0.02 m
= 1200 V
17.X.57
V = Vf Vi
1 q 1 q
=
40 rf 40 ri
!
1 1 1
= q
40 rf ri
1 1 1

= (1.6 1019 C)
40 4 1010 m 3 1010 m
= 1.2 V
17.X.58
Consider the proton to be the source of the potential.
!
1 1 1
V = q
40 rf ri
1 1 1

= (1.6 1019 C)
40 6 1010 m 3 1010 m
= 2.4 V
23
The system is the electron and the potential.
U = qV
= (1.6 1019 C)(2.4 V)
= 3.84 1019 J
The potential energy increased, which is expected for two oppositely charged particles getting further apart.
17.X.59
d~l =< dx, 0, 0 > for path from B to A.
Z
V = ~ d~l
E
Z
= Ex dx
Z b
= Ex dx
a
(a) (3)
K b
Z
V = dx
a x 2
b
K
=
x a
1 1

= K
b a
1 1

= K
a b
(b) (8)
K b
Z
V = dx
a x
3
b
K 1
=
2 x2 a
K 1 1

= 2
2 b2 a
K 1 1

= 2
2 b2 a
(c) (6)
24
K b
Z
V = dx
a x
b
= K ln x

a
= K(ln b ln a)
b
= K ln
a
(d) (5)
Z b
V = Kx dx
a
b
Kx2
=
2 a
K 2
= (b a2 )
2
17.P.60
(a) Assume that the thickness of the central plate in negligible. If x1 is the distance from A to the central plate, then
V1 = E1,x x
V
= (725 )(0.4 m)
m
= 290 V
If x2 is from the plate to point B, then
V2 = E2,x x2
V
= (425 )(0.2 m)
m
= 85 V
V = V1 + V2
= 290 V + 85 V
= 205 V
~ V
This is along a path from A to B, so V ~ = 205 V.
B A
25
(b)
V = VA VB
= (VB VA )
= (205 V)
= 205 V
(c)
E = 0
U + K = 0
qV + K = 0
(e)V + K = 0
K = eV
= (1.6 1019 C)(205 V)
= 3.28 1017 J
(d) If Kf 0 at B, then Ki must be at least 3.28 1017 J
17.P.61
V
Ex = = 4z
x
V
Ey = = 2
y
V
Ez = = 4x + 5
z
~ = < 4z, 2, 4x + 5 >
E
17.P.62
A picture of the dipole is shown in Figure 1.
(a)
1 q 1 q
V1 = =
40 r1 40 ((x 2s )2 + y 2 ) 12
1 (q) 1 q
V2 = =
40 r2 40 ((x + 2 )2 + y 2 ) 21
s
V = V1 + V2
!
q q q
=
40 1
((x 2s )2 + y 2 ) 2
1
((x + 2s )2 + y 2 ) 2
26
r = x , y
r2
r r1
s
q q
Figure 1: Electric potential at location (x,y) due to a dipole.
(b) Expand the denominators.
!
q 1 1
V =
40 (x2 + s 2
xs + y 2 ) 2
1
(x2 + s 2 1
+ xs + y 2 ) 2

2 2
Neglect terms of s2 , since s2 0 for small s.
q 1 1

V
40 (x2 + y 2 xs) 2
1
(x2 + y 2 + xs) 2
1
Note that x2 + y 2 = r2 .
q 1 1

V
40 (r2 xs) 2
1
(r2 + xs) 2
1
Factor out r2 in the denominator.
!
q 1 1
V
40 r(1 xs 12
r2 ) r(1 + xs 21
r2 )
xs 21 xs 12
Use binomial approximation: (1 r2 ) 1 1 xs
2 r2 and (1 + r2 ) 1+ 2 r2 .
1 xs
27
1 q 1 1

V 1 xs
40 r 1 2 r2 1 + 12 xs
r2
1 q r2 1 + 2 r2
1 + 12 xs 1 xs

40 r (1 2 r2 )(1 + 2 r2 )
1 xs 1 xs
!
1 q xs
r2

40 r 1 (xs)
2
4r 4
1 q xs

40 r r2
1 xqs

40 r3
1 px

40 r3
Note that at points on the y-axis where x=0, V = 0. This makes sense because these points are equidistant from the
oppositely charged particles. Also, V 0 as r , as expected.
(c) Along the x-axis, y=0 and r3 = x3 . So,
!
V 1 px
=
x x 40 x3
!
1 p
=
x 40 x2
1 2p
=
40 x3
Ex is in the same direction as the dipole moment vector, as expected. Also, this is the equation derived in Ch. 14 for
the E-field along the axis of a dipole.
y = 0 since it is proportional to x. This means that Ey = 0 along the y-axis. This is

(d) Along the y-axis, x = 0 and V
correct and makes sense because E is in the -x direction
in this case.
~ dV ~ ~ has an

Note that E 6= dy because it is Ey that equals V Its a reminder that E and Ey are not the same if E

y .
x or z component.
17.P.63
The potential difference between 1 and 2 is the sum of the potential difference from to the surface of the left disk and the
potential difference from the surface of the disk to point 2.
V = V2 V1
= (Vsurface V1 ) + (V2 Vsurface )
The potential difference between two points on the same conductor in equilibrium is zero. Thus, V1 = Vsurface , and
28
V = V2 V1
= V2 Vsurface
= ~ ~l
E
= Ex x
Q
= A (x2 xsurface )
0
Q
s
= A
0 2
17.P.64
The potential difference across a conductor in equilibrium is zero. Thus,
V = V2 V1
= Va + Vb
Define the +y direction to be upward. In gap (a), the electric field is in the -y direction. The path ~l is also in the -y
direction.
Va = Ey y
!
Q
= A
(a)
0

Q A a
=
0
~ is in the +y direction. Again, the path of ~l is in the -y direction.

In gap (b), E
VB = Ey y
Q2 !
= A
(b)
0
Q
2
A b
=
0
V = Va Vb
Q Q
A1 a A
2
b
V2 V1 = +
0 0
1
= Q2 b Q1 a

A0
29
17.P.65
~ .
(a) Call this E1
Q
1
A
E1,x =
0
5108 C
= 2.5 m2
8.85 1012 NC m2
2
= 2.26 10 N/C 3
It is positive and points to the right, as expected.

(c) The path should start at B and end at C. Think final-initial.
~ ~l and E
(d) 2, V = E ~ ~l is positive, so V is negative.
(e)
VC VB = Ex x
= (2.26 103 N/C)(4000 m)
= 9.04 V
~ = 0.
(f) VD VC = 0 since C and D are on the same conductor that is in equilibrium, so E
(g)
VF VD = E2,x x
Q !
A2
= (x2 )
0
(4 107 C)(2.5 m2 )
=
8.85 1012 NC m2
2
= 30.7 V
(h)
VB VF = 0
(i)
VB VA = VBC + VDF
= 9.04 V + 30.7 V
= 21.7 V
30
(j) (1)
U = qV
= (e)V
= (1.6 1019 C)(21.7 V)
= 3.47 1018 J
(2)
K + U = 0
K = U
= 3.47 1018 J
17.P.66
VA VC = (VB VC ) + (VA VB )
~ is to ~l.
~ is in the -x direction, toward the rod. Thus, V V = 0 since E
E A B
VA VC = VB VC
= Ex x
= Ex (xB xC )
= Ex (b c)
= Ex b
Substitute the E-field due to the rod for r << L.
!
1 2L
Q
VA VC b
40 r

1 2 L b
Q

40 r
17.P.67
(a) K + U = 0 since it is a closed system.

31
(b) Note that VAB = 0, VCD = 0, and VFG = 0 since the conductors are in equilibrium. Thus,
VAB = VBC + VDF

VB VA = (VC VB ) + (VF VD )
If K = 5.2 1018 J, then U = 5.2 1018 J since U + K = 0 for a closed system.
(c)
U = qV
U
V =
q
U
=
(e)
5.2 1018 J
=
1.6 1019 C
= 32.5 V
VG VA = 32.5 V
(d)
VG VA = (VC VB ) + (VF VD )
32.5 V = 16 V + (VF VD )
(VF VD ) = 32.5 V + 16 V
= 16.5 V
(e)
V = Ex x
V
Ex =
x
(16.5 V)
=
0.002 m
V
= 8250
m
17.P.68
Inside a uniformly charged sphere, E~ due to surface charge on the sphere is zero. Neglect the E-field due to charge on the
~
belt, then Enet = 0 inside the sphere. As a result, V inside the sphere is constant and equal to the potential at the surface,
which is
1 Q
V =
40 R
32
An electron is moved at constant speed from r = R + h t to r = R. Apply the Energy Principle to the electron and sphere.
The belt does work on the system.
U + K = W
W = U
= qV
= (e)(Vf Vi )
!
1 Q 1 Q
= (e)
40 R 40 R + h
1 1 1

= Qe
40 R R+h
This is positive as expected.
17.P.69
~ is due to disks. E
(a) Inside the sphere, E ~
disks
is in the +y direction. From 1 to 2, ~l is in the -y direction.
V1,2 = V2 V1
= Ey y
Q2 !
= A
(R1 )
0
Q2 R1
=
0 R22
~
(b) E ~
=E ~
+E outside the sphere.
net sphere disks
V2 = Vsphere,2 + Vdisks,2
V2,3 = V3 V2
= V2,3,sphere + V2,3,disks
!
1 Q1 1 Q1
= + Ey,disks y
40 r3 40 r2
! Q2 !
Q1 1 1
= A
((d R1 ))
40 r2 r3 0
! Q
Q1 1 1 2
= + A (d R1 )
40 R1 d 0
!
Q1 1 1 Q2
= + (d R1 )
40 R1 d 0 R22
This is positive, as expected.

33
~

(c) The metal sphere becomes polarized so that E = 0 inside the sphere. Then V is zero. Thus, decreased.

net 1,2
V 1,2
Outside the sphere, the E-field is due to the disks and the polarized sphere. V2,3 is V2,3,polarized sphere
+ V2,3,disks .
Since the negative charge on the sphere shifts toward the positively charged plate (which is toward points 2 and 3),
then the potential at 2 and 3 will be more negative. Since the potential varies as 1r , then V2,3,sphere increased.

Since V2,3,disks remains the same, then V2,3 increased due to the polarized sphere.
17.P.70
(a) Vglass is constant, so VA,B,glass = 0.
VA,B = VA,B,plastic
1 Q1 1 Q1
VB VA =
40 rB 40 rA
!
Q1 1 1
=
40 L L + R2
(b)
VB,C = VB,C,glass + VB,C,plastic
! !
1 Q2 1 Q2 1 Q1 1 Q1
= +
40 (R2 + d) 40 R2 40 L + d 40 L + R2
! !
Q2 1 1 Q1 1 1
= +
40 R2 + d R2 40 L + R2 L + R2 + d
~
(c) The metal sphere will become polarized such that E = 0 everywhere within the sphere. Then V is constant everywhere
net
in the sphere and thus VA = VB . As a result, VA,B = 0. It decreased from its value in part (a) with the glass sphere.
17.P.71
~ at D points outward. E
(a) Note that E ~ at A points outward. In all cases, use V = E r and the path r is inward
r
in the negative radial direction.
(1) VB VA is positive since Er is positive and r is negative.
(2) VC VB = 0 since VC = VB for a conductor in static equilibrium.
(3) VD VC is positive since Er is positive and r is negative.
(4) VF VE = 0 since V is constant for a conductor in static equilibrium.
(b)
VF V = (VB V ) + (VC VB ) + (VE VC ) + (VF VE )
!
1 Q 1 Q 1 Q
= +0+ +0
40 r3 40 r1 40 r2
!
1 1 1 1
= Q +
40 r3 r1 r2
34
17.P.72
(a) Between the wire and tube, the electric field points in the outward, radial direction away from the wire. The E-field
Q
1 2L
due to a long, straight wire is radial and has a magnitude Er 40 r .
Z tube
Vtube Vwire = ~ d~l
E
wire
Z R
= Er dr
r
1 2L
Z R Q
= dr
r 4 0
r
1 2Q R 1
Z
= dr
40 L r r
R
1 2Q
= ln r

40 L r
1 2Q
= (ln R ln r)
40 L
1 2Q
= (ln r ln R)
40 L
1 2Q r
= ln
40 L R
(b) The glow occurs when E is large enough for air to break down, which is 3 106 N/C. Then Q is
Er Lr
Q =
1
40 2
(3 106 N/C)(0.8 m)(0.7 103 m)
=
2(9 109 NC m )
2
2
= 9.33 108 C
1 2Q r
V = ln
40 L R
N m2 2(9.33 108 C) 0.7 103 m

= (9 10 9
) ln
C2 0.8 m 0.03 m
= 7890 V
The power supply should be set at |V | = 7890 V.
17.P.73
35
(a)
V = VR Vorigin
= Vsphere + Vuniform field
~ due to surface charge is zero inside that sphere.

Vsphere = 0 since the charge is uniform on the sphere and E
V due to the uniform field is 21 (74 V) since the distance from the origin to r = 5 m is 1
2 of the distance to r = 10 m
and V changes linearly for a uniform E-field. Thus,
V = Vuniform field
1
= (74 V)
2
= 37 V
(b)
V = Vsphere + Vuniform field

!
1 Q 1 Q
= + 37 V
40 rf 40 ri
N m2 (3530 109 C) 9 Nm
2
(3530 109 C)

= (9 10 9
) (9 10 ) + 37 V
C2 10 m C2 5m
= 3177 V + 37 V
= 3214 V
17.P.74
Z
V = ~ d~l
E
Z y
f
= Ey dy
y
i
1 2qs
y=0.04 m
Z
= dy
y=0.03 m 40 y 3
0.04
1 1
= qs
40 y 3 0.03
N m2 1 1

= (9 109 )(3 109 C)(0.002 m)
C (0.04 m)3 (0.03 m)2
= 26.3 V
17.X.75
36
V around a closed path is zero.

Start at A and come back to A along the path A, B, C , D, A.
V = 0
0 = VB-A + VC-B + VD-c + VA-D
= (VB VA ) + (VC VB ) + (VD VC ) + (VA VD )
0 = 12 V + 5 V + 15 V + (VA VD )
0 = 8 V + (VA VD )
VA VD = 8V
17.P.76
E ~ ~l, since E
~ points to the right, in the +x direction. In all cases, use V = E ~ is constant and the path is straight.
Q
Ex = A
0 and Ey = 0.
(a) (1)
VC VA = VAB + VBC
= Ex (s1 )
= Ex s1
(2)
VC VA = VA,C
= (Ex x + Ex y)
= Ex x
= Ex (s1 )
= Ex s1
(3)
VC VA = VA,B + |DeltaVD,B + VB,C

= 0 + Ex x + 0
= Ex (s1 )
= Ex s1
37
(b)
V = VC VA
= Ex s1
Q
= A
s1
0
(43 106 C)(0.0015 m)
=
(4 m)2 (8.85 1012 NC m2 )
2
= 145 V
(c)
VA,A = VA,B,C + VC,A

= Ex s1 + Ex s1
= 145 V + 145 V
= 0
17.P.77
(a) Note that within the shell, V is constant and V = 0. Thus VA,B = VA VR where VR is the potential at the surface
of the sphere. We have already shown that for a point particle,
Z r
f
V = Er dr
r
i
r
1 q
Z
f
= dr
r 40 r2
i
!
1 1 1
= q
40 rf ri
VA,B,C = VA,B + VB,C

!
1 1 1
VA,B = q
40 R rA
!
1 1 1
VB,C = q
40 rC R
!
1 1 1
VA,B,C = q
40 rC rA
Since rC = rA , then VA,B,C = 0.

38
(b) d~l is tangent to the circle and E ~ d~l = 0 since E

~ is radial. Thus E ~ and d~l are perpendicular, and V = E~ d~l = 0.
R
This agrees with part (a)
17.P.78
Call them sphere 1 (+Q) and sphere 2 (-Q).
VA = V1,A + V2,A
1 Q 1 Q
= +
40 R + d 40 R + d + L
VB = V1,B + V2,B
1 Q 1 Q
= +
40 R + d + L 40 R + d
1 Q Q 1 Q Q

VB VA =
40 R + d + L R + d 40 R + d R + d + L
1 2Q 2Q

=
40 R + d + L R + d
2Q 1 1

=
40 R + d + L R + d
This is negative, as expected.
17.P.79
(a) The dipole moment vector is to the left.

E
Figure 2: A sketch of the electric field along the axis of the dipole and along the perpendicular bisector of the dipole.
39
~ is in the -x direction. Since r >> s, then E 1

(b) E r3 , where q = e, the charge of a proton.
2qs
x 4 0
V = VB VB
Z r
=
f
~ d~l
E
r
i
x
1 2es
Z
f
= dx
x 40 x3
i
b
1

2es
=
40 2x2 a
1 1 1

= es 2 2
40 b a
1 1 1

= es
40 a2 b2
(c) E = 0 for a closed system.
K + U = 0
K = U
Kf Ki = qV
KB = (e)V + KA
1 2 1 1

KB = e s 2 + KA
40 a2 b
17.P.80
Assume that parts A and B are sufficiently close to the rod and disk that near field approximations can be used. Assume
no contribution to the E-field from polarized molecules in the glass and plastic.
V = VB VA
= Vrod + Vdisk
40
Z
Vrod = ~ d~l
E
Z B
= Er dr
A
1 2L
Z B Q
= dr
A 40 r
B
1 2Q
= ln r

40 L A
1 2Q
= (ln (d h) ln d)
40 L
1 2Q dh
= (ln )
40 L d
1 2Q d
= ln
40 L dh
Vdisk = Ey y
Q
A
h
20
Q
= A
h
20
The potential difference due to both the disk and the rod is
V = VB VA
Q
1 2Q d

ln + A h
40 L dh 20
Q
1 Q d

ln + A h
40 R dh 20
~
Note that we assumed that E constant for points very close to the disk.
disk
17.P.81
The given electric field cannot be produced by stationary charged particles because the potential difference around a closed
path is not zero. Consider the path shown below.
VA,A = VA,B + VB,C + VC,D + VD,A
~ is to ~l.
VA,B and VC,D = 0 since E
Thus,
41
A D
B C
VA,A = VB,C + VD,A

= EB,C x + EA,B (x)
= EB,C x + EA,D x
~ along the path from D to A is greater than E

Since E ~ along the path from B to C, then V is positive. This violates the fact
that for an E-field produced by stationary charge, V around a closed path is zero. Therefore, this field cannot be produced
by stationary charge.
17.P.82
(a) Around a closed path starting at the positive terminal at voltmeter D and going clockwise, V = 0. Along this path,
V is
V = VC + VB + VA + VD
0 = 3.5 V 6 V 1.6 V + VD
VD = 3.5 V + 6 V + 1.6 V
= 11.1 V
The sign is positive since the + terminal is at a higher potential than the - terminal of voltmeter D.
~ points toward lower potential, which in this case is the - terminal, or to the left in the picture. Since E
(b) E ~ is uniform,
V
Ex =
x
11.1 V
=
0.09 m
V
= 123
m
42
17.X.83
VA = V1 + V2
1 q1 1 q2
= +
40 r1,A 40 r2,A
!
1 q1 q2
=
40 r1,A r2,A
17.X.84
1 q
V =
40 r
1 (1.6 1019 C)
=
40 2.5 109 m
= 0.576 V
17.X.85
V = V1 + V2
1 (4 109 C) 1 (6 109 C)
= +
40 0.08 m 40 0.06 m
= 450 V 900 V
V = 450 V
17.X.86
The potential is negative so the source charge is negative. (C) and (E) are possible.
17.X.87
The potential is positive so the source charge is positive. (B) and (D) are possible.
17.X.88
~

|V | = E s
~

If |V | = 10 (10) = 20 V, then E = 20 V
0.002 m = 1 104 m.
V
43
~

If |V | = 370 V 350 V = 20 V, then E = 20 V
0.002 m = 1 104 m.
V
The electric field is the same in the two capacitors.
17.X.89
V ~ ~l
= E
= (Ez z)
Vf Vi = Ez (zf zi )
37 V (36 V) = Ez (3.15 m 3.27 m)
73 V = Ez (0.12 m)
V
Ez = 608
m
~ points from high potential to low potential and V at z = 3.27 m is less

It is in the +z direction. This makes sense because E
than V at z = 3.15 m.
17.X.90
VA = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4
!
1 q1 q q q
= + 2 + 3 + 4
40 r1 r2 r3 r4
q
d 2 d 2
In this case, r1 = r2 = r3 = r4 , and r1 = + = 2 d
2
= d .

2 2 2
1 (q1 + q2 + q3 + q4 )
VA =
40

d
2
1 (q1 + q2 + q3 + q4 )
VA = 2
40 d
For pt. B,
s 2
d 5
r1 = d2 + = d
2 2
d
r2 =
2
d
r3 =
3
5
r4 = r1 = d
2
44
VB = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4
! !
1 q1 + q4 1 q2 + q3
VB = +
40 40 d
2 d
5
2
1 2 q1 + q4 1 2(q2 + q3 )

VB = +
40 5 d 40 d
17.X.91
Z r
V =
f
~ d~l
E
r
i
In this case, d~l =< 0, dy, 0 > and Ey,ring = 4

1 Qy
3 .
0 (a2 +y 2 ) 2
y
1 Qy
Z
f
V = dy
y 40 (a + y 2 ) 23
2
i
1 y
y
Z
f
= Q dy
40 + y2 ) 2
y (a2
3
i
y
1 1 f
= Q
40 (a2 + y 2 ) 21 y
i
!
1 1 1
Vf Vi = Q
40 (a2 + y 2 ) 2
1
(a2 + y 2 ) 2
1
f f
If Vf is at yf = , then Vf = 0.
0
Q 1 1
0 Vi =

40 (a2 + h2 ) 21

1 Q
Vi =
40 (a2 + h2 ) 21
1 Q
Vi =
40 (a + h2 ) 12
2
Note that V is negative and goes to 0 as h , as expected.
17.X.92
Z f
V = ~ d~l
E
i
45
So V = 0 between two points within the shell. This means that V is constant within the sphere. It could be zero or any
other value.
~ =
Consider that E dV ~ = 0 then V is constant. It may or may not be zero.
r if V is a function of r. If E
dr
17.X.93
(a) False. The potential is constant, which may or may not be zero.
~ is the negative gradient of the potential, so it is proportional to the change in the potential. If the potential
(b) False. E
~ = 0.
is constant (large or not), E
(c) True. If there are other charges, the negative charge will dominate at points close to the charge.
(d) False. ItZis only approximately true if L is infinitesimally small. E ~ varies with distance, so an integral is needed.
r
V =
f
~ d~l. Also if d~l is tangential to the charged particle, then V = 0 since E
E ~ is radial.
r
i
(e) False. Same reason as (d).
17.P.94
For a 10 cm sphere, Emax at surface is 3 106 m.
V
1 Q
E =
40 R2
(3 106 m )(0.1 m)
V 2
Q =
9 109 NC m
2
2
= 3.33 10 6
C
1 Q
V =
40 R
N m2 3.33 106 C

= (9 109 )
C2 0.1 m
= 3 105 V
For a 1 mm sphere, V = 3000 V/m and Q = 3.33 1010 C
17.P.95
~ inside the sphere is outward, with magnitude
E 40 R3 r.
1 Q
From r = R
2 to r = R, V is
46
Z R
V = Er dr
R
2
1 Q R
Z
= r dr
40 R3
R
2
R
1 Q r2
=
40 R3 2 R
2
1 Q R2

= R 2
40 2R3 4
1 3Q
=
40 8 R
V at the surface R is the same as a point particle, V = 40 R .

1 Q
V = Vat R
Vat R
2
1 3Q 1 Q
= Vat R
40 8 R 40 R 2
1 Q 1 3Q
Vat R = +
2 40 R 40 8 R
11 1 Q
=
8 40 R
11
= V
8 at surface
17.P.96
After the charge reaches static equilibrium, then E~ = 0 everywhere along the spheres and wire, and V is constant. Assume
net
that the spheres are so far apart that they do not polarize each other, and the charge on each sphere is uniform. Also, assume
that the potential at the surface of each sphere is due solely to the charge on the nearest sphere (i.e. neglect the contribution
to the potential due to the furthest sphere). As a result,
Vsurface, 1 = Vsurface, 2
1 q 1 Q
=
4o r 4o R
q Q
=
r R
R
Q = q
r
The total charge is conserved, so q + Q = q0 , where q0 is the original charge before connecting the spheres. Thus,
47
R
q+q = q0
r
q0
q =
1 + Rr
r

q = q0
r+R
Also,
r
Q+Q = q0
R
q0
Q =
1 + Rr
R

Q = q0
r+R
17.P.97
(a) Sketch a picture like the one shown in Figure 4.
r1
r2
r3
Figure 4: A conducting sphere surrounding by a conducting shell.
The inner sphere has a charge Q on its surface. The outer shell is polarized. There is a smaller charge Q2 on its inner
surface and a larger charge Q3 on its outer surface. The total charge on the shell is 4Q.
Since the outer shell is metal, the electrons are in static equilibrium and the potential everywhere between r2 and r3 is
constant. As a result, V3 = V2 .
The potential at r3 is the same as if all of the charge was at the center, and you can model it as a point particle. Then,
1 5Q
V3 =
4o r3
48
On the inner surface of the shell, the potential at r2 is due to the charge on the sphere and the charge on the inner
surface of the shell.
1 Q Q2

V2 = +
4o r2 r2
1 Q + Q2

=
4o r2
Since V2 = V3 , you can equate the above expressions and solve for the charge Q2 .
V2 = V3
Q + Q2 5Q
=
r2 r3
Q2 5Q Q
=
r2 r3 r2
r2
Q2 = 5Q Q
r
3
r2

Q2 = Q 5 1
r3
The charge on the outer surface of the shell is the difference between 4Q and Q2 .
Q3 = 4Q Q2
r2

= 4Q Q 5 1
r3
r2
= 5Q 5Q
r3
r2

= 5Q 1
r3
Note that if r2 = r3 for an infinitesimally thin ring, then Q2 = 4Q and Q3 = 0 which makes sense, I suppose.
(b) Just outside r3 , the potential is V = 4o r3 .
1 5Q
At r = 1/2(r2 + r3 ), at the midpoint of the shell, V = V3 = 1 5Q

4o r3 because the potential is constant.
Just inside r2 , the potential is the sum of the potential due to the shell and the potential due to the sphere. The
contribution to the potential from the charge on the outer shell is constant since the charge is uniformly distributed on
the shell. The potential due to the sphere is the same as if the sphere is a point particle at its center. Thus,
1 Q 1 5Q
Vinside r = +
2 4o r2 4o r3
Likewise, just outside r1 , the potential is due to the inner sphere and the shell.
1 Q 1 5Q
Voutside r = +
1 4o r1 4o r3
49
At the center, V is the same as at r1 since the potential is constant inside the conductor.
1 Q 1 5Q
Vat r = 0 = +
4o r1 4o r3
17.P.98
~ is radially outward with magnitude

(a) If the charge is uniformly distributed throughout the volume of the nucleus, then E
E = 4 1 Qr
R3 , where Q = Ze. From the center out to the surface, V is
o
ZR
V = Er dr
0
ZR
1 Ze
= rdr
4o R3
0
R
1 Ze r2
=
4o R3 2

0
1 1 Ze

=
2 4o R
Note that V = Vat r=R Vat r=0 where Vat r=R is that of a point particle, 4o R .
1 Ze
Thus,
1 Ze
V = Vat r=0
4o R
1 1 Ze 1 Ze

= Vat r=0
2 4o R 4o R
1 Ze 1 1 Ze

Vat r=0 = +
4o R 2 4o R
3 1 Ze

=
2 4o R
3
= V
2 at r=R

(b) At r=0, V = 3
2
1 Ze
4o R . From r = 0 to r, V = 12 1 Ze
4o R . Thus,
3 1 Ze 1 1 Ze 2

Vr = + r
2 4o R 2 4o R3

Note that substituting r = R gives the correct potential of 4 R . A graph of the above expression for Vr as a
1 Ze
o
function of r is shown in Figure 5. It is quadratic with downward concavity.
For r > R, the graph will decrease as 1/r and approaches V = 0. The graph is continuous at r = R.
50
V vs r inside the nucleus
V (arbitrary units)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

r (in units of R)
Figure 5: Vr vs. r for r < R.
(c) Apply the Energy Principle to the system of the muon and nucleus. The initial state is the muon at the center of the
nucleus. The final state is at r = , where Vnucleus = 0.
K + U = 0
Kf Ki = qmuon V
0
Kf = Ki e(V
f Vi )
= Ki + eVi
3 1 Ze2

= Ki +
2 4o R
It makes sense that the final kinetic energy is greater than the initial kinetic energy since the positively charged muon
is repelled by the positively charged nucleus.
(d) The approximate radius for a nucleus in terms of its number of nucleons is given in an earlier chapter of the textbook
as R (1.3 1015 m)A1/3 where A is the number of nucleons (i.e. sum of protons and neutrons). For gold, A = 197,
so R = 7.56 1015 m. Thus,
3 1 Ze2

K =
2 4o R
19
3 N m2 79(1.602 10 C)2

9
= 9 10
2 C2 7.56 1015 m
= 3.61 1012 J
51

You can also express this in electron-volts, K = 3.61 1012 J 1 eV
1.61019 J = 2.26 107 eV = 23 MeV.
17.P.99
After connecting the plates, the original charge on the capacitor Q0 will distribute across both capacitors after their plates
are connected. The total charge is conserved, so Q1 + Q2 = Q0 where Q1 is the charge on the first capacitor after the two
capacitors reach equilibrium. For conductors in equilibrium, V is constant, so V across each capacitor is the same. Write
this as V1f = V2f .
For the first capacitor,
Q1 s1
V1f = E1f s1 =
A1 o
and
Q0 s1
V1 = E1 s1 =
A1 o
E
For the second capacitor, it is filled with a dielectric, so E2f = plates
K = Q2 s2
A2 Ko . Thus,
Q2 s2
V2f = E2f s2 =
A2 Ko
Now, solve for the unknown V1f in terms of V1 . Start with conservation of charge and substitute the voltages.
Q1 + Q2 = Q0
A1 o A2 K o A1 o
V1f + V2f = V1
s1 s2 s
1
A1 A2 A1

V1f + = V1
s1 s2 s1
A1
!
s1
V1f = V1 A1
s1 + A2
s2

1
V1f = V1 A2 /s2

1+ A1 /s1
17.P.100
~
E = 0 everywhere inside the sphere. Thus, V = 0 between any two points within the sphere and V is constant. V at
net
1 Q
r = a/3 is the same as V at the surface which is 4 R . As a result, at r = a/3, V = 4 R .
1 Q
o o
17.P.101
~
(a) E = 0 everywhere inside the sphere, so the molecules will not be polarized.
net
52
1 (Q)
(b) V is constant everywhere within the sphere, so V at the center is the same as V at the surface (V = 4o R ).
17.X.102
~
E
~
The net electric field inside the conductor is zero. If E = applied
, then the dielectric constant, K, for a conductor
net,conductor K
is infinite. (i.e. K = .)
17.P.103
Assume that the polarization of the plastic does not affect the E-field within regions 1-2 and 3-4 (the vacuum gaps). The
E-field in these regions is solely due to the plates. Since the charge on the plates stays the same, then the voltage across the
vacuum gaps remains the same. Since the E-field is constant in these regions, the potential is linear and you can use the
ratio of the width of the region to the width of the plates. Thus,
0.5mm

V12 = V0
2mm
1
= (1000 V)
4
= 250 V
Since region 3-4 has the same width as 1-2, then V34 = V12 = 250 V.
Inside the plastic, V = Vvacuum /K = V23,plates /K. As a result,
V0 1 mm

V23 = 2 mm
K
1/2(1000 V)
=
5
= 100 V
The total potential difference across the plates is
V14 = V12 + V23 + V34

= 250 V + 100 V + 250 V
= 600 V
As expected, the potential difference decreased as a result of inserting the plastic.
17.P.104
dV
Ez =
dz
d 1 Q

=
dz 4o (z 2 + R2 )1/2
1 1 2

= Q (z + R ) 2 3/2
(2z)
4o 2
1 Qz
=
4o (z 2 + R2 )3/2
53
This agrees with the result in Section 16.4.
17.P.105
1 dq
Break the rod into infinitesimally small pieces of charge dq. The potential at A due to a piece of the rod is dV = 4o r =
b . The total potential is found by summing the contribution dV by each piece of the rod.
1 dq
4
o
X
V = dV
1 1X
= dq
4o b
1 1
= (Q)
4o b
1 (Q)
=
4o b
1 Q
=
4o b
17.P.106
(a) Note that the E-field due to the dipole in this case is in the y direction, but the path from A to B is in the x
direction. As a result, V = E ~ d~l = 0 since E
~ and d~l are perpendicular.
R
If you use superposition to get VA , then
VA = Vq + Vq
1 q 1 (q)
= +
4o (d2 + (s/2)2 )1/2 4o (d2 + (s/2)2 )1/2
= 0
Using a similar calculation, you can easily calculate VB = 0. Then, V = VB VA = 0.
(b)
1 2qs
Ex =
4o x3
Za
= Ex dx
b
Za
1 2qs
= dx
4o x3
b
a
1 1

= 2qs 2

4o 2x
b
1 1 1

= qs 2
4o a2 b
If you use superposition, then

54
VC = VC1 + VC2
1 q 1 (q)
= +
4o x + s/2 4o x + s/2
1 1 1
= q( )
4o x + s/2 x s/2
1 x + s/2 x s/2

= q
4o (x + s/2)(x s/2)
1

s
= q
4o (x2 (s/2)2 )
1 qs
since x >> s/2
4o x2
1 qs

4o a2
Likewise, using the same mathematics, VD 4

1
b2 .
qs
Thus,
o
V = VC VD
1 qs 1 qs
= ( )
4o a2 4o b2
1 1 1

= qs 2
4o a2 b
~ d~l.
This agrees with the result obtained by integrating E
(c)
U = qV
= (e)(VC VD )
1 1 1

= e qs
4o a2 b2
1 1 1

= eqs 2
4o a2 b
1
18.X.1
16
1.8 10 electrons
i =
3 103 s
18
6 10 electrons/s
18.X.2
Nelectrons = it
18

9 10 electrons/s (10 min) (60 s/min)
21
5.4 10 electrons
18.X.3

~ ~
Bwire = BE tan

5
6
2 10 T tan 15 5.36 10 T
~
B wire
points east.
18.X.4
(a) Everywhere above q, the cross product points out of the page; everywhere below q, the cross product points into the
page; everywhere behind q, the cross product points toward the top of the page; everywhere in front of q, the cross
product points toward the bottom of the page.
(b) At each point, the direction of B

~ is reversed.
18.X.5
One way to articulate the answer is to say that for any point along the particles velocity vector, the velocity and relative
position are collinear. Another way is to say that the direction of the particle relative to the observer isnt changing. Either
way, the cross product vanishes.
18.X.6
~
B wire
must point west, so electrons must flow south (to the left) and positive charge carriers must flow north (to the right).
18.X.7
2
2
M 6.4 10 kg/mol
m
NA 6.022 1023 mol1
25
1.07 10 kg/atom
3
9 10 kg/m3 28
8.4 10 atom/m3
m 1.07 1025 kg/atom
28
28
8.4 10 atom/m3 (1 electron/atom) 8.4 10 electrons/m3
18.X.8
(a)
i = nA |~v|
i
|~v| =
nA
18
3.4 10 electrons/s 5
|~v| = 5.1 10 m/s
8.4 1028 electrons/m3 8 107 m2

(b)
L = |~v| t
L 0.3 m
t =
|~v| 5.1 105 m/s
t 5880 s 98 min
18.X.9
I = |q| i
19
18

1.6 10 C/electrons 3.4 10 electrons/s
0.54 A
18.X.10

~
I = |q| nA |~v| = |q| nA E
19
28
3
2 3 m/s

3
1.6 10 C/electron 8.4 10 electrons/m 0.5 10 m 4.5 10 (0.05 N/C)
N/C
2.37 A
18.X.11
3
|~
| = N IA
3
2
2

3 10 3 10 m 5 10 m (2 A)
9 A m2
18.EXP.12
18.EXP.1218.EXP.24 are experiments that you should perform. No solutions are provided for the experiments.
18.X.25
~v r = < (vy rz vz ry ), (vz rx vx rz ), (vx ry vy rx ) >
Substitute r = <x,y,z>
1 and factor out the denominator.
(x2 +y 2 +z 2 ) 2
< (vy z vz y), (vz x vx z), (vx y vy x) >

~v r = 1
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) 2
18.X.26
~ =< 3, 0, 0 > and D
C ~ =< 5 cos(30 ), 5 sin(50 ), 0 >=< 4.33, 2.5, 0 >.
~ D
C ~ = < (Cy Dz Cz Dy ), (Cz Dx Cx Dz ), (Cx Dy Cy Dx ) >
= < 0, 0, 7.5 >
This vector, C ~ is in the +z direction. Its magnitude is 7.5.

~ D,
~ C
D ~ ~ D
= C ~
= < 0, 0, 7.5 >
So, D ~ is in the z direction and has a magnitude 7.5.

~ C
18.X.27
~v r = < (vy rz vz ry ), (vz rx vx rz ), (vx ry vy rx ) >

= h84.8, 417, 502i m/s
4
18.X.28
~ is to the plane of ~a and ~b. Thus, C
C ~ is in the y direction. (C) is true.
18.X.29
< 2, 0, 5 > < 5, 3, 5 > = < 15, 15, 6 >
18.X.30

Accoding to the Biot-Savart law, B r2 .
~ 1

18.X.31
~ = 0 is ~v = 0 according to the Biot-Savart law.
B
18.X.32
~ = o q ~v ~r
B
4 |~r|2

~ o |~v| |r| sin
B = q 2
4 |~r|
|r| = 1 and in this case r is to ~v, so = 90 and sin 90 = 1. So

~ o q |~v|
B =
4 |~r|2
(1 107 Tm
C/s )(2.2 106 m/s)(1.6 1019 C)
=
(0.5 1010 m)2
= 14.1 T
18.X.33
(a) Conventional current flows south, so beneath the wire, B

~ due to the moving electrons is directed east.
(b) The net magnetic field due to Earth and the moving electrons in the wire is the superposition B
~
Earth
~
+B wire
, which is
northeast.
18.X.34
5
~ o q~v r
B =
4 |~r|2

~ o |q| |~v| |r| sin
B = 2
4 |~r|
Use the right-hand rule in each case to get the direction of B.

~
For P2 and P5 , B
~ = 0 since = 0 and = 180 , respectively, and sin(0) = sin(180 ) = 0.
For P1 , B
~ is in the -z direction, and

~ o (1.6 1019 C)(4 106 m/s) sin 30
B =
4 (0.05 m)2
= 1.28 1017 T
~ 0, 0, 1.28 1017 T

B =
Also at P2 , B
~ = 0, 0, 1.28 1017 T.

At P3 and P4 , B~ = 0, 0, 1.28 1017 T. Note that B
~ is the same at P , P , P , and P due to symmetry.

1 3 4 6
18.X.35
~ at each location is a superposition of B
B ~ due to each side of the rectangular loop of wire. So find B~ due to each side and
sum.
At the center of the loop, B ~ due to each side of the rectangle is into the page (z direction), so the magnetic field is also
into the page (z direction).
At the given location outside the loop, B ~ due to the top side of the loop is out of the page (+z direction) and B~ due to the
other three sides (right, left, bottom) is into the page (z direction). Since the location is much closer to the top side of the
loop than the other three sides, the top side dominates and B ~
net
is out of the page (in the +z direction). As a result, B
~
net
at this point is less than B

~
net
at the center of the loop.
18.X.36
(a)
~r = ~robs ~rparticle
= h0.02, 0.06, 0i m
(b)
p
|~r| = (0.02 m)2 + (0.06 m)2
= 0.0632 m
~r
r =
|~r|
= < 0.316, 0.949, 0 >
6
(c)
2 104 , 2 104 , 0 m/s < 0.316, 0.949, 0 >

~v r =
0, 0, 2.53 104 m/s

=
(d)
~ o q~v r
B =
4 |~r|2
7 T m (1.6 1019 C) 0, 0, 2.53 104 m/s

= 1 10
A (0.0632 m)2
19

= 0, 0, 1.01 10 T
18.X.37
Note that B~ is tangent to a circle around the axis through the velocity vector. As a result, B
~ = B
2
~ = 0, B~ and B ~ are
5 3 4
into the page (z direction), and B~ and B
1
~ are out of the page (+z direction). Due to symmetry, B
6
~ = B
1
~ = B
3
~ = B
6
~ .
4

~ o |q| |~v| |r sin |
B1 = 2
4 |~r|
(1 107 TA m )(1.6 1019 C)(5 106 m/s)(1) sin 25
=
(0.08 m)2
= 5.28 1018 T
Thus, B
~ =B~ = 0, 0, 5.28 1018 T and B
~ =B
~ = 0, 0, 5.28 1018 T.

1 6 3 4
18.P.38
(a)
~ 1 q
E = r
40 |~r|2
4 103 , 4 103 , 3 103 m

~r =
q
2 2 2
|~r| = (4 103 m) + (4 103 m) + (3 103 m)
=6.40 103 m
~r
r =
|~r|
= < 0.625, 0.625, 0.469 >
9 N m2 19
~ = (9 10 C2 )(1.6 10
E
C)(< 0.625, 0.625, 0.469 >)
(6.4 103 m)2
N
= 2.20 105 , 2.20 105 , 1.65 105

C
7
(b)
~ o q~v r
B =
4 |~r|2
Tm
(1 107 1019 C)( 3 104 , 2 104 , 7 104 m/s) h0.625, 0.625, 0.469i

A )(1.6
=
(6.4 103 )2
7 17 17

= 1.34 10 , 2.26 10 , 1.22 10 T
18.X.39
(a) Conventional current flows N. Use the right-hand rule with your thumb in the direction of the current. Below the wire,
~ points west.
B
(b) The net magnetic field is the superposition, B
~
Earth
~
+B current
, so the compass needle will point NW.
18.X.40
At location 1, current flows to the left (south) to make the compass deflect NE. Thus, at location 2, current flows to the right
(north). B
~ due to the current, at location 2 beneath the wire, is upward toward the top of the page (west). Thus the net
magnetic field due to Earth and the current-carrying wire is NW. The compass needle will in the direction shown in Figure
1. The actual angle will depend on the value of the current.
S N
Figure 1: The compass deflection at location 2 in Problem 18.X.40.
18.P.41
(a) Direction of E
~ is toward the electron. Thus,
E = < 1, 0, 0 >
Direction of B
~ is given by the right-hand rule. Since the particle is an electron, point your thumb opposite ~v, and B
~ is
tangent to a circle around an axis through your thumb. Thus, B is out of the page, in the +z direction. B =< 0, 0, 1 >.
~
8
(b)

~ 1 |q|
E =
40 |~r|2
N m2 (1.6 1019 C)
= (9 109 )
C2 (5 1010 m)2
N
= 5.76 109
C

~ o |q| |~v| sin
B = 2
4 |~r|
(1 107 TA m )(1.6 1019 C)(3 106 m/s) sin 60
=
(5 1010 )2
= 0.66 T
18.X.42
Electron current in this case flows in the -y direction. Electron current flows opposite the conventional current.
18.X.43
Conventional current flows opposite electron current, which in this case is the -z direction.
18.X.44
6.02 1023 atoms 8.8 103 kg

1 mol 1 mobile electron
= 8.98 1028 m3
mol 0.059 kg 1 m3 atom
18.X.45

~ o (1 107 TA m )(2)(0.1 A)
B
4 (0.005 m)
= 4 106 T
This is approximately two tenths of the horizontal component of Earths magnetic field. Its a small magnetic field but
detectable by the deflection of the compass needle.
18.X.46
9

Bwire

BEarth

Bnet

Figure 2: A sketch of the magnetic fields in Problem 18.X.46.
(a) A sketch of the magnetic field due to Earth and due to the wire, along with the net magnetic field, is shown in Figure
2.
Bwire
tan =
BEarth
Bwire = BEarth tan
(2 105 T) tan 10
3.5 106 T
(b) Conventional current flows south in order to create a magnetic field beneath the wire that is east. Thus, electrons
(which flows opposite conventional current) flow north.
18.X.47
The exact formula gives
o LI
B =
4 r(r2 + ( L2 )2 ) 32
Tm

(0.62 m)(0.8 A)
B = 1 107 3
A (0.029 m)((0.029 m)2 + (1/2(0.62 m))2 ) 2
= 5.67 105 T
The approximate formula gives
o 2I
B
4 r
Tm

7 2(0.8 A)
1 10
A 0.029 m
5.52 105 T
10
18.X.48
o 2I
B
r
4
7 T m

2(0.9 A)
1 10
A 0.035 m
5.14 106 T
18.X.49
Sketch the rectangle and choose a direction for the current. One particular choice is shown in Figure 3.
I 50 cm
3 cm
Figure 3: A sketch of the current in Problem 18.X.49.
The net magnetic field in the center is the sum of the magnetic field due to each side of the rectangular loop. However, since
the center is much further from the short sides (in fact, it is 17 times further) compared to the long sides, the magnetic field
due to the short sides is negligible.
Since the magnetic field at the center due to each long side is in the same direction (+z according to the figure), then the
net magnetic field is
~
B 2B~
net long side

~
o 2I
Bnet 2
4 r
Since r << L, the length of the long side,

~
2(1 107 TA m )(2)(0.3 A)
Bnet
0.015 m
8.0 106 T
~ = 0, 0, 8.0 106 T

B net
11
The direction of the magnetic field at the center depends on your choice for the direction of the current (clockwise or
counter-clockwise around the loop). Approximations included neglecting the short sides of the loop and using r << L since
0.015 m << 0.5 m.
18.X.50
Direction of B
~ is given by the right-hand rule and is in the +z direction (out of the page).

~ o 2IAN
B =
4 R3
Tm
(1 107 A )2(4 A)()(0.05 m)2 (100)
=
(0.05 m)3
= 5.03 103 T
~ 0, 0, 5.03 103 T

B =
18.X.51
(a) The conventional current is in the +x direction, < 1, 0, 0 >.

(b) l = 1.38 m = 0.1625 m

(c) ~l = 0.1625 m

(d) ~l = (0.1625 m) < 1, 0, 0 >= h0.1625, 0, 0i m

(e) ~r4 =< l
2 , 0, 0 >= h0.08125, 0, 0i m
(f)
~r = ~robs ~r4
= h0.081, 0.178, 0i m h0.08125, 0, 0i m
= h0.16225, 0.178, 0i m
(g)
|~r| = 0.2409 m
~r
r = =< 0.674, 0.739, 0 >
|~r|
(h) ~l r = h0, 0, 0.120i m

(i)
~ o ~l r
B = I
4 |~r|2
Tm
(1 107 A )(6.5
A)(h0, 0, 0.120i m)
=
(0.1625 m)2
= 0, 0, 2.95 106 T

12
Use the right-hand rule to verify the direction. With your thumb pointing to the right and fingers curling around your
thumb, your fingers point in the +z direction at point A.
18.X.52
The ring acts as a magnetic dipole. Since current flows clockwise (looking from point A), B ~ along th axis of the loop points
in the -x direction. Thus, BC and BA are < 1, 0, 0 >. At points B, D, E, and F, B is in the opposite direction of the dipole
~
moment ~ . Thus, BB = BD = BE = BF =< 1, 0, 0 >.
18.X.53
(a)
o 2IA
B =
4 (r + R2 ) 32
2
(1 107 T m )2(0.8 A)(0.09 m)2

A
= 3
((0.32 m)2 + (0.09 m)2 ) 2
= 1.11 107 T
(b)
Bcoil = N Bloop
= (100)(1.11 107 T)
= 1.11 105 T
18.P.54
~ is the superposition of B
B ~ ~
+B .
wire loop
~
B wire
is in the z direction and has a magnitude
o 2I
Bwire
4 r
T m 2(3.5 A)
(1 107 )
A 0.058 m
1.21 105 T
~ 0, 0, 1.21 105 T

so B wire
~
B loop
is in the z direction and has a magnitude
o 2IA
Bloop =
4 R3
T m 2(3.5 A)(0.058 m)2
= (1 107 )
A (0.058 m)3
= 3.79 105 T
~ = 0, 0, 3.79 105 T

so B loop
13
~
B = ~
B ~
+B
net loop wire
0, 0, 3.79 105 T + 0, 0, 1.21 105 T

=
0, 0, 5.00 105 T

=
18.P.55
Beneath the wire, B
~ points west (toward the top of the page).
o 2I
Bwire
r
4
7 T m

2(0.2 A)
1 10
A (0.005 m)
= 8.0 106 T
The net magnetic field is shown in Figure 4.

Bwire

Bnet

BEarth
Figure 4: A sketch of the net magnetic field.
Bwire
tan =
BEarth
8 106 T

1
tan
2 105 T
22
The compass needle points in the direction shown in Figure 5.
18.P.56
Since the given location is nearly along the axis of the long straight pieces, then B~ due to the long straight pieces is
approximately zero. The net magnetic field is the superposition of B due to each hemisphere.
~
14
S N
Figure 5: The compass needle
Find B
~ due to a hemisphere of radius R.

~ o Idl sin
dB = 4 |~r|2 , where is the angle between ~r and d~l and dl = Rd, as shown in Figure 6.
dl
r

Figure 6: A sketch showing important vectors for finding B

~ in Problem 18.P.56.
Since ~r and d~l are , and sin 90 = 1.

~ o Idl
dB = 2
Z4 R
I
Z
Bz = dBz = o 2 dl
4 R
Z
o I
= Rd
4 R2 0
o I
= R
4 R2
I
= o
4 R
Bz is negative since I is clockwise in this case. The upper hemisphere creates a magnetic field
15
o I
B1,z =
4 R1
The lower hemisphere creates a magnetic field
o I
Bz =
4 R2
The net magnetic field is
Bnet,z = B1,z + B2,z

!
1 1
= o I +
4 R1 R2
Its magnitude is
!

~
o 1 1
Bnet = I +
4 R1 R2
Its direction is B =< 0, 0, 1 >.
18.P.57
(a) A sketch of the compass, along with relevant vectors, is shown in Figure 7. Current flows south.
N
W

BEarth
Bwire
E
S
Figure 7: A sketch of the compass for Problem 18.P.57.
~
B wire
points east, thus the current flows south, according to the right-hand rule.
16
(b)
Bwire
tan =
BEarth
Bwire = BEarth tan
(2 105 T) tan(10 )
3.53 106 T
o 2I
Bwire =
4 r
Bwire r
I =
2 4o
(3.53 106 T)(0.005 m)
=
2(1 107 TA m )
= 0.088 A
18.P.58
The magnetic field along the axis of the coil is

~ o 2IAN
B =
4 (r2 + R2 ) 23
Where r is the distance along the axis from the center of the coil.
Align the coil so that its plane is N-S and the magnetic field along the axis of its coil is E-W. Measure the deflection of the
compass needle from North, .
Then,
Bcoil
tan =
BEarth
Bcoil = BEarth tan
Calculate I.
3
Bcoil (r2 + R2 ) 2
I = o
4 2AN
3
(BEarth tan )(r2 + R2 ) 2
I = o 2
4 2(R )N
Substitute measured values of r, R, N , and to calculate I.

17
18.P.59
~
Bnet
=B~
wire
~
+B loop
, by the Superposition Principle. The magnetic field due to the wire is
o 2I
Bwire,z =
4 r
where r = R. The magnetic field due to the loop is
o 2IA 2IR2
Bloop,z = 3
= o
4 R 4 R3
o 2I
=
4 R
Thus, Bnet,z is
Bnet,z = Bwire,z + Bloop,z

o 2I 2I
= + o
4 R 4 R
o 2I
= (1 + )
4 R

~ o 2I
B = (1 + )
4 R
It is in the +z direction, according to the right-hand rule. Thus, B =< 0, 0, 1 >.
18.P.60
Current flows clockwise around the coil, thus B
~ at the center of the coil is in the -z direction. The needle will be deflected
inward, and the top view of the compass will appear like Figure 8.

S N
Figure 8: A sketch of the compass in Problem 18.P.60.
Assume it is a thin coil. At the coils center,

18

~ o 2IAN
B =
4 R3
(1 107 T)2(0.25 A)(0.15 m)2 (3)
=
(0.15 m)3
= 3.14 106 T
Bcoil
tan =
BEarth
3.14 106 T

1
= tan
2 105 T
= 8.9
18.P.61
(a) Use the right-hand rule applied to each straight line segment (each side) of the triangle. In each case, the magnetic
field due to a side is in the -z direction (east). Thus, the compass will be deflected eastward and will point northeast.
(b) (3) is the only reasonable way to model the triangular loop.
(c) Find B~ , the magnetic field due to one side of the triangular loop. Multply by 3 to get B
side
~
loop
and multiply by N = 3
to get Bnet due to the coil.
~

~
o LI
Bside =
4 r(r2 + L 2 ) 12

2
7 T m

(0.083 m)(0.62 A)
= 1 10 2 1
A (0.024 m)((0.024 m)2 + 0.083 m ) 2
2
= 2.05 106 T

~
Bloop = 3Bside = 6.15 106 T

Bcoil = N Bloop
= 3(6.15 106 T)
= 1.84 105 T
The compass deflection from north is

19
!
1
Bcoil
= tan
BEarth
43
18.P.62
Use the compass deflection to find the current in the wire and its direction. By the right-hand rule, the current flows N (in
the +x direction).
Bwire = BEarth tan

= (2 105 T) tan(11 )
= 3.89 106 T
o 2I
Bwire
4 r
Bwire r
I o
4 2
(3.89 106 T)(0.003 m)

2(1 107 TA m )
0.0583 A
The magnetic field at location A is
o 2I
Bwire =
4 r
Tm
(1 107 A )2(0.0538 A)
=
0.028 m
= 4.16 107 T
Note that, since r << L in both cases, one can more easily solve the problem using ratios. Since Bwire 1r , then
Bcompass rcompass = BA rA
!
rcompass
BA = Bcompass
rA

6 0.3 cm
= (3.89 10 T)
2.8 cm
= 4.16 107 T
20
Solving for the current is not necessary. Since point A is 9 times further than the compass, then BA is 1
9 the magnetic field
due to the wire at the compass.
18.P.63
(a) Neglect the upper straight line segments because they contribute zero field. Neglect the side segments because they
are relatively short and far away and contribute negligible field. Thus, the net magnetic field is a superposition of the
magnetic field due to the hemisphere and the lower straight line segment. Application of the right-hand rule shows
that the field due to each of these parts of the wire is into the page (-z direction).
(b)
~
B ~
= B ~
+B
net hemisphere straight / wire
Bnet,z = Bz,hemisphere + Bz,straight/wire

o I o 2I
= +
4 R 4 h
where we assume that h << L. Thus,

~ o 2
B = I +
4 R h
18.P.64
~
B ~ +B
=B ~ . Since B
~ and B
~ are to the right, B
~ is to the right.
net 1 2 1 2 net
(a)

~
o 2IAN
Bcoil =
4 (r2 + R2 ) 32
7 T m 2(2A)(0.03 m)2 (10)

~
B1 = 1 10 3
A ((0.10 m)2 + (0.03 m)2 ) 2
= 9.94 106 T
~ 9.94 106 , 0, 0 T + 9.94 106 , 0, 0 T

B net
=
1.99 105 , 0, 0 T

=

~
Bnet = 1.99 105 T
Direction is B =< 1, 0, 0 >.
(b) Approximate formula gives

21
o 2I(R2 )
Bcoil
4 r3
T m 2(2A)(0.03 m)2 (10)
(1 107 )
A (0.1 m)3
1.13 105 T

1.13 0.994
% error = 100
0.994
14%
In this case, z 3R, thus z is not much greater than R. If z = 10R, then the approximation is better and the error is
less.

(c) In this case, B
~ is in the -x direction. Since B
2 1
~ and B
~ = B
2
~ is in the +x direction, then B
1
~
net
~ +B
=B 1
~ = 0.
2
18.P.65
(a) B
~
wire
at the location of the compass is west, so I flows N in this part of the wire. Both the top and bottom segments
of the wire create a magnetic field at A that is into the page (-z direction).
At the location of the compass, the segment of the wire above the compass dominates. So B
~
net
~
B wire
where
~ o 2I
B
wire
4 r

From the compass deflection, B
~ ~
= B tan = (2 105 T) tan(17 ) = 6.11 106 T.

wire
Earth
Find the current I.

~
Bwire r

I =
2 4o
(6.11 106 T)(0.003 m)
=
2(1 107 TA m )
= 0.0917 A
(b) At location A, B~ is the superposition of B ~ due to the upper bire and B

~ due to the lower wire. Neglect the curved
portion of the wire since it is short and far away.
22
~ = B
B ~ +B ~
1 2

~ o 2I
B1 =
4 r
Tm
(1 107 A )2(0.0917 A)
= 0.045 m

2
= 1 107 T
~ = 0, 0, 8.15 107 T

B 1
Due to symmetry, B
~ =B
1
~ , so
2
~
B ~ +B
= B ~
net 1 2
= ~
2B

1
= 0, 0, 1.63 106 T

(c) We assumed that r << L (very long wire compared to distances where B
~ is calculated). We also neglected the curved
part of the wire.
18.P.66
The straight segments contribute zero magnetic field at point C. Thus B
~
net
is the superposition of (1) B~ due to the large
hemisphere and (2) B due to the small hemisphere and (3) B due to the loop. In all cases, B is in the -z direction. B
~ ~ ~ ~ due to
a hemisphere is
~ o I
B =
hemisphere
4 R
Thus,
~
B = ~ +B
B ~ +B ~
net 1 2 3
o I o I o 2I
Bnet,z =
4 R 4 r 4 r
1 3
= o I +
4 R r

~ o 1 3
B = < 0, 0, I + >
net
4 R r

~
o 1 3
Bnet = I +
4 R r
B = < 0, 0, 1 >
18.P.67
23
(a) The left wire

(1)
creates
B~ in the -z direction. The right wire (2) creates B
~ in the +z direction. Since the right wire is
closer, B2 > B1 and Bnet is in the +z direction.
~ ~ ~
~
B ~ +B
= B ~
net 1 2
o 2I 2I
Bnet,z = + o
4 r1 4 r2
7 T m
(1 10 A )(2)(15 A) (1 107 TA m )(2)(15 A)
= +
(0.5 m + 0.003 2
m
) (0.5 m 0.0032
m
)
= 5.9821 106 T + 6.0181 106 T
= 3.60 108 T
~
Bnet,max = 3.60 108 T

~
B net
oscillates with a maximum of 3.60 108 T.
(b) The net magnetic field in (a) is due to the fact that the right hand wire is closer than the left wire. When braided, the
wires alternate between being closer and further. Due to symmetry, the net magnetic field will be zero (or nearly zero,
depending on whether the perpendicular bisector from the point where the field is calculated intersects with the point
where the wires cross or not.)
(c)
!
1 1
Bnet,z = o 2I
4 r1 r2
!
1 1
= o 2I d
d
4 r+ 2 r 2
!
d
r 2 (r + d2 )
= o 2I
4 (r + d2 )(r d2 )
!
o d
= 2I 2
4 r2 d2
d 2
Since r2 >> 2 ,

o 2Id
Bnet,z
4 r2

~
o 2Id
Bnet
4 r2
18.P.68

(a) It is 0 because ~l r = ~l |r| sin , = 180 , and sin(180 ) = 0

(b) A piece of wire is at location x and has a length dx in the direction < 1, 0, 0 >. The vector ~r to location P is
24
~r = ~rP ~rwire
= < w, h, 0 > < x, 0, 0 >
= < w x, h, 0 >
1
|~r| = ((w + x)2 + h2 ) 2
~r
r =
|~r|
~ o Id~l r
dB =
4 |~r|2
o Id~l ~r
=
4 |~r|3
d~l ~r = < dx, 0, 0 > < (w + x), h, 0 >

= < 0, 0, hdx >
~ is thus in the +z direction, consistent with the right-hand rule.

dB
o Ihdx
dBz =
4 ((w + x)2 + h2 ) 23
Z x=d
o Ihdx
Bz,P = 3
x=0 4 ((w + x)2 + h2 ) 2
Z d
o dx
Bz,P = Ih
4 ((w + x) 2 + h2 ) 32
0
(c) As shown by computing d~l r, B

~ is in the +z direction. This can also be found using the right-hand rule.
P
18.X.69
(a) A long coil (called a solenoid) creates a nearly uniform B

~ inside the solenoid.
(b) B 1
r for distances to a long, straight wire.
(c) B r12 for distances to a moving charged particle. Also, 18.P.67(c) shows that B 1
r2 for distances far from two
long, parallel wires close together that carry current in opposite directions.
(d) B r13 along the axis of a magnetic dipole, including a loop or coil for distances much greater than the radius of the
loop or coil.
25
18.X.70
Yes, though there is no flow of charge through the magnet. Electrons orbit their nuclei. This moving charge in the atom is
a type of current, and the atom acts as an atomic magnetic dipole with a dipole moment. If the individual atomic dipole
moments generally align, then there will be a non-zero net magnetic dipole moment.
18.X.71
If the magnets are uniform, then the 1 kg magnet will have a dipole moment + that is 10 times greater than the dipole
moment of the 100 gram magnet. As a result, since B , then the 1 kg magnet will produce a magnetic field 10 times
larger than the 100 gram magnet at a given distance.
18.X.72
(a)

~
o 2
Bdipole =

4 r3
You can solve for and then solve for B at r = 0.38 m. Alternately, note that B r3 .
1
Thus Br3 is constant.
B1 r13 = B2 r23
(6 105 T)(0.19 m)3 = B(0.38 m)3
B = 7.5 106 T
1 3
Note that doubling the distance causes B to change by a factor of = 18 .

2
(b) Increasing the mass by a factor of 5 causes the dipole moment to increase by a factor of 5. This is like placing 5 identical
magnets end to end. As a result, B at r = 0.19 m increases by a factor of 5, since B .
Thus, B = 5(7.5 106 T) = 3.75 105 T
18.P.73
5

~ ~
Bbar = B E
tan 2 10 T tan 70
5
5.5 10 T

~
o 2 |~|
Bbar =
4 |~r|3
5

~ 3 3
Bbar |~r| 5.5 10 T (0.25 m)
|~
| =
2 1 107 T m/A

2 4o
4.3 A m2
18.P.74
26
(a) From three experimental trials, we found an average dipole moment of |~

| 0.239 A m2 .
(b) The alnico magnet in the M&I experiment kit has a mass of approximately 13 g or 0.013 kg. Assume the magnet is
made entirely of iron (it is not!), which has an atomic mass per mole of 56 g/mol or 0.056 kg/mol. We can now estimate
the number of (iron) atoms in the magnet.
mbar m
# atoms = = bar
matom M
N
A
0.013 kg 23
1.39 10 atoms
0.056 kg/mol
6.0221023 mol1
So the magnets total magnetic moment can be estimated.

bar ~ atom natoms

~
23
23

1 10 A m2 /atom 1.39 10 atom 1.4 A m2
This is reasonable agreement given the crude measurements.
18.P.75
(a) The N pole of the compass needle points toward magnetic north, so the bars left end must be a magnetic S pole.
(b)
5
5
~ ~
B = B E
tan 2 10 T tan 50 2.4 10 T
5

~ 3 3
B |~r| 2.38 10 T (0.016 m)
|~
| = 0.49 A m2
2 1 107 CTm/s

2 4o m2
18.P.76
(a) The bars S end is closer to the compass. The N end would have deflected the needle in the other direction.
(b) At C, B
~
net
points 60 west of north (i.e. NW). At B and D, B
~
net
points north of east (i.e NE).
(c)

~ 3
B |~r|
|~
| =
2 4o
5

3
3.46 10 T (0.16 m)

2 1 107 CTm/s

m2
0.71 A m2
18.P.77
(a) The field from the coil would deflect the needle in the +x direction, so B
~
bar
must point in the x direction. Thus, the
bars S end is closer to the compass.
27
(b) Statements 1 and 5 are true.

(c) The two fields have equal magnitudes and we can set their respective expressions equal to each other to find the coils
magnetic moment.
3
r 0.097 3

~ coil

0.54 A m2

coil =
~
0.225
~ bar
~rbar

0.043 A m2

Now use ~coil to solve for the number of turns.

coil coil

~ ~
N = =
AI R2 I
0.043 A m2

2 12 turns
3.5 102 m (0.96 A)
18.P.78
An example program is shown below.
4 s c e n e . width = 1024
5 s c e n e . h e i g h t = 768
6
7 mzofp = 1 e7
8 L = 2 e 10
9
10 p a r t i c l e = s p h e r e ( pos=(1e 10 ,0 ,0) , r a d i u s =3e 12 , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )

11 p a r t i c l e . v = v e c t o r ( 3 e5 , 0 , 0 )
12 pq = 1 . 6 e 19
13 dt = 1 e 18
14 B s c a l e = 12 e 12
15
16 # s e t up l i s t o f o b s e r v a t i o n l o c a t i o n s
17 olist = []
18 orad = 0 . 3 e 10
19 for x in a r a n g e (L/ 2 , L/ 2 , L/ 8 ) :
20 for t h e t a in a r a n g e ( 0 , 2 pi , p i / 4 ) :
21 o l i s t . append ( arrow ( pos=(x , orad c o s ( t h e t a ) , orad s i n ( t h e t a ) ) ,
22 a x i s = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan ) )
23
24 # move proton , r e c a l c u l a t e a l l B ' s a t each p o s i t i o n

25 dt = 1 e 18
26 scene . autoscale = 0
27 while 1 :
28 rate (100)
29 p a r t i c l e . pos = p a r t i c l e . pos + p a r t i c l e . v dt
30 for barrow in o l i s t :
31 r = barrow . pos p a r t i c l e . pos
32 B = mzofp pq c r o s s ( p a r t i c l e . v , norm ( r ) ) /mag( r ) 2
33 barrow . a x i s = B B s c a l e
28
(a) Increasing the particles speed increases the magnitude of the magnetic field at all locations.
(b) For an electron, the direction of the magnetic field at all locations is opposite to its direction for a proton. That is, the
magnetic field curls the opposite direction.
(c) The magnetic field changes as the position of the particle changes. As the particle gets closer to a given point, the
magnetic field increases. As the particle gets further away from a given point, the magnetic field decreases.
(d) A modified version of the program is shown below. It displays orange arrows that represent the electric field at the
given locations. Note that for a proton, they point away from the proton, and for an electron they point toward the
electron.
4 s c e n e . width = 1024
5 s c e n e . h e i g h t = 768
6
7 mzofp = 1 e7
8 o o f p e z = 9 e9
9 L = 2 e 10
10
11 p a r t i c l e = s p h e r e ( pos=(1e 10 ,0 ,0) , r a d i u s =3e 12 , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )

12 p a r t i c l e . v = v e c t o r ( 3 e5 , 0 , 0 )
13 pq = 1 . 6 e 19
14 dt = 1 e 18
15 B s c a l e = 12 e 12
16 E s c a l e = 2 e 23
17
18 # s e t up l i s t o f o b s e r v a t i o n l o c a t i o n s
19 olist = []
20 elist = []
21 orad = 0 . 3 e 10
22 f o r x in a r a n g e (L/ 2 , L/ 2 , L/ 8 ) :
23 f o r t h e t a in a r a n g e ( 0 , 2 pi , p i / 4 ) :
24 o l i s t . append ( arrow ( pos=(x , orad c o s ( t h e t a ) , orad s i n ( t h e t a ) ) ,
25 a x i s = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan ) )
26 e l i s t . append ( arrow ( pos=(x , orad c o s ( t h e t a ) , orad s i n ( t h e t a ) ) ,
27 a x i s = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . o r a n g e ) )
28
29 # move proton , r e c a l c u l a t e a l l B ' s a t each p o s i t i o n

30 dt = 1 e 18
31 scene . autoscale = 0
32 while 1 :
33 rate (100)
34 p a r t i c l e . pos = p a r t i c l e . pos + p a r t i c l e . v dt
35 i =0
36 f o r barrow in o l i s t :
37 r = barrow . pos p a r t i c l e . pos
38 B = mzofp pq c r o s s ( p a r t i c l e . v , norm ( r ) ) /mag( r ) 2
39 E = o o f p e z pq/mag( r ) 2 norm ( r )
40 barrow . a x i s = B B s c a l e
41 e l i s t [ i ] . a x i s = E E s c a l e
42 i=i +1
29
18.P.79
(a) A sample program is shown below.

2 # Solution using a h e l i x
5
7
8 L = 0.5 ## l e n g t h of s o l e n o i d in meters
9 R = 0.03 ## ra dius of s o l e n o i d in meters
10 kmag=1e7 ## mu0/4 p i
11 I = 1.0 ## conventional current
12
13 Nturns =50. ## number o f t u r n s i n s o l e n o i d

14 N e l t s =20. ## number o f l i n e segments p e r t u r n
15 bscale = 600. ## s c a l e f a c t o r f o r B arrows
16
17 ## c o n s t r u c t a s o l e n o i d o u t o f a c u r v e
18 dxx = L/ ( Nturns N e l t s )
19 xx = a r a n g e (L / 2 . , L/2+dxx , dxx )
20 omega = 2 p i Nturns /L
21 s o l e n o i d = c u r v e ( x=xx , y=R s i n ( xxomega ) , z=R c o s ( xxomega ) , c o l o r = ( . 9 , . 7 , 0 ) ,
22 r a d i u s =0.001)
23
24 ## make a l i s t o f z e r o l t h arrows a t o b s e r v a t i o n l o c a t i o n s
25 Barrows = [ ] ## empty l i s t
26 dx = L / 4 .
27 z z =0.
28 fo r x in a r a n g e (L / 2 . , L/2.+dx , dx ) :
29 f o r y in [ 0 . 0 5 , 0.04 , 0.02 , 0.01 , 0 . , 0 . 0 1 , 0 . 0 2 , 0 . 0 4 , 0 . 0 5 ] :
30 aa=arrow ( pos=(x , y , z z ) , a x i s = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan ,
31 shaftwidth = 0.003)
32 Barrows . append ( aa )
33
34 ## a t e v e r y o b s e r v a t i o n l o c a t i o n add up c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f each d l
35 fo r b in Barrows :
36 ## d l i s a v e c t o r a l o n g one l i n e segment o f t h e s o l e n o i d c u r v e
37 d l s t a r t = s o l e n o i d . pos [ 0 ]
38 f o r p o i n t in s o l e n o i d . pos :
39 dl = point d l s t a r t ## f i r s t time t h r o u g h l o o p d l w i l l be z e ro , which
i s ok
40 r = b . pos ( d l s t a r t + d l / 2 . )
41 b . a x i s = b . a x i s + ( b s c a l e kmag I c r o s s ( dl , norm ( r ) ) ) /mag( r ) 2
42 d l s t a r t = point
43 # p r i n t " l o c a t i o n " , b . pos , " mag( b ) " , mag( b . a x i s ) / b s c a l e
44
45 print ' Nturns : ' , Nturns , ' Nsteps : ' , N e l t s

46 print ' A n a l y t i c a l c a l c : B_near c e n t e r = ' , kmag 4 . p i Nturns I /L , 'T '
(b) To print the magnetic field at the given locations inside and outside the solenoid, uncomment the print statement in
30
the code. The numerical solution for the magnetic field at the center gives 0.0001258 T. The analytical solution gives
0.0001256 T. These agree to three significant figures.
If one uses 15 line segments per turn or less, the numerical and analytic solutions will not agree to three significant
figures. It seems that 20 line segments is an approximate minimum for agreement to three significant figures.
(c) Certainly near the ends, the magnetic field will be different than near the center. So, compare points at x = +L/4 and
x = L/4. Along the x axis, the magnetic field is fairly uniform regardless of the number of turns. For as little as 10
turns, it is fairly uniform along the x-axis though it varies somewhat along the radial direction. Less than 10 turns it
is certainly not uniform along any axis.
For 20 turns, it still varies a small amount in direction along the radial axis. For 30 turns or more, it gets even better.
(d) Outside the solenoid, the magnetic field is nearly zero (very small) and points perpendicular to the axis of the solenoid.
Inside the solenoid, the magnetic field is nearly uniform and parallel to the axis of the solenoid.
1
19.X.1
I1 + I2 = I2 + I3
5 A + 6 A I2 + 8 A
I2 11 A 8 A
I2 3A
If I4 1 A then we have
5A+1A I2 + 8 A
I2 6A8A
I2 2 A
The negative sign means we chose the wrong initial direction for I2 .
19.X.2
The sum of i2 and i3 must be the same as the sum of i1 and i4 .
19.X.3

~ |~v|
E =
u
5
5 10 m/s
m/s
4.5 103 N/C
2
1.1 10 N/C
19.X.4

Athin ~vthin = Athick ~vthick

Athick
~vthin = ~vthick

Athin
5
5
(2) 4 10 m/s 8 10 m/s
2

~ ~
E2 = 2 E1
(2) 1.8 10 N/C
19.X.5 Be careful! You cant just write iA = iB because the wires are in different circuits! For this problem, use ratio
reasoning.
2

~
iB nB AB uB EB

=
iA ~
nA AA uA E
A
(1.5)(4)(2) 12
18

iB (12)iA (12) 1 10 m/s
19
1.2 10 electrons/s
19.X.6
1: E
~ points to the left, and ~v points to the right.
2: E
~ points up, and ~v points down.
3: E
~ points to the right, and ~v points left.
4: E
~ points down, and ~v points up.
5: E
~ points to the left, and ~v points to the right.
All E
~ arrows have the same length, and all ~v arrows have the same length.
19.X.7
19.X.8

(a) no continuous charge gradient; it changes abruptly at the middle of the circuit; E wont be uniform
~
(b) wrong charge distribution on ends of thin wire

(c) wrong charge distribution on ends of middle thick wire
19.X.9

~ |Q| /A
E
o

~ |Q| s
emf E s
o A
(emf )Ao
|Q|
s
3
19.X.10
2
2 12
C2
(1.5 V) 1 10 m 9 10 N m2
|Q|
5 102 m

14
|Q| 8.5 10 C
19.X.11
Most of the energy dissipation happens in the bulbs filament. Its thinner than the connecting wires, has a greater electric
field inside it, and contributes more to energy loss.
19.X.12

VC VF + VD VC + VE VD = 0

5 V + VD VC 3.5 V = 0

VD VC + 1.5 V = 0
VC VD = 1.5 V
The batterys positive end is at C.
19.X.13

~ ~ ~
E1
L1
E2
L2
E3 L3 + emf = 0

~
E2 L2 1.5 V V2

We can neglect the losses E L1 and E3 L3 . There isnt enough information to determine the current.
~ ~
1
19.X.14
Application of the Loop Rule (conservation of energy) to the circuit gives

Vbatt = V

wire
emf = EL
emf
E =
L
1.5 V
=
0.3 m
V
= 5
m
The electric field is independent of the diameter of the wire, so it is the same for a 0.35 mm diameter wire.
4
19.EXP.15
19.EXP.1519.EXP.22 are experiments. Solutions are not provided for experiments.
19.X.23
Equilibrium and steady state are similar in that both refer to a condition where the net force on a charged particle is zero.
However, equilibrium refers to a situation where the net electric field is zero and charged particles are stationary. Steady
state refers to a situation where the net electric field is constant and charged particles move with a constant current (e.g.
constant speed in a uniform wire).
19.X.24
Metal wire In steady-state In equilibrium

Location of excess charge There is no excess charge within the wire. Excess charge is on the surface.
There is a gradient of static charge on the
surface of the wire.
Motion of mobile electrons Mobile electrons flow at constant speed Mobile electrons are at rest.
within the wire (i.e. constant current).
E inside the metal wire The electric field is constant (and non- The electric field is zero.
zero) within the wire.
Table 1: Answers to question 19.X.24
19.X.25
There can be a nonzero electric field inside a wire if there is a gradient of surface charge on the wire. The result is a potential
difference between the ends of the wire.
No, the electric field inside a metal is not always zero. For example, one part of the metal may be in contact with one
terminal of a battery, and another part of the metal may be in contact with the opposite terminal of the battery.
19.X.26
Apply the Current Node Rule (which results from Conservation of Charge flowing into and out of a node).
iA = iB + iC
iB + iC = iD
iA = iD
19.X.27
When doing this experiment, you will notice that the brightness of the identical bulbs is the same. Also, if you switch the
two bulbs, their brightness will remain the same.
Theoretically, the results of the experiment follow from the Current Node Rule which is a statement of Conservation of
Charge. Whatever charge flows through one bulb (in one second) must flow through the second bulb (in one second). Charge
cannot be gained or lost as it flows through any part of the circuit, including a bulb.
19.X.28
According to the Current Node Rule, the current flowing into the node must equal the current flowing out of the node.
5
I1 + I4 = I2 + I3
7 A+8 A = 4 A + I2
I2 = 11 A
19.X.29
B, C, E, F, and G are true.
19.X.30
A, C, F, H, and I are true.
19.X.31
(a) The units of i are mobile electrons per second, or s1 .
(b) n is the mobile electron density. The units of n are electrons per cubic meter, or m3 .
(c) A is the cross-sectional area of the wire. The units of A are m2 .
(d) v is the drift speed, and its units are m/s.
(e) u is the electron mobility of the metal, and its units are N C/(V s) or m2 /(V s).
19.X.32
The mobile electrons do not accelerate because the net force on the electrons is zero. Though there is an electric force
(F~ = eE)~ on the electrons in the direction of their velocity, there is also a force due to drag that is opposite the velocity of
the electrons. The sum of these forces is zero, so the acceleration of the electrons is zero. Note that the drag force is due to
interactions (i.e. collisions) of mobile electronics with positively charged nuclei and bound electrons.
The dynamics of the situation is similar to a skydiver who jumps out of an airplane. Eventually she reaches a terminal
(constant) velocity and her acceleration is zero. The net force on the skydiver is zero because the magnitude of the force of
air resistance (drag) on the skydiver is equal to the magnitude of the gravitational force on the skydiver.
19.X.33
The metal may not have a uniform shape. For example, if a metal wire is wide on one end and narrow on the other end,
then its cross-sectional area changes. The electron current is the same in all parts of the metal; however, the drift speed of
mobile electrons will be greater in the narrow end (due to smaller cross-sectional area).
19.X.34
Copper is a better conductor than iron. This means that for a given electric field, the current in copper is greater than the
current in iron. As a result, the electron mobility u for copper must be greater.
19.X.35
6
v = uE
7 105 m/s
E =
4.5 103 (m/s)/(N/C)
= 0.0156 N/C
19.X.36
Note that v 1/A. If you multiply A by 1/3, then v increases by 3. So, v2 = 3v1 = 1.2 104 m/s.
19.X.37
Note that i = nAuE and therefore E 1/A. If you multiply A by 1/2, then E increases by 2. Therefore, E2 = 2E1 =
2 102 N/C.
19.X.38
Note that i = nAuE. The electron current is directly proportional to n, A, and u. If you increase A by a factor of 6, for
example, then i increases by a factor of 6. Thus, the current in wire B is iB = (6)(1.3)(4)iA = 6.24 1019 electrons/s.
19.X.39
The electron current in the thick and thin wires is the same (due to Conservation of Charge). Since i = nAuE, then the
smaller cross-sectional area wire will have a proportionally larger electric field. In any given uniform segment of the wire,
the electric field is uniform. Therefore, (a) is the correct graph of the magnitude of the electric field at locations around the
circuit.
Since v = uE, then the drift speed is proportional to the electric field, and the shape of the graph for v is the same as for E.
Therefore, (g) is the correct graph of drift speed around the circuit.
19.X.40
n and u depend on the material, so these are the same for both the thin and thick wires. Since i = nAv and v = uE and
since the electron current is the same for the thin and thick wires (due to Conservation of Charge), then the smaller area
wire will have a larger drift speed and larger electric field. Therefore, v and E are larger in the thin wire.
19.P.41
True: E
False: A, B, C, D
18
In steady state, the currents at B and D must be equal so iB iD 6 10 e/s.
Use the properties of the thick wire to calculate the electric field inside it.

~
iB = nB AB uB EB

~ iB
EB =
nB AB uB
18
6 10 electrons/s
2
m/s
4 1028 electrons/m3 0.55 103 m 6 104 N/C
0.26 N/C
7
19.P.42
(a) Electrons move to the right. Their magnetic field must point toward the top of the page.
(b) The current divides equally between bulbs 2 and 3 since they are identical. Thus the current through each of them is
18
1.5 10 e/s.
(c) B2 = B3 < B1

(d)

~
i = nAu E

~ i
E =
nAu
18
3 10 electrons/s

m/s
electrons/m3 1 108 m2 1.2 104

6.3 1028 N/C
39.7 N/C
The electric field points to the left.
19.P.43
iT = N
I
T = N
|q|
N |q|
T =
I
23 19
( 21 mol) 6 10 ions/mol 1.6 10 C/ion

0.3 C/s
5
1.6 10 s 44.4 h
19.P.44
(a) The needle deflects to the left.

(b) The needle deflects 13 to the right. The current is the same at both places, and the only reason the needle deflects to
the right is because the wire is bent.
(c)

~ i
E1 =
nAu
18
1.5 10 electrons/s

m/s
electrons/m3 1 108 m2 1.2 104

6.3 1028 N/C
19.8 N/C
~ points up (toward the top of the page).

E1
8
19.X.45
What creates a uniform electric field within the wire and a constant current throughout the wire during steady state is a
surface charge gradient. During the few nanoseconds before steady state is established, the current is not the same everywhere
because a surface charge gradient has not yet been created. For example, there is a net charge transfer in order to create
negative surface charge gradient on a given piece of wire; originally the piece was neutral and then it had a net negative
charge with more negative charge on one end than the other.
19.X.46
Before the initial transient, the filament has zero net charge and no surface charge. During the initial transient, a non-uniform
surface charge is created. After the initial transient, for example, there might be a higher density positive surface charge on
one end of the filament and a lower density positive surface charge on the other end of the filament. This means that there
is a net positive charge transfer to the filament, and more positive charge was transferred to one end compared to the other
end. Once there is a surface charge gradient that is in equilibrium, then a uniform electric field is created inside the wire. No
more charge will be added to the surface, and the amount of charge that enters one end of the filament will exit the other
end of the filament. Thus, not net charge is added to (or taken away from) the filament.
19.X.47
The bulb turns on immediately because at the instant when an electron enters the connecting wire another electron exits the
connecting wire and enters the bulb. Though it takes 100 minutes for an electron to travel the length of the wire, it takes a
very small time for an electron at the end of the connecting wire to enter the bulb.
19.X.48
(a) Treat the battery as if it is a capacitor made of two oppositely charged discs separated a distance 4.5 cm. To make a
rough estimation, assume that the electric field is nearly uniform between the plates and given by that of a capacitor.
Q/A
E
0
If the electric field is uniform, then the potential difference is V = EL where L is the distance between the terminals
and V is equal to the emf of the battery.
V Q/A
=
L 0
0 AV
Q =
L
(8.85 1012 C2 /(N m2 ))(0.01 m)2 (1.7 V)
=
0.045 m
= 1.05 1013 C
This is a very small amount of charge. It is also a very rough approximation because the equation for the electric field
within a capacitor was derived for the case of small separation between the discs (compared to the radius of the discs).
(b) The charge on a piece of tape is on the order of nanocoulombs (109 C). The charge on the terminal of a battery is
about 10,000 times smaller than the charge on a piece of tape. Thus, the coulomb force between the terminal of the
battery and the tape would be 10,000 times smaller than the coulomb force between two identical pieces of tape. This
is too small to be noticeable.
9
19.X.49
(a) The electric field is uniform throughout the wire and points away from the higher potential (i.e. positive) terminal of
the battery and toward the lower potential (i.e. negative) terminal of the battery. A sketch of E
~ is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: E
~ at given points around the circuit.
(b) The charge density is most positive near the positive terminal of the battery and most negative near the negative
terminal of the battery. It varies linearly from positive to negative as shown in Figure 2, except where extra charge
piles up on the corners (not shown). Halfway around the wire, there is a point where the charge is zero because it
changes from small positive charge density to small negative charge density. This point is not shown.
++++++ ______
++++++ ______
+ + _ _
+ + _ _
+ + _ _
+ + _ _
+++ + _ ___
+++ + _ ___
Figure 2: Surface charge density around the circuit.
There seems to be an error in Figure 19.75 in the textbook. The points should be labeled. A corrected figure is shown
in Figure 3.
With these labels, the statements (1), (3), and (4) are TRUE.
19.X.50
(a) The given locations in Figure 19.76 of the textbook should be labeled. A corrected picture is shown in Figure 4.
There are two comparisons to be made: (1) Compare the electric field in the thick wire, EG , with the electric field in
the thin wire, ED . (2) Compare the electric field in the thick wire, EG , with the electric field in the think wire for the
circuit in question 19.X.49, EG
0
.
Lets start with the first comparison.
10
Figure 3: Figure with given points labeled.
Figure 4: Labels for Figure 19.76 from the textbook.
(1) The electron current is the same in the thick and thin wires due to the current node rule. Because the thin
wire has a smaller cross-sectional area than the thick wire, the drift speed and the electric field are larger in the thin
wire. Since i = nAuE, if the thin wire has 1/2 the radius of the thick wire, then it has 1/4 the area and 4 times the
electric field. Thus ED = 4EG .
(2) Compare the circuits in Figures 3 and 4. Define the length of one segment of the thick wire in Figure 4 to be
LG and the length of the thin wire to be LD . The sum of the potential difference around the circuit is equal to the emf
of the battery. (This is the Loop Rule.) Thus, for the circuit with the thin wire
emf = 2Vthick + Vthin

= 2EG LG + ED LD
Substituting ED = 4EG gives
emf = 2EG LG + 4EG LD

= EG (2LG + 4LD )
emf
EG =
(2LG + 4LD )
Now apply the Loop Rule to the circuit in Figure 3 which only has one thick wire. Break the one thick wire into three
segments of length LG , LD , and LG , even though it is the same thickness wire in each case. The Loop Rule gives
11
0 0
emf = 2EG LG + ED LD
0 0
= 2EG LG + EG LD
0
= EG (2LG + LD )
0 emf
EG =
(2LG + LD )
Comparing the equations for EG and EG 0

shows that EG < EG 0
. Thus, changing a single segment of thick wire to thin
wire decreases the electric field in the other segments of thick wire. Because i = nAuE, the electron current in the
circuit with the thin wire will be less than the electron current in the circuit with only a single thick wire, or in other
words i < i0 where i0 is the current in the circuit with only the thick wire (Figure 3).
The above explanation is in terms of the microscopic model. In Chapter 20, you will learn the concept of resistance. In
terms of Chapter 20, changing a thick segment of wire to a thin segment of wire increases the resistance of the circuit
which decreases the current in the circuit. This explanation is consistent with our conclusion using the microscopic
model of circuits.
To summarize, the electric field in the thin wire is four times longer than the electric field in the thick wire, and the
electric field in the thick wire is less than the electric field in the circuit in Figure 1. The correct sketch is shown in
Figure 5. Compare the electric fields in this case to the sketch in Figure 1. You will notice that the electric field in the
thick wires is indeed smaller, as it should be.
Figure 5: Electric field at given locations in the circuit for Question 19.X.50.
(b) In general, you will have a surface charge gradient that changes from high positive surface charge density at the positive
terminal of the battery and high negative surface charge density at the negative terminal of the battery. And at D
(the midpoint of the circuit), the surface charge density will be zero because it is the point of transition from positive
surface charge density to negative surface charge density.
Because the electric field in the thin wire is very large, then the gradient (i.e. change) in surface charge density along
the thin wire will be very large. Because the electric field in the thick wire is smaller, then the gradient (i.e. change)
in surface charge density along the thick wire will be very small.
This is depicted in Figure 6. Note that the change in surface charge on the thin wire is depicted as +3 to 3. The
change in surface charge along a thick wire from G to E is +6 to +4, yet it is a longer wire. So the gradient of surface
charge on the thick wire is less than the gradient of surface charge on the thin wire.
The following statements are true: (1), (2), (4), (6). Note that statement (7) appears to have an error and should have
been two different statements labeled (7) and (8). The first sentence, There is no surface charge ... near location G is
false. However, the second sentence The electron current in this circuit is less than the electron current in the previous
circuit is true.
12
++++++ ______
++++++ ______
_ _
+ + _ _
+ + _ _
+ + _ _
+ + _ _
+ + ___ ____
++++ +++
++++ +++ ___ ____
Figure 6: Labels for Figure 19.76 from the textbook.
19.X.51
(B), (E), (H), and (I) are true. But (H) deserves some clarification. For all straight parts of the wire, the electric field is
indeed parallel to the wire. However, at the curved parts of the wire, mobile electrons travel along a circular path and there is
a net force on the electrons toward the center of the circle. This net force is the sum of drag and the coulomb force (F~ = q E).
~
Since drag is always tangent to the wires, then the electric field must have both a tangential and a perpendicular component
at locations along a curve.
19.P.52
(a) No current will flow through the wire(s). The reason is that if you apply the loop rule to the entire circuit, you get
emf 1 emf 2 Vwire = 0
where Vwire is the potential difference across the entire long wire, measured from the negative terminal of battery 1
to the negative terminal of battery 2. Since the batteries are identical emf 1 = emf 2 , so Vwire = 0. As a result, E = 0
and i = nAuE = 0 everywhere inside the wire(s). This means that the surface charge density must be uniform along
the wires. There is no gradient (i.e. change) in the surface charge density. A sketch is shown in Figure 7.
(b) The electric field is zero at all locations inside the wire.
(c) The brightness of the bulb in this case is zero. There is no current through the bulb. If one of the batteries was not
connected backwards, then there would be current through the bulb and the bulb would light.
(d) It is worth doing the experiment to see the results for yourself.
19.x.53
The statement is false.
On experimental grounds, this can be verified with a battery and two different bulbs with filaments of different thicknesses.
When the battery and a single bulb are connected, it will have a certain brightness. When you replace the bulb with a
second bulb of different filament thickness, then the brightness is different. The potential difference across the bulb remains
the same (neglect the connecting wires), so it is the current that is different. Evidently the flashlight battery causes different
currents depending on the type of bulb that is connected to it.
13
____
_ _
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
_ _
_ _
+ + _ _
+ + _ _
+ + _ _
+ +
_ _
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
_ _
____
Figure 7: Surface charge on the wires for the circuit in Question 19.P.52.
On theoretical grounds, the electron current through the bulb is i = nAuE. If we neglect the connecting wires and just
consider the filament, then i = nAu VL = nAu L . If the area of the filament is changed by selecting a bulb with a filament
emf
of different thickness, then the current through the battery will change.
19.x.54
To quote from pg. 769 of the textbook, It is important to keep in mind that although the units of emf are volts, the emf
is not a potential difference. Potential difference is a path integral of the electric field made by real charges. The emf is the
energy input per unit charge and might in principle be gravitational or nuclear in nature. In the case of a battery, the emf
of the battery is produced by chemical energy input per unit charge.
19.x.55
The battery maintains positive surface charge on the positive terminal and negative surface charge on the negative terminal.
The electric field within the battery points from the positive terminal toward the negative terminal. Within the wires, the
electric field also points away from the positive terminal and toward the negative terminal. However, in a sketch of the
circuit, the electric field just inside the battery will be opposite the electric field within the wire just outside the battery.
19.x.56
(A) and (B) can both be argued as being correct.
To argue (B), if there are two connecting wires, then applying the Loop Rule gives
emf = V1 + Vbulb + V2
The potential difference across a connecting wire is V1 = E1 L1 . Because the cross-sectional area of connecting wires is
much larger than the cross-sectional area of the filament in the bulb, then for each wire E1 << Ebulb . Thus, V1 << Vbulb
and emf Vbulb .
14
To argue (A), if we write the above equation in terms of potential energy, U = qV . Thus,
q(emf) = qV1 + qVbulb + qV2
Since V1 << Vbulb , then the energy loss of electrons through a connecting wire is much smaller than through the bulb
and qV1 is negligible. As a result, emf Vbulb .
19.x.57
(a) Apply the Loop Rule (Conservation of Energy) to loop 2.
(VF VC ) + (VC VD ) + (VD VE ) + (VE VF ) = 0

8 V + (VC VD ) + 4.5 V + 0 = 0
(VC VD ) = 3.5 V
(b) VC > VD so VC must be the positive terminal since it is at a higher potential.
19.X.58
The emf of the battery is equal to the potential difference across the wire, due to the Loop Rule.
emf = V = EL
emf
E =
L
1.6 V V
= = 3.33
0.48 m m
If the wire is replaced with one of regular diameter, the electric field inside the wire remains the same. However, the current
will increase since i = neAuE
19.x.59
Note that the battery remains the same in all experiments, and according to the Loop Rule, emf = V where V is the
potential difference across the wire. Since V = EL, then emf = EL where L is the length of the wire. This can be a useful
relationship. Answers are shown in Table .
19.x.60
The resistor (thin wire) and thick connecting wires are in series. Applying conservation of charge (i.e. the Current Node
Rule) to the resistor and wires leads to the conclusion that the electron current through the thin wire must equal the electron
current through the thick wire. Use i = neAuE and the fact that n and u are properties of the material in order to compare
the quantities given in Table .
19.x.61
15
Experiment Effect on current Parameter that changed

Double L i changes by a factor of 1/2 E; E changes by a factor of 1/2
because L increased by 2 and i
A.
Double A i changes by a factor of 2 A; A changes by a factor of 1/2
and i A.
Double L i changes by a factor of 1/2 E; Two bulbs in series is like hav-
ing a single filament that is twice
as long. Doubling L changes E
by 1/2 and i E.
Double emf i changes by factor of 2 E; 2emf results in 2E which re-
sults in 2i since i E.
Table 2: Table with answers to Question 19.X.59.
resistor <, =, or > thick wires

iR = iw
nR = nw
AR < Aw
uR = uw
ER > Ew
vR > vw
Table 3: Table with answers to Question 19.X.59.
According to the Loop Rule, the emf of the battery is equal to the potential difference across the wire. Since V = EL, then
emf = EL, and the electric field is E = emf
L . For two batteries, the emf increases by a factor of 2. A 36 cm length increases
L by a factor of 3. As a result, E changes by a factor 2/3.
Since i = neAuE and since the cross-sectional area is increased by a factor of 2 and since E is changed by a factor 2/3, then
i increases by a factor (2)(2/3) = 4/3.
The magnetic field due to the wire is proportional to the current through the wire. As a result, the magnetic field component
that causes the compass to deflect increases by a factor 4/3. Assuming that the wire is aligned with the N-S direction, then
the magnetic field due to the wire is E-W and tan = BBearth
wire
. Since Bearth 2 105 T, then a 6 deflection means that the
original magnetic field was 2.1 10 6
T. Increasing this by a factor of 4/3 gives a magnetic field of 2.8 106 T which
results in a deflection of 8 .

19.x.62
The graph shows that the potential difference across the connecting wires is not negligible, even though the question suggests
neglecting this potential difference. Therefore, we will not neglect it. By estimation, VB VA 0.5 V and VD VC 0.5
V. According to the Loop Rule,
(VB VA ) + (VC VB ) + (VD VC ) + (VA VD ) = 0

0.5 V + (VC VB ) + 0.5 V + 3.5 V = 0
(VC VB ) 2.5 V
The potential difference across the resistor is about 5 times the potential difference across the connecting wires.
The conventional current through the resistor is I = neAuE = neAu V L . We need to know the properties of the resistor in
order to calculate the current through the resistor. No, there is not enough information to determine the current I in the
circuit.
16
19.P.63
(a) (2)
(b)
VG VB + VE VG + VD VE + VB VD = 0
emf 1 + VE VG + emf 2 + VB VD = 0
1.3 V + VE VG + 1.3 V + VB VD = 0
2.6 V + VE VG + VB VD = 0
(c) Since the wires are identical, VE VG = VB VD , so
2.6 V + 2(VB VD ) = 0
2.6 V
VB VD =
2
= 1.3 V
Since E is uniform in the wire, V = EL.
VB VD
E =
L
1.3 V
=
0.26 m
V
= 5
m
So, EB = 5 m.
V
E at all points in the wire is 5 m.
V
(d) i is the same everywhere since charge is conserved. Thus,
i = nAuE
2
7 104 m

28 3 5 m/s V
= (7 10 m )() 5 10 5
2 V/m m
= 6.73 1018 s1
Since V = EL and V is the same, then E is the same. EB = 5 m.

V
(e) (C)
19.P.64
17
(a) There are three valid loops (and loop equations):

(1) P0 , P1 , P2 , P4
(2) P0 , P1 , P3 , P4
(3) P2 , P3
Note that reversing these loops (by going around the loop counterclockwise, for example) does not create a different
loop or loop equation.
(b) (1), (5), and (6).
(c) (3)
Start with the following loop equation and use i = nAuE.
2emf EL E2 L = 0
i1 i2

2emf L L = 0
nAu nAu
Also, since E2 L = E3 L, then E2 = E3 and i2 = i3 . The Current Node Rule gives
i1 = i2 + i3
i1 = 2i2
Substitute into the previous loop equation and solve.
(2i2 )L i L
2emf 2 = 0
nAu nAu
3i2 L
2emf = 0
nAu
2(emf)nAu
i2 =
3L
m/s
2(1.5 V)(6 1028 m3 )(5 106 m)2 (1.8 103 V/m )
=
3(0.008 m)
= 1.06 1018 s1
i1 = 2i2
= 2.12 1018 s1
18
i1 = nAuE1
i1
E1 =
nAu
2.12 1018 s1
= m/s
(6 1028 m3 )(5 106 m)2 (1.8 103 V/m )
V
= 250
m
1
E2 = E
2 1
V
= 125
m
To summarize, i1 = 2.12 1018 s1 , i2 = 1.06 1018 s1 , E1 = 250 m,

V
and E2 = 125 m.
V
19.P.65
(a) 1, 2, and 4 are true.
(b) Assume that points C and E are very close to the ends of the thin wire.
VG VA + VE VC + VC VE + VA VC = 0
Since the thick wires are identical, VE VG = VA VC and thus 1.3 V + 2(VA VC ) + VC VE = 0.
(c)
iB = iD = iF
In other words, the current is the same in the thick and thin wires.
(d) For a wire, |V | = EL since E is uniform. Thus, the loop equation gives
1.8 V + 2(VA VC ) + VC VE = 0
1.8 V + 2(EB LB ) + ED LD = 0
The node equation gives

19
iB = iD
nAB uEB = nAD uED
AB EB = AD ED
6
(1.4 10 2
m )EB = (5.9 108 m2 )ED
1.4 106 m2

ED = EB
5.9 108 m2
= (23.7)EB
Combine the loop equation and node equation and solve for ED and EB .
1.8 V 2EB LB ED LD = 0
1.8 V 2EB LB (23.7)EB LD = 0
1.8 V EB (2LB + 23.7LD ) = 0
1.8 V
EB =
2(0.25 m) + (23.7)(0.061 m)
V
= 0.925
m
ED = 23.7EB
V
= 21.9
m
Note that EF = EB = 0.925 V

m
(e)
iD = nAuED
m/s V
= (4 1028 m3 )(5.9 108 m2 )(5 104 )(21.9 )
V/m m
= 2.58 1019 s1
19.P.66
(a) Apply Conservation of Energy (Loop Rule) to the circuit. Then,
emf 2VCu Vnichrome = 0

emf 2ECu LCu Enichrome Lnichrome = 0
Apply conservation of charge (Node Rule) to the wires. Thus,

20
iCu = inichrome
nCu ACu uCu ECu = nnichrome Anichrome unichrome Enichrome
m/s m/s
(8.4 1028 m3 )(0.009 m)2 (4.4 103 )E = (9 1028 m3 )(0.003 m)2 (7 105 )E
V/m Cu V/m nichrome
9.405 1022 ECu = 1.781 1020 Enichrome
Enichrome = 528ECu
Substitute this into the loop equation.
emf 2ECu LCu 528ECu Lnichrome = 0

emf
ECu =
2LCu + 528Lnichrome
1.5 V
=
2(0.17 m) + 528(0.08 m)
V
ECu = 0.0352
m
(b)
Enichrome = 528ECu
V
= 18.6
m
Note that, in this case, the copper wires are truly negligible because uCu << unichrome , which results in ECu << Enichrome .
Not only u, but other factors like radius contribute to this as well.
19.P.67
(a) Since ithin = 12 ithick when each bulb is individually connected to the batteries, then Athin = 21 Athick .
Apply the node rule to the bulbs. Note that experiment showed that the oblong bulb has the thinner filament. Thus,
ithin = ithick + ithick

ithin = 2ithick
nAthin uEthin = 2nAthick uEthick
Athin Ethin = 2Athick Ethick
1
A E = Athick Ethick
2 thick thin
Ethin = 4Ethick
Apply the loop rule to the circuit.

21
2emf Vthin Vthick = 0

2emf Ethin Lthin Ethick Lthick = 0
Substitute the result of the node rule.
2emf 4Ethick Lthin Ethick Lthick = 0
Assume Lthin = Lthick (same length filaments), so
2emf 4Ethick Ethick L = 0

2emf 5Ethick = 0
2
5 emf
Ethick =
L
8
emf
Ethin = 4Ethick = 5
L
8
emf
ithin = nAthin u 5
L
When the thin bulb was connected by itself to the batteries, Ethin = 2emf
L and ithin = 1.5 1018 s1 . Calculate
L with this information.
nAthin u emf
ithin = nAthin uEthin

2emf
1.5 1018 s1 = nAthin u
L
2Athin u(emf)
= 0.75 1018 s1
L
Substitute this constant to get ithin for the given circuit.

(emf) 8
ithin = nAthin u
L 5

8
= (0.75 1018 s1 )
5
= 1.2 1018 s1
(b) The biggest approximations we made were (1) to neglect the connecting wires, (2) that the filaments were the same
length, and (3) tha battery has no internal resistance (i.e. it is an ideal battery).
(c) The surface charge has a high positive density at the positive terminal of the battery and high negative density at
the negative terminal of the battery. Along the connecting wires, the gradient is slight (i.e. it doesnt change very
much). The gradient is large along the bulb filaments. The gradient is longest for the oblong bulb (thin filament) since
Ethin > Ethick . The gradient along the round bulb is large but not as large as the oblong bulb, since Ethick < Ethin .
22
19.p.68
(a) The electric field in the thin wire is about 4 times larger than the electric field in the thick wire(s). This is shown in
Figure 8.
Figure 8: The electric field in the thin and thick wires in Question 19.P.68
(b) In general, there is a surface charge gradient that changes from high positive surface charge density at the positive
terminal of the battery to high negative surface charge density at the negative terminal of the battery. And at the
midpoint of the circuit, the surface charge density will be zero because it is the point of transition from positive surface
charge density to negative surface charge density.
Because the electric field in the thin wire is very large, then the gradient (i.e. change) in surface charge density along
the thin wire will be very large. Because the electric field in the thick wire is smaller, then the gradient (i.e. change)
in surface charge density along the thick wire will be very small.
This is depicted in Figure 9. Note that the change in surface charge on the thin wire is depicted as +3 to 3. The
change in surface charge along one of the thick wires +6 to +4, yet it is a longer wire. So the gradient of surface charge
on the thick wire is less than the gradient of surface charge on the thin wire.
++++++ ______
++++++ ______
_ _
+ + _ _
+ + _ _
+ + _ _
+ + _ _
+ + ___ ____
++++ +++
++++ +++ ___ ____
Figure 9: Surface charge density on the circuit in Question 19.P.68.
(c) Apply the loop rule to the circuit. Note that V = EL and the thick wires are identical.
emf V1 V2 V1 = 0
emf 2E1 L1 E2 L2 = 0
23
Apply the node rule to the node between the thin and thick wires.
i1 = i2
nA1 uE1 = nA2 uE2
A1 E1 = A2 E2
8
(9 10 2
m )E1 = (1.5 108 m2 )E2
9 108 m2

E2 = E1
1.5 108 m2
= 6E1
Substitute this result into the loop equation.
emf 2E1 L1 6E1 L2 = 0

emf E1 (2L1 6L2 ) = 0
emf
E1 =
2L1 + 6L2
1.5 V
=
2(0.2 m) + 6(0.05 m)
V
= 2.14
m
The current in the thick wire is
i1 = nA1 uE1
m/s V
= (9 1028 m3 )(9 108 m2 )(7 105 )(2.14 )
V/m m
= 1.21 1018 s1
Due to conservation of charge, i2 = i1 , so i2 = 1.21 1018 s1 .
19.P.69
(a) Charge is conserved so it is not gained or lost as it travels through the bulbs. Thus, iD = 3 1017 s1 = iA .
(b) Two bulbs connected like the ones shown is like having a single filament that is twice as long. Reducing the number of
bulbs from 3 to 2 is like reducing the length of a filament by 23 . Since V = EL for the entire set of bulbs and since
V = emf, then E L1 and E increases by 23 . Since i = nAuE, then i increases by 32 . The new electron current is
3
2 (3 10 s ) = 4.5 1017 s1 .
17 1
Another way to solve it is to apply the loop rule to both circuits. For 3 bulbs,
24
emf EL EL EL = 0
emf = 3EL
1 emf
E =
3 L
For two bulbs,
emf 2EL = 0
1 emf
E =
2 L
Thus removing a bulb increased E by a factor of 3

(since 3 1
= 12 ). Then i increases by 2.
3
The conclusion is the

2 2 3
same as before.
(c) One must do the experiment.
(d) Apply the loop rule to this new circuit . Label bulb 2 as the larger area bulb.
emf E1 L E2 L = 0
Since A2 = 2A1 and since i2 = i1 = nAuE, then A1 E1 = A2 E2 and E2 = 21 E1 . The loop equation gives
1
emf E1 L E1 L = 0
2
3
emf E1 L = 0
2
2 emf
E1 =
3 L
So,
i1 = nA1 uE1
2 emf
= nA1 u
3 L
With 3 bulbs in series,
i = nA1 uE1

1 emf
= nA1 u
3 L
emf
nA1 u = 3i
L
= 3(3 1017 s1 )
= 9 1017 s1
25
Use this constant to find i1 in this new circuit.
2 emf
i1 = nA1 u
3 L
2
= (9 1017 s1 )
3
= 6 1017 s1
It makes sense that this current is greater than with two identical bulbs because it is easier to push current through a
thick filament than a thin filament.
19.P.70
(a) Apply the loop rule. Call the thin wire 1 and the thick wire 2.
2emf E1 L1 E2 L2 = 0
Apply the node rule.
i1 = i2
nA1 uE1 = nA2 uE2
A1 E 1 = A2 E2
A2
E1 = E
A1 2
(0.35)2
= E
(0.25)2 2
= 1.96 E2
2E2
Substitute into the loop equation.
2emf 2E2 L1 E2 L2 = 0
2emf E2 (2L1 + L2 ) = 0
2emf
E2 =
2L1 + L2
2(1.5 V)
=
2(0.5 m) + 0.15 m
V
= 2.6
m
So, E1 = 2E2 = 5.2 m.

V
26
(b) v = uE, so calculate drift speed and t for each wire seperately since v is different for each wire.
m/s V
v1 = (7 105 )(5.2 )
V/m m
= 3.64 104 m/s
L1
t1 =
v1
0.5 m
=
3.64 104 m/s
= 1374 s
For wire 2,
v2 = uE2
= 1.82 104 m/s
0.15 m
t2 =
1.82 104 m/s
= 824 s
t = t1 + t2
= 1374 s + 824 s
2200 s
1 mm
(2200 s)
60 s
= 36.6 min
(c) The minimum time required to reach steady state is given by the speed of light. Using L = L1 + L2 = 0.65 m,
L
c =
t
L
t =
c
0.65 m
=
3 108 m/s
2 109 s
This is 2 ns, which is much smaller than the time interval for a mobile electron to travel around the circuit.
27
(d) The electron current is
i1 = nA1 uE1
2
0.25 103 m

m/s V
= (9 1028 m3 ) (7 105 )(5.2 )
2 V/m m
= 1.6 1018 s1
Thus, 1.6 1018 electrons pass from the thin wire to the thick wire every second.
19.P.71
(a) According to conservation of charge (the node rule), i1 = i2 . Thus,
i1 = i2
nAu1 E1 = nAu2 E2
u1 E1 = u2 E 2
!
u1
E2 = E1
u2
1
= E
3 1
(b) Neglect the potential difference (energy loss) across the connecting wires. Apply the loop rule to the circuit with the
single bulb (bulb 1, which we will call 0 to distinguish this case from the previous case in part (a)).
emf E0 L = 0
The current is
i0 = nAu1 E0

emf
= nAu1
L
Now apply the loop rule to the circuit with two bulbs.
emf E1 L E2 L = 0

1
emf E1 L E1 L = 0
3
4
emf E1 L = 0
3
3 emf
E1 =
4 L
28
The current through bulb 1 is
i1 = nAu1 E1

3 emf
= nAu1
4 L
But we know that

emf
i0 = nAu1
L
So, substitution gives
3
i1 = i
4 0
Evidently replacing Bulb 2 with a wire increased the current through the battery by a factor of 4/3. Or, to say it
in another way, if you originally have a battery and bulb 1 and you connect bulb 2 in series with bulb 1, the current
through the battery and bulbs will be 3/4 of the original current.
(c)
iCu = ifilament
nCu ACu uCu ECu = nfil Afil ufil Efil
The cross-sectional area of a wire is at least 100 times larger than the area of a filament. The mobility of copper is
about 10 times larger than tungsten. Thus, the electric field in the copper wire is at least 1000 times smaller than in
the tungsten.
The electric fields in all the copper wires are the same because i = nAuE and i (and n, A, and u) is the same in all
the copper wires. Thus, E must also be the same.
(d) The graph is shown in Figure 10. Gray lines are for the circuit with two bulbs (part a).
19.X.72
(a) The loop rule gives
emf EL = 0
emf
E =
L
1.7 V
=
0.75 m
V
= 2.27
m
29
Figure 10: Graph for Question 19.P.71(d)
(b) The electric field remains the same. It only depends on V and L. However, the current will change.
(c) i = nAuE. i u so 4u gives 4i. As a result, (3) is true.
19.P.73
(a) Conventional current flows from the positive terminal of one battery to the negative terminal of the other battery. For
the upper compass in the first circuit, conventional current flows south which creates a magnetic field beneath the wire
that is east. Thus, the compass points NE. For the lower compass in the first circuit, conventional current flows north
which creates a magnetic field beneath the wire that is west. Thus, the compass points NW. For the compass with bulb
B in the second circuit, the current flows south so the compass is deflected to the NE. A sketch is shown in Figure 11.
For clarity, angles are shown greater than what they would appear on an actual compass.
(b) For the circuit with one bulb, the current is the same everywhere in the circuit, so the other compass must also deflect
5 .
Now apply the loop rule to a loop containing the batteries and bulb A.
2emf EA L = 0
2emf
EA =
L
The current through bulb A is
iA = nAuEA
2emf
= nAu
L
For the two-bulb circuit, the bulbs are identical. Applying the loop rule to the loop containing just the two bulbs gives:
EB L EC L = 0. Thus, EB = EC . Since i = nAuE, then iB = iC as well.
Now apply the loop rule to a loop containing the batteries and bulb B.
30
North
A
5
5 deg
?
5 deg
B
?
9.9 deg
? C
9.9 deg
Figure 11: Compass deflections for the circuit in 19.P.73.
2emf EB L = 0
2emf
EB =
L
The current through bulb B is
iB = nAuEB
2emf
= nAu
L
Note that this is the same as for bulb A in the one-bulb circuit. Thus, the compass next to bulb B will also deflect 5 .
Applying the node rule to bulbs B and C leads to the conclusion that the current entering the negative terminal of the
battery is equal to i = iB + iC = 2iB . Since the current through the batteries is twice the current through bulb B, then
current will create a magnetic field that is twice the magnitude of the magnetic field created by the current through
bulb B.
The compass deflection is given by
Bwire
tan =
Bearth
Bwire,B = tan(5 )(2 105 T)
= 1.75 106 T
Now, multiply this magnetic field by 2 and solve for . This gives
31
Bwire
tan =
Bearth
3.5 106 T
=
2 105 T
= 9.9
Note that for small angles tan , so twice the magnetic field results in approximately twice the deflection angle.
(c) In general, there is a surface charge gradient that changes from high positive surface charge density at the positive
terminal of the battery to high negative surface charge density at the negative terminal of the battery. And at the
midpoint of the circuit, the surface charge density will be zero because it is the point of transition from positive surface
charge density to negative surface charge density.
Because the electric field in the thin filament of the bulb is very large compared to the connecting wires, then the
gradient (i.e. change) in surface charge density along the filament will be very large. Because the electric field in the
thick wire is smaller, then the gradient (i.e. change) in surface charge density along the thick wire will be very small.
For the one-bulb circuit, sketch a few positive charges at the positive side of bulb A and a few negative charges at the
negative side of bulb A. Then, sketch a a couple more positive surface charges at the positive terminal of the battery
and a couple more negative surface charges at the negative terminal of the other battery. There will be high density
positive and negative surface charge the other terminals of the two batteries where they are connected by a single wire.
For the two bulb circuit, make a similar sketch.
(d) Applying the loop rule to the one-bulb circuit gives
2emf EA L = 0
2emf
EA =
L
2(1.5 V)
=
0.004 m
= 750 V/m
Since the potential difference across bulb B and bulb C is also 3.0 V and since they are identical bulbs, then EB =
EC = EA = 750 V/m. Since bulbs B and C have the same current and potential difference across them as bulb A, then
they will have the same brightness.
19.P.74
The round bulb has a thicker filament. As a result, when it is connected by itself to the battery, the current will be larger
and the compass next to the battery will deflect more. Thus, it is the thick-filament bulb that deflects the compass more.
For clarity, lets name the oblong bulb 1 and the round bulb 2. Write the loop equation for a single bulb circuit for bulb 1.
1: 2emf E1 L = 0
2emf
E1 =
L
The current through bulb 1 is i = nAuE1 = nAu 2emf

L when connected by itself to the batteries.
Now apply the loop equation for the two-bulb circuit using a loop consisting of the batteries and bulb 1.
32
2emf E1 L = 0
Note that this is exactly this same as when it was the only bulb in the circuit. Thus, the current through the bulb in the
two-bulb circuit is the same when bulb 2 is unscrewed. As a result, the compass next to bulb 1 (the oblong bulb) will deflect
the same amount, 4 .
The exact same reasoning can be applied to bulb 2, so the compass next to bulb 2 will deflect the same amount as when bulb
1 is unscrewed, which is 15 .
In the two-bulb circuit, applying the current node rule shows that the current through the battery and connecting wires is
equal to the sum of the currents through the bulbs, i = i1 + i2 , in according with Conservation of Charge. If the current i1
creates a magnetic field B~ 1 and if the current i2 creates a magnetic field B
~ 2 , then the total current i will create a magnetic
field that is B
~ =B
~1 + B ~ 2 (since B i for a wire). Note that both of these fields are in the same direction, east, so we can
simply add their magnitudes.
The compass next to the battery will deflect an amount given by
Bwire
tan =
Bearth
B1 + B2
=
Bearth
Bearth tan(4 ) + Bearth tan(15 )
=
Bearth
= tan(4 ) + tan(15 )
= 0.3379
= tan1 (0.3379)

= 18.7
Note that we cannot simply add the angles. The currents add and the magnetic fields (created by those currents) add;
however, the angles do not add. But in this case, since tan for small angles, then 18.7 4 + 15 . It is worth noting
that for larger currents, simply adding the angles would not give a correct answer. You must add the tangents of the angles.
A sketch of the compasses is shown in Figure 12. The deflection angles in the sketch are exaggerated for greater clarity. Note
that conventional current flows from the + terminal of one battery to the terminal of the second battery. As a result, the
compass near the + terminal deflects NW since B ~ wire is west, and the compass near the terminal deflects NE since B ~ wire
is east.
19.P.75
Since this system takes a very long time to come to static equilibrium, we can consider it to be in a quasi steady state. That
is, at any instant we can assume electron current i is the same at all locations in the wire. We are interested in the electron
current in the wire a short time t after the connection has been madelong enough for the rearrangement of surface charge
to have occurred (this takes only nanoseconds), but short enough that the charge on the two spheres has changed very little.
Since i = nAuE, and we know n, A, and u, we need to find the electric field E in the wire. There are three sources of charge
contributing to E in the wire: the two charged spheres, and the charge on the surface of the wire. Although there is not a
lot of charge on the wire, this charge is very close to the wire, and its contribution to E inside the wire is significant. Since
we dont know the exact amount and distribution of charge on the wire, we cant calculate E directly from Coulombs law.
Therefore, we start (as usual) from a fundamental principle: V = 0 for a round trip path. We choose a path that goes
through the wire, where we want to know E, and also through the air, as shown in Figure 13.
Consider the part of the path indicated by a dotted line. Along the sections of the path inside the spheres, the electric field
is zero, and hence V is zero.
33
4 deg
North
19 deg
15 deg
19 deg
Figure 12: A sketch of the circuit in Question 19.P.74.
Figure 13: The path used for computing V .
Along the section of the path in the air, if we assume that (1) we are sufficiently far from the wire that the small amount of
charge on the wire contributes a negligible electric field, and (2) the charged spheres are sufficiently far from each other that
the electric field of one is negligible near the other, then we find that along the dotted line portion of the path:
Vair = VB VA
1 q Q
( )
4o r R
So for a round trip path from A back to A, we have:

34
V = 0
1 q Q
Vwire + Vair = Vwire + ( )
4o r R
Since the system is in a quasi steady state, E must be uniform in the wire, so Vwire = EL (it is positive, since we are going
from B to A, traveling opposite to the direction of E in the wire). Thus,
1
4o ( rq + Q
R)
E =
L
and
i = nAuE
1
4o ( rq + Q
R)
= nAu
L
1
4 ( rq + Q
R)
Therefore, a number of electrons equal to nAu o
L t leave the small sphere in a time t.
1
20.X.1
The magnitude of the fringe field is inversely proportional to plate area. In the first very short duration, approximately
equal amounts of charge will accumulate on the plates of each capacitor. The capacitor with the greater area will have a
weaker fringe field, which means the net field inside the wire will be greater for that circuit. A greater net field means more
charge, compared to the other circuit, will be driven away from the negative plate and onto the positive plate. The drift
speed changes less for the larger capacitor than for the smaller capacitor.
20.X.2
battery loss
bulb no net change
capacitor gain
surroundings gain
20.X.3
Take the system to be the entire circuit with no external influences. The net change in the systems energy is zero.
charging discharging
battery -2E 0 (not in circuit)
bulb 0 0
capacitor +E -E
surroundings +E +E
20.X.4
|Q|
Co =
|V |
|Q| |Q| A
= =
|Q|/A
= o
~ s
E s o s

12
C2 2 2
9 10 Nm 2 50 10 m 30 10 m 9
3 5.3 10 F
0.25 10 m
A dielectric with a dielectric constant of 50 will simply increase the capacitance by a factor of 50.
C = 50Co
9
7
(50) 5.3 10 F 2.7 10 F
20.X.5
|Q| = C |V | (1 F)(3 V) 3 C

1 electron 19
(3 C) 1.9 10 e
1.602 1019 C
2
20.X.6
= |q| nu
19
28
3 m/s

3
1.6 10 C 8 10 /m 4.5 10
V/m
7 A/m
2
6 10
V/m
20.X.7

~ ~
J = E

~

~ J I/A
E = =

3
2
(0.3 A) / 1 mm2 1 10 m/mm
2

6 107 A/m
V/m
3
5 10 N/C
20.X.8
L
R =
A
3
5 10 m
0.83
3 104 //m 0.2 106 m2

|V | 3V
I = 3.6 A
R 0.83
20.X.9

3

L 5 10 m
R =
6 107 //m 0.2 106 m2

A
4
4.2 10
4
3
V = IR = (3.6 A) 4.2 10 1.5 10 V
Vend = 15 V + V 15.0015 V
20.X.10
3
|V |
I =
R
3V
I 30
100 103 A
1.5 V
I 19
80 103 A
3
50 10 V
I 8.3
6 103 A
R isnt constant, and the filament isnt ohmic over the entire range.
20.X.11
Be careful! Vbatt didnt change so the battery cant be ohmic.
20.X.12
R1 = 40
L2
R2 =
A2
3L1
=
21 A1
= 6R1 240
The effective resistance is just the sum of the two individual resistances. Reff 280
20.X.13
1 1 1
= +
Reff R1 R2
1 1
+
30 10
1 3
+
30 30
4

30
30
Reff 7.5
4
|V | 3V
I =
Reff 7.5
0.4 A
20.X.14
4
P = I |V |
(3 A) (1.5 V)
4.5 W
20.X.15
P = IV
= I(IR)
= I 2R
P = IV

V
= (V )
R
(V )2
=
R
20.X.16
The potential difference across the terminals of the battery is nearly zero since the connecting wires have negligible resistance.
Since V = EL, E 0. Since E is a result of charge on the terminals, Q 0 on the plates (i.e. terminals) of the battery.
20.X.17
A voltmeter has a very high resistance. A high resistance in series with low resistance bulbs increases the total resistance in
the circuit and decreases the current through the batteries. With very small current flowing through the bulbs, they are too
dim to see. However, they will produce infrared light because a small current still flows through them.
The voltmeter will read zero. They connected the voltmeter in series and should have connected it in parallel.
20.X.18
The net force on a mobile electron in the bar is
Fnet,x = ma
The force on the mobile electron is due to the electric field. So, ~Fnet = ~Felec = q E
~ and
qE = ma
Using V = EL for a uniform electric field,

5

V
q = ma
L

q L
= a
m V
20.X.19
VC VB = I1 R1
= (0.4 A)(20 )
= 8 V
PR 1 = |V I|
= (8 V)(0.4 A)
= 3.2 W
Note that power is dissipated by the resistor.
Pbattery,1 = emfI1
= (12 V)(0.4 A)
= 4.8 W
Power is supplied by the battery.
20.EXP.20
20.X.29
t Q0 t
(d); Since Q = Q0 e RC then |I| = dQ
dt = RC e
RC .

20.X.30
(B). The capacitor is discharging, so electrons leave the right plate plate making it less negative and are added to the right
plate making it less positive.
20.X.31
A, C, and D are true.
20.X.32
(a) The capacitor is discharging, so the electron current decreases exponentially. Thus, the correct diagrams are:
6
1. (C)
2. (B)
3. (A)
(b) The net electric field is proportional to the electron current. Thus Enet also decreases exponentially, and the correct
diagrams are:
1. (C)
2. (B)
3. (A)
20.X.33
(d). Since Q = Q0 (1 e(t/RC) ), then |I| = | dQ Q0 (t/RC)
dt | = RC e = I0 e(t/RC) . Thus, for a charging capacitor in a RC circuit,
the current is initially at a maximum value and decreases exponentially.
20.X.34
(B). Electron current flows from the negative terminal of the battery toward the capacitor, which is to the right in the
picture.
20.X.35
(c). Q = Qmax (1 e(t/RC) ) for a charging capacitor in a RC circuit. Q increases until it reaches a maximum value in the
limit as t .
20.X.36
(c). The fringe field at A is proportional to the charge on the left plate; therefore, it also increases until it reaches a maximum
value.
20.X.37
(d). In general, the net electric field inside the wire is E ~ net = E ~ fringe . At point A, these vectors are in the
~ surface charge + E
x-direction, so Enet, x = Esurface charge, x + Efringe, x . A t = 0, just after the initial transient, Efringe, x = 0 and Enet, x is a
maximum. As t , Efringe, x Esurface charge, x and Enet, x 0.
20.X.38
The initial current is the same if the capacitor is initially uncharged. The reason is that initially VC = 0, so applying
Conservation of Energy (the loop rule) to the circuit gives emf = IR which is the same as if the capacitor is not in the circuit
at all. The initial current is I0 = emf/R.
20.X.39
If the capacitor is uncharged, then initially VC = 0 and applying Conservation of Energy (the loop rule) to the circuit gives
emf = IR. The initial current is I0 = emf/R. The charging time for the capacitor is proportional to RC, the time constant
for the RC circuit. Assuming that the emf stays the same, then the initial current is proportional to 1/R. A larger initial
current is produced by using a resistor with smaller R, and smaller R results in a smaller (i.e. shorter) charging time.
7
20.X.40
The net electric field is proportional to the electron current. As a result, a high electron current is produced when the net
electric field is greatest in magnitude. So, the correct diagrams are:
1. (C)
2. (A)
3. (B)
20.X.41
After a long time, the I and VR = 0. Applying the loop rule to the RC circuit (after fully charged) gives emf =
VC = Q C . Thus, the final (equilibrium) charge depends only on the emf of the battery and the properties of the capacitor.
It does not depend on the length of the wire or kind of bulb in the RC circuit.
20.X.42
After a long time, the I and VR = 0. Applying the loop rule to the RC circuit (after fully charged) gives emf =
Q
VC = EC s = (A) Q
s = (AK 0)
s. Thus, the final (equilibrium) charge on each plate is Q = emfAK0 /s. So, Q depends on
1. The size of the plates, A. A capacitor with larger area plates will store more charge when fully charged.
2. The spacing between the plates, s. A capacitor with larger spacing will store less charge when fully charged.
3. The presence of a plastic slab between the plates, K. A capacitor with any dielectric (K > 1) will store more charge
when fully charged than a capacitor with a vacuum between the plates.
20.X.43
The time to discharge (or charge) is proportional to = RC. For a large discharge time with a small bulb (i.e. small R),
the capacitor must have a very high capacitance C. The capacitance of a capacitor is C = Ks0 A where K is the dielectric
constant of the plastic between the plates, A is the area of the plates, and s is the distance the plates are separated. To
achieve high capacitance, the experimenters must have achieved any or all of the following:
1. large area plates.
2. small spacing between the plates.
3. a material with a very high dielectric constant, K >> 1.
20.X.44
The current is proportional to the net electric field within the wire. The net electric field is the superposition of the electric
field due to surface charge (gradient) and the electric field due to charge on the plates of the capacitor. Suppose that the wire
is parallel to the x-axis, as shown in the picture, then the net electric field in a connecting wire just outside the capacitor
is Enet,x = Esurf ace charge,x + Ef ringe,x . As the charge on the capacitor plate increases, the fringe field increases, the net
electric field decreases, and the current decreases.
Suppose that within a fraction of time, an amount of charge Q is added to the plate. Then, the fringe field increases by an
amount
8
Q/A s
Ef ringe =
0 2R
Since Ef ringe s, then for capacitor 2 the change in the fringe field for a given change in the charge is less. As a result,
since Enet,x Ef ringe , then Enet,x is less and I is less.
20.X.45
The current is proportional to the net electric field within the wire. The net electric field is the superposition of the electric
field due to surface charge (gradient) and the electric field due to charge on the plates of the capacitor. Suppose that the wire
is parallel to the x-axis, as shown in the picture, then the net electric field in a connecting wire just outside the capacitor is
Enet,x = Esurf ace charge,x + Ef ringe . As the charge on the capacitor plate increases, the fringe field increases, the net electric
field decreases, and the current decreases.
amount
Q/A s
Ef ringe =
2R
Q/A s
=
K0 2R
Since Ef ringe 1/K, then since K2 > K1 , Ef ringe,2 < Ef ringe,1 . As a result, since Enet,x Ef ringe , then Enet,x
is less and I is less.
If the dielectric is replaced by a material that polarizes more easily, then K is increased. This will decrease I for a given
amount of charge added to the plate. As a result, the current will be more nearly constant than for capacitor 2.
20.X.46
A metal slab is inserted between the plates of a capacitor (such that it doesnt touch the plates). As charge builds up on
the plates, the metal slab will become polarized, creating two regions of charge separation across the two gaps between the
slab and the plates. The new capacitor is like having two capacitors connected in series, with each one having a gap that is
much less than the original capacitor. The fringe field outside of one plate of the capacitor is mostly due to the charge on
that plate and the charge on the side of the metal slab nearest that plate.
amount
Q/A s
Ef ringe
2R
where s is the distance between the plate and the metal slab. Since this distance is smaller than the plate separation in
the original capacitor, then Ef ringe is less, Enet is less, and I is less. As a result, the current is more nearly constant,
compared to the original capacitor.
20.X.47
Capacitance is
9
K0 A
C =
s
1(8.85 1012 F/m)(0.56 m)(0.24 m)
=
0.2 103 m
9
= 5.95 10 F
20.X.48
Capacitance is
K0 A
C =
s
(2.9)(8.85 1012 F/m)(0.59 m)(0.33 m)
=
0.27 103 m
8
= 1.85 10 F
20.X.49
Apply the loop rule (conservation of energy) to the circuit when the capacitor is fully charged (Q = Qmax and I = 0). Then,
2emf = VC = Q C . The charge on each plate is Q = 2emfC = 2(1.5 V)(2.5 F) = 7.5 C.
10
20.P.50
Discharging a capacitor begins with charges moving under the influence of the fringe field, which constitutes a large net
field, and a large initial current. As more charge redistributes, the net field in the wire decreases, as does the current. The
fringe field also decreases as there is less and less charge on the plates. Eventually the net field is zero and the charge has
redistributed itself over the entire circuit and we have static equilibrium with no current. This is shown sequentially in
Figures 1 4.
- +
- +
!
E - +
net
! - +
E
!
E =0 fringe
x - + x
other
- +
- +
- +
- +
Figure 1: Image 1 of 4 for Question 10.P.50.
- +
!
E - +
net
!
E
!
E fringe
x - + x
other
- +
- +
- +
!
E
net
!
E
!
E fringe
x - + x
other
- +
!
E =0
net
!
E !
=0 x E =0 x
other fringe

11
20.P.51
Charging a capacitor begins with charges moving under the influence of the field from the charges on the battery plates, which
constitutes a large net field, and a large initial current. As more charge redistributes, the net field in the wire decreases, as
does the current. The fringe field increases as there is more and more charge on the plates. Eventually the net field is zero
and we have static equilibrium with no current. This is shown sequentially in Figures 5 8.
!
E !
E
net net
!
E !
x E =0 !
x E =0
other fringe fringe
!
E
other
- +
!
E !
E
net net
!
E
!
E fringe !
E
x - + x
other fringe
!
E
other
- +
- +
!
E - + !
E
net net
!
E
!
E fringe !
E
x - + x
other fringe
!
E
other
- +
- +
- +
- +
!
E =0 - + !
E =0
net net
! - +
E
!
E fringe !
E
x - + x
other fringe
!
E
- + other
- +
- +
- +
20.P.52
(a) C. The filament has the greatest effective cross sectional area.
12
(b) B. The filament has the greatest effective length.

(c) Suggestions for an experimental procedure are given.
20.P.53
Circuit 2 has a smaller gap and, therefore, also has a smaller fringe field. A smaller fringe field means a greater net field,
causing more charge to accumulate on the plates.
20.P.54
(a) The compass on the left points 20 to the right. Compass A points 10 to the left. Compass B points 10 to the right.
(b) Adding the second bulb should effectively double the filaments cross sectional area, allowing twice the amount of charge
to flow. So the capacitor should charge in about half the original time.
(c) Experiment
Changing the gap after charging

equilibrium;
20.P.55
at location inside the wire, E net = 0 ; E net + E fringe + E surface charge + E batt = 0
There are three stages:
(1) Static equilibrium: at locations inside the wire, E

~ =0;E
~ =E
~ +E
~ +E
~ =0
closer together; now Efringe smaller than before, because Efringe proportional to s (distan
net net fringe surface charge batt
(2) Plates closer together: now E ~ is smaller than before, because E

~ s (distance between plates). Since (the now
Since (the now smaller) E fringe points
fringe to the right, E net now
fringepoints to left in the nearby wire
smaller) E
~ points to the right, E~ now points to left in the nearby wire. This leads to more electron flow onto the
electron flow
plateonto
and offthe
of the+plate
fringe
plate. and off of the + plate.
net
Efringe Efringe Efringe Efringe
Eother Eother Eother Eother
Enet = 0 Enet to left
(3) New static equilibrium: After some time, enough additional charge builds up on the plates, so E
~ = 0 again. E
~
tatic equilibrium: After
increased because some (and
Q increased time,
~ enough
E Q). The additional charge
final charge on the + plate isbuilds up
larger than onoriginally.
it was plates so E net
net fringe
fringe
creased because Q increased (Efringe proportional to Q). The final charge on the + plate is
iginally.20.P.56
There are three stages:
(1) Initial transient (first few nanoseconds): electric field near capacitor is initially due to charge on metal plates and due
to the induced dipoles in the plastic (these two fields are opposite to each other, so E ~ is smaller in the wires than it
would be without the plastic).
This pattern of field forces mobile electrons to flow in the opposite direction to the field. On the bends, charge builds
up on the surface due to net current entering or leaving a region. The surface charge and the capacitor charges make
a field everywhere in a direction tending toward a steady-state pattern of uniform E ~ throughout the wire, yielding
uniform electron current (current conservation in the quasi-steady state, constant cross section for uniform ~v and E).
~
13
(2) Quasi-steady state: magnitude of E ~ is uniform throughout the wire, drives current in the direction to reduce charge on
capacitor plates (top plate gets less positive, bottom plate gets less negative). There may be some excess charge on the
bends, but the main feature is that there is a gradient of surface charge all along the wire (see Figure 9). As capacitor
charge decreases, polarization
19.P.63 and of
Fundamentals surface charge
a capacitor also decrease (proportionally). Hence E
circuit ~ decreases and electron current
1) Initial transient (first few nanoseconds): electric field near capacitor initially due to charge on metal plates

i = nAu E decreases with time (may take many seconds).
~
and due to the induced dipoles in the plastic (these two fields are opposite to each other, so E is smaller in
the wires than it would be without the plastic).
Eplates
Enet
Edipoles
+Q
Insulating
Q material
Eplates Enet
Edipoles
Enet
This pattern of field forces mobile electrons to flow in the opposite direction to the field. On the bends,
Figure
charge 9:upSketch
builds the quasi-steady
on the surface stateentering
due to net current for theorcircuit
leaving ainregion.
Question 10.P.56.
The surface charge and the
capacitor charges make a field everywhere in a direction tending toward a steady-state pattern of uniform E
throughout the wire, yielding uniform electron current (current conservation in the quasi-steady state, con-
stant cross section for uniform v and E).
(3) Static equilibrium: eventually charge on the plates is reduced to zero, there is no polarization in the plastic, and there
is no surface charge on the wire.
2) Quasi-steady state: magnitude E uniform throughout the wire, drives current in the direction to reduce
charge on capacitor plates (top plate gets less positive, bottom plate gets less negative). There may be some
excess charge on the bends, but the main feature is that there is a gradient of surface charge all along the
wire. As capacitor charge decreases, polarization and surface charge also decrease (proportionally). Hence E
20.P.57 decreases electron current i = nAuE decreases with time (may take many seconds).
3) Eventually charge on plates reduced to zero, no polarization in plastic, no surface charge on wire: static
(a) Apply the loop rule to this circuit when the capacitor is fully charged. Then, emf = VC = Q/C. Thus, the charge on
equilibrium.
the capacitor when fully charged is Q = C(emf).
(b) The potential difference across the plates remains constant, and the net electric field within the capacitor remains
constant since Enet = VC /s. However, there is a component of E ~ net that is due to polarized molecules in the
dielectric. In fact, Enet,x = Evacuum,x Edipoles,x . (Ive assumed that the capacitor is aligned with the x-axis with
~ net in the +x direction.) Since Enet remains constant, then Evacuum must have increased. Since Evacuum = (Q/A)/,
E
then Q must increase, and current runs through the bulb until the capacitor is again fully charged.
From the loop rule applied to this circuit, Q = C(emf) with a capacitance that is now C = KC0 , where C0 is the
capacitance with air between the plates. Since C is larger by a factor K, then Q is also larger by a factor of K. If Q0 is
the charge on the capacitor before the dielectric is inserted, then Q = KQ0 is the charge after the dielectric is inserted.
20.P.58
First sketch a circuit, like the one shown in Figure 10.
Now, sketch the capacitor with the dielectric and the capacitor without the dielectric, as shown in Figure 11.
The net electric field within the plates is related to the potential difference across the plates by Enet = V /s. Applying the
loop rule to the circuit shows that emf = VC , so Enet = emf/s.
Since the potential difference across the plates doesnt change when you remove the dielectric, then the net electric field must
remain the same. However, when the dielectric is within the plates, the net electric field is due to charge on the plates as well
14
Figure 10: The circuit for question 20.P.58.
+Q -Q
Eplates
Enet Edipoles
+Q -Q
Eplates
Enet
Figure 11: The dielectric is removed from the capacitor while it is still connected to the battery.
as polarized molecules within the dielectric. As a result, removing the dielectric reduces the electric field due to the charge
on the plates, so the plates must have less charge. There will be a brief current, with positive charge (conventional current)
flowing away from the positively charged plate of the capacitor and through the positively charged terminal of the battery.
The current will exist until the capacitors charge decreases to Q0 /K where Q0 was the maximum charge on the plates before
the dielectric was removed.
15
20.P.59
(a) The electric potential outside a uniformly charged sphere is that of a point particle at the center of the sphere,
r . Inside the sphere, the electric field is zero. Thus, at r = r, V = 4 r .
1 Q 1 Q
V = 4
0 0
1 (Q)
At r r2 , V = 1 Q
4o r + 4o r = 0. Just inside r2 , V = 1 Q
4o r2 . Thus,
V = V2 V1
1 Q 1 Q
=
4o r2 4o r1
1 1 1
= Q( )
4o r2 r1
Solve for Q to get
40
Q = V
( r1 1
r2 )
2
Comparing to Q = CV gives
40
C =
( r1 1
r1 )
2
(b)
1 1 r2 r1 s
= =
r2 r1 r1 r2 r1 r2
r r
C = 40 1 2
s
Since r1 r2 = R, then r1 r2 R2 and
0 4R2
C
s
0 A
C
s
20.P.60
Enet
According to the loop rule for the circuit, emf = VC = s . If s is suddenly increased, then Enet must decrease.
Q
Since Enet = K , then Q must decrease. There will be a current as positive charge (conventional current) leaves the
A
0
positively charged plate, until the capacitor is in static equilibrium once again. Then the new charge on the capacitor will
K A
be Qnew = Cnew (emf) = s 0 .
new
Note that the new capacitance is less since snew is larger.
20.P.61
16
(a) While discharging, conventional current in the wire flows away from the positively charged plate. In the wire beneath
the left compass, conventional current runs south, creating a magnetic field above the wire that is west and causes the
compass needle to point NW. Conventional current flows north in the wire beneath the right compass. So above the
wire at the location of the compass, the current in the wire creates a magnetic field that is east. This causes the right
compass to point NE.
When the bulb is connected directly to two batteries, the compasses deflect 15 . Applying the loop rule to the bulb
R .
and batteries gives 2emf = VR = IR. Thus, I = 2emf
When the bulb and capacitor are connected directly to two batteries, applying the loop rule to the capacitor and
batteries gives 2emf = VC .
So, when the bulb and capacitor are connected directly together (with no batteries), applying the loop rules at t = 0
gives
VC = VR
2emf = IR
Thus, at t = 0 when first connected, the current through the bulb will be the same as when the bulb was connected
directly to the batteries. This will cause the compasses to deflect 15 . As time elapses during the next minute, VC
decreases exponentially, so VR decreases exponentially. By Ohms law, I must also decrease exponentially. As a
result, the angle of deflection on the compasses will decrease from 15 .
(b) A sketch of electric field vectors is shown in Figure 12.
Large metal disks

not drawn to scale
Ewire Ewire
Ecap
Ewire Ebulb
Ewire
Round bulb
Figure 12: Electric field vectors for the circuit in Question 20.P.61.
The electric field within the capacitor and the electric field within the bulb filament are much larger than the electric
field within the wire.
(c) There is a gradient of positive surface charge from high density at the left (positive) plate to low positive density at
the left end of the filament.
There is a gradient of negative surface charge from high negative density at the right (negative) plate to low negative
density at the right end of the filament.
The charge density along the filament changes from positive on the left to negative on the right. Note that the gradient
(i.e. change) in charge density along the filament is greater than along the wires. This what makes the electric field
within the filament larger than in the wires.
The surface charge is depicted in Figure 13.
17
Figure 13: Surface charge for the circuit in Question 20.P.61.
(d) Conservation of charge (the current node rule) applied to the node between the wire and bulb leads to:
Ibulb = Iwire
neAbulb ubulb Ebulb = neAwire uwire Ewire
Abulb ubulb Ebulb = Awire uwire Ewire
d2bulb ubulb Ebulb = d2wire uwire Ewire
Ebulb d2wire uwire
=
Ewire d2bulb ubulb
Conservation of energy around the circuit (the loop rule) leads to:
VC = Vwire + Vbulb + Vwire
At only 0.01 s after connecting the wires, the voltage of the capacitor may not have changed very much from its value
at t=0 (depending on its capacitance and the resistance of the bulb). Lets assume that VC 2emf (although it can
be determined more accurately to be VC = 2emf(1 et/(RC) ).
2emf 2Vwire + Vbulb

2emf 2Ewire Lwire + Ebulb Lbulb
The two valid equations given above that involve the electric fields within the bulb and wire are a result of application
of Conservation of charge (node rule) and Conservation of energy (loop rule).
(e) In part(a), we said that the current would decrease and the compass deflections would decrease, starting at 15 and
getting smaller as time elapses. The reason is that positive charge (using a conventional current model) leaves the
positive plate, causing Q to decrease and the potential difference across the capacitor to decrease. At the same time,
positive charge is added to the negative plate causing its charge Q to also decrease in magnitude. This decreases the
surface charge all along the wire. As the surface charge gradient decreases, so does the electric field within the wire
and bulb. As the electric field within the wire and bulb decreases, the current decreases.
You can see this mathematically from the loop rule. At every instant t,
18
VC = 2Vwire + Vbulb
= 2Ewire Lwire + Ebulb Lbulb
As VC decreases, Ewire and Ebulb decrease as well. One might try to argue that only one of the electric fields would
d2 uwire
have to decrease; however, we know they are related by EEwire
bulb
= dwire
2 , so as one of them decreases, the other one
bulb ubulb
must decrease as well.
Youve seen in this solution both a qualitative explanation and a quantitative explanation.
20.P.62
(a) After one microsecond, not much as changed. The capacitor is still essentially uncharged, so VC = 0. Applying the
loop rule to the circuit gives 2emf = VR = IR. The current at this instant is I = 2emf/R. A larger resistance will
result in a smaller current. Therefore the current in circuit 2 will be less than the current in circuit 1. This means that
the net electric field at location B will be less than the net electric field at location A.
With that background, the following statements are deemed to be true:
(1), (2), (3), and (5)

(b) After a long time, the current will approach zero, and the capacitors voltage will be equal to the emf of the batteries.
Then VC = 2emf = Q/C and the capacitors will have the same charge. However, 2.0 s is not a long time (compared
to the time of 25 s to be nearly fully charged). Since the current in Circuit 1 is greater than the current in Circuit 2,
then more charge will pile up on the plates in Circuit 1 in one second than in Circuit 2.
With that background, the following statements are deemed to be true:
(1), (2), (3), and (5)

(c) (c). It goes as Q = 2(emf)C(1 et/(RC) ).
(d) (a). It goes as I = I0 (et/(RC) )
20.X.63
[] = ( m)1 = (V m/A)
[] = m
[R] =
[J] = A/m2
20.X.64
= |q| nu
m/s
= (1.6 1019 C)(5.9 1028 m3 )(4.3 103 )
V/m
= 4.06 107 ( m)1
19
20.X.65
I
J =
A
I
J
E = = A

(0.3 A)
= A/m
(0.001 m2 )(6.3 107 V/m )
V
= 4.76 106
m
20.X.66
To be an ohmic resistor, its conductivity must be constant (or nearly constant) for a wide range of currents. However,
conductivity is generally temperature dependent. So, if the resistors temperature changes significantly, then it will not be
ohmic. A nichrome wire is ohmic. All of the others are not ohmic resistors. A filaments temperature changes significantly,
so its conductivity changes. A plastic rod is an insulator. I do not know if salt water is ohmic or not; however, I suspect that
temperature can affect its conductivity and it would be non-ohmic. Silicon is non-ohmic.
20.X.67
Apply the loop rule to the circuit.
2emf VR = 0
2emf = IR
2emf
R =
I
2(1.5 V)
=
0.075 A
= 40
20.X.68
(a) Apply the loop rule to the circuit.
emf V1 V2 = 0
emf I1 R1 I2 R2 = 0
Since I1 = I2 , then
20
emf I(R1 + R2 ) = 0
emf
I =
R1 + R2
7.9 V
=
23 + 44
= 0.118 A
V1 = IR1
= (0.118 A)(23 )
= 2.71 V
(b)
I2 = I1 = 0.118 A
20.X.69
A light bulb filament is non-ohmic. Its resistance increases with temperature. A greater current causes the filament to get
hotter, which causes resistance to increase.
When 1 bulb was connected to the battery, it had a greater resistance than when two bulbs in series were connected to the
battery.
20.X.70
Suppose R1 = 10 , R2 = 5 , and R3 = 20 .
1 1 1
= +
R2,3 5 20
R2,3 = 4
Req = R1 + R2,3 = 10 + 4 = 14
20.X.71
(a)
1 1 1
= +
R1,2 R1 R2
1 1
= +
31 47
R1,2 = 18.7
21
(b)
Req = R3 + R1,2
= 52 + 18.7
= 70.7
(c) Replace the circuit with the equivalent circuit in Figure 14.
emf Req
Figure 14: Equivalent circuit for Question 20.X.71.
Apply the loop rule:
emf VR = 0
emf = IReq
7.4 V
I =
70.7
= 0.105 A
This is the current through the battery. Since the battery and R3 are in series, then the current through R3 is also
0.105 A.
20.P.72
(a) A picture is shown in Figure 15.
(b) Since the current is constant (i.e. steady-state) and since I = neAuE, then where u is large, E is small. Since u
increases with +x, then E decreases with +x.
22
Figure 15: Electric field within the met slab, in Question 20.P.72.
(c)
I = neAuE
= ne(wh)(u0 + kx)E
I
E =
ne(wh)(u0 + kx)
(d) Negative, because the + lead of the voltmeter is connected to the lower-potential end of the slab (potential decreases
in direction of electric field).
(e)
Z d
I
|V | = dx
0 ne(wh)(u 0 + kx)
I d
= ln[u0 + kx]

ne(wh)k 0
I
= (ln[u0 + kd] ln[u0 ])
ne(wh)k

I u0 + kd
= ln
ne(wh)k u0
Check the results to see if they make sense. If d = 0, ln(1) = 0, and therefore V = 0, which is expected. Also,
potential difference is proportional to the current, which is correct.
(f)
V
R =
I
1 u0 + kd
= ln
ne(wh)k u0
20.P.73
The current and electric field in the filament are related by
23
I
= E
A
I
E =
A
0.2 A
= A/m2
1
(0.015 103 m)2 18 (1.8 107 V/m )
V
= 283
m
For the connecting copper wires, look up the conductivity of copper. Note that is nearly constant for the range of currents
used for the bulb (i.e. copper wire is ohmic and a small tungsten filament is not). Also estimate the radius of the copper
wire to be about 0.5 103 m. Then,
I
E =
A
0.2 A
= A/m2
(0.5 103 m)2 (5.96 107 V/m )
V
= 0.00427
m
Note that Efilament > 10000Ewire .
20.P.74
(a) The electric field E1 is small and uniform throughout the thick wires. From the current node rule applied to the
thick and thin wires, we know that the electric field E2 is much larger and uniform throughout the thin wires, since
neA1 uE1 = neA2 uE2 . A sketch is shown in Figure 16.
Figure 16: Electric field vectors within the wires for the circuit in Question 20.P.74.
(b) Roughly, we expect a small gradient along the thick wires (small E1 ) and a large gradient along the thin wires (large
E2 ). By symmetry the central thick wire has very little charge. The surface charge is sketched in Figure 16.
24
(c) Applying the loop rule (conservation of energy) to the circuit gives:
K V1 V2 V3 V1 V2 = 0
K 2E1 L1 2E2 L2 E1 L3 = 0
K = E1 (2L1 + L3 ) + 2E2 L2
Using the above equation with A1 E1 = A2 E2 from the current node rule (conservation of charge), solve for the electron
current i = nAuE. Begin by substituting for E1 .

A2
K = E2 (2L1 + L3 ) + 2L2
A1
K
E2 =
A2
A1 (2L1 + L3 ) + 2L2
The current through the thin wire i2 is
i2 = nA2 uE2
nA2 uK
=
A2
A1 (2L1 + L3 ) + 2L 2
Substitute for the area, A2 = (1/4)d22 . Also note that i1 = i2 , so solving for i2 is the equivalent of solving or i1 . The
number of electrons leaving the negative terminal of the battery is
n(1/4)d22 uK
i =
d22
d21
(2L1 + L3 ) + 2L2
A1 /A2
By multiplying by A1 /A2 , you can also write the current as
n(1/4)d21 uK
i =
d2
(2L1 + L3 ) + 2 d12 L2
2
d22
(d) If d2 << d1 , then d21
zero, so the first expression for i gives
n(1/4)d22 uK
i
2L2
Essentially this is the same result as if we had ignored V for each think wire.
(e) The potential difference read by the voltmeter is V = E2 ( L22 ). The electric field E2 is approximately K/(2L2 ) since
the thin wires are in series and we are neglecting the potential drop across the thick wires. Thus, the voltmeter will
read V = K/(2L2 )( L22 ) = (1/4)K. The sign is positive because the positive lead was connected to the high-potential
side of the wire.
25
20.P.75
(a) The potential difference across the wire is equal to the emf for both circuits (loop rule). So,
V1 = V2
I1 R1 = I2 R2
L L
I1 1 = I2 2
A1 A2
! !
I2 L1 A2
=
I1 L2 A1

1 5.5
=
2.5 1
= 2.2
(b)
V1 = V2
I1 R1 = I2 R2
R2 I1
=
R1 I2
1
=
2.2
= 0.45
(c)
V1 = V2
E1 L1 = E 2 L2
E2 L1
=
E1 L2
1
=
2.5
= 0.4
20.X.76
The 60 W bulb has greater resistance. V is the same for each bulb. Substitute I = V /R (from Ohms law) into P = IV ,
2
then P = V
R . Since P 1/R, a larger resistance results in less power. Thus, the less power bulb has a greater resistance.
20.X.77
(a) P = I(emf) for the battery, thus P increases by a factor of 2.

26
(b) P = I 2 R for a resistor, thus P increases by a factor of 4.

(c) A battery has a constant emf (ideally), so P I for a battery. For a resistor, P = IV = I(IR) = I 2 R. Thus P I 2
for a resistor.
20.X.78
The statement is FALSE. The power supplied by a battery is P = I(emf). The greater resistance of circuit 2 will decrease
the current through the battery. As a result, the battery supplies less power.
20.X.79
The bare wire beneath the feet of the bird and the birds body can be modeled as two resistors in parallel. The potential
difference across each resistor is the same. The birds body has much more resistance than the bare wire; therefore, the
current through the bird is much less. In fact, its negligible.
20.P.80
(a) R1 is the original resistance in the circuit. The new resistance is R2 = R1 + R1 = 2R1 . V stays the same, so the
power supplied is P2 = V I2 .
Find I2 .
V1 = V2
I1 R1 = I2 R2
I1 R1
I2 =
R2
I1 R1
=
2R1
1
= I
2 1
So now the power supplied by the battery is
1
P2 = V ( I1 )
2
1
= P
2 1
Each resistor dissipates half the power supplied by the battery (since they are identical), so
1 1
Presistor = P2 = P 1
2 4
Conceptually, think about it this way. Adding an identical resistor reduces the current by 12 , which decreases the
supplied power by 12 . Each resistor dissipates 21 of 12 of the original power. Thus the power dissipated by a resistor is
4 of P1 .
1
27
(b) Pbattery = 12 P1 . See part (a).
(c) In parallel, Reff = 12 R1 , so current is I = 2I1 , and power supplied by the battery is P = V I = V (2I1 ) = 2P1 .
Resistors in parallel increase the current through the battery which increases the power supplied by the battery.
20.P.81
(a) Apply the loop rule to the batteries, R4 , R2 , and R3 .
2emf I4 R4 I3 R3 I3 R2 = 0
3.0 V I4 (15 ) I3 (30 + 20 ) = 0
Apply the loop rule to the batteries, R4 , and R1 .
2emf I4 R4 I1 R1 = 0
3.0 V I4 (15 ) I1 (20 ) = 0
Apply the node rule at the node that connects R1 and R2 , R3 .
I4 = I3 + I1
Solve the above three equations for I1 , I3 , and I4 . Since I1 = 0.073 A and I4 = 0.102 A, then I3 = 0.029 A.
(b) Compass 2 deflects toward NW. Compass 1 deflects NE. Bwire = BEarth tan , so B1 = (2 105 T) tan 3 = 1.05 106 T.
I1 B1 B 1.46106 T
Since I4 = 0.716, then B2 = 0.716 and B2 = 1.46 106 T. Use tan = B
wire
= 2105 T , so 2 = 4.2 .
Earth
(c) I2 = I3 = 0.029 A
I2 = neAuE2
I2
E2 =
neAu
0.029 A
= m/s
(8 1028 m3 )(1.6 1019 C)(6 1010 m2 )(3 105 N/C )
V
= 126
m
E V
(d) Assume that R1 and R2 have the same length. Since V = EL for a resistor, then 1
E2 = V2
1
.
V1 = I1 R1 = (0.073 A)(20 ) = 1.46 V

V2 = I2 R2 = (0.029 A)(20 ) = 0.58 V
Thus E1 > E2 since V 1 > V 2 .

28
V
(e) V = EL for a resistor. L2 = E2
2
= 0.58 V
126 mV = 0.0046 m = 4.6 mm. This is a reasonable length for a carbon resistor.
(f) It will read a negative potential

difference since the positive terminal (usually the red lead) is at a lower potential and
low-high is negative. |V | = V4 + V3 = I4 R4 + I3 R3 = (0.102 A)(15 ) + (0.029 A)(20 ) = 2.4 V.

(g) V around the circuit is 2(emf) = 3.0 V. The change in energy of an electron around the circuit is U = eV =
(1.6 1019 C)(3.0 V) = 4.8 1019 J.
(h) P = (emf)I where I is the current through the battery. In this case, Ibat = I4 = 0.102 A. So power supplied by one
battery is P = (1.5 V)(0.102 A) = 0.153 W.
20.P.82
(a) P = IV . Since VR = emf (loop rule) and VR = IR, then
VR

P = VR
R
(VR )2
=
R
(VR )2 (10 V)2
R1 = = = 20
P 5W
(10 V)2
R2 = =5
20 W
(b)
V = EL
V 10 V V
E = = = 3.33 104
L (3 103 m) m
(c)
emf IR1 IR2 = 0

emf 10 V
I = = = 0.4 A
(R1 + R2 ) 20
V1 = IR1 = (0.4 A)(20 ) = 8 V
V2 = IR2 = (0.4 A)(5 ) = 2 V
If the negative terminal of the battery is ground (V = 0), then the electric potential V drops from 10 V to 2 V to zero.
It is 2 V between R1 and R2 , 10 V at x = 0, and 0 after R2 . A sketch of the graph is shown in Figure 17.
(d) A sketch of the surface charge distribution is shown in Figure 18.
(e) I = 0.4 A (from part (c)) and i = I
e = 0.4 A
1.61019 C = 2.5 1018 electrons per second.
(f)
P = (emf)I
= (10 V)(0.4 A) = 4 W
29
Figure 17: A graph of the electric potential V as a function of location along the circuit in Question 20.P.82.
Figure 18: Surface charge for the circuit in Question 20.P.82.
20.P.83
(a) Apply the loop rule to ABCHA:
emf 1 I1 R1 I4 R4 = 0
Apply the loop rule to FEDCF:
emf 2 I2 R2 I3 R3 = 0
30
Apply the loop rule to CFGHC:
I3 R3 I5 R5 + I4 R4 = 0
(Note the positive I4 R4 term since the loop goes H-C and the current goes C-H. This means that C is at a higher
potential than H and VC VH is positive, at least according to the direction of I4 if its positive.)
Apply the node rule at C:
I1 + I2 = I3 + I4
Apply the node rule at H:
I4 + I5 = I1
Substitute emfs and resistances into the above equations and solve for I1 , I2 , I3 , I4 , and I5 using linear algebra.
(b)
VD VA = (VH VA ) + (VC VH ) + (VD VC )
Since VH = VA , write this as
VD VA = (VC VA ) + (VD VC )
= I4 R4 + I2 R2
Since directions of current are presumed to be positive, then VD VA is positive.
(c) The current through battery 2 is I2 . So, P = (emf 2 )I2 .
20.P.84
(a) A sketch is shown in Figure 19. With the switch open, no current; surface charge + on left branch, on right branch.
There is an electric field in the gap between the two parts of the switch.
(b) No current flows through the wire, so all parts of a wire that are connected to one terminal of the battery are at the
same potential V as that terminal of the battery. Thus, VK and VD are at the same potential and VD VK = 0. Since
VB = V+,bat and VC = V,bat , then VB VC = Vbat = 3.0 V.
(c) Apply the loop rule to loop ABCDGHKLMNA (basically batteries, Bulb 3 and Bulb 1). Define all current directions
to be from high potential to low potential (i.e. current points in the direction toward the negative terminal of the
battery). Thus,
31
Figure 19: Surface charge distribution on the circuit for Question 20.P.84.
2emf I3 R3 I1 R1 = 0
Apply the loop rule to loop ABCDEFKLMNA (basically batteries, Bulb 2 and Bulb 1). Define all current directions to
be from high potential to low potential (i.e. current points in the direction toward the negative terminal of the battery).
Thus,
2emf I2 R2 I1 R1 = 0
Apply the node equation at K.
I2 + I3 = I1
The above three equations can be used to solve for I1 , I2 , and I3 .

(d) VC VF is simply the potential difference across bulb 2 (since VC = VD = VE ), and V2 = I2 R2 .
(e) Pbat = Vbat Ibat . Since the battery and bulb 1 are in series, then Pbat = (3.0 V)I1 .
(f) The equations are:
3 I3 (30) I1 (10) = 0
3 I2 (40) I1 (10) = 0
I2 + I3 = I1
32
You can solve this simultaneous equations using linear algebra or substitution or the solve function on a TI calculator.
The solutions is I1 = 21/190 = 0.111 A, I2 = 9/190 = 0.0474 A, and I3 = 6/95 = 0.0632 A.
19
(g) i = i1 = I1 /e = (0.111 A)/(1.602 10 C = 6.94e17) electrons per second.
(h) VC VF = V2 = I2 R2 = (0.0474 A)(40 ) = 1.90 V
(i) Pbat = (3.0 V)I1 = (3.0 V)(0.111 A) = 0.333 W
(j) V = EL for a uniform electric field. Thus, E2 = (1.9 V)/(0.008 m) = 238 V/m
20.P.85
Z Q
q
W = dq
0 C
Z Q
1
= qdq
C 0
2 Q

1q
=
C 2 0
1 Q2
=
2 C
20.X.86
Vbat = emf Irint
When short-circuited, Vbat = 0 and the internal resistance of the battery can be calculated to be rint = 6V
12 A = 0.5 .
If a 1 resistor is connected, then Vbat = VR = IR, and
IR = emf Irint
I(R + rint ) = emf
6V
I =
(1 + 0.5 )
= 4A
20.P.87
(a)
V = emf Irint
0 = emf Irint
emf 9V 1
rint = = =
I 18 A 2
33
(b)
P = (emf)I
= (9 V)(18 A) = 162 W
(c)
162 J
(d)
VR = emf Irint
IR = emf Irint
I(R + rint ) = emf
emf 9V
I = = = 0.857 A
R + rint (10 + 0.5 )
(e)
P =
V I
I
= I
R
I2 (0.857 A)2
= = = 0.0735 W
R 10
(f) It reads V = emf Irint = 9 V (0.857 A)( 12 ) = 8.57 V
20.P.88
(a) A sketch of the electric field and the surface charge is shown in Figure 20.
(b) See Figure 20
(c) Apply the loop rule to the wire. The electric field is the same everywhere in the wire. Thus emf = Vwire = Ewire Lwire .
Thus Ewire = emf/Lwire = (12 V)/(0.4 m) = 30 V/m.
(d) Vwire = Ewire Lwire = (30 V/m)(0.05 m) = 1.5 V.
(e) Conventional current flows into the negative terminal of the ammeter. As a result, it will read a negative current.
To calculate the magnitude of the current, apply the loop rule, emf = Vwire = IR. Solving for I gives, I =
(12 V)/(50 ) = 0.24 A.
19
(f) i = I/e = (0.24 A)/(1.602 10 C) = 1.5 1018 electrons per second. In 60 seconds, (1.5 1018 )(60) = 9 1019
electrons flow from the negative terminal of the battery.
34
Figure 20: Electric field vectors and surface charge for the circuit in Question 20.P.88.
(g)
i = nAv
i
v =
nA
1.5 1018 electrons/s
=
(1.5 1026 electrons/m3 )(0.003 m)(0.007 m)
= 4.8 104 m/s
(h)
v =
uE
v 4.8 104 m/s
u = =
E 30 V/m
m/s
= 1.6 105
V/m
(i) Because meter 1 now has very high resistance and is in series with the battery, the current drops nearly to zero. Meter
1 reads 12 V, since it is measuring the potential drop across the battery. Meter 2 reads 0 V, or very nearly so, since
the electric field in the wire is now extremely small, because the biggest surface charge gradient is now across meter 1.
(j)
V = emf Irint
1.8 V = 12 V (20.4 A)rint
rint = 0.5
20.P.89
35
(a)
V2 = 2emf I(2rint )
0 = 2emf I(2rint )
2emf
I =
2rint
emf
=
rint
So, I is the same as with one battery with internal resistance rint .
(b) Applying the loop rule gives
V = emf Ireq
Where req is the equivalent resistance of rint,1 and rint,2 . Since they are in parallel, rint = 21 rint,1 .
1
V = emf I( rint,1 )
2
1
0 = emf Irint,1
2
2emf
I =
rint,1
So, I is twice the short-circuit current of a single battery.
20.X.90
An ammeter should have a LOW resistance. The reason is that an ammeter is connected in series with a resistor (or other
device) so that the current through the ammeter is the same as the current through the resistor. In order to not affect the
current that it is trying to measure, it should have negligible resistance.
A voltmeter should have a HIGH resistance. The reason is that a voltmeter is connected in parallel with a resistor (or other
device) so that the voltage (i.e. potential difference) across the voltmeter is the same as the voltage across the resistor. In
order to not affect the current through the resistor, it should have a HIGH resistance so that very little current flows through
the voltmeter.
20.X.91
To find the current through a resistor, for example, measure the voltage across the resistor. Then, use Ohms law to calculate
the current through the resistor. It is I = VR .
20.X.92
At t = 0, if the capacitor is initially uncharged, then the voltage across the capacitor is zero. Applying the Energy Principle
(Loop Rule) to the circuit give VR = 9 V. Ohms law can be used to find the current through the resistor: I = VR /R =
9 V/20 = 0.45 A.
As the capacitor charges, the current through the resistor decreases exponentially. The time constant is = (20 )(2 F) = 40 s.
36
I = I0 et/(RC)
= (0.45 A)e(50 s)/(40 s)
= 0.129 A
20.P.93
(a) In the final state of static equilibrium there is no E inside the resistor and wires, so the round-trip potential difference
is (+emf) + (Vcap ) = 0. Therefore Q = CVcap = Cemf.
(b) Field argument: Polarized molecules in plastic contribute a field just outside the capacitor that is in the opposite
direction to the fringe field of the plates, so the field due to the capacitor (plates and plastic) is reduced. The net field
had been zero and is now nonzero due to the reduction in the field contributed by the capacitor, so current flows. The
current will run until the fringe field of the capacitor again is large enough to cancel the field of all other charges.
Potential argument: E inside gap is reduced by a factor of 1/K, so Vcap = Es is reduced to Vcap = emf/K.
That means that the loop rule requires a potential difference across the resistor, and hence current will run until the
potential difference across the capacitor is again equal to emf.
(c) E inside gap is reduced by a factor of 1/K, so Vcap = Es is reduced to Vcap = emf/K. The loop rule becomes
(+emf) + (emf/K) + (RI) = 0, and the initial current is

emf 1
I = 1
R K
(d) The effective capacitance has changed:
Q
Cnew =
V
Q
=
Es
Q
= Q/A
K0 s
K0 A
= = KC0
s
Qnew = Cnew (emf) = KC0 (emf)
There is now a factor of K more charge on the plates than before the dielectric was inserted.
20.P.94
0 A (8.851012 mF
)(0.1 m)(0.02 m)
The capacitance of the capacitor is C = s = 0.001 m = 1.77 1011 F.
The potential difference across the plates is given by
37
t
VC = Vmax (1 e RC )
Where Vmax is the potential difference at t . After a long time, I = 0 and applying the loop rule to the RC circuit
gives emf VC = 0. So Vmax = emf, and
t
VC = emf(1 e RC )
t
= (100 V)(1 e RC )
Where RC = (1000 )(1.77 1011 F) = 1.77 108 s. Substitute VC = 95 V, and solve for t. Then
t 95 V
1 e RC =
100 V
t
e RC = 1 0.95 = 0.05
t
= ln 0.05
RC
t = RC ln 0.05
= (1.77 108 s) ln 0.05
= 5.30 108 s
20.P.95
(a) The minimum electric field needed to ionize air is 3 106 m.

V
The electric field inside the capacitor is
VC = Es
VC 9V
E = =
s 2.5 103 m
V
= 3600
m
This is less than the critical field needed to produce a spark.

(b) Q = CV . The capacitance of the capacitor is
0 A (8.85 1012 m
F
)(4 m)(3 m)
C = =
s 2.5 103 m
= 4.25 108 F
Q = (4.25 108 F)(9 V)

= 3.83 107 C
38
(c) Inserting the plastic changes V across the plates because E in the plastic is less than before. Total V across the
plates is the sum of V across the plastic + V across the air gap.
V = Vplastic + Vair
1 mm
(9 V)( 2.5 mm ) 1.5 mm
= + (9 V)
K 2.5 mm
= 0.72 V + 5.4 V
= 6.12 V
(d) The voltmeter and capacitor make an RC circuit. The capacitor will discharge. V is
t
V = (6.12 V)e RC
where
RC = (100 106 )(4.25 108 F)

= 4.25 s
3 s
V = (6.12 V)e 4.25 s
= 3.02 V
20.X.96
You will need to use to loop equations and one node equation. Define two loops (there are a total of three possible loops in
the circuit), define a positive and negative terminal for each resistor and define the current through that resistor from the
positive terminal to the negative terminal. It is easiest if you define the currents to be in the same direction as the loop;
however, all of these definitions are arbitrary. Also, define a terminal. In the example below, terminal A is define as shown
in Figure 21. Note with these definitions, because R1 and R5 are in series, then I5 = I1 . For a similar reason, I4 = I3 .
Apply the loop rule to Loop 1, starting at the negative terminal of the battery:
emf1 I1 R1 I2 R2 I1 R5 = 0
Apply the loop rule to Loop 2, starting at the negative terminal of the battery:
emf2 I2 R2 I3 R4 I3 R3 = 0
39
I1
+ R1 _
A
+
+ _
emf2
+ I2 I3
emf1 R2 R3

loop 1 loop 2
_ +
_ R5 + + R4 _
I5 I4
Figure 21: Definitions of loops and currents for the circuit in question 20.X.96.
Apply the node rule to node A:
I1 + I3 = I2
If the resistors and emfs of the batteries are given, then we have three equations with three unknowns, I1 , I2 , and I3 .
20.P.97
(a) Loop 1: ABCDEFGA
20 10I1 15I4 12I6 20I1 = 0
Loop 2: DECD
5 + 15I4 20I2 = 0
Loop 3: EDFE
5 30I3 + 12I6 = 0
Node rule at C:
40
I1 = I2 + I4
Node rule at D:
I2 = I5 + I3
Node rule at F:
I3 + I6 = I1
Solving these equations using linear algebra or the solve function on your calculator (which uses linear algebra) gives
29
I1 = = 0.439 A
66
51
I2 = = 0.331 A
154
1
I3 = = 0.00649 A
154
25
I4 = = 0.108 A
231
25
I5 = = 0.433 A
77
100
I6 = = 0.433 A
237
(b) Check each equation:
?
20 10(0.439) 15(0.108) 12(0.433) 20(0.439) = 0.014
?
5 + 15(0.108) 20(0.331) = 0
?
5 30(0.00649) + 12(0.433) = 0.0013
?
0.439 0.331 0.108 = 0
?
0.331 0.325 0.00649 = 0.00049
?
0.00649 + 0.433 0.439 = 0.00049
Though results are very close.

(c)
VC VG = (VA VG ) + (VB VA ) + (VC VB )
= 20I1 + 20 V + 10I1
= 20(0.439) + 20 V + 10(0.439)
= 33.2 V
41
The voltmeter will read a positive potential difference.

(d)
P = V I5
= (5 V)(0.325 A)
= 1.63 W
(e)
V = EL
V (12 )I6
E = =
L L
(12 )(0.433 A)
=
0.003 m
V
= 1730
m
1
21.X.1
2
~
1 |Q|
Fe =
4o |~r|2
~ ~

Fm = |Q| |~v| B
~ ~ 2

Fm |~v| B |~r|
=
~ 1
|Q|
Fm 4o
2
(10 m/s) (1 T) (0.1 m)

9 109 NC m 1 108 C
2
2
4
1 10
21.X.2
The parallel component has no effect on the trajectory, which will be a circular helix.
21.X.3
v is tangent to the circle, and there are two possibilities. F must be toward the center. B is into the page. Only one direction
for ~v is consistent with the cross product, and that is counterclockwise.
21.X.4
~

F o
4 2I1 I2
=
L d
2
T m2 (2) (10 A)

7
1 10
C m/s 1 102 m

3
2 10 N/m
21.X.5
direction of electric force is +x; there is no magnetic force
direction of electric force is +x; direction of magnetic force is +z
direction of electric force is +x; there is no magnetic force
direction of electric force is +x; direction of magnetic force is x
21.X.6
direction of electric force is x; there is no magnetic force
direction of electric force is x; direction of magnetic force is z
direction of electric force is x; there is no magnetic force
direction of electric force is x; direction of magnetic force is +x
2
21.X.7
~F ~ + ~v B
~

net
= Q E
= h0, 0, 0i
~ ~

|Q| E = |Q| |~v| B
~ ~

E = |~v| B
8 m

(0.9) 3 10 (1 T)
s
8
2.7 10 N/C
~
D 8
E
E 0, 0, 2.7 10 N/C
21.X.8
~

VHall = Ek h
~

= |~v| B h
I

~
= B h
|q| nA
3

(20 A) (1 T) 5 10 m

1.6 1019 C 8.4 1028 /m3 5 103 m 0.1 103 m

5
1.5 10 V
21.X.9
~

~
J L
Vk = Ek L =

(20 A) 3
5 10 m
(510 3
m)(0.1103 m)
2

A/m
6 107 V/m
3
3 10 V
21.X.10
~

emf = |~v| B L
2

(10 m/s) (0.1 T) 1 10 m
0.01 V
3
This is much smaller than 1.5 V.
21.X.11
~

|emf | = |~v| B L
I is clockwise
v||B
|~ ~ |L
|I| = emf
R = R
~ |2 L2
v||B
Your applied force must be to the right, and has magnitude ~F = IL B
~

|~
= .

R
21.X.12
~ ~

o
Fm v| B
4 e |~
~
= 1 e2
Fe 4o |~r|2
2 2
|~v| 1500 m/s

=
c2 3 108 ms
11
2.5 10
21.X.13
The dipole moment points north.
21.X.14
The needle will oscillate back and forth around north.
21.X.15
~

Umin = |~| B
~

Umax = + |~| B
~

U = 2 |~
| B
21.X.16
The net force would be away from the magnets north end.
21.X.17
If the magnetic field is uniform, then = 0 and sin() = 0, so the net force on the ring is zero.
21.X.18
emf sin(t) so emf is a maximum (most positive) at = t = 90 (or /2 radians) and is a minimum (most negative) at
= t = 270 (or 3/2 radians). It is also worth noting that the emf is zero for = t = 0 or 180 (0 or radians).
4
21.X.19
Use emf = B(hw) sin(t) for a single loop. Because sin(t) has a maximum value of 1, then the maximum emf is
emf max = Nturns B(hw)

= (40)(30 rev)(2 rad/rev)(2 T)(0.1 m)(0.2 m)
= 302 V
21.X.20
Density is = m/V . If the density is changed by factor of 1/2, then the volume of air that contains on average one molecule
must be increased by a factor of 2. Thus, the mean free path, which is proportional to this volume, increases by a factor of
2.
21.X.21
The cross-sectional area of a molecule (if modeling it as a sphere) is r2 . If the radius of an air molecule is twice as large,
then its cross-sectional area is 22 = 4 times as large. Since the mean free path is proportional to 1/(r2 ), then it is smaller
by a factor of 1/4.
21.X.22
Since V = Eapp d, then Eapp 1/d. Thus, if the electric field required for ionization is 3 times as large (compared to air at
STP), then the mean free path is 1/3 the mean free path for air at STP.
21.X.23
The mean free path is proportional to 1/(r2 ), so if the area of the molecules is changed by 0.8, then the mean free path
will increase by 1/0.8 = 1.25. The electric field needed for a spark is Eapp = V /d. If the ionization energy increases by a
factor of 1.5 and if the mean free path increases by a factor of 1.25, then the electric field required for a spark increases by
1.5/1.25 = 1.2. Thus, the electric field would be E = 1.2(3 106 V/m) = 3.6 106 V/m.
21.X.24
At a point below the particle, E ~ is in the y direction, so E
~ =< 0, E, 0 >. Applying the relativistic field transformation
equations gives: Bx = 0, By = 0, and
0 0
cv2 Ey
Bz0 =
1 v 2 /c2
p
Since Ey is negative, then Bz0 is in the +z direction, in agreement with Figure 21.71 of the textbook and the right-hand rule.
At a point in front of the particle (meaning in front of the plane of the particle, or the +z direction), E ~ is in the +z
~
direction, so E =< 0, 0, E >. Applying the relativistic field transformation equations gives: Bx = 0, Bz = 0, and
0 0
2 Ez
v
By0 = p c
1 v 2 /c2
5
Since Ez is positive, then Bz0 is in the +y direction, in agreement with Figure 21.71 of the textbook and the right-hand rule.
At a point behind the particle (meaning behind the plane of the particle, or the z direction), E ~ is in the z direction,
~
so E =< 0, 0, E >. Applying the relativistic field transformation equations gives: Bx = 0, Bz = 0, and
0 0
2 Ez
v
By0 = p c
1 v 2 /c2
Since Ez is negative, then Bz0 is in the y direction, in agreement with Figure 21.71 of the textbook and the right-hand rule.
21.X.25
This solution will calculate the magnetic field of a stationary positively charged particle observed in a moving frame of
reference, as shown in Figure 21.71, in order to compare it with the solution in Exercise 21.X.25. In the particles frame of
~k = B
reference, B ~ = 0 since the particle is at rest.
Lets calculate B ~ 0 in the moving frame at a point above the particle on the +y axis. At this point E
~ =< 0, E, 0 >. The
~
velocity ~v is in the x direction, so ~v =< v, 0, 0 >. Thus, Bk = 0, and
0
~
~ ~v E
B 0
= c2
1 v 2 /c2
p
<v,0,0><0,E,0>
= c2
1 v 2 /c2
p
<0,0,vE>
= c2
1 v 2 /c2
p
Thus, the magnetic field is perpendicular to the velocity of the particle and is in the z direction, exactly a calculated in
Exercise 21.X.25.
21.EXP.26
21.X.30
~F = ~
q~v B
= (1.6 1019 C)( 0, 2 107 , 0 m/s) h0, 0, 3.5i T

= 1.12 1011 , 0, 0 N

This vector points in the -x direction.
21.X.31
6
~F = ~
q~v B
= (1.6 1019 C)( 5 105 , 0, 0 m/s) h0, 0, 3.5i T

= 0, 0, 1.92 1014 N

~

F = 1.92 1014 N
F = < 0, 0, 1 >
21.X.32
~F = ~
q~v B
= (1.6 1019 C)( 4 105 , 0, 0 m/s) h0, 0, 0.27i T

= 0, 1.73 1014 , 0 N

~

F = 1.73 1014 N
F = < 0, 1, 0 >
21.X.33
~F ~
= q~v B
= (1.6 1019 C)( 0, 0, 8 105 m/s) h0, 0, 0.32i T

= 0
~ are in the same (or rather opposite) direction.

since ~v and B
21.X.34
~F d~p
=
net
dt
~
mv 2
Fnet =
R
~
mv 2
Fmag =

R
mv 2
q vB =
R
mv (1.67 1027 kg)(0.7 108 m/s)
B = =
qR (1.6 1019 C)(0.2 m)
= 3.66 T
7
21.X.35
~F is toward the center of the circle. The right-hand rule shows that B
~ is outward, in the +z direction, so B =< 0, 0, 1 >.
d~p

~

Fnet =
dt
d~p

~

Fmag =

dt
mv 2
qvB =
R
mv
qB =
R
mv
B =
qR
m 2R

= T
qR
m2
=
qT
4(1.67 1027 kg)2
=
2(1.6 1019 C)(80 109 s)
= 1.64 T
21.X.36
~F = q~v B.
~ The right-hand rule shows that at this location, the force by the magnetic field on the electron is downward and
to the right. Therefore, the electron will travel in a circle, clockwise.
21.P.37
~ is to the right. There is no magnetic field.

(a) The protons E
(b) The electric force on the electron is to the left. There is no magnetic force.
~ is to the right. The electrons magnetic field is into the page.

(c) The electrons E
(d) The electric force is to the right. The magnetic force is up.
(e) Reciprocity apparently does not apply to magnetic forces.
(f) If reciprocity does not apply, then the total system momentum will change. The momentum principle is violated unless
as assign momentum to the fields.
21.P.38
8
(a)

o ~vp sin
e

~

Bp = into page
4 |~r|
2
~
1 e
Ep = to right
4o |~r|2

o ~vp sin
e

~

Fmag = e ~ve to right

4 |~r|
2

o e ~vp ~ve sin
2
= to right
4 |~r|
2
~
1 e2
Eel = to left
4o |~r|2

~vp ~ve sin

1 e 2
Fnet,x = 1
4o |~r|2 c2

Fnet,y = 0
(b)
o e ~ve

~

Be = into page
4 |~r|2
~
1 e
Ee = to right
4o |~r|2
e ~v
~

Fmag = e ~vp o e
to upper left

4 |~r|2

o e ~vp ~ve
2
= to upper left, perpendicular to protons velocity
4 |~r|
2
~
1 e2
Fel = to right
4o |~r|2

v ~
v sin

1 e 2 ~ p
e
Fnet,x = 1
4o |~r|2 c2

o ~vp ~ve cos
e 2
Fnet,y =
4 |~r|
2
(c) Reciprocity apparently does not apply to magnetic forces.

(d) If reciprocity does not apply, then the total system momentum will change. The momentum principle
21.P.39
(a) The carbon ions are positively charged. If they accelerate to the right, then the left plate must be positively charged.
To null out the upward magnetic deflection, there must be a downward electric deflection. E ~ must point down so the
top plate must be positively charged.
~ must be into the page to produce a centripetal force to the left.
B
9
(b)
d~p 2
|~v| m |~v|

= |~p|
dt R R
~ ~

= e~v B = e |~v| B

~

eR B
|~v| =
m
In the deflection region:
~
Fmag = ~Fel

~
~ = eE

e~v B

~ ~

|~v| B = E
2
~
~

~
eR B d
V2 = E d = |~v| B d =
m
In the acceleration region:
U = K
1 2
eV1 = m |~v| 0
2
2
2 ~
1m 2 1 eR B
V1 = |~v| =
2 e 2 m
For 12
C +:
19

2 2
1
2 1.6 10 C (0.1 m) (0.2 T)
V1 = 3

1210 kg/mol
61023 /mol
1600
V
19 2
1.6 10 C (0.1 m) (0.2 T) (0.01 m)
V2 3

1210 kg/mol
61023 /mol
320 V
(c) For 14
C +:
V1 1371 V
V2 274 V
21.P.40
10
(a)
~ |~v|
= ~Fmag = |~p|

Fnet

R
2
~
m |~v|
e |~v| B =
R
~
eR B 2R
|~v| = =
m T
2m
T = ~

e B
(b)
~

1 e B
f = =
T 2R
7
1.5 10 Hz
(c)
1

2
K = m |~v| = eVeq
2
2
2 ~
1m 2 1 eR B
Veq = |~v| =
2 e 2 m
6
Veq 1 10 V
(d) In each complete orbit there are two 500 V potential drops, or 1000 V per orbit, so it takes 1000 orbits to get to
8
106 V. Each orbit takes 6.5 10 s, so the total time to get from the center of the cyclotron to the outer edge is
8 5
1000 6.5 10 s = 6.5 10 s, which is 65 microseconds.
21.P.41
(a) The needle deflects inward.

~
o 2N I
B = into page
4 R
~
B
tan = ~

BEarth

7
T m2

(2)(3) 1.5 V
110 C m/s 6
(7.510 m)
2
=
4 105 T

0.1571
8.9
(b)
~ ~ = 0

Fmag = e~v B

~ ~

Fel = eE down
~
19

Fel = 1.6 10 C (250 N/C)
17
4 10 N
11
21.P.42
~F (which is just the magnetic force) must point to the left. ~v is down at arcs midpoint. To be consistent with the cross
net
~ must be out of the page.
product, B
|~v|
~

|~p| = e~v B

R
2
m |~v| ~

= e |~v| B
R

~
m |~v| 2m |~v|
B = =
eR ed
21.P.43
9
T 50 10 s
~ must be out of the page. That means I must be counterclockwise.

(a) To be consistent with the cross product, B
(b)
~
m |~v|
B =
eR 27 27

4 1.675 10 kg + 3 1.673 10 kg 2

T

e
9.2 T
21.P.44
NOTE: There is an error in the figure. The particles velocity arrow shown in the figure is not consistent with the given
velocity vector. Use the velocity vector given in the question when evaluating the cross product.
(a)
o 2I

~
B = 0, 0,
4 |~r|
T m2 2 (8.2 A)

7
0, 0, 1 10
C m/s (0.003 m)
D 4
E
0, 0, 5.5 10 T
(b)
~ ~

Fmag = e~v B

~

= e |~v| B
19
5
4

1.6 10 C 2.34 10 m/s 5.5 10 T
17
2 10 N
The direction of the magnetic force on the electron is down ~

D 17 17
E and to the left, perpendicular to both ~v and B . Evaluating
the cross product gives 1.58 10 , 1.32 10 , 0 N.
12
(c) The
D magnetic force on a proton
E with the same velocity is in the opposite direction as the force on an electron:
17 17
1.58 10 , 1.32 10 , 0 N.
21.X.45
~F = I ~L B
~
mag
= (1.8 A)(h0.25, 0, 0i m) h0, 0.54, 0i T

= h0, 0, 0.243i N
~

F = 0.243 N
F = < 0, 0, 1 >
21.X.46
The upper wire has a current I = V
R = 5 = 0.3 A in the +x direction. It creates a magnetic field at the location of the
1.5 V
lower wire that is B = 4 r = (1 107 TA m ) 2(0.3

o 2I A)
0.3 m = 2 10 T in the -z direction.
6
The current in the lower wire is in the -x direction and is 0.3 A. The magnetic force by the upper wire on the lower wire is
~F = I ~L B
~
= (0.3 A)(h0.5, 0, 0i m) ( 0, 0, 2 106 T)

~F = 0, 3 107 , 0 N

~

F = 3 107 N
F = < 0, 1, 0 >
Note that we assumed that the magnetic field is uniform along the entire length of the lower wire, though this is not the case
at the ends. We also neglected the magnetic field due to the currents in the short end wires.
21.X.47
(a)
F = ILB
F
I =
LB
14.9 N
=
(0.6 m)(4.5 T)
= 5.52 A
(b) Use the right-hand rule. I flows in the -y direction.

13
21.X.48
Neglect the resistance of the wire, then V = emf Ir = 0 and I = emf
r = 1.5 V
0.25 = 6 A. Assume a uniform magnetic field
along the length of the wire, then the magnetic force on the wire is
~F = I ~L B
~
mag
~ is in the +y direction.
Note that I flows to the right and B
~F = (6 A)(h0.05, 0, 0i m) h0, 0.1, 0i T

= h0, 0, 0.03i N
21.P.49
(a) The straight wires create zero magnetic field at C. The arcs create a magnetic field with a magnitude 41 of Bloop , where
B

= 0 2I and R is the radius of the arc. The outer loop creates B ~ in the -z direction. The inner loop creates B ~
loop 4 R
in the +z direction. Thus,
Bnet,z =Binner,z + Bouter,z

1 0 2I 1 0 2I

=
4 4 a 4 4 6
1 0 1 1

= 2I
4 4 a b
1 0 1 1

~
B = < 0, 0, 2I >
4 4 a b
1 0 1 1

~

B = 2I
4 4 a b
B = < 0, 0, 1 >
(b) ~F = q~v B
~ Right-hand rule, with negative q, gives ~F
mag
in the +y direction.
~

Fmag = |q| vB

= evB
1 0 1 1

= 2IevB
4 4 a b
Fmag = < 0, 1, 0 >
14
21.P.50
~ due to the long wire is in the -z direction with magnitude
At all locations to the right of the long wire, the magnetic field B 1
0 2I1
B1 = 4 r .
The net force on the loop is the sum of the forces on the sides of the loop. The force on the top side is in the +y direction,
and the force on the bottom side is in the -y direction. These forces vary along the length of the sides but are equal in
magnitude, so they cancel.
The force on the left side is given by ~F = I2 ~L B,

~ and is in the -x direction. Thus,
Flef t,x = I2 hB1

0 2I1
= I2 h
4 d
2I I h
= 0 1 2
4 d
The force on the right side is in the +x direction and is
Fright,x = I2 hB1
0 2I1
= I2 h
4 (d + w)
0 2I1 I2 h
=
4 d + w
The net force on the loop is
0 1 1
~F = < 2I1 I2 h( ), 0, 0 >
net
4 d+w d
0 d (d + w)

~F = < 2I1 I2 h , 0, 0 >
net
4 d(d + w)
2I I hw
= < 0 1 2 , 0, 0 >
4 d(d + w)
21.P.51
The metal rod is in equilibrium, so ~Fnet = 0. The gravitational force by Earth on the rod is downward, so the magnetic force
by the magnetic field on the rod must be upward. Since E ~ = I ~L B
~ and I flows in the +x direction, B
~ must be in the -z
mag
direction. Applying the Momentum Principle gives
15
~F = 0
net
~F ~
+ Fgrav = 0
mag
~ ~

Fmag = Fgrav

ILB = mg
mg
B =
IL
(0.07 kg)(9.8 kg
N
)
=
(5 A)(0.12 m)
= 1.14 T
~ = h0, 0, 1.14i T.
So, B
21.X.52
~F ~ is in the +y direction, so ~F
= qE must be in the -y direction so that ~Fnet = 0. Thus, B
~ is in the +z direction. Since
elec mag
~F = 0,
net
~ ~

F elec = F mag
qE = qvB
E
B =
v
21.X.53
Since ~Fnet = 0, then
~ ~

Felec = Fmag

qE = qvB
E
v =
B
3800 mV
=
0.4 T
= 9500 m/s
21.X.54
(a)
~F = ~
q~v B
= (1.6 1019 C)( 5 105 , 0, 0 m/s) h0, 0.9, 0i T

= h0, 0, 7.2 14i N

16
(b)
~F = ~Fmag
elec
= 0, 0, 7.2 1014 N

(c)
~F= qE~
~
~ = F
E
q
0, 0, 7.2 1014 N

=
1.6 1019 C
N
= 0, 0, 4.5 105

21.X.55
~F ~
= q~v B
mag
= (1.6 1019 C)(h3105, 0, 0i m/s) h0, 0.6, 0i T

= 0, 0, 2.98 1016 N

~F = 0
net
~F + ~F = 0
mag elec
~F = ~Fmag
elec
~
qE = 0, 0, 2.98 1016 N

0, 0, 2.98 1016 N

~
E =
1.6 1019 C
N
= h0, 0, 1863i
C
21.X.56
(a) According to the Momentum Principle, ~Fnet = d~

p
dt = 0.
(b)
~F = 0
net
~F ~
+F = 0
elec mag
~ + q~v B
qE ~ = 0
17
~ is in the +x direction and q~v B

Note that q E ~ is in the -x direction. So, in the x-direction,
qE qvB = 0
E
v =
B
200 mV
=
0.95 T
= 211 m/s
21.P.57
~ at C due to the straight wires is zero. B

~ at C due to the arc is in the -z direction. B
~ is 3 B
0 2I
(a) B 4 loop where Bloop = 4 R .
(b) ~Fmag = q~v B

~ is in the -y direction since q is negative. Thus ~F
elec
is in the +y direction since ~Fnet = 0. Since ~Felec = q E
~
~
and q is negative, then E is in the -y direction.
(c)
3
B = B
4 loop
3 0 2I

=
4 4 R
3 T m 2(8 A)
= (1 107 )
4 A 0.035 m
= 1.08 104 T
(d)
~F = 0
net
Felec = Fmag
qE = qvB
E = vB
= (5.7 105 m/s)(1.08 104 T)
N
= 61.6
C
21.P.58
(a) Fmag =< 1, 0, 0 > because ~F = q~v B.

~
(b) Felec =< 1, 0, 0 > because ~Fnet = 0 and ~Felec = ~Fmag .
(c) E =< 1, 0, 0 > since ~Felec = q E

~ and q is negative.
18
x
v

Felec
F mag

E
z

B
(d)
Fmag = |q| vB
= (1.6 1019 C)(2.9 106 m/s)(0.27 T)
= 1.25 1012 N
(e) Since ~Fnet = 0, ~Felec = ~Fmag = 1.25 1013 N.

So,
~ ~

Felec = |q| E
Felec
E =
|q|
V
= 7.83 105
m
For a uniform electric field,
V = Ed
V
= (7.93 105 )(0.0045 m)
m
= 3520 V
21.P.59
Define +x to the left, +y upward, and +z into the page, in accordance with a right-hand coordinate system.
(a) Electrons are accelerated to the left, so B is the positively charged plate.
(b) ~Felec is downward. Since ~F = q E

~ and q is negative, then E
~ is upward.
19
(c) ~Fmag is upward, as determined by ~Fmag = q~v B.

~
(d) Use Conservation of Energy for the electron and accelerating plates.
Esys = 0
K + U = 0
0
Kf K
i
+ qV = 0
1
mv2 = qV
2 f
12
2(1.6 1019 C)(3.1 103 V)

vf =
9.11 1031 kg
= 3.30 107 m/s
Note that the classical approximation K 12 mv 2 was used, and vf came out to 0.1c. If K = ( 1)mc2 is used,
then vf = 3.39 107 m/s. The relativistically correct equation for kinetic energy should be used for a more accurate
solution. The classical approximation results in roughly 3% error.
The magnetic field between the coils has a magnitude
o 2R2 IN

B = 2
4 (z 2 + R2 ) 23
T m 2(0.06 m)2 (0.5 A)(320)
= 2(1 107 )
A ((0.03 m)2 + (0.06 m)2 ) 23
= 2.40 103 T
(e) (2), (3), (5), and (6) are true.
(f) ~Fnet = 0, and Vdef = Ed where d is the distance between the deflecting plates. So,
Felec = Fmag
qE = qvB
E = vB
V
= vB
d
V = vBd
= (3.39 107 m/s)(2.4 103 T)(0.008 m)
= 650 T
21.P.60
~ due to the straight wires is zero. B
B ~ due to the turns of wire is 5 B o 2I
4 loop = 4 R , and it is in the -z direction.
5
4
~F ~ is in the -y direction. Since ~F = 0, then ~F

= q~v B is in the -y direction.
mag net elec
20
~F = 0
net
Felec = Fmag
qE = qvB
E = vB
5 o 2IV
=
4 4 R
21.P.61
~ due to the straight wires is zero. B

(a) B ~ ~ due to each arc. B = 3 B
is the sum of B 4 loop and B2 = 4 Bloop where
1
net 1
o 2I
~ ~ ~
Bloop = 4 R . B1 is in the -z direction and B2 is in the -z direction, so Bnet is in the -z direction.
(b) Since ~Fnet = 0, ~Felec = ~Fmag . ~Fmag is given by ~Fmag = q~v B

~ and is in the -x direction. Thus, ~F
elec
must be in the +x
~ ~ ~
direction. Since Felec = q E and q is negative, then E is in the -x direction.
(c)
Bnet,z = B1,z + B2,z

3 o 2I 1 o 2I
=
4 4 R1 4 4 R2
!
~
1 o 3 1
Bnet = 2I
4 4 R1 R2
(d) Since ~Fnet = 0,
Felec = Fmag
qE = qvB
E = vB !
1 o 3 1
= 2Iv
4 4 R1 R2
21.P.62
The electric field between the plates is in the -y direction. Since ~Felec = qE, the electric force on the proton is in the -y
direction. Since ~Fnet = 0, ~Fmag = ~Felec and is in the +y direction. Since ~Fmag = q~v B,
~ B~ is in the -z direction (into the
page). Current must be flowig clockwise around the coil.
The net force on the proton is zero, so
21
~F = 0
net
Eelec = Fmag
qE = qvBcoil
E = vBcoil
Vplates
= vBcoil
s
K
= vBcoil
s
K o 2IN

= v
s 4 R
KR
I = o
4 s2N
21.X.63
~ is in the z direction (out of the page). Electrons are the mobile charge carriers, and they move in the +x direction.
E
The magnetic force on the moving electrons is in the z direction. As a result, negative surface charge piles upon the back
surface of the wire, and positive surface charge builds up on the front surface of the wire. The component of the electric field
due to this surface charge points away from the + charge and toward the charge, so it points in the z direction.
21.X.64
~ k is in the y direction, toward the terminal of the battery and in the direction of conventional current. Mobile electrons,
E
therefore, drift upward in the +y direction. The magnetic field due to the bar magnet is away from N, in the +x direction.
The magnetic force on the moving electrons is in the +z direction, so charge builds up on the front surface and + charge
builds up on the back surface. E ~ is in the +z direction, which is toward the surface charge and away from the + surface
charge.
21.X.65
A picture of the wire is shown in Figure 2.
(a) Ek is in the y direction, the same as the conventional current.

(b) v is in the +y direction. Mobile electrons drift opposite the conventional current.
(c) ~Fmag on a mobile electron is in the +z direction. This causes electrons to build up on the front surface the wire and
causes protons to build up on the back surface of the wire.
(d) E is in the +z direction, toward the negative surface charge on the wire.
(e) For positive mobile charge, the magnetic force is in the +z direction. This causes protons to build up on the front
surface of the wire and causes electrons to build up on the back surface of the wire.
(f) In this case, E is in the z direction, toward the negative surface charge on the wire.
21.P.66
~
(a) E is in the +x direction
tan
22
Figure 2: The wire described in Question 21.X.65.
(b) Positive mobile charges move in the +x direction.
(c) Negative mobile charges move in the -x direction.
~ = 0, so V = 0.
(d) The voltmeter reads zero because E
(e) ~Fmag on mobile electrons is in the +y direction.
(f) (4) will occur
(g) ~Fmag on mobile positive charges is in the +y direction.
(h) (1) will occur
(i) Since the negative terminal of the voltmeter is at a higher potential, then the bottom of the bar is positively charged
and the top is negatively charged. This means that the mobile charges are negative. Thus, (2) is true.
21.P.67
(a) A sketch of the bar is shown in Figure 3.

The voltmeter reading of 0.00027 volts indicates that the back side of the slab is at a higher potential than the front
side, so there is a Hall-effect transverse electric field EH as shown. That means that there must be extra + charge on
the back side (and extra charge on the front).
The conventional current flow and the main electric field E point as shown, and the +0.73 volt reading is consistent:
the potential is dropping in the direction of E and the conventional current. Positive carriers move in the direction of
conventional current, and experience a magnetic force toward the backside, which would lead to + charge buildup on
the back side, which is what is observed.
Negative carriers move opposite to the conventional current, and would also experience a magnetic force toward the
back side, which would lead to charge buildup on the back side, which is not observed.
So the charge carriers are positive.
23
Figure 3: The components of various vectors for the bar given in Question 21.P.67.
(b) In the steady state, the transverse electric and magnetic forces must balance, so qEH = qvBsin(90 ) = qvB. So
EH = vB. The drift speed v is uniform throughout the slab (current conservation and constant cross-sectional area),
and the magnetic field B is uniform throughout this region. So EH = vB must be uniform along the 8-cm path across
the slab, and we can write
|V | = 0.00027 V
= EH w
= EH (0.08 m)
0.00027 V
EH =
0.08 m
= 0.0034 V/m
EH
v =
B
0.0034 V/m
=
0.7 T
= 4.8 103 m/s
Note that we have experimentally determined the drift speed v, independent of the carrier charge q and the density of
charge carriers n.
(c) v = uE, where E is the electric field in the direction of the current. Since v is uniform, E must be uniform, and we
can write
|V | = EL
0.73 V
E =
0.15 m
= 4.9 V/m
Note that the electric field E in the direction of the current is much larger than the transverse field EH .
24
(d) I = qnAv, and we assume that q = e. So we have
I
n =
eAv
0.3 A
=
(1.602 10 19
C)(0.08 m)(0.012 m)(4.8 103 m/s
= 4 1023 m3
This is a very low density of charge carriers. The density of free electrons in copper is 8 1028 m3 . Evidently this
slab of material is not an ordinary metal: the charge carriers are positive, and the density of charge carriers is very low.
(e) The potential difference along 15 cm of material is 0.73 V. So,
V = IR
0.73 V
R =
0.3 A
= 2.4
21.P.68
(a) A sketch is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4: The components of the various vectors for the bar given in Question 21.P.68.
The top voltmeter reads , so high potential to the left, and I flows to the right.
Assume mobile charges are + and see whether bottom voltmeter reading is consistent.
I to the right means drift speed v of + charges is to the right.
Magnetic force on positive mobile charges is down, so bottom of bar gets excess + and top gets excess .
25
These excess charges make transverse ET up, so potential higher on bottom of bar. Note that ET is the component of
~ perpendicular to the direction of the current in the bar. Elongitudinal is the component of E
E ~ parallel to the direction
of the current in the bar.
Consistent: bottom voltmeter reads + with + terminal connected to bottom of bar.
Therefore mobile charges are +, and drift to the right.
(Mobile electrons would move toward the left, and the magnetic force on them would be down, making the bottom of
the bar be negative, which is inconsistent with the bottom voltmeter reading.)
(b) In dynamic equilibrium, qET = qvBsin90 = qvB , so ET = vB , and
ET
v =
B
0.34103 V
0.03 m
=
1.5 T
= 7.6 103 m/s
(c) v = Elongitudinal , so
v
u =
Elongitudinal
7.6 103 m/s
=
0.34103 V
0.03 m
= 5.4 103 (m/s)/(V/m)
It is important to use Elongitudinal , not the transverse electric field ET . It is the tangential electric field due to surface
charge (on the bar and wires and battery) that drives the current horizontally through the bar.
(d)
I = enAv
I
n =
eAv
0.6 A
=
(1.602 1019 C)(0.03 m)(0.8 102 m2 )(7.6 103 m/s)
= 2 1024 m3
(e) R = V
I = 0.25 V
0.6 A = 0.42
21.P.69

If we assume that the current in the long-straight wire is to the right (+x), then it creates a magnetic field at the
location of the bar that is into the page (z). Positive charge carriers (holes) move in the x direction, so the magnetic
force on the positive charge is downward (-y). This causes the bottom of the bar to become positively charged and the
top of the bar to become negatively charged.
To obtain a positive Hall voltage across the bar, perpendicular to the current, put the + lead of the voltmeter on the
bottom of the bar and the lead on the top of the bar.
Note that if you assume that conventional current in the long wire flows left, then you connect your voltmeter with the
+ lead on the top of the bar and the lead on the bottom of the bar.
26
Long straight current-carrying wire; Iwire = ?

I
I DV
Ammeter Voltmeter h
v B w
d
L F
Figure 5: Voltmeter leads are shown for the bar given in Question 21.P.69.
(b) The conventional current in the bar is I = neAv where A = wd is the cross-sectional area of the bar. After the initial
transient when charge builds up on the top and bottom of the bar due to the magnetic force, the net force on mobile
charged particles is zero as they flow through the bar. In the y-direction, this gives
Fnet,y = 0
Fmag = Felec
evB = eE
vB = E
Since the electric field is uniform in the y-direction (as well as the other directions, though that is not of interest in
this case), V = E w where V is the Hall voltage measured with the voltmeter across the bottom and top of the
bar and w is the width of the bar in the y-direction. Using the Hall voltage, the magnetic field due to the long wire
can be calculated, as
V = E w
= vBw
I
= Bw
neA
IBw
=
ne
wd
IB
=
ned
V ned
B =
I
o 2Iwire
The magnetic field B is due to the long, straight wire and is related to the current Iwire by B = 4 r with the
distance r equal to h in this example. Thus,
27
o 2Iwire V ned
=
4 h I
V nedh
Iwire =
( 4o )2I
In terms of quantities given in the problem, this can be expressed as:
V nedh
Iwire =
( 4o )2Iammeter
21.P.70
??
B
Voltmeter
h F v w
L
emf = K
Figure 6: Connecting wires for the battery and voltmeter for the bar given in Question 21.P.70.
(b) Choose any way of connecting the battery to the bar because it will determine how you connect the voltmeter. For
the choice shown in Figure 6, electrons flow through the bar in the +x direction. As a result, the magnetic force on
mobile electrons is in the z direction. The back side of the bar becomes negatively charged and the front side of the
bar becomes positively charged until mobile electrons are in equilibrium. Then when in equilibrium, the net force on a
mobile electron is zero and its velocity is constant. Thus,
Fnet,z = 0
Fmag = Felec
evB = eE
vB = E
Since the electric field is uniform in the z-direction, V = E w where V is the Hall voltage measured with the
voltmeter across the front and back of the bar and w is the width of the bar in the z-direction. Using the Hall voltage
28
and the conventional current I = neAv = ne(wh)v, the magnetic field due to the long wire can be calculated in terms
of the conventional current I as
V = E w
= (vB)w
I
= Bw
neA
IBw
=
newh
IB
=
neh
V neh
B =
I
The current through the wire is I = neAv = neAuEtan where Etan is the component of the electric field tangent to
the wire that is pushing the electrons through the wire. Etan is due to a surface charge gradient and the charge on the
terminals of the battery. Since the electric field tangent to the wire is also uniform, Vtan = emf = Etan L. Thus, the
current can be expressed in terms of the emf K as I = neAuK/L = ne(hw)uK/L. Substitute this into the expression
for magnetic field and calculate B in terms of known quantities.
V neh
B =
I
V neh
=
ne(hw)uK/L
V L
=
wuK
The units work out because the units of mobility can be written as (m/s)/(V/m) which is T1 . Since all other units
cancel and u is in the denominator, the units of this expression are indeed teslas, as expected.
21.P.71

Make a guess that the mobile charges are positive holes and see whether that is consistent with the experimental
measurements. If not, we guessed wrong, and we should see whether the measurements are consistent with negative
mobile charges (electrons).
Since the 240 volt power supply is connected to the right end of the slab, the parallel component of the electric field
points to the left, and the holes move to the left with speed v = uEk , where Ek = 240/L. The conventional current is
I = enAuEk , which will be the reading on the ammeter.
The magnetic field of the bar magnet at the location of the slab points toward the back, so using the right-hand rule the
magnetic force on the moving hole is down. This polarizes the slab with positive charge along the bottom and negative
charge along the top. (For clarity, we dont show the gradient of surface charge along the slab which contributes to the
parallel component of the electric field.)
In the steady state the upward electric force due to the polarization charges cancels the downward magnetic force, so
that throughout the slab we have qE = qvBsin(90 ) = qvB, and therefore E = vB.
The voltmeter reads +, and its + lead is connected to the bottom of the slab, so the bottom of the slab is at the higher
potential. This is consistent with the direction of E , so the mobile charges are indeed positive holes. (Again, if we
had found an inconsistency, we would have redone the analysis for mobile negative electrons.)
29
Figure 7: A sketch used to answer Question 21.P.71.
(b) We can find the magnetic field of the bar magnet from E = vB, since E = V /h: B = V /(hv). But the field

made by the bar magnet is B = 4o 2/z 3 (assuming that z is large compared to the size of the bar magnet). Therefore
o 2
we can determine , the magnetic dipole moment of the bar magnet from the relation V hv = 4 z 3 , where is the only
unknown quantity.
(c) The ammeter reads I = enAuEk , where the cross-sectional area is A = hd and all other quantities are known.
21.P.72
Since the mobile charge carriers are positive, then they move to the right (+x) through the bar with a speed v as shown in
Figure 8. Because they enter the positive terminal of the ammeter, the ammeter reading will be positive.
The magnetic force on these carriers is downward, causing the bottom side of the bar to become positively charged and the
top side of the bar to become negatively charged. Because the terminal is connected to the bottom of the bar which is at
a higher potential than the + terminal, the voltmeter reading will be negative.
Once equilibrium is reached, mobile charges move with constant velocity through the bar. The net force on the charge carriers
is zero, so in the y direction
Fnet,y = 0
Fmag = Felec
evB = eE
vB = E
Since the electric field is uniform in the y-direction, V = E h where V is the Hall voltage measured with the voltmeter
across the bottom and top of the bar and h is the height of the bar in the y-direction. The conventional current in the bar
30
Ammeter
??
1.2 volts
11 cm
m
2c
v
3 cm
F
1.8 tesla
??
Voltmeter
Figure 8: Velocity and magnetic force on positive mobile charges in the bar in Question 21.P.72.
is I = neAv where A = hd is the cross-sectional area of the bar and d is the depth of the bar in the z-direction. Using the
Hall voltage and the conventional current, the magnetic field due to the long wire can be calculated, as
V = E h
= vBw
I
= Bh
neA
IB h
=

nehd
IB
=
ned
The conventional current through the bar is related to the properties of the bar and the emf of the battery by, I = neAv =
neA(uEk ) = neAu emfL where L is the length of the bar in the x-direction. Substituting A = hd along with I into the equation
for the Hall voltage gives:
IB
V =
ned
nehduB emf
= L
ned
huBemf
=
L
(0.03 m)(3 105 (m/s)/(V/m))(1.8 T)
=
0.11 m
= 1.47 105 V
Because the terminal is connected to the positively charged side of the bar, the voltmeter will read 1.47 105 V. This
is a very small voltage, as expected for a Hall voltage.
31
The conventional current through the bar is
emf
I = neAu
L
19
= (7 1023 m3 )(1.602 10 C)(0.03 m)(0.02 m)(3 105 (m/s)/(V/m))(1.2 V)/(0.11 m)
= 0.0220 A
As described earlier, since positive charge flows into the positive terminal of the ammeter, it will read a positive 0.022 A.
21.X.73
(3). The magnetic force on mobile electrons is in the y direction which causes the electron sea to shift downward, leaving
the top end positively charged and the bottom end negatively charged.
21.X.74
(4). The magnetic force on mobile electrons is in the +y direction which causes the electron sea to shift upward, leaving
the top end negatively charged and the bottom end positively charged.
21.X.75
Conventional current flows in the y direction through the resistor. The magnetic force on mobile electrons in the bar is in
the y direction which causes the electron sea to shift downward, leaving the top end of the bar positively charged and
the bottom end of the bar negatively charged. However, because the ends are connected by a conductor, positive charge
(conventional current) will flow from the top end, through the resistor, and to the bottom end of the bar. As a result,
conventional current flows counterclockwise through the circuit.
~ is in the z direction, the magnetic force on the wire, ~F
Since I flows in the +y direction and B = I ~L B,
~ is in the x
mag
direction. If you pull the bar at a constant speed v in the +x direction, you must exert a force F~ in the +x direction that is
equal in magnitude to the magnetic force in the x direction so that the net force on the bar is zero.
21.X.76
(2) According to the right-hand rule, the magnetic force on the negatively charged mobile electrons is to the left, causing
negative charge to pile up on the left end of the bar and positive charge to pile up on the right end of the bar.
21.X.77
(a) The velocity of each wire is tangent to its path. As a result, the magnetic force on a mobile electron in the wire of
length h is perpendicular to the wire and does not "push" the charge through the wire. However, for the wires of length
w, the magnetic force on the right wire causes positive charge to pile up on the front end (+z) and negative charge to
pile up on the back end (-z). The magnetic force does work a mobile electron, moving it from the front (+z) to the
back (-z) in the right wire. The right wire thus acts like a battery. Its emf is the work done by the magnetic force per
unit charge in moving a charged particle a distance w.
W
right / wire =
q
(Emag )(w)
=
q
qvB sin w
=
q
= vB sin w
32
The magnetic force in the left wire pushes an electron from the back (-z) to the front (+z) creating an identical emf as
in the right wire and they are in series. Thus, the total emf of the two wires is,
= 2vBw sin
The current through the four wires is I = R

= 2vBRsin . Since the right and left wires have a tangential speed v that
is v = r where r is the distance from the asle, h2 . Thus, v = h2 . As a result,

h

= 2 Bw sin
2
= B(hw)sin
where hw is the area of the loop.

The current is I = R
= B(hw)
R
sin
. Because of the "polarity" of the emf in the right and left wires, current flows to the
left in the front wire of length h at the angle shown in the side view of the diagram. After exceeds 90 , the current
will reverse direction.
(b) At this point, I flows clockwise around the loop creating a magnetic dipole moment ~ that is to the plane of the
loop. The torque by the magnetic field on the loop is ~ = ~ At the instant shown, ~
~ B. is in the -z direction.
mag
Since
~ is in the +z direction, this torque would cause the loop to slow down. There must be an applied torque in the
+z direction so that the net torque is zero and is constant. The applied external forces must act at an angle with
respect to ~r to give a torque in the +z direction.
21.X.78
~F ~ exerts a force on mobile electrons in the rod that is in the +y direction. As a result, the top end becomes
= q~v B
mag
negatively charged and the bottom end becomes positively charged.
The Coulomb electric field points in the +y direction, toward the negatively charged end.
The net force on a mobile electron is zero since it is in equilibrium.
~F = ~FC + ~Fmag = 0
net
~F = ~Fmag
C
~
= ~Fmag

FC

qEC = qvB
EC = vB
The emf across the rod is equal to C = EL, so emf = vBL.

No current flows through the rod, so ~Fmag on the rod is zero. Since ~Fnet = 0 then no force must be applied to keep it moving
at constant speed.
21.P.79
33
(a) The magnetic force on an electron in the moving bar is F~mag = q~v B.~ The right-hand rule shows that the magnetic
force on a mobile electron in the moving bar is to the right, in the +x direction. As a result, the right side of the bar
becomes negatively charged and the left side becomes positively charged. The mobile electrons on the right side of the
bar will flow counterclockwise around the loop until reaching the left side of the bar, thus the mobile electrons flow to
the left through the resistive rod.
The potential difference across the bar (and rod) has a magnitude |V | = vBL. For the rod, Ohms law gives |V = IR,
so
IR = vBL
vBL
I =
R
(b) The right side of the bar, posts, and rod is negatively charged. The left side is positively charged. See Figure 9.
Problem 20.P.54 A falling metal bar
L (a) Horizontal magnetic force on charge carrier in falling bar is
establishes a charge separation that produces a Coulomb electric
Mass m qE = qvB. So the potential difference across the bar is EL = vBL
+ emf.
+ I v I = emf/R = vBL/R
+ (b) Positive charge carriers in the falling bar experience a magn
+ negative carriers experience a force to the right. This establishes
B out of page
separation along the bar. There is a charge gradient along the re
+ electric field that drives current inside the resistor. Current runs
+ + Resistance R
(c) I in falling bar leads to a magnetic force vertically upward of magnitude

Figure 9: Charge distribution on the bar, posts, and rod in Problem 21.P.79.
Fmag = ILBsin90q = vL2B2/R
The gravitational force mg downward makes v

(c) The magnetic force on the bar is F~mag = I L~ B~ where L ~ pointsFto
magthe= left,
ILBsin90q
in the direction
magneticof force
the flow of conventional
becomes as big as mg, after w
current through the bar. The right-hand rule shows I that the magnetic force on the bar is
constant in the
speed +y
(net direction.
force is thenThe
zero):
magnitude of the magnetic force on the bar is Fmag = ILB since the bar and them magnetic field are perpendicular. 2 2
mg = vL B /R
mg
The gravitational force on the bar is in the y direction. Since the net force on the bar is zero: v = mgR/(L2B2)
(d)
d Fmag = Fgravm 2 g 2 R
(mgy ) mgv
dt ILB = M g L2 B 2
vBL 2 2
m2 g 2R
Power(BL) I (emf g vBL B L ( mgR ) 2
= ) MvBL
R
R
M gR
R L2 B 2 L2 B 2
v =
L2 B 2
The forces on the bar are shown in Figure 10.
(d) The gravitational potential energy of the system and Earth is Ugrav = mgy where y is the height of the bar above the
surface of Earth. The rate of change of the gravitational potential energy has an absolute value of
+ Resistance R
(c) I in falling bar leads to a magnetic force vertically upward of magnitude
34 Fmag = ILBsin90q = vL2B2/R
The gravitational force mg downward makes v inc

F mag = ILBsin90q
magnetic force becomes as big as mg, after whic
I constant speed (net force is then zero):
mg = vL2B2/R
mg
v = mgR/(L2B2)
Figure 10: Forces on the bar in Problem 21.P.79.

(d)
d m2 g 2 R
(mgy ) mgv
dt L2 B 2
dUgrav vBL dy 2 2
mgR 2 m2 g 2R
|
Power | =
I (emf ) |M gvBL| B L ( )
dt R dt R L2 B 2 L2 B 2
= M gv
= (ILB)v
vBL
= ( )(LB)v
R
v B L
2 2 2
=
R
The change in electrical potential energy as a charged particle travels across the resistive rod is Uelec = |eV |. The
|
rate of change is | dUdt
elec
| = d|eV
dt = I|V |. This is called the electrical power dissipated by the resistor. Thus,
dUelec
| | = I|V | = I 2 R
dt
vBL 2
= ( ) R
R
v 2 B 2 L2
=
R
This agrees with the absolute value of the rate of change in gravitational potential energy of the system.
21.P.80
See Figure 11 for a pictorial representation of the charge distribution and applied force.
(a) The magnetic force on mobile electrons in the wire loop is zero, so there is no potential difference across any part
of the wire loop and no current flows in the loop.
I = 0
The magnetic force on the right side of the loop is F~mag = IhB. Since B = 0, the magnetic force on the right
side of the loop is zero. The same is true of every part of the loop. So, the applied force needed to keep the loop
moving at constant velocity is zero.
Fapplied = 0
There is no surface charge on the wire loop.

35
agging a loop through a magnetic field
) Before or after entering the magnet- I = 0
ion, the loop coasts along at constant Fext = 0 B
no force required to move it. There is No surface charge
v
tic force on the charge carriers, no h
w
aration, and no current.
en the right wire of the loop has en-
magnetic-field region, there is a down- (1)
netic force qv u B on + carriers in the
This establishes a charge separation as
d a charge gradient around the loop, B
es conventional current clockwise as v

e emf due to the non-Coulomb (mag- h
+ w I +
e is vBh, and the current is I = vBh/R. ++ +++ Fext
ward current in the right wire experi- (2)
agnetic force IL u B to the left, so we
an external force to the right of mag-
= IhB to keep the loop moving at con- B
d.
n the entire loop is inside the magnet- I=0 v
F = 0 + h w +
gion, magnetic forces drive + carriers ext
+++++
in both the left and right wires, so
charge separation as shown. There is (3)
, however, and no external force is re-
keep the loop moving at constant
B
e (2), but the current runs counter-
v
as shown. The magnetic force IL u B +
h
w I +
Fext
wire is again to the left, so we must ++ +++
t an external force to the right of mag- (4)
= IhB to keep the loop moving at con-
d. I=0
B Fext = 0
No surface charge
v
h
w
(5)
2): Since the loop

Figure 11: isThe
made of a wire
surface of uniform
charge cross-sectional
and applied force on theareawire
andloop
mobility, the netlocation
for various force onin the magnetic field, in Problem
ual charge carrier
21.P.80. must be the same throughout all portions of the loop in order to have the same
roughout the loop. Outside the magnetic-field region this net force is due solely to the Coulomb
rted by the surface charges. Inside the right wire there are two forces on a + carrier: a downward
orce qv u B and an upward electric (Coulomb) force due to the surface charges. The difference
hese two forces (the net force) must be equal to the purely Coulomb electric force on a + carrier in
portions of the loop.
think of (b)
the role
of
Thethemagnetic
right wireforce
in the
on loop as that
mobile of a nonideal
electrons battery,
in the right side with
of theinternal is given by F~mag = q~v B.
resistance
wire loop ~ According to
e resistance of thetheright wire.
right-hand rule, the force on mobile electrons is in the +y direction, so electrons pile up on the top part of the
loop. Positive charge piles up on the bottom part of the loop. Mobile electrons will flow from the top part of the
loop, counterclockwise, to the bottom part of the loop, and the magnetic force in the right, vertical piece of the
loop will push them back to the top of the loop again. Electron current flows counterclockwise, so conventional
current flows clockwise.
The potential difference across the right-side of the loop has a magnitude |V | = vBh and is equal to IR, according
to Ohms law. Thus, the current through the loop is
36
IR = vBh
vBh
I = clockwise
R
The magnetic force on the right side of the loop is F~mag = IhB. The direction of the force on the right-side is
F~mag = I L~ B.
~ The vector L ~ points in the y direction, in the direction of conventional current on the right side
of the loop. According to the right-hand rule, the magnetic force is thus in the x direction. To move at constant
velocity, the applied force (by your hand, for example) must be to the right, in the +x direction, with an equal
magnitude.
Fapplied = Fmag
= IhB
vBh
= (hB)
R
vB 2 h2
= in the +x direction
R
The surface charge is negative on the top of the right-side and positive on the bottom of the right side. Going
counterclockwise around the loop starting at the top, it decreases in negative charge density until going to zero (at
the middle of the left side) and then increases in positive charge density from the middle, left side to the bottom,
right side.
(c) The magnetic force on mobile electrons in the right side of the wire loop is given by F~mag = q~v B.
~ According
to the right-hand rule, the force on mobile electrons in the right side of the loop is in the +y direction, so
electrons pile up on the top part of the loop. Positive charge piles up on the bottom part of the loop.
In the left side of the loop, there is also a magnetic force upward on the mobile electrons causing negative
charge to build up on the top of the left side and positive charge to build up on the bottom of the left side.
There is no surface charge gradient around the loop; therefore, no current will flow through the loop.
I = 0
The magnetic force on the right side of the loop is F~mag = IhB. Since I = 0, the magnetic force on the right side
of the loop is zero. The same is true of every other part of the loop. So, the applied force needed to keep the loop
moving at constant velocity is zero.
Fapplied = 0
There is negative surface charge on the top of the wire loop and positive surface charge on the bottom of the loop.
It is uniform charge density on the top and uniform charge density on the bottom. Since there is no gradient (from
right to left, for example), no current flows through the loop.
(d) The magnetic force on mobile electrons in the right side of the wire loop is zero because it is outside the magnetic
field. The magnetic force on mobile electrons in the left side of the wire loop is given by F~mag = q~v B.
~ According
to the right-hand rule, the force on mobile electrons is in the +y direction, so electrons pile up on the top part of
the loop. Positive charge piles up on the bottom part of the loop. Mobile electrons will flow from the top part
of the loop on the left, clockwise, to the bottom part of the loop on the left, and the magnetic force in the left,
vertical piece of the loop will push them back to the top of the loop again. Electron current flows clockwise, so
conventional current flows counterclockwise.
37
The potential difference across the left-side of the loop has a magnitude |V | = vBh and is equal to IR, according
to Ohms law. Thus, the current through the loop is
IR = vBh
vBh
I = counterclockwise
R
The magnetic force on the left side of the loop is F~mag = IhB. The direction of the force on the left-side is
F~mag = I L
~ B.
~ The vector L ~ points in the y direction, in the direction of conventional current on the left side of
the loop. According to the right-hand rule, the magnetic force is in the x direction. To move at constant velocity,
the applied force (by your hand, for example) must be to the right, in the +x direction, with an equal magnitude.
Fapplied = Fmag
= IhB
vBh
= (hB)
R
vB 2 h2
= in the +x direction
R
The surface charge is negative on the top of the left side and positive on the bottom of the left side. Going
clockwise around the loop starting at the top, it decreases in negative charge density until going to zero (at the
middle of the right side) and then increases in positive charge density from the middle, right side to the bottom,
left side.
(e) The magnetic force on mobile electrons in the wire loop is zero, so there is no potential difference across any part
of the wire loop and no current flows in the loop.
I = 0
The magnetic force on the left or right side of the loop is F~mag = IhB. Since B = 0, the magnetic force on the
left or right side of the loop is zero. The same is true of every part of the loop. So, the applied force needed to
keep the loop moving at constant velocity is zero.
Fapplied = 0
There is no surface charge on the wire loop.
21.P.81
See Figure 12 for a pictorial representation of the charge distribution and magnetic forces.
In the left wire, positive carriers are pushed upward by the magnetic force qvB1 , and the emf generated in the left wire is
the energy input per unit charge involved in moving a carrier through the length h of wire, qvB1 h/q. Hence in the left wire
there is upward motional emf vB1 h. Similarly, in the right wire there is a smaller upward motional emf vB2 h. The net emf
vB1 h vB2 h drives a current I clockwise around the loop.
The current-carrying wires experience magnetic forces. The magnetic forces on the horizontal segments are equal and opposite,
but the magnetic force IhB2 (to the right) on the right end is smaller than the magnetic force IhB1 (to the left) on the left
38
Problem 20.P.56 Dragging a loop through two regions of magnetic field
B1 B2
I
F1 = IhB1 F
h
w F2 = IhB2
(2 pts forFigure
surface12: The surface charge and magnetic forces on the wire loop, in Problem 21.P.81.
charge distribution)
In the left wire positive carriers are pushed upward by the magnetic force qvB1, and the emf generated in the left
wire is the energy input per unit charge involved in moving a carrier through the length h of wire, qvB1h/q. Hence in
end. An external pulling
the left wire force
there must be
is upward exertedemf
motional to vB
balance the total
h. Similarly, magnetic
in the force
right wire so the
there is a net forceupward
smaller will bemotional
zero and the loop
emf
1
will travelvB
at h.
constant speed.
The net emf vB1h - vB2h drives a current I clockwise around the loop.
2
Induced emf and current:
The current-carrying wires experience magnetic forces. The magnetic forces on the horizontal segments are equal
and opposite, but the magnetic force IhB2 (to the right) on the right end is smaller than the magnetic force IhB1 (to
the left) on the left end. An external pulling force must be exerted to balance the total magnetic force so the net
emfat constant
force will be zero and the loop will travel = (B1speed.
h B2 h)v
Induced emf : emf (B1 h B2 h)v
I = =
emf B h B h v R R
1 2
Current :
Magnetic force: emf B1 h B2 h v
I
R R
Magnetic Force :
* * * * F * mag,x = F1,x + F2,x
Fmag I L1 u B1 I L2 u B 2
= IB1 h + IB2 h
Fmag IB1 h B 2 h to the left
so Fmag = I(B1 B2 )h to the left
Pulling Force :
Pulling force: B1 h B2 h v
F Fmag B1 h B 2 h
R
B1 B 2 2 h 2 v
F Fto the
= right
Fmag = I(B1 B2 )h
R
(B1 h B2 h)v
FR = ( )(B1 B2 )h
v R
B1 B2 h 2
2
(B1 B2 ) h v
2 2
= to the right
R
The speed of the loop is
FR
v =
(B1 B2 )2 h2
21.P.82
(a) The magnetic force on mobile electrons in the right side of the wire loop is zero because it is outside the magnetic field.
The magnetic force on mobile electrons in the left side of the wire loop is given by F~mag = q~v B. ~ According to the
39
right-hand rule, the force on mobile electrons is in the y direction, so electrons pile up on the bottom part of the
loop. Positive charge piles up on the top part of the loop. Mobile electrons will flow from the bottom part of the loop
on the left, counterclockwise, to the top part of the loop on the left, and the magnetic force in the left, vertical piece of
the loop will push them back to the bottom of the loop again. Electron current flows counterclockwise, so conventional
current flows clockwise.
The surface charge is negative on the bottom of the left side and positive on the top of the left side. Going counter-
clockwise around the loop starting at the bottom, it decreases in negative charge density until going to zero (at the
middle of the right side) and then increases in positive charge density from the middle, right side to the top, left side.
(b) The emf across the left-side of the loop has a magnitude emf = vBh and is equal to IR, according to Ohms law. Thus,
the current through the loop is
IR = vBh
vBh
I =
R
(8 m/s)(1.2 T)(0.03 m)
=
0.3
= 0.96 A
Conventional current flows clockwise, as described in part (a) above.

(c) (2) is true. Note that (1) is false; though the magnetic force does stretch the loop vertically, there is a net magnetic
force to the left on the loop. (3) is false because the magnetic force on the loop is to the left.
(d) The magnetic force on the left side of the loop has a magnitude ~Fmag = IhB. The direction of the force on the

left-side is given by F~mag = I L

~ B.
~ The vector L ~ points in the +y direction, in the direction of conventional current
on the left side of the loop. According to the right-hand rule, the magnetic force is in the x direction. To move at
constant velocity, the applied force (by your hand, for example) must be to the right, in the +x direction, with an equal
magnitude.
Fapplied = Fmag
= IhB
= (0.96 A)(0.03 m)(1.2 T)
= 0.035 N
21.P.83
The magnetic force on mobile electrons at the rim is F~mag = e~v B. ~ By the right-hand rule, the direction of the magnetic
force on mobile electrons is radially inward, toward the center of the disk. This creates positive surface charge on the rim of
the disk and negative surface charge at the center of the disk.
When the surface charge is in equilibrium, the magnetic force
~ ~

and electric force on a mobile electron is zero (so Fmag = Felec ). There an electric field in the disk points radially inward
and has a magnitude
Felec
E =
e
Fmag
=
e
evB
=
e
= vB
40
The emf along a radial path from the rim to the center of the disc is
Z
emf = ~ d~l
E
Z
= Edr
Z 0
= vBdr
R
0
= vBrR
= vBR
The rim is at a higher potential than the center of the disk. Since the positive terminal of the voltmeter is connected to the
center, the voltmeter will read a negative potential difference. Thus, the voltmeter reading will be V = vBR.
21.P.84
It is easiest to sketch a top view of the falling rod, as shown in Figure 13.
N
BEarth
_ ___ +++
_ +
W X v + E
_
___ +
+++
Figure 13: A top view of the charge distribution on a falling rod, for Problem 21.P.84.
(a) The magnetic force on mobile electrons in the rod is F~mag = e~v B. ~ By the right-hand rule, the direction of the
magnetic force on mobile electrons is to the left, in the x direction. This causes the left side of the rod to become
negatively charged and the right side to become positively charged. So, the west end of the rod will have excess
electrons.
(b) Due to the magnetic force, excess charge builds up on the left and right ends of the rod. This creates an electric field in
the rod that is to the left, in the x direction. When in equilibrium, the magnetic force to the left on a mobile electron
is balanced by an equal magnitude electric force to the right, and the net force on a mobile electron is zero.
Assume that at a certain instant, the mobile electrons are in equilibrium. Thus,
Fmag = Felec
evB = eE
vB = E
For a long thin rod, model it as a dipole of length L with charge Q on the ends. The electric field at the center of a
dipole is E = 4 L2 .
1 8Q
o
41
vB = E
1 8Q
vB =
4o L2
vBL2
Q =
8 4
1
o
(4 m/s)(2 105 T)(0.6 m)2

Q =
8(9 109 NC m )
2
2
= 4 1016 C
As you can see, it is a very small amount of charge on the ends of the rod.
21.X.85
In a reference frame moving with the bar, the magnetic field will be
~0 Bz
B = < 0, 0, q >
1 v2
c2
which is still in the z-direction.

There is now an external electric field in this frame that is
~ vBz
E = < 0, q ,0 >
1 vc2
2
which is in the -y direction. Since the bar is not moving in this frame, ~Fmag = 0. However, there is an electric field that
exerts a force ~F = q E
~ on the mobile electrons in the rod. This force is in the +y direction, causing the top end to become
negatively charged and the bottom end to become positively charged. The polarization is consistent with what is observed
in the "lab" frame.
21.X.86
First, sketch a picture.
1 q
Ey =
40 r2
~ = < 0, 1 q , 0 >
E
40 r2
0 q ~v r
~ =
B
4 r2
qv
= < 0, 0, 0 2 >
4 r
0 qv
Bz =
4 r2
42
r
v

proton
In a reference frame moving in the +x direction at the same speed as the proton, the proton is at rest.
E0x = Ex = 0
Bx
0
= Bx = 0
Ey vBz
E0y = q
1 vc2
2
!
1 1 q 0 v
= v q
40 r2 4 r2
q
1 v2
c2
!
1 1 q 0 qv 2
=
40 r2 4 r2
q
1 v2
c2
E0z = 0
By
0
= 0
(Bz cv2 Ey )
B0z = q
1 vc2
2
0 qv

v 1 q
4 r 2 c2 40 r2
= q
1 vc2
2
Substitute c2 = 1
0 0 , then B0z is
1 qv 0 qv
B0z = 0

4 r2 4 r2
q
1 v2
c2
= 0
This makes sense, because in this reference frame, Biot-Savart law gives B0z = 0 since the proton is at rest. The only non-zero
~ which is
field is E
43
!
1 1 q
~0
E = < 0, q 0 v2 ,0 >
1 v2 40 4 r2
c2
Note that it varies as r2 ,

1
as expected.
21.X.87
The magnetic dipole moment ~ is to the plane of the loop and in a direction given by the right-hand rule, down and to
~ and
the left in the side view. A side view of B ~ is shown below.
Figure 15: Side view of the vectors
The torque on the loop is ~ = ~ which is in the -z direction. Since ~ ~L and since ~L = 0 then the final angular
~ B i
momentum after a time t is in the -z direction. The loop rotates clockwise.
21.X.88
~ and
The bar magnet initially rotates clockwise. The magnetic dipole moment points from S to N, so B ~ are in the directions
shown below.
Figure 16: A sketch of the vectors
The torque on the bar magnet is ~ = ~ which is in the -z direction. Since ~ ~L and since ~L = 0 then the final angular
~ B i
momentum after a time t is in the -z direction. The bar magnet rotates clockwise.
44
21.X.89
The magnetic force on a dipole is related to the magnetic potential energy of the dipole and magnetic field system by
F~ = U~mag
In one-dimension, this is
d(~ ~
B)
Fx =
dx
d(~ ~
B)
=
dx
d(B cos )
=
dx
dB d
= cos + B( sin )
dx dx
At the location of the tails of the dipole moment vectors (which is where we assume the dipole to be located), the angle of
the magnetic field does not change; therefore, the second term in Fx is zero, and just the first term is needed.
(1) The angle between ~ is 90 , so cos is zero, and F = 0.

~ and B x
(2) The angle between ~ is 0 , so cos = +1, and F is positive. Thus, ~F is in the +x direction.
~ and B x
This makes sense if you imagine that to the right there is a very strong S pole of a dipole magnet, and to the left is a
less strong N pole of a dipole magnet. Dipole 2 will be attracted by a large magnetic force to the right and attracted
by a smaller magnetic force to the left. Thus, the net force on the dipole is to the right.
(3) The angle between ~ is 90 , so cos is zero, and F = 0.

~ and B x
(4) The angle between ~ is 180 , so cos = 1, and F is negative. Thus, ~F is in the x direction.
~ and B x
This makes sense if you imagine that to the right there is a very strong S pole of a dipole magnet, and to the left is a
less strong N pole of a dipole magnet. Dipole 4 will be repelled by a large magnetic force toward the left and repelled
by a smaller magnetic force toward the right. Thus, the net force on the dipole is to the left.
21.P.90
A ferromagnetic material is made up of many atomic magnetic dipoles. Since the paper clip is unmagnetized, then its dipoles
are arranged randomly so that the sum the dipole moments is zero and there is no net magnetic dipole moment.
When the bar magnet comes near to the paperclip, a net number of these magnetic dipoles align in the direction of the
magnetic field due to the bar magnet. This causes the paperclip to have a net magnetic dipole moment that is in the
direction of the magnetic field due to the bar magnet. Call this the +x direction.
The magnetic field due to the bar magnet, along its axis, varies as 1/x3 (where Im assuming the x-axis is the axis of the
dipole). As a result, there is a gradient in the magnetic field as a function of distance along the axis of the net magnetic
~
dipole moment of the paperclip and likewise there is a gradient in the magnetic potential energy, Umag since Umag = B.
Since ~Fmag = dx
dUmag
= dB
dx , then there is a force on the paperclip in the +x direction, toward the bar magnet. It is
x
attractive as expected.
45
Note that if you turn the bar magnet 180 , it will cause the magnetic dipoles in the paperclip to align in the opposite direction
180 , and magnetic force on the paperclip will again be toward the magnet. So any way you rotate the magnet, the force on
the paperclip will always be attractive.
21.X.91
The magnetic force on a mobile electron is in the y direction. This causes the top end to be positively charged and the
bottom end to be negatively charged. A coulomb electric field in the rod is in the y direction. Because the ends of the
rod are connected by conductors, the magnetic force on a mobile electron in the bar is greater than the coulomb force, thus
pushing mobile electrons in the y direction. These electrons can then flow counterclockwise from the bottom end of the
bar, through the resistor, and to the top end of the bar.
(a) (1) is true.

(b) A mobile electron moves at constant velocity through the bar, so the net force on the mobile electron is zero.
(c) Mobile electrons flow downward. There is a magnetic force in the y direction, a coulomb force in the +y direction
(opposite the coulomb electric field), and drag in the +y direction opposite the drift velocity of the electrons. Thus,
Felec = Fmag Fdrag . This explains why, from the Momentum Principle, the electric force on mobile electrons is slightly
less than the magnetic force. Thus,
Felec < Fmag

< evB
19
< (1.602 10 C)(7 m/s)(0.4 T)
< 4.48 1019 N
19
(d) Fmag = evB = (1.602 10 C)(7 m/s)(0.4 T) = 4.48 1019 N.
(e) The emf is the work done per unit charge by the magnetic force moving a mobile electron through a distance equal to
the length of the wire. Thus, emf = W/e = Fmag L/e = vBL = (7 m/s)(0.4 T)(0.45 m) = 1.26 V. This is the potential
difference across the rod if the resistance of the rod is negligible.
(f) Conventional current flows in the +y direction through the bar. There is a magnetic force Fmag = I ~L B
~ on the bar
that is in the +x direction. Thus, you must apply a force on the bar in the x direction to keep the bar moving at a
constant velocity, since the net force on the bar must be zero according to the Momentum Principle.
21.X.92
Two reasons are:
(1) Protons are tightly bound to other protons in a lattice. The electric field needed to exert a large enough electric force
(F = qE) to pull a proton from a solid is far greater than the energy needed is far greater than the critical electric field
at which a spark occurs.
(2) The mean free path of a proton in air is about the same as for an electron, 5 107 m. Protons cannot jump from one
ball to the other because they will likely collide with an air molecule within a distance of less than 0.1m which is less
than the distance between the balls.
21.X.93
The electron sea in the metal wire only has to move a very small distance (perhaps on the order of the diameter of an
atom) in order to neutralize each block.
46
21.X.94
The free electron would lose kinetic energy, and the molecule would gain potential energy and would have electrons in higher
energy orbits. However, they would remain bound and the free electron would remain free.
21.X.95
(B)
Density is mass per unit volume. If the density is decreased by 1/2, then one mole of nitrogen will occupy twice as much
volume. Since the radius of the nitrogen molecule stays the same, then an electron would travel twice as far before colliding
with a nitrogen molecule. Its mean free path d would increase by 2.
21.X.96
(D)
Mean free path varies as 1/r2 where r is the radius of the molecule.
21.X.97
The energy needed to ionize the molecule is proportional to V 14V. Since V = Ecrit d, then if it takes 6E0 to accelerate
an electron to sufficient energy to ionize a molecule, then the electron must travel 1/6 the distance. Thus dd0 = 1/6 where d0
is the mean free path at STP.
21.X.98
(a) Since the entire atom is neutral, then the atomic core has a charge q = +e.
(b) Treat the core as a point particle, then
1 q
E =
4o r2
19
9 N m2 1.602 10 C
9 10
C 2 (1 10 10 m)2
1.44 1011 N/C
(c) The core exerts a force F = qE on the outer electron. To ionize the atom, an applied electric field must exert a force
at least as large as the force by the core. Thus, an applied electric field at least as large as 1.44 1011 N/C is needed.
(d) The ratio is
1.44 1011 N/C

48, 000
3 106 N/C
(e) 1, 2, and 4 are reasonable conclusions.
21.X.99
(a) Since the entire atom is neutral, then the atomic core has a charge q = +e.
47
(b) Treat the core as a point particle, then
1 q
V =
4o r
19
9N m2 1.602 10 C
9 10
C2 (1 1010 m)
14.4 V
(c)
lim V = 0
r
(d) The potential difference is V Vr = 14.4 V

(e) The change in potential energy of the system in moving an electron from r = 1 1010 m to a distance far away is
U = qelectron Vcore = (e)(14.4 V) = 14.4 eV.
(f) A free incoming particle that collides with the atom must have a kinetic energy of at least 14.4 eV in order to knock
an electron from the atom and thereby ionize the atom.
21.X.100
(a) The force on an electron is opposite the electric field, and the electric field points from high potential to low potential.
Thus, an electron released from rest will travel toward high potential, and V will be positive. If the electric field is
constant and the electron travels in a straight line a distance d, then it moves through a potential difference V = Ed.
(b) U = qV = (e)V , so the change in potential energy of the system is U = eV . It makes sense that its
negative because the electron gains kinetic energy during the process, so the system must lose potential energy.
(c) Since Esys = 0,
U + K = 0
K = U
K = eV
Note that K is positive, as expected, since the electron speeds up during the process.
(d) The minimum energy needed to knock an electron out of an atom is about 14.4 eV. Thus, a free electron must have at
least this much kinetic energy when it collides with the atom. If the free electron starts from rest and is accelerated
through a potential difference V , then the Energy Principle applied to the system of the applied electric field and free
electron gives
Kf = eV
Kf = eEd
Kf
E =
ed
14.4 eV

e(5 107 m)
14.4 V

5 107 m
3 107 V/m
48
(e) The ratio of our answer to the measured electric field is 10. That is, our answer is about 10 times larger than the
measured electric field.
(f) (2) is a reasonable conclusion. We made many assumptions and simplifications, yet have an answer within a factor of
10. This gives one encouragement to derive a more accurate answer by making fewer simplifications and assumptions.
21.X.101
At the surface of the sphere, the electric field is the same as if the charge on the sphere is concentrated at its center and is a
point particle, so Esurf ace = 4
1
r2 .
q
o
If enough charge builds up on the sphere, then the electric field exceeds 3 106 N/C and a spark will occur. Electrons in
the ionized air can move fast enough to knock other electrons off of atoms to create many ions. These electrons or ions will
combine with charge on the sphere, thus reducing the charge on the sphere and the electric field in the air, and no more
ionization will occur. Using the measured electric field, calculate the charge on the sphere needed to produce a spark.
1 q
Esurf ace =
4o r2
Esurf ace r2
q = 1
4o
(3 106 N/C)(0.15 m)2

9 109 NC m
2
2
7.5 106 C
21.P.102
(a) The neutral sphere will polarize as the electron sea moves away from the Sphere 1 which is negatively charged. Sphere
1, when very far away, has negative charge uniformly distributed on its surface. However, when closer to Sphere 2
which becomes polarized, more negative charge will be on the side closest to the neutral sphere so that the net electric
field within Sphere 1 is zero.
A sketch showing the surface charge is shown in Figure 17.
Negative
_ _ _ _
Neutral
_ _ + _
_ + _
_ _ + _
_ + _
_ + _
1 _
_ + 2 _
_ _ + _
_ + _
_ _ + _
_ _ _ _ + _
Figure 17: Charge distribution on the spheres in Question 21.P.102 before a spark occurs.
49
(b) Inside Sphere 1, the net electric field is the sum of the electric field due to surface charge on Sphere 1which is to the
right and the electric field due to Sphere 2 which is to the left. These fields are in opposite directions and add to zero
at locations inside Sphere 1.
At locations between Sphere 1 and Sphere 2, the electric field due to Sphere 1 and the electric field due to Sphere 2
both point to the left. Thus, the net electric field is larger than the electric field due to either sphere alone. If the net
electric field at any location exceeds 3 106 V/m, a spark will occur.
Suppose that Sphere 1 is initially very far from Sphere 2, and its charge is uniformly distributed on its surface. In this
case, the electric field at the surface is Esurf ace = 4
1
r 2 . Since no spark is occurring the charge on the sphere must
q
o
be less than the charge need to produce a spark. Thus,
(3 106 N/C)R12
q1 < 1
4o
As you bring Sphere 1 closer to Sphere 2, the net electric field at locations between them increases, due to polarization
of the spheres as explained above. At a distance when the net electric field at locations between the spheres exceeds
3 106 N/C. Then a spark will occur.
(c) During the spark, air between Sphere 1 and Sphere 2 (but closest to Sphere 1) ionizes. Positively charged ions in air
pickup free electrons from Sphere 1, and Sphere 1 loses some of its charge. Free electrons in the ionized air combine
with the positively charged side of Sphere 2, neutralizing that side of Sphere 2, giving it an overall negative charge. As a
result, the net electric field at locations between the spheres decreases to below the critical value needed for ionization,
and the spark stops.
After the spark, Sphere 1 has less negative charge, and Sphere 2 is negatively charged. If you model the ionized air as
a sea of electrons and if Q0 is the initial charge of Sphere 1, then Sphere 1 will have a charge Q0 /2 and Sphere 2 will
have a charge Q0 /2.
21.P.103
(a) At the surface of the sphere, the electric field is the same as if the charge on the sphere is concentrated at its center
1 |Q|
and is a point particle, so Esurf ace = 4 r2 .
o
If enough charge builds up on the sphere, then the electric field exceeds 3 106 N/C and a spark will occur. Since the
air is glowing bluish right at the surface, the electric field must be at this critical value.
1 |Q|
Esurf ace =
4o r2
Esurf ace r2
|Q| = 1
4o
(3 106 N/C)(0.24 m)2

9 109 NC m
2
2
1.92 105 C
(b) The air near the sphere is ionized. Positively charged ions in the air combine with excess electrons from the sphere. So
the sphere would tend to lose its excess electrons. However, the generator is placing additional excess electrons on the
sphere. In this case, the rate that electrons combine with ions in the air is equal to the rate that the generator builds
up excess electrons on the sphere, so the net charge of the sphere remains constant.
50
(c) Before the grounded piece of metal is brought near to the charged sphere, there is less charge on the sphere than what
is needed to reach an electric field that would cause a spark. As a result, Esurf ace < 3 106 N/C.
When the ground piece of metal is nearby, it becomes polarized with positive charge on its surface nearest to the sphere.
This causes additional negative charge on the sphere to pile up on the side closed to the grounded metal. For both of
these reasons, the electric field at all points between the sphere and tip will be greater than before. When the piece of
metal gets close enough, the electric field exceeds 3 106 N/C, causing a spark to occur.
(d) During the spark, the air becomes ionized. Positively charged ions pick up free electrons from the sphere, and free
electrons in the air combine with positive charge on the piece of metal. (This piece of metal is grounded so it gains
electrons from the air but remains neutral because Earth has so much charge that adding electrons to Earth has
negligible affect on its charge.) As a result, the sphere loses charge and the electric field at points between the piece of
metal and sphere decreases below the critical value. This explains why the spark stops. The fact that it occurs during
a short time interval is due to the fact that the mean free path is so small for electrons in air that they do not have
to travel for a long time before they combine with the metal (or before ions in the air combine with electrons at the
surface of the sphere).
(e) The reason that a spark occurs when the metal is close by is that the metal polarizes and increases the net electric
field between the metal and sphere. The polarization of the metal depends on distance from the sphere and the charge
on the sphere. When the distance between them is larger (like 5 cm), it takes more charge on the sphere in order to
significantly polarize the piece of metal. As a result, more electrons combine with ions when the spark occurs, and
it is more intense. Also, it takes a longer time to generate the larger amount of charge on the sphere that is needed.
Therefore, theres a longer time between sparks.
When the metal piece is brought closer to the sphere, it will be more easily polarized by the sphere. It takes less charge
on the sphere to polarize the metal and thereby reach the critical field necessary to create a spark. Since there is less
charge on the sphere, fewer electrons combine with ions in air and the spark is less intense. Also, it takes less time to
build up enough charge to cause a spark; therefore, there is less time between sparks.
21.P.104
(a) Lets assume that the carpet loses electrons, and the rubber soles of the shoes gain electrons. Rubber is an insulator, so
it becomes charged on the bottom where it is in contact with the carpet. However, this excess charge is not transferred
to your body, since rubber is an insulator. Instead, the rubber becomes polarized as shown in Figure 18 with the tops
of the soles being negatively charged.
Sodium chloride (i.e. salt) on the skin readily dissociates into positively and negatively charged ions. The positively
charged ions flow toward your polarized shoes and the negatively charged ions flow away from the shoes, leaving your
lower body positively charged and your upper-body negatively charged.
Suppose that you then bring your negatively charged hand near a doorknob. The neutral doorknob will polarize, with
its positively charged side near your hand and its negatively charged side away from your hand as shown in Figure
19. The net electric field between your hand and the doorknob is the sum of the electric field due to your negatively
charged hand and the electric field due to the polarized doorknob. Because these two fields are in the same direction
(toward your hand), the net electric field at locations between your hand and doorknob is greater than the electric field
due to your hand and will increase as the distance between your hand and doorknob decreases.
When the net electric field at locations between your hand and doorknob exceeds 3 106 N/C, a spark will occur. Your
hand will lose negative charge, and the doorknob will gain negative charge. This leaves your body with an overall net
positive charge but still polarized due to the charged soles of your shoes. Your hand will still be negatively charged but
will have much less charge than before the spark.
(b) A picture of a person who has gained excess electrons on the bottom of his or her shoes due to walking on carpet is
shown in Figure 18.
(c) Figure 19 shows what happens to the doorknob as you walk closer to the doorknob. At 1.5 cm, the doorknob is slightly
polarized, and Enet < 3 106 N/C at locations between your hand and doorknob. At 1.0 cm, the doorknob is more
greatly polarized, there will be more negative charge at your hand, and Enet 3 106 N/C so a spark occurs.
51
_ _
_ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
_
_ _ _ _ _ _
_
_
body _ _
_ _
++ ++
++ ++
++ ++
++ ++
++ ++
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
+ + + + + + +
shoe
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Figure 18: A sketch of a person who has picked up negative charge by walking on carpet for Question 21.P.104.
_ _
_ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
E +
_
_
hand
+ _
_ + _
_ _ _ _ _ _
E +
+ _
_ _
doorknob
body _ _
_ _
++ ++
++ ++
++ ++
++ ++
++ ++
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
+ + + + + + +
shoe
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
E ++
__
__
hand
+++ _
++ _
_ __
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
E ++
+ __
doorknob
_ _
body _ _
_ _
+ + ++
+ + ++
+ + ++
+ + ++
+ + ++
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
+ + + + + + +
shoe
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Figure 19: A sketch of a person and doorknob, showing polarization of the doorknob and the electric field at a location
between them.
21.P.105
(a) While the proton is traveling through one of the Ds, the magnetic force on the proton causes it to travel in a circle at
constant speed. Applying the Momentum Principle to the proton for non-relativistic speeds gives
52
mv 2
Fnet =
R
mv 2
Fmag =
R
mv 2
qvB =
R
mv
qB =
R
The speed of the proton is v = 2R/T where T is its period, the time to travel in one complete revolution. Substitute
the speed in terms of the period and solve for the period to get
m2R
qB =
RT
m
T = 2
qB
The angular frequency of the proton is = T .

2
Thus,
qB
=
m
19
(1.602 10 C)(1.0 T)
=
(1.673 10 27
kg)
= 9.58 107 rad/s
The electric field between the Ds must change from the +x direction to the x with the same frequency as the proton.
Thus, the potential difference across the Ds must switch polarity with the same frequency.
(b) A sample program is shown below. The speed of the proton when the radius of the protons path exceeds the radius of
the Ds is 4.37 106 m/s.
4
5 # w i r e f r a m e c y c l o t r o n model #
6 def makedee ( r , y , g a p d i s t , f l i p , d c o l o r = ( . 4 , . 4 , . 4 ) ) :
7 p h i = a r a n g e ( 0 , p i +0.01 , p i / 2 0 )
8 x = f l i p ( r s i n ( phi ) + gapdist /2)
9 z = r cos ( phi )
10
11 top = c u r v e ( c o l o r=d c o l o r , x=x , y=y , z=z )

12 top . append ( pos=top . pos [ 0 ] )
13 bot = c u r v e ( c o l o r=d c o l o r , x=x , y=y , z=z )
14 bot . append ( pos=bot . pos [ 0 ] )
15
16 f o r p in top . pos :
17 c u r v e ( c o l o r=d c o l o r , pos = [ p , ( p [ 0 ] , p [ 1 ] , p [ 2 ] ) ] )
53
18
19 ##
20 # s t a r t program ##
21 # cyclotron display
22 scene . t i t l e = " cyclotron "
23 s c e n e . width = 600
24 s c e n e . h e i g h t = 500
26 s c e n e . background = ( 0 . 9 , 0 . 9 , 0 . 9 )
27
28 radius = .05
29 gap = . 0 0 5 # gap b e t w e e n d e e s i s 0 . 5cm
30
31 # draw c y c l o t r o n d e e s
32 makedee ( r a d i u s , y =.010 , g a p d i s t=gap , f l i p = 1)
33 makedee ( r a d i u s , y =.010 , g a p d i s t=gap , f l i p = 1 )
34
35 # show magnetic f i e l d
36 r r = a r a n g e ( 0.6 r a d i u s , 0 . 6 5 r a d i u s , 0 . 4 r a d i u s )
37 fo r x in r r :
38 f o r z in r r :
39 arrow ( pos=(x , 0 , z ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan , a x i s = ( 0 , 0 . 0 1 , 0 ) )
40
41 deltaV = 5 0 0 0 .
42 E0 = v e c t o r ( deltaV /gap , 0 , 0 )
43 e = 1 . 6 e 19
44 t = 0.0
45 dt = 1 e 11
46 p r o t o n = s p h e r e ( pos = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , r a d i u s =0.0001 , c o l o r=c o l o r . red , q=e ,
47 p=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , m=1.7 e 27)
48 p r o t o n . t r a i l = c u r v e ( c o l o r=p r o t o n . c o l o r )
49 B = vector (0 ,1.0 ,0)
50 omega = ( p r o t o n . q/ p r o t o n .m) mag(B)
51 E s c a l e = 0 . 0 1 5 / mag( E0 )
52 Evis = 1
53 Earrlist = []
54 fo r z in a r a n g e ( 0.8 r a d i u s , r a d i u s , r a d i u s / 3 . ) :
55 E a r r l i s t . append ( arrow ( pos =(0 ,0 , z ) , a x i s=E0 E s c a l e , c o l o r = ( 1 , . 7 , 0 ) , v i s i b l e = E v i s )
)
56
58
59 v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
60 p=p r o t o n .mv
61
62 while 1 :
63 i f (mag( p r o t o n . pos )<r a d i u s ) :
64 Fmag=p r o t o n . q c r o s s ( v , B)
65 i f ( p r o t o n . pos . x<=(gap / 2 ) and p r o t o n . pos . x>=(gap / 2 ) ) :
66 F e l e c=p r o t o n . qE0 c o s ( omega t )
67 else :
68 F e l e c=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
69 Fnet=Fmag+F e l e c
70 else :
54
71 Fnet=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
72 print "max s p e e d i s : " , mag( v ) , "m/ s "
73
74 p=p+Fnet dt
75 v=p/ p r o t o n .m
76 p r o t o n . pos = p r o t o n . pos + v dt
77 t=t+dt
78 p r o t o n . t r a i l . append ( pos=p r o t o n . pos )
(c) In the example below, a graph of kinetic energy vs. time is plotted. While the proton is within a D, it travels in a
circle at constant speed and its kinetic energy is constant. In the gap, the electric field does work on the proton and
its kinetic energy increases. As a result, the graph appears as a series of steps.
1

5
6 # w i r e f r a m e c y c l o t r o n model #
7 def makedee ( r , y , g a p d i s t , f l i p , d c o l o r = ( . 4 , . 4 , . 4 ) ) :
8 p h i = a r a n g e ( 0 , p i +0.01 , p i / 2 0 )
9 x = f l i p ( r s i n ( phi ) + gapdist /2)
10 z = r cos ( phi )
11
12 top = c u r v e ( c o l o r=d c o l o r , x=x , y=y , z=z )

13 top . append ( pos=top . pos [ 0 ] )
14 bot = c u r v e ( c o l o r=d c o l o r , x=x , y=y , z=z )
15 bot . append ( pos=bot . pos [ 0 ] )
16
17 f o r p in top . pos :
18 c u r v e ( c o l o r=d c o l o r , pos = [ p , ( p [ 0 ] , p [ 1 ] , p [ 2 ] ) ] )
19
20 ##
21 # s t a r t program ##
22 # cyclotron display
23 scene . t i t l e = " cyclotron "
24 s c e n e . width = 600
25 s c e n e . h e i g h t = 500
27 s c e n e . background = ( 0 . 9 , 0 . 9 , 0 . 9 )
28
29 radius = .05
30 gap = . 0 0 5 # gap b e t w e e n d e e s i s 0 . 5cm
31
32 # draw c y c l o t r o n d e e s
33 makedee ( r a d i u s , y =.010 , g a p d i s t=gap , f l i p = 1)
34 makedee ( r a d i u s , y =.010 , g a p d i s t=gap , f l i p = 1 )
35
36 # show magnetic f i e l d
37 r r = a r a n g e ( 0.6 r a d i u s , 0 . 6 5 r a d i u s , 0 . 4 r a d i u s )
38 f o r x in r r :
39 f o r z in r r :
40 arrow ( pos=(x , 0 , z ) , c o l o r=c o l o r . cyan , a x i s = ( 0 , 0 . 0 1 , 0 ) )
41
42 # c r e a t e graph window
55
43 eg = g d i s p l a y ( t i t l e = ' k i n e t i c e n e r g y ( eV ) ' , x=0, y=500)

44 k i n e t i c = g c u r v e ( c o l o r=c o l o r . g r e e n )
45
46
47 deltaV = 5 0 0 0 .
48 E0 = v e c t o r ( deltaV /gap , 0 , 0 )
49 e = 1 . 6 e 19
50 t = 0.0
51 dt = 1 e 11
52 p r o t o n = s p h e r e ( pos = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , r a d i u s =0.0001 , c o l o r=c o l o r . red , q=e ,
53 p=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , m=1.7 e 27)
54 p r o t o n . t r a i l = c u r v e ( c o l o r=p r o t o n . c o l o r )
55 B = vector (0 ,1.0 ,0)
56 omega = ( p r o t o n . q/ p r o t o n .m) mag(B)
57 E s c a l e = 0 . 0 1 5 / mag( E0 )
58 Evis = 1
59 Earrlist = []
60 fo r z in a r a n g e ( 0.8 r a d i u s , r a d i u s , r a d i u s / 3 . ) :
61 E a r r l i s t . append ( arrow ( pos =(0 ,0 , z ) , a x i s=E0 E s c a l e , c o l o r = ( 1 , . 7 , 0 ) , v i s i b l e = E v i s )
)
62
64
65 v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
66 p=p r o t o n .mv
67
68 while 1 :
69 i f (mag( p r o t o n . pos )<r a d i u s ) :
70 Fmag=p r o t o n . q c r o s s ( v , B)
71 i f ( p r o t o n . pos . x<=(gap / 2 ) and p r o t o n . pos . x>=(gap / 2 ) ) :
72 F e l e c=p r o t o n . qE0 c o s ( omega t )
73 else :
74 F e l e c=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
75 Fnet=Fmag+F e l e c
76 else :
77 Fnet=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
78 print "max s p e e d i s : " , mag( v ) , "m/ s and" , " time i s : " , t , " s "
79
80 p=p+Fnet dt
81 v=p/ p r o t o n .m
82 p r o t o n . pos = p r o t o n . pos + v dt
83 t=t+dt
84 p r o t o n . t r a i l . append ( pos=p r o t o n . pos )
85 K=1/2 p r o t o n .mmag( v ) 2
86 k i n e t i c . p l o t ( pos=(t ,K) )
(d) Ideally, you want the electric field to be constant in magnitude and simply switch between +x and x direction when
the proton is in the gap. Thus, a square function potential difference would be better than a sinusoidal potential
difference. Using a sinusoidal potential difference gives an approximately constant magnitude electric field in the gap,
and changes the direction with the correct frequency. If you use a different angular frequency, then the electric field
will not have an approximately constant magnitude in the gap, and it will not always be in a direction that will speed
up the proton. As a result, sometimes the proton slows down when between the gaps. In this case, the proton will not
continually speed up as is desired for a cyclotron.
(e) dt = 1 1011 s is about the largest time interval that you should use. If you try a larger time interval such as 1010
56
s, then numerical error causes the kinetic energy to increase while the proton is inside the D, which is not physically
correct.
(f) Use an if statement to check when the magnitude of the protons position exceeds the radius of a D and print its speed
and the clock reading. With the example shown above, the clock reading is about 7 107 s.
(g) K = 1.62 1014 J = 1.01 105 eV = 0.101 MeV

(h) When the proton travels across the gap, the system loses a potential energy U = qV = e(5000 V) = 5000 eV. Thus,
the proton gains 5000 eV of kinetic energy. In one orbit, it crosses the gap twice and gains 10,000 eV of kinetic energy.
So, the number of orbits it completes is:
1.01 105 eV
number of orbits =
1 104 eV
= 10 orbits
(i) The final speed of the proton is 4.37 106 m/s which is about 0.01c which is indeed non-relativistic.
1
22.X.1

~
E = E cos
3

1 10 V/m cos 30
866 V/m
E = E A
3
3

(866 V/m) 1 10 m 2 10 m
3
1.7 10 Vm
22.X.2
A = A cos
6

2 10 m2 cos 30
6
1.7 10 m2
3
6

~
E A 1 10 V/m 1.7 10 m2
3
1.7 10 Vm
22.X.3
External fields polarize the metal. The polarized charges make the net field inside the box zero.
22.X.4

~ o 2I
B
4
R
~
B R
I
2 o
4 6
2

1.3 10 T 3 10 m

2 1 107 CTm/s

m2
0.195 A
22.X.5
2
N m2
[] = V m = J/C m =
C
N m2
h
~
i [] N
E = = C3 =
[] m Cm
C
m3 N
= =
o C2
N m2
Cm

h
~
i
E =
o
22.X.6
qenc 82e
= =
o o
19

82 1.6 10 C

9 1012 C2 /N m2
6 N m
2
1.5 10
C
~
E = = 4 3
3 r
1.5 10 N Cm
6 2
3
4 15
3 7 10 m
36 N
1 10
Cm
Halving the radius decreases the volume by a factor of 8, which increases the volume charge density () by a factor of 8.
However, decreasing the radius also decreases the amount of charge enclosed by that volume by the same factor. Therefore,
the volume charge density is unchanged. That means the divergence is unchanged and equal to the value above, as is /o .
22.X.7
2V 2V 2V
2
+ 2
+ =
x y z 2 0

2a + 2a + 2a =
0

6a =
0
= 6a0
22.X.8
3
2V 2V 2V
+ + =
x2 y 2 z 2 0

0 =
0
= 0
22.X.9
~ are T 2m = T .
Units of curl(B) m m
Tm
Units of 0 J are
~
m.
A T
A m2 =
22.X.10
The electric flux through the surface is
flux ~ nA
= E
~
= E |n| cos A
= (300 V/m) cos(60 )(0.02 m)2
= 0.188 V m
Note that the unit normal vector is perpendicular to the surface, and is defined as the angle between E
~ and n. In this case,
= 60 .
22.X.11
front = back = top = bottom = 0 since E
~ is parallel to n.
left ~ nA
= E
V
= < 400 , 0, 0 > < 1, 0, 0 > (0.03 m)(0.02 m)
m
= 0.24 V m
V
right = h1000, 0, 0i < 1, 0, 0 > (0.03 m)(0.02 m)
m
= 0.6 V m
total = surface
= 0.6 V m + 0.24 V m
= 0.36 V m
4
Gauss Law:
qinside
total =
0
qinside = 0 (0.36 V m)
= 3.19 1012 C
22.X.12
A charge distribution that would produce the given electric field is a dipole, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: A dipole produces the electric field given in Question 22.X.12.
The net flux through the Gaussian surface is zero, so the total charge inside the surface must also be zero. Indeed, the total
charge of the dipole is zero.
22.X.13
The total flux on a closed surface due to charges outside the closed surface is zero. Thus, they do not contribute to the total
flux on the closed surface. The reason is that E due to a point charge outside the closed surface decreases as 1/r2 , and the
perpendicular area A of the closed surface increases as r2 . Thus, the flux due to a point charge into the nearest part of
the closed surface will be the same (but with opposite sign) as the flux out of the furthest part of the closed surface, and
the total flux (into and out of the surface) due to the exterior point charge will be zero. See Section 22.3 of the textbook for
further explanation.
22.P.14
I I I I
~ n dA =
E ~ n dA +
E ~ n dA +
E ~ n dA
E
box top bottom sides

~ ~
= + E 3
A top
E1 Abottom

~ ~
= E3 E1 (A)
2
2

(600 V/m 1500 V/m) 3 10 m 20 10 m
5.4 V m
5
There must be a net negative charge inside the box.
C2

12
Qenc (5.4 V m) 9 10
N m2
11
5 10 C
22.P.15
I I I I
~ n dA =
E ~
E n dA + ~
E n dA + ~ n dA
E
cyl left right sides

~ ~
= E L
A L
+ ER AR

~ ~
= E L
+ E R
(A)
2
2
(1600 V/m + 1000 V/m) 2.5 10 m
1.2 V m
There must be a net negative charge inside the box.
C2

12
Qenc (1.2 V m) 9 10
N m2
11
1.1 10 C
22.P.16
Note that the only two parts of the wedge that contribute to the net flux are the left side and the slanting side. This problem
ultimately comes down to deducing the cosine of the angle between the electric field piercing the slanging side and the unit
normal to the slanting side. Some geometrical reasoning should lead you to see that this angle is congruent to the angle
between the 12 cm side and the 4 cm side and the cosine of this angle is merely 4/12 or 1/3.
I I I
~ n dA =
E ~ n dA +
E ~ n dA
E
wedge left slant

~ ~
= E 1
A left
+ E2 Aslant cos
2
2

2
2
(300 V/m) 12 10 m 5 10 m
(100 V/m) 4 10 m 5 10 m +
3
+0.4 V m
There must be a net positive charge inside the box.
C2

12
Qenc (+0.4 V m) 9 10
N m2
12
+3.6 10 C
22.P.17
6
face unit normal field contributes to flux?

top <0,1,0> right and up yes
bottom <0,-1,0> right no
left <-1,0,0> right and up yes
right <1,0,0> right and up yes
back <0,0,-1> right and up no
front <0,0,1> right and up no
Geometry is very important in this problem, and can save a lot of mathematical work. Note that E ~ lies in the xy plane so
that means neither the front nor back of the cube contributes to the flux through the cube. On the bottom face, E ~ is to the
right so that face doesnt contribute to the flux. The contributions from the left and right faces add to zero (contribution of
left face is negative and contribution of right face is positive). The only surviving contribution is from the top face.
I I
~ n dA =
E ~ n dA
E
cube top
2
(20 N/C) (0.1 m)
+0.2 V m
There must be a net positive charge inside the box.
C2

12
Qenc (+0.2 V m) 9 10
N m2
12
+1.8 10 C
22.P.18
(a)
ntop = < 0, 1, 0 >

nbottom = < 0, 1, 0 >
nright = < 1, 0, 0 >
nleft = < 1, 0, 0 >
nfront = < 0, 0, 1 >
nback = < 0, 0, 1 >
(b)
top ~ n A
= Etop top top
~ < 0, 1, 0 > (wd)

= E 2
N
= h120, 96, 0i < 0, 1, 0 > (0.06 m)(0.02 m)
C
N
= (96 )(0.06 m)(0.02 m)
C
N m2
= 0.1152
C
7
bottom ~
= E bottom
nbottom Abottom
N
= h50, 40, 0i < 0, 1, 0 > (0.06 m)(0.02 m)
C
N
= (40
)(0.06 m)(0.02 m)
C
N m2
= 0.048
C
right ~
= E right
nright Aright
N
= h120, 96, 0i < 1, 0, 0 > (0.04 m)(0.02 m)
C
N
= (120 )(0.04 m)(0.02 m)
C
N m2
= 0.096
C
left ~ n A
= Eleft left left
N
= h120, 96, 0i < 1, 0, 0 > (0.04 m)(0.02 m)
C
N m2
= 0.096
C
front ~
= E front
nfront Afront
N
= (h120, 96, 0i ) < 0, 0, 1 > (0.06 m)(0.04 m)
C
= 0
back = 0
(c)
total = side
= top + bottom
N m2 N m2
= 0.1152 + 0.048
C C
N m2
= 0.0672
C
8
According to Gauss Law,
qinside
I
~ nA =
E
0
N m2
qinside = (0.0672 )(8.85 1012 2 N m2 )
C C
13
= 5.95 10 C
22.P.19
(a) First find the flux through each face of the cube.
right ~
= E right
nright Aright
N
= h370, 370, 0i < 1, 0, 0 > (0.55 m)2
C
N
= (370)(0.55 m)2
C
N m2
= 112
C
bottom = ~ n A
Eb b b
N
= h370, 370, 0i < 0, 1, 0 > (0.55 m)2
C
N
= (370)(0.55 m)2
C
N m2
= 112
C
top = left = 0 since E

~
top
and Eleft is zero.
front = back = 0 since E~ n = 0 for the front and back surfaces. Note that if E
~ is parallel to the surface, then
through that surface is zero.
net = side
N m2 N m2
= 112 + 112
C C
N m2
= 224
C
(b) According to Gauss Law,

9
qinside
net =
0
N m2 N C2
qinside = (224 )(8.85 1012 )
C m2
= 1.98 109 C
(c) This pattern of electric field is approximately created by a uniformly charged capacitor with one plate aligned with
the diagonal of the cube. If the plate separation is at least the length of 12 (0.55 m) and if the area of each plate is
much larger than the cross-sectional area of the cube, sliced along the diagonal, then the approximation is valid since
~
E outside
0 and E
~
inside
uniform.
22.X.20
For whatever Gaussian surface you choose, the electric field due to the ring at the surface will not be uniform in magnitude
or direction across the entire surface. As a result, there is no symmetry that can be used to simplify the integral. Gauss law
is still valid; however, the integral cannot be easily solved.
22.X.21
According to Gauss law, electric field is zero in the interior of a metal, even if there is a hole in the metal and the metal is
simply a shell. This phenomenon can be referred to as screening. Thus, if your car is struck by lightening, the electric field
within the car will remain zero even if the car acquires a net charge.
If you step out of the car, then excess charge on the car can flow from the car through you to ground.
22.P.22
R2 R1 3Q
(a) For r < R1 , the electric field is
~ 1 Q
E = r
40 r2
10

(b) For R1 < r < R2 , use Gauss Law. Note that n = r and the area of a sphere is 4r2 . Since E ~ is the
~ is radial and E
same everywhere on a surface of radius r,
qinside
I
~
EdA =
0
qinside
I
EdA =
0
qinside
I
E dA =
0
Note that dA is for a sphere of radius r where R1 < r < R2 , which is 4r2 . So,
H
qinside
E(4r2 ) =
0
The total charge held inside is Q plus the fraction of 3Q that is inside r. Since it is uniformly distributed in the shell,
then
q 3Q
=
Vinside r
Vshell
The volume of the shell is the volume within R2 minus the volume within R1 . So Vshell = 34 R23 43 R13 . Then,
q 3Q
4 = 4
r3 3
3 R1 3 (R2
3 R13 )
3Q(r R13 )
3
q =
(R23 R13 )
Thus,
3Q(r3 R13 )
qinside = Q +
R23 R13
So, Gauss Law gives
qinside
E =
4r2 0
3Q(r 3 R3 )
Q + R3 R3
1
2 1
=
4r3 0
Rewrite this as
11
(r 3 R3 )

Q + 3Q (R3 R13 )
1 2 1
E =

40 r2

~ is in the radial direction with the magnitude shown above for R < r < R .
E 1 2
(c) For R2 < r, qinside = Q + 3Q = 2Q. So Gauss Law gives
2Q
E =
4r3 0

1 2Q
=
40 r2
~ is radial, of course.
E
22.P.23
(a) In this part of the problem we reason from what we know about the field to determine what and where the charge must
be. To see if there is any charge inside the wire, we draw a (mathematical, imaginary) cylinder of length d completely
inside the inner wire, and far from the ends of the wire, as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Gaussian cylinder inside the wire, in Question 22.P.23.
By Gausss Law:
I
~ ndA qinside
E =
0
At equilibrium E = 0 in metal, so flux on cylinder = 0 and qinside = 0.

So there cannot be any charge inside the wire. This means that all the positive charge is on the outer surface of the
inner wire. To see how much of the negative charge is on the inner surface of the outer cylinder, and how much is on
the outer surface, we draw a (mathematical) cylindrical surface inside the metal of the outer cylinder, again far from
the ends of the wire, as shown in Figure 4.
Apply Gausss Law:
12
Figure 4: Gaussian cylinder inside the outer cylinder, in Question 22.P.23.
I
~ ndA qinside
E =
0
Z Z
~ ndA + ~ ndA qinside
E E =
end caps curved sides 0
The curved (side) part of the cylinder is entirely within the metal, and as before E = 0 inside the metal in equilibrium,
so flux on the curved part is zero. Only part of the end cap is inside the metal; the other part is in the air gap, where
there is a nonzero electric field.
Looking end-on at the cylinder, we see that n is out of the page, while E
~ points out from the inner wire (by symmetry)
and is in the plane of the page, parallel to the surface of the end cap, as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Electric field and the unit normal vector shown in the end view, in Question 22.P.23.
The field is therefore perpendicular to n, and E

~ n = 0 . So the flux on the end caps of the mathematical cylinder is
zero, and therefore the net flux on the cylinder is zero. By Gausss Law, the net charge enclosed by this cylindrical
surface must therefore be 0. We know that the cylinder encloses a charge (+Q/L)d on the inner wire. Thus:
13

Q
0 = d + (density on surface)d
L

Q
(density on surface) =
L
All the negative charge is on the inner surface.
(b) In this part of the problem we reason from what we now know about the charge distribution, plus what we know about
the direction and symmetry of E , to get an algebraic expression for the magnitude of E inside the air gap. We place
our mathematical surface so that at least one side (the curved part) is located in the region where we want to know
the electric field-in the air gap (see Figure 6).
Figure 6: Gaussian surface for part(b) in Question 22.P.23.
Again:
I
~ ndA qinside
E =
0
Z Z
E E =
By symmetry, the electric field in the air gap must point outward from the wire.
End Caps: On the end caps, therefore, as before, E~ n = 0 and the flux=0. See Figure 7.
Curved Surface: E is nonzero, and points outward, parallel to n as shown in Figure 8.
So, E
~ n = E. On the curved surface, at a constant distance from the wire, the magnitude E is constant, by symmetry.
We can partially evaluate the flux:
Z Z
~ ndA
E = Ecos(0)dA
curved sides curved sides
Z
= E dA
closed surf ace
= E2rd
14
Figure 7: End caps for part(b) in Question 22.P.23.
Figure 8: Electric field and unit normal vector for part through the curved surface for part (b) in Question 22.P.23.
(where 2rd is the area of the side of the cylinder)
The charge inside the cylinder is equal to (charge per unit length)? (length of cylinder):
15
I
~ ndA qinside
E =
0
Z Z
E E =

+Q
L d
0 + E2rd =
0

+Q
L d
E =
2rd0
Q/L
=
20 r
This is the magnitude of E in the air gap. Note that it is the same as the electric field of a uniformly charged long
straight wire.
(c) Finally we find the magnitude of the electric field outside the whole assembly. Our closed surface now extends around
both wires as shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9: Gaussian surface for part (c) in Question 22.P.23.
As above, on end caps E

~ n = 0. On curved surface E must point outward, so E
~ n = E, so flux = E(2rd). Gauss
Law gives:
I
~ ndA qinside
E =
0
Z Z
E E =

+Q Q
L d + L d
0 + E2rd =
0
E2rd = 0
E = 0
Therefore, E = 0 outside of the coaxial cable.
22.P.24
16
(a) E
~ points to the right inside the capacitor. E
~ = 0 inside the metal plates. For Gaussian surface 1, it has 6 sides. For
each side, side = Eside nside Aside .
~
For the top, bottom, front, and back, E

~ is to n, so = 0, since E
~ n = 0.
For the left side, E = 0 (inside the metal), so = 0. As a result, only the right side has non-zero flux through it.
For the right side, n =< 1, 0, 0 > and E
~ =< E, 0, 0 >. Thus,
1 ~ < 1, 0, 0 > A
= E box
= EAbox
According to Gauss Law for surface 1,
qinside
=
0
Qbox
EAbox =
0
Q
Note that A
box
is the same as Q
A since the plate is uniformly charged. Thus,
box
Q
A
E =
0
This agrees with Chapter 16 results.
(b) image goes here

The flux through the top, bottom, front, and back sides is zero since E
~ n = 0 for these sides.
Apply Gauss Law to surface 2. There is no charge inside the surface.
qinside
=
0
right + left = 0
~
E right
nright Abox + E
~ n A
left left box
= 0
< Eright , 0, 0 > < 1, 0, 0 > Abox + < Eleft , 0, 0 > < 1, 0, 0 > Abox = 0
Eright Abox Eleft Abox = 0
Eright Eleft = 0
Eright = Eleft
The electric therefore is uniform in this region since Eright = Eleft . If this was not the case, then the flux through the
box would not be zero and would violate Gauss Law.
17
(c) For box 3, total = left where left is the flux through the left side of the box. (The reasoning is similar to the reasoning
in part (a)).
qinside
=
0
Qbox
EAbox =
0
Q
box
A
box
E =
0
Q
Since the plate is uniformly charged, then A
box
= A.
Q
Thus,
box
Q
E = A
0
(d) For box 4, the only flux is the flux through the left side. E
~ =< E
fringe
, 0, 0 > and n =< 1, 0, 0 >. So, Gauss Law gives
qinside
=
0
qbox
Efringe Abox =
0
q
box
A
box
Efringe =
0
q q
Since the charge is uniformly distributed, A
box
=q , so Efringe = A
0 .
box A
Substitute for Efringe and solve for q.
q
A
Efringe =
0
Q q
A s A
=
20 R 0
1s
q = Q
2 R
As expected, q << Q since s << R.
22.P.25
(a) The x-component of B

~ on the face of the disk is nearly uniform. Call this component B . Apply Gauss Law for
2
magnetism.
18
I
~ ndA =
B 0
In the side view of the disk, n is radially outward.

The total flux through the disk is the flux through the ends plus the flux through the side (radial direction). So,
net = ends + side . First, solve for ends .
Note that n1 =< 1, 0, 0 > and n2 =< 1, 0, 0 >. Thus the magnetic flux through the ends of the disk is
Z Z
ends = < B1 , 0, 0 > < 1, 0, 0 > dA1 + < B2 , 0, 0 > < 1, 0, 0 > dA2
Z Z
= B1 dAdisk + B2 dAdisk
= B1 Adisk + B2 Adisk
= (B2 B1 )R2
~ and B
B ~ are the magnetic fields along the axis of a magnetic dipole, where
2 1
o 2
Bdipole.axis =
4 x3
and x is the distance from the center of the dipole.

So,
o 2
B1 =
4 (x + x)3
The binomial approximation is (1 + x) 1 x for small x. Thus,
o 2
B2 =
4 x3 (1 + x
x )
3
o 2 x
3
(1 + 3 )
4 x x
o 2 o 6x

4 x3 4 x4
First, observe that B2 < B1 as expected. Second, observe that the first term is B1 . Thus,
o 6x
B2 B1
4 x4
o 6x
B2 B1
4 x4
19
We will use this later to calculate ends when getting thje net flux. Now, calculate the flux through the side of the disk
(this is in the radial direction of the disk) is
Z
side = ~
B side
nside dAside
Z
= B3 sin dAside
= B3 sin (2Rx)
where Aside = 2Rx is the area of the side of a cylinder (i.e. disk)
The total flux through the disk is
net = ends + side

= (B2 B1 )R2 + B3 sin (2Rx)
According to Gauss Law, net = 0, so
0 =(B B1 )R2 + B3 sin (2Rx)

2
o 6x
0 = R2 + B3 sin (2Rx)
4 x4
= o 6 x

B3 sin (2
R
x) xR2
4 x4
o 3R
B3 sin =
4 x4
(b) If the disk is a current loop, then
F = I(2R)B3 sin
3R
= I(2R) o 4
4 x
o 6
= IR2
4 x4
B B o 6 |B|
Notice that IR2 = IAloop = loop . Also, notice that 4o 6
x4 = 1
x
2
. Write B2 B1 as B, then 4 x4 = x and
substitution gives F = loop dB
dx in the limit as x 0.

22.P.26
(a) Flux on surface inside metal is zero, because E = 0 inside metal in static equilibrium. Flux on curving sides is zero,
because field is parallel to the surface (perpendicular to normal). Flux on outer surface of area A is simply EA, since
on a small surface field is nearly uniform in magnitude and direction (and perpendicular to surface; parallel to normal).
Charge inside surface is the charge density S times the area A.
20
Gauss law yields
I
~ ndA qinside
E =
0
SA
EA =
0
S
E =
0
(b) If we are very near the surface of the metal, the field due to just the nearby charges on the surface would produce a
field of magnitude E = 2S0 , the field near the center of a large uniformly charged disk. The field we actually found,
E = S0 , is exactly twice the field due to the nearby charges. The other half of the net field must then be due to other
charges that are far away, both charges outside the metal and polarization charges far away on the surface of the metal.
22.X.27
According to Gauss law for magnetism, the net magnetic flux through a closed surface must be zero. However, in this case,
there is a net flux through the surface because the flux out of the bottom end of the cylinder is greater than the flux into the
top end of the cylinder. As a result, the measurements of the magnetic field must be incorrect.
22.X.28
Apply Amperes law to the path. Start in the top right corner and go around the path counterclockwise. Note that ~ d~l
R
B
on the left and right sides of the path is zero since B
~ is perpendicular to the path.
I
~ d~l =
B 0 Iinside path
B3 L + B1 L = 0 Iinside path
(B1 B3 )L = 0 Iinside path
Since B1 > B3 , then Iinside path is positive. We can conclude (using the right-hand rule around the path), that current flows
through the surface enclosed by this path in the +z direction (out of the page). We can also calculate the current.
I
~ d~l =
B 0 Iinside path
B3 L + B1 L = 0 Iinside path
(B1 B3 )L
Iinside path =
0
(1.5 104 T 0.6 104 T)(0.2 m)
=
4 107 T m/A
= 14.3 A
22.P.29
~ d~l for each side of the rectangle and sum. Go clockwise around the
Apply Amperes Law to the shaded region. Find B
rectangle, starting on the top left.
21
I
~ d~l = B
B ~ d~l + B~ d~lright + B
~ d~lbottom + B
~ d~l
top top right bottom left left
= (1.6 104 T) cos (35 )(0.6 m) + 0 + (1.6 104 T) cos (35 )(0.6 m) + 0
= 1.57 104 T
Amperes Law is
I
~ d~l = I
B 0
1.57 104 T
I =
0
= 125 A
22.P.30
Choose a D-shaped Amperian path along the center line of the plastic frame (the dashed gray path in Figure 10).
Figure 10: Amperian path and a few magnetic field vectors for Question 22.P.30.
Amperes law is
I
~ d~l = 0 Iinside
B
We are told that the magnetic field has approximately the same magnitude B throughout the plastic, and presumably it is
~ d~l = Bdl , and B can be taken out of the integral.
approximately parallel to our chosen path. Therefore B
Also, a soap bubble stretched over our path is pierced N times by wires carrying current I, so we have
22
I
B dl = 0 N I
The integral of dl is the path length, which is one diameter plus one-half of the circumference or (2R + R). Substitute into
Amperes law and solve for B.
I
B dl = 0 N I
B(2R + R) = 0 N I
0 N I
B =
(2R + R)
22.P.31
(a) From the diagram in Figure 11 it is clear that there is cancellation of the vertical components of magnetic field
contributed by two wires to the left and the right of the observation location. Therefore the direction of the magnetic
field must be to the left at the location above the wires and to the right at the location below the wires.
Figure 11: Magnetic field at the given locations in Question 22.P.31.
(b) Use Amperes law, and go counterclockwise around the closed rectangular path.
Along the sides of the path B ~ d~l = 0, since B~ is perpendicular to d~l.
R
Along the upper part of the path, B ~ d~l = Bw.

R
Along the lower part of the path, B ~ d~l = Bw.

R
Therefore, applying Amperes law gives
Z
~ d~l = 0 Iinside
B path
2Bw = 0 Iinside path
The current inside the amperian loop is Iinside N

wI since there are N/L current-carrying wires per meter,

path = L
and a width w of the enclosing path. Thus,
23

N
2Bw = 0 wI
L
0 N I
B =
2L
(c) The magnetic field due to each sheet wires is in the same direction, so inside the two sheets of wires B = L .
0 N I
(d) In this case, the magnetic fields due to the sheets of wires are in opposite directions and subtract, so B = 0.
22.P.32
Assume that the magnetic field inside the coil is approximately uniform. By the right hand rule, it is in the x direction (to
the left). If the rectangle is very long, then the magnetic field at the front side of the rectangle is negligible.
To calculate B ~ d~l, start at the front, right corner of the rectangle and go into the page. On the long sides of the rectangle,
H
the magnetic field is perpendicular to the path, and B ~ d~l = 0. On the front edge, B 0. So, the only side of the rectangle
R
with a non-zero path integral is the side that is within the plastic rod. Then,
I
~ d~l = Bb
B
Using the right-hand rule with the fingers of your right hand going around the rectangle in the direction of the path integral,
then positive current is defined as current going upward through the rectangle. In this case, current is positive. There are
a total of NI wires going upward on the front edge of the rod. However, the rectangle only has a length b. As a result, the
portion of the N loops of current that is inside the rectangle is Iinside = N I db . Applying Amperes law gives
I
~ d~l = 0 Iinside
B path
N Ib
Bb = 0
d
0 N I
B =
d
22.P.33
Apply Amperes law to the Amperian path. Looking at the path from the left end, integrate around the path counterclockwise.
Then I1 is flowing into the
H surface and
H is negative. I2 is flowing out of the surface and is positive. B is tangent to the path
~
~ ~ ~
in the direction of dl, so B dl = B dl = B(2R). Amperes law gives
~
I
~ d~l = 0 Iinside
B path
B(2R) = 0 (I2 I1 )
0 (I2 I1 )
B =
2 R
We can write this in a more familiar form by multiplying by 2/2 to give

24
0 2(I2 I1 )
B =
4 R
This is the same as the magnitude of the magnetic field at a distance R from a long, straight wire with current I2 I1 . Note
that if I1 = I2 , then B = 0 as expected. Also, if I1 > I2 , then B will be negative meaning that would be tangent to the path
and clockwise.
22.P.34
The current density (current/area) is the same throughout the wire. Sketch an Amperian loop within the wire with radius
r. Then, the current through this loop i per unit area is the same as the total current per unit area.
i I
=
r2 R2
r2
i = I 2
R
The magnetic field is tangential to the Amperian loop. Apply Amperes law by integrating counterclockwise around the loop
if looking at the loop from the right end. Then the current flows out of the surface and is positive.
I
~ d~l = 0 Iinside
B path
2
r
B(2R) = 0 I
R2
0 Ir2
B =
2 R3
22.X.35
N/C m2
Units of div(E)
~ are
m3 = N
(C m) = N/C/m.
22.X.36
Treat the nucleus as a sphere with uniform charge distribution throughout the volume of the sphere. The electric field at the
surface is radial and has a magnitude equal to that of a point charge Q at the center of the sphere. The area of the sphere
is 4R2 and its volume is 4/3R3 .
The divergence of the electric field through the sphere is
~ ndA
H
~ E
div(E) =
V
E(4R2 )
=
4/3R3
3E
=
R
25
Substitute the magnitude of the electric field, then
1 Q
3 4 R2
~
div(E) = o
R
1 3Q
=
4o R3
19
9 Nm
2

3(82)(1.602 10 C)
= 9 10 2 15 3
C (7 10 m)
= 1.0 1036 N/C/m
22.P.37
From Section 22.10 of the textbook, the potential difference across the depletion layer is
d2
V =
4K0
Each donor atom in the semiconductor contributes an extra electron or an extra hole (depending on if it is n-type or p-type).
Thus, the charge density is the charge per atom times the number of atoms per cubic centimeter (the density of dopant atoms
Nd ).
= eNd
19
= (1.602 10 C)(1 1018 cm3 )(100 cm)3 /(1 m)3
= 1.6 105 C/m3
The potential difference across the gap is the band gap energy per unit charge, V = (0.7 eV)/(e) = 0.7 V. Solve for the
bandgap width d.
s
4K0 V
d =

s
4(16)(8.85 1012 C2 /(N m2 ))(0.7 V)
=
1.6 105 C/m3
= 5.0 108 m
1
23.X.1
dB
~ ~
is down, so E curls clockwise.
dt NC
23.X.2
dB
~ ~
is down (toward the floor), so E curls counterclockwise.
dt NC
23.X.3
No current in A. Current in B.
23.X.4
I
emf = ~
E NC
d~l
C
I
d~l
~

= ENC
C
~

= 2r E NC
30 V
(a)
~
30 V
ENC
2r
30 V

2 (0.1 m)
150
V/m

47.7 volt/m
(b)
V
I =
R
emf 30 V

R 4
7.5 A
23.X.5
Z
mag = ~ n dA
B
S
Z
~
= B cos 30 dA
S
Z
~

= B cos 30
SdA
~

= B (cos 30 )A
(3 T) (cos 30 ) (0.1 m) (0.2 m)
0.052 T m2
2
23.X.6
mag

|emf| =
t
2 T m2

0.1 s
20
I V
emf = ~
E NC
d~l
C
Z
~ ~l = 2r E~ = |vectsubEN C| L

= E NC
d NC
C
~
20 V
ENC
2.5 m
8 V/m
V emf 20 V
I = =
R R 10
2A
23.X.7
~
NI
B = o
d
~ r2
~ n dA = B

mag = B
o N Ir2
=
d
dmag o N r2 dI

dt = dt = |emf|

d
4 10 CTm/s
2

7
m2 4
1 10 () (0.02 m) (50 A/s)
|emf|
(1 m)
4
|emf| 7.9 10 V
I
~ ~l = 2R E~

|emf| = E NC
d NC
C
~
emf
ENC
2R
4
7.9 10 V

2 (0.1 m)
3
1.26 10 V/m
23.X.8
Think of the coil as N loops that are in series. Thus, the emf around the coil is the sum of the emf around each loop. So,
the voltmeter will read N emf loop = 20(10 V) = 200 V.
3
23.X.9
Think of the coil as N loops that are in series. The current through each loop is the same. Thus, for 20 turns, the ammeter
would still read 10 A. Another way to think about it is that for N turns, the emf increases by a factor of N . However, the
resistance also increases by a factor of N since the length of the wire in the coil is N times the length of the wire in one loop.
So, I = emf/R stays the same.
23.X.10
(a) B~ is out of the page, so B

~ is into the page. Using the right-hand rule, the induced current flows clockwise around
the loop and into the + terminal of the ammeter. As a result, the ammeter will read positive current.
(b) B~ is into the page, so B

~ is out of the page. Using the right-hand rule, the induced current flows counterclockwise
around the loop and into the terminal of the ammeter. As a result, the ammeter will read negative current.
23.X.11
B~ is upward (+y direction), so B
~ is downward. Using the right-hand rule, the induced current flows clockwise around
the loop if viewed from above.
23.X.12
~

The emf around the loop is proportional to the change in magnetic flux through the loop. The flux is = B |n|A cos(30 ).
As the loop is moving, B doesnt change, A doesnt change, and doesnt change. Thus, doesnt change, so there is no
emf induced around the loop. The emf around the loop is zero.
23.X.13
The magnitude of the average emf is

|emf| =
t
(BA cos 30 )
=
t
B cos 30 A
=
t
(3 T)(cos 30 )((0.22 m)(0.12 m) (0.2 m)(0.1 m))
=
0.1 s
= 0.166 V
23.X.14
In a superconducting ring, the net change in magnetic flux must be zero. If you move the magnet far away, then B = 0 and
the change in flux due to the magnet is 0 0 = 0 . Then there must be enough current in the ring to create a flux 0 so
that the net flux is zero. Since the magnet is far away, then its magnetic field at the location of the ring is zero so the flux
due to the magnet is zero. So, all of this flux is due to current in the ring.
23.X.15
The self-inductance is
4
0 N 2
L = R2
d
(4 107 T m/A)(1000)2 (0.01 m)2
=
0.1 m
= 3.95 103 H
= 3.95 mH
If the center of the solenoid is filled with iron that increases the magnetic field by a factor of 10 for a given current, then the
induced emf will increase by a factor of 10 for a given change in the current. As a result, the self-inductance is larger by a
factor of 10, and L = 10L0 = 0.0395 H = 39.5 mH.
23.X.16
For a transformer,
emf 1 emf 2
=
N1 N2
Solve for emf 2 , the emf across the secondary coil.
emf 2 = (N2 /N1 )emf 1

2 104
= (100 V)
5 102
= (40)(100 V)
= 4000 V
The above relationship for emf 1 and emf 2 is true for all times. Though emf 1 varies in time, at any given instant, they are
related by the above equation.
23.X.17
The angular frequency of oscillation is
1
=
LC
1
=
(1 103 H)(1 106 F)
p
= 3.16 104 rad/s
In cycles/second (Hz), this is
= 2f

f =
2
3.16 104 rad/s
=
2
= 5.03 103 Hz
5 kHz
5
23.X.18
The answer in the back of the book provides sufficient detail. It is:
In the first three cases, for the bulb that is bright a loop can be drawn that consists of just that bulb plus a
wire that encircles the varying magnetic flux. For the bulb that is dark a loop can be drawn that consists of
just that bulb plus a wire that does not encircle the varying magnetic flux. (1) Lower bulb bright, upper dark;
(2) upper bulb bright, lower dark; (3) upper bulb bright, lower dark. For the fourth case, both bulbs are in a
loop that encircles the varying magnetic flux, so they both glow. The current is smaller than in the other circuits,
because the emf drives two bulbs in series.
23.X.19
(a) y direction
(b) y direction
(c) B at the origin is larger at time t2 because the magnet is closer to the origin.
(d) y direction
(e) +y direction
(f) Counterclockwise. Thumb points upward, fingers curl counterclockwise.

~ N C is in the z direction at points on the +x axis.
(g) E
23.X.20
The magnetic field outside the solenoid is zero, so in the portion of the area of the ring that is outside the solenoid there is
no flux. Thus, the magnetic flux through the ring is the same as the magnetic flux through the portion of the area taken up
by the solenoid. Use the area of the solenoid when calculating the magnetic flux through the ring.
= BA cos(0 )
= (0.5 T)(0.02 m)2
= 6.28 104 T m2
23.X.21
The magnitude of the average emf around the coil is

|emf| =
t
0.3 T m2
=
0.2 s
= 1.5 V
6
B~ is to the left, toward the magnet. B ~ is toward the right, away from the magnet. With your thumb pointed to
the right, your fingers curl counterclockwise around the loop, as viewed from the right side of the coil, so current will flow
counterclockwise as viewed from the right side of the coil.
23.X.22
~ is decreasing, then B
Since B ~ is into the page (opposite B),
~ and B
~ is out of the page. Using the right hand rule, current
flows counterclockwise around the wire loop.
To calculate conventional current, start with Faradays law. Note that the flux through the portion of the loop r1 < r < r2
is zero. Thus, the area through which there is magnetic flux is the the area of the circle with radius r1 . The emf around the
loop is
d

|emf| =
dt
d(BA1 cos(0 ))

=
dt
dB

= dt A1

dB 2

= dt r1

Use Ohms law to calculate the current I.
dB 2

IR = dt r1

dB r12

I =
dt R
where R is the resistance of the wire.

The non-Coulomb electric field is tangent to the wire and constant in magnitude at the distance r2 , so the closed integral
around the loop of length 2r2 is
I
~ N C d~l =
E emf
EN C (2r2 ) = emf
emf
EN C =
2r2
dB 2
r1
= dt
2r
2 2
1 dB r1
=

2 dt r2
~ N C is tangent to the wire and in the same direction as conventional current. Thus, draw arrows that are tangent to the
E
wire at various locations and curl counterclockwise.
23.X.23
7
~ 1 (the magnetic field due to coil 1) at the location of coil 2 is into the page. As I1 increases, B1 increases, and B
B ~ 1 at the
~
location of coil 2 is into the page. Therefore, B1 at the location of coil 2 is out of the page. According to the right-hand
rule, this induces current to flow counterclockwise around coil 2. With the ammeter connected as shown, I2 would be negative
when flowing counterclockwise around the loop.
This is an important observation for getting the signs correct. According to the way the ammeters are connected, if I1
increases, then I2 is negative. If I1 decreases, then I2 is positive. If I1 is constant, then I2 is zero.
To calculate the conventional current in coil 2, start with Faradays law. Note that the flux through coil 2 is due to the
changing magnetic field due to coil 1 at the location of coil 2. The emf around the coil 2 has a magnitude
d1

|emf|2 =
dt

d(B1 A2 cos(0 ))

=
dt
dB1

= dt A2

Use Ohms law for coil 2 to calculate the current I2 .
dB1

I2 R2 = dt A2

dB1 A2

I2 =
dt R2
where R2 is the resistance of the wire in coil 2.

The magnetic field due to coil 1 along the axis of the coil for distances z much greater than the radius of the coil is given by
o 2N I1 A1
B1
4 z3
Thus,
dB1 o 2N A1 dI1

dt

4 z 3 dt
Substitute this into the equation for the current in coil 2.
dB1 A2

I2 =

dt R2
o 2N A1 A2 dI1

I2 =
4 R2 z 3 dt
As you may have expected, the current in coil 2 I2 is proportional to the derivative of the current in coil 1. On a graph of I1
vs. t, the derivative of the current with respect to time is the slope of the curve. Remember that according to the way the
8
ammeters are connected, if I1 increases, then I2 is negative. If I1 decreases, then I2 is positive. If I1 is constant, then I2 is
zero.
As a result, from t = 0 to t = 4 s I2 is constant and negative. From t = 4 s to t = 6 s, I2 = 0, and from t = 6 s to t = 8 s, I2
is constant and positive with twice the magnitude as I2 between t = 0 to t = 4 s. A sketch of I2 vs. t is shown in Figure 1.
The value of I2 is unknown because it depends on various constants such as resistance, area, and number of turns. However,
the general shape is the important quality of the graph.
I1 = 3 A
I Ammeter 1
I2
t
4 6 8
Figure 1: A sketch of I2 vs time for Question 23.X.23.
23.X.24
Name the loop on the left Loop 1 and the loop on the right Loop 2. The magnetic field due to the current in Loop 1 along
its axis is downward, and its magnetic dipole moment is downward. At points outside the loop on the same plane as the
loop point opposite the dipole moment, which is upward. Thus, the magnetic field due to Loop 1 at the location of Loop 2 is
~ 1 is upward. Then,
upward. The magnetic field at this location is increasing (since the current in Loop 1 is increasing), so B
~
B1 is downward, and the induced current in Loop 2 will flow counterclockwise, which is consistent with the right-hand
rule.
A sketch of the vectors is shown in Figure 2.
1
B
1
B
B1
B1
Figure 2: Magnetic field and change in magnetic field due to Loop 1 at the location of Loop 2, in Question 23.X.24
23.X.25
9
There will be no induced current in the ring (zero!).

The magnetic field around the wire is tangent to the ring. Therefore, the magnetic flux is BdA cos() = 0, since the angle
R
between the magnetic field and unit vector normal to the plane of the ring is 90 and cos(90 ) = 0. Then, Faradays law
~ N C = 0 at points inside the metal ring, and therefore no current will be pushed through the ring.
predicts that E
23.P.26
Assume the magnets north pole is falling from above the tube. Assume the tube is composed of many thin concentric copper
rings. As the falling north pole approaches the topmost ring, the magnetic flux through that ring changes with the bars
magnetic field pointing down and increasing in magnitude. There is a curly electric field in the conducting ring that curls
counterclockwise as seen from above the tube. The curly electric field drives a counterclockwise conventional current in the
ring. This current creates a brand new magnetic field at the rings center with an induced north pole repelling the falling
north pole. Therefore, the bars motion will be retarded as it falls through the topmost ring. This argument holds for all
successive rings as the north pole falls through them.
Now consider the falling south pole. As it falls through the topmost ring, the magnetic flux through that ring changes with
the bars magnetic field pointing down and decreasing in magnitude. There is a curly electric field in the conducting ring
that curls clockwise as seen from above the tube. The curly electric field drives a clockwise conventional current in the ring.
This current creates a brand new magnetic field at the rings center with an induced north pole pointing down, attracting the
falling south pole. Therefore, as above, the bars motion will be retarded as it falls. This argument holds for all successive
rings as the south pole falls through them.
As an additional exercise, students should write out an explanation for reversing the magnet and dropping it.
23.P.27
~ points away from the loop toward the coil

(a) B
(b) There is no field in the copper loop.
(c) There is no location Q in the copper loop, but there is still no field anywhere in the loop.
~

dB
~
dt < 0 therefore B decreases and dt points toward the loop away from the coil.
(d) dI
(e) - ddtB points away from the loop toward the coil.
~
(f) At P, E~ is in the y direction.

NC

(g) mag decreases with time.

23.P.28
(a)
o 2N Irc3

~

= B A = A rl2
o

mag
4 4 dcl3
2 2 2
7 T m 2(300)(5 A 2 (0.09 m) (0.04 m)

1 10 3
C m/s (0.22 m)
6
2.6 10 T m2
(b) Treat the coil as a magnetic dipole.

(c) There is no electric field in the loop.
10
(d) dI ~
= 0.3 A/s and E is in the y direction.
dt NC
(e)
dmag o 2N 2 rc2 rl2 dI

=
d3cl

dt 4 dt
2 2 2
7 T m 2(300) 2 (0.09 m) (0.04 m)

1 10 3 (0.3 A/s)
C m/s (0.22 m)
7
2.16 10 V
(f)
dmag

|emf| =

dt
7
2.16 10 V
(g)
I
~ ~l = 2rl E~

|emf| = E NC
d NC
C
~
|emf|
ENC =
2rl
7
2.16 10 V

2 (0.04 m)
7
8.59 10 V/m
(h) Removing the loop doesnt change the curly electric field.
23.P.29
~
(a) -dervectBt is into the page, so E ~
is clockwise around the loop. So at P, E is up.
NC NC
(b)
~

d B
3bt2

=
dt
~

d B I
~ ~l = 2r1 E~

r12 =

|emf| = E d
dt C
NC NC
~
3 2
ENC = bt r1
2
3 2
1.4 T/s3 (1.3 s) (0.036 m)

2
0.128 N/C
~
(c) At Q, E is down.
NC
11
(d)
I
~ ~l = 2r2 E~

|emf| = 3bt2 R2 = CE NC
d NC
~
3bt2 R2
ENC =
2r2
2 2
3 1.4 T/s3 (1.3 s) (0.17 m)

2 (0.51 m)
0.2 N/C
23.P.30
(a)
~
o 2I
B =
4 x
~

dB o 2I |~v|
=
dt 4 x2

7 T m
2
2 (3 A) (3.2 m/s)

1 10 2
C m/s (0.13 m)
4
1.14 10 T/s
(b)
~

dmag
= N dB r2

|emf| = N
dt dt
2
4

(11) 1.14 10 T/s (0.02 m)
6
1.58 10 V
dB
~
(c) dt is into the page.
~
(d) E is counterclockwise in the loop.
NC
23.P.31
(a)
~
o 2 |~| o 2N1 I1 r12
B1 = =
4 x3 4 x3
= ~
2N1 N2 2 r12 r22 I1
B1 A2 = o

2
4 x3
dmag o 2N1 N2 2 r12 r22 dI1

|emf| = =
dt 4 x3 dt
o 2N1 N2 2 r12 r22
= (b + 2ct)
4 x3
(b) dI1 /dt > 0 so dB

~ ~
is toward the first coil so -vectderBt is toward the second coil. So at P, E is down.
dt NC
12
(c)
I
|emf| = ~
E NC
d~l
C
o 2N1 N2 2 r12 r22 ~

(b + 2ct) = 2r2 E
4 x3 NC

~
o 2N1 N2 r12 r2
ENC = (b + 2ct)
4 x3
23.P.32
~ is out of the page (toward the magnet) and is increasing. Thus, dB

(a) B
~ dB~
dt is out of the page and dt is into the page. So
~ at locations in the coil curls clockwise, if you are facing the coil. At point 1, E
E ~ points upward and at point 2, E ~
1 2
points downward.
(b) We will approximate the emf by calculating the average emf using Faradays Law.
I

|emf|
t
B

Ncoil Acoil
t
o 2
Note that B due to the magnet is given by B = 4 x3 so you can calculate |B| during the process.
o 2
B =
4 x3
T m 2(0.8 A m2 )
Bi = (1 107 ) = 2.5 106 T
A (0.4 m)3
T m 2(0.8 A m2 )
Bf = (1 107 ) = 5.93 106 T
A (0.3 m)3
B = Bf Bi = 3.43 106 T
So the everage emf is
|B|
|emf| Ncoil Acoil
t
3.43 106 T
3000(0.05 m2 )
0.2 s
4.04 104 V
0.404 mV
(c) We assumed that B was uniform across the plane of the coil. Also, we calculated the average emf. In fact, at x = 40 cm,
the emf is less than this value, and at x = 30 cm, the emf is greater than this value (assuming the bar magnet is moved
at a constant speed).
Note that the emf can be calculated at a given location x, if you wish.
13
o 2
B = 3
4 x
dB o 2(3) dx

=

dt 4 x4 dt
o 6
= v
4 x4
d

|emf| =
dt
dB

= Ncoil Acoil
dt
o 6
= Ncoil Acoil v
4 x4
0.1 m
Use this to calculate emf at any x. Note: v = 0.2 s = 0.5 m/s.
At x = 0.4 m, emf = 2.21 10 4
V.
At x = 0.3 m, emf = 6.98 10 4
V.
Note that the arithmetic mean is not the same as the average (over time) since emf varies as x14 . However, you can see
that the emf at x = 0.4 m is less than emf ave , and the emf at x = 0.3 m is greater than emf ave .
23.P.33
The magnetic field within the wire loop is into the page. If it increases, the ddtB is out of the page, and the induced current
~
flows counterclockwise and the ammeter will show positive current. (It is into the + terminal) If B ~ decreases, then I is
~
negative. If B is constant, then I is zero.
Apply Faradays Law to the loop. Use Ohms law for the loop to get the current.
d

|emf| =
dt
dB

= Atoroid
dt
B

IR = (0.03 m)(0.05 m)
t
0.0015 m2 B

I =
1.4 t
B

= (0.00107 m2 /)
t
For 3 s < t < 5 s, B

t =
1.6 T
= 0.8 T
s, I = 0.857 mA.

2s

B
For 5 s < t < 12 s, t = 0, I = 0.
s, B
1.6 T T
For 12 s < t < 20 t = 8 s = 0.2 s, I = 0.214 mA.

The graph of I vs. t is shown below.
14
23.P.34
(a) The magnetic field along the axis of coil 1 at a distance z >> r1 is
o 2N1 IA1
B =
4 z3
Since I is a function of time,
dB o 2N1 A1 dI
=
dt 4 z 3 dt
Where dI
dt = dt (I1
d
sin t) = I1 cos t. So,
dB o 2N1 A1
= I1 cos t
dt 4 t3
Apply Faradays Law to coil 2.
d

|emf| =
dt
dB

= N2 A2

dt
o 2N1 A1
= N2 A2 I1 cos t
4 z 3
= V2,max cos t
where V2,max is a constant and is the peak voltage across coil 2. Note that V1 = V1,max sin t and V2 = V2,max cos t.
The graph of the two curves is shown below. Note that V2,max < V1,max , so the vertical scale is different for the two
curves.
(b) The emf across the second coil is
o 2N1 A1
|emf| = N2 A2 I1 cos t
4 z 3
This is a sinusoidal function, and the multiplier is the amplitude. So,
o 2N1 A1
V2,max = N2 A2 I1
4 z 3
2 2
o 2N1 N2 r1 r2
= I1 (2t1 )
4 L3
T m 2(5000)(3000) 2 (0.04 m)2 (0.02 m)2 (0.05 A)(2)(2500 Hz)
= (1 107 )
A (0.4 m)3
= 0.233 V
15
Our assumptions are that z >> r1 and that the coils are thin coils.
23.P.35
The magnetic field due to the wire at the location of the coil is downward (-y direction) and is approximately uniform at
points in the plane of the coil. The magnetic field due to the wire at points in the plane of the coil has a magnitude
o 2I
B =
4 z
Since I is a function of time, then
dB o 2 dI

dt =

4 z dt
o 2
= (b)
4 z
The magnetic flux through the plane of the coil also changes with time.
d dB

= Ncoil Acoil

dt dt
2b
= Ncoil Acoil o
4 z
Applying Faradays Law to the coil gives
d

|emf| =
dt
o 2b
= Ncoil Acoil
4 z
Using Ohms Law for the coil, |emf | = IR, solve for the induced current in the coil.
|emf|
I =
R
o Ncoil Acoil 2b
=
4 Rz
(Note that we have assumed that w << d.)

We need the direction of the current. Since I decreases, then B decreases and ddtB is upward (+y direction). Thus ddtB is
~ ~
downward. The right-hand rule shows that the current flows clockwise around the coil as viewed from above the table.
The sides of the coil of length w do not exert a force on the long wire because they are to the long wire; however, the sides
of length L do exert a force on the long wire.
16
From Ch 21, the force by a magnetic field on a single wire of length L is ~F = I ~L B.

~ So, the force by B
~ on the side of the
coil nearest the long wire with I flowing in the +x direction is
~F o 2Iwire
= Icoil < L, 0, 0 > < 0, ,0 >
1
4 z w2
o 2Icoil Iwire L
F1,z =
4 z w2
This is an attractive force that pulls the coil toward the long wire.
The opposite side of the coil has a current flowing in the -x direction. The force on a single wire on this side of the coil is
~F o 2Iwire
= Icoil < L, 0, 0 > < 0, ,0 >
2
4 z + w2
o 2Icoil Iwire L
F2,z =
4 z + w2
This is a repulsive force on the coil, away from the long wire. The net force on a single loop of the coil is
Fnet,z = F1,z + F2,z

o 2Icoil Iwire L o 2Icoil Iwire L
= +
4 z w2 4 z + w2
Since the first term is larger, the net force is in the -z direction, so the long wire attracts the coil.
The coil has N turns of wire, so Fnet,z on the coil is N times the net force on a single loop. Then,
o 1 1

Fnet,z,coil = 2N Icoil Iwire L
4 z+ w
2 z w
2
Simplify the expression.
o z w2 (z + w2 )

Fnet,z = 2N Icoil Iwire L
4 (z + w2 )(z w2 )
o w
= 2N Icoil Iwire L( 2 )
4 z2 w 2
w 2
Since z 2 >> , then

2
o 2N Icoil Iwire wL
Fnet,z
4 z2
o N Acoil 2b
Substitute Icoil = 4 Rz and Iwire = a bt, then
17
2 4N A b(a bt)wL
Fnet,z o coil
4 Rz 3
Substitute the area of the coil as A = Lw, then
2 4N 2 Lwb(a bt)wL
Fnet,z o
4 Rz 3
4N 2 L2 w2 b(a bt)
= o
4 Rz 3
Its a good idea to check the units. We get
T2 m 2 m4 A A T2 m 3

=
A2 m3 s 1 s
Vs N V N/C
Note that 1 = 1 C , and 1 C =1 m, and 1 T = 1 m/s . Substitute these units.
! !
T2 m 3 N2 s2 C m3

=
s C2 m

2 V s s
N2
m C
V

=
C
V N
m
= N
The units do indeed coe out to N, as expected.
23.P.36
~ at the location of coil 2 is decreasing and is in the -z direction. So,

(a) B dB
~
is in the +z direction, and ddtB is in the -z
~
1 dt
direction.
~ curls closkwise around coil 2. Thus at the top of the coil, E
(b) As viewed from the +z axis, E ~ is inh the +x direction.
(c)
= BA cos 0 !
o 2I1 A1 N1
= A2
4 (z 2 + R2 ) 32
1
o 2(18 A)(0.07 m)2 (570)(0.03 m)2

=
4 3
((0.14 m)2 + (0.07 m)2 ) 2
= 2.33 105 T m2
~
(d) We approximated the coils as thin coils. We assumed Bwasunif orm across the plane of coil 2.
18
(e) At t = 0.4 s, I1 = 6 A and = 13 t=0 = 7.76 106 T m2 . Note that I1 , so since I1 = 31 It=0 , then the magnetic
flux decreases by the same factor.
(f)
2 2
= 7.76 10 T m 2.33 10 T m
6 5

d
|emf| = dt 0.4 s
= 3.88 105 V
(g)
V = N |emf|
1 turn
= 275(3.88 105 V)
= 0.0107 V
= 10.7 mV
~ is uniform inside the wire, EL = V , where L = N (2R ). So,

(h) Since E 2
V
E =
L
V
=
N 2R2
0.0107 V
=
(275)2(0.03 m)
V
= 2.06 104
m
(i) 1 and 4 are true.

If I is constant, then B is constant and is constant and d
dt = 0. So, emf = 0.
23.P.37
(a) B at the center of the ring is given by
o 2IA
B =
4 R3
At t = 3 s, Bz at the center of the ring is
o 2(3 A(0.5 m)2 )

Bi,z =
4 (0.5 m)3
= 3.77 106 T
19
The magnetic flux through the small loop is approximately (assuming uniform B across the plane and n outward)
i = BAsmall cos 180

= (3.77 106 T)(0.005 m)2
= 2.96 1010 T m2
At t = 3.2 s,
o 2(5 A)(0.5 m)2

Bf,z =
4 (0.5 m)3
= 6.28 106 T
f = BAsmall cos 0
= (6.28 1010 T)(0.005 m)2
= 4.93 1010 T m2
Apply Faradays Law to the small loop.
I

|emf|

t
4.93 1010 T m2 2.96 1010 T m2

0.2 s
3.95 109 V
(b) Apply Ohms Law to the small loop.
V = IR
V
I =
R
3.95 109 V
=
5
= 7.90 1010 A
Since B ~ is out of the page, B

~ is into the page, and the right-hand rule shows that the induced current in the small
loop is clockwise.
~ is tangent to the wire at all points inside the wire. Since it is uniform, V = EL = E(2r) and
(c) E
20
V
E =
2r
3.95 109 V
=
2(0.005 m)
V
= 1.26 107
m
23.P.38
~ is out of the page and increasing. So dB

(a) B
~
dt is into the page and the induced current in the rectangular coil flows
counterclockwise.
(b) Apply Faradays Law to the rectangular coil.
d

|emf| =
dt
dB

= N Asolenoid
dt
d
= N r2 (0.07 + 0.03t2 )
dt
T
= N r2 2(0.03 2 )t
s
T
= 4(0.03 m)2 2(0.03 2 )(2 s)
s
= 0.00135 V
= 1.35 mV
Apply Ohms Law to the coil.
V = IR
V
I =
R
0.00136 V
=
0.1
= 0.0136 A
= 13.6 mA
23.P.39
(a) Fundamental principles: Changing magnetic field in solenoid creates curly non-Coulomb electric field around itself,
which drives current in the metal ring. This new current creates a magnetic field, and at the center of the ring this
field plus the magnetic field of the solenoid makes the net magnetic field at that location. (See Figure 3.)
21
Figure 3: The induced non-coulomb electric field around the ring and the induced magnetic field due to the current in the
ring, for Question 23.P.39.
~ is to the right. With right thumb pointing to the right,

Solenoid magnetic field to the right, and decreasing, so dBdt
non-Coulomb electric field curls counter-clockwise in metal ring as viewed from right end of solenoid. Current in metal
ring is:
|emf|
Iring =
R
1 dmag

=
R dt
1 d

= (BA)

R dt

1 d 0 N (p kt)

= (r12 )
R dt d
1 0 N (k)

= (r12 )
R d
Here we have used the (quite good) approximation that the magnetic field inside the solenoid is uniform in magnitude
and direction across the cross-section of the solenoid, with the perpendicular component being just B.
o 2Iring
Magnetic field of ring at its center: Bring = 4 r2 , toward the right (result of Biot-Savart law applied to a loop in
Chapter 17, with z = 0).
Inserting the value for Iring , the net field at the center of the metal ring is
0 N (p kt) o 2 1 0 N k

Bnet = + (r12 to the right
d 4 r2 R d
(b) If an iron rod is inserted in the solenoid, the magnetic field made by the solenoid will partially align the magnetic
moments in the iron, and these magnetic moments contribute a magnetic field in the same direction and typically much
larger magnitude than the applied field. So the magnetic field is much larger, and correspondingly dB/dt is much
larger, so the induced current and its contributions to the magnetic field are much larger.
23.P.40
22
(a) image here

The maximum magnetic field at the base due to Iout is
o 2I
B =
4 r
where r is the distance from the wire to the base, so
((10 m)2 + (50 m)2 ) 2

1
r =
= 51 m
o 2(104 A)
So, Bout = 4 51 m = 3.92 105 T at the base.
We need the y-component only since Bin,x = Bout,x and Bnet,x = 0. But Bnet,y = 2Bout,y .
Bout,y = Bout sin

10 m

= Bout
50 m
10 m

= (3.92 10 5
T)
50 m
= 7.84 106 T
Bnet,y = 2Bout,y = 1.57 105 T
This is the amplitude of Bnet,y at the base.
~
(b) B is in the +y direction (toward the top of the page) and is
net
Bnet,y = (1.57 105 T) sin (120t)
Draw a rectangular path on the ground with length 2 m and width 0.5 m. Assume B ~ is uniform and out of the plane
(if looking down at the body from above). Apply Faradays Law to the rectangular path.
d

|emf| =
dt
dB

= A
dt
= A(1.57 105 T)120 cos (120t)
So
23
|emf|max = A(1.57 105 T)120 s1

= (2 m)(0.5 m)(1.57 105 T)120 s1
= 0.00592 V
= 5.92 mV
Considering that you charge yourself to a potential of thousands of volts before you shock yourself on, say, a car door,
then a few millivolts seems quite small.
23.P.41
~
(a) In the loop, the magnetic field is upward and increasing, and dB/dt is downward, so the non-Coulomb electric field is
~
clockwise as shown from above (right thumb in direction of dB/dt, fingers curl around in direction of electric field).
(See Figure 4.)
Figure 4: Changing magnetic field and curly electric field for Question 23.P.41.
o 2
(b) Bar magnet makes magnetic field of magnitude B = 4 y 3 in loop, nearly uniform across loop, so mag B(r2 ). The
magnitude of the emf in one loop of the coil is
dmag d o 2 2

|emf 1loop | =
r
dt dt 4 y 3
There are N turns in the coil:
d o 2 2

|emf coil | N r
dt 4 y 3
24
d(y 3
The only quantity in this expression that is changing with time is y, and dt = (3y 4 ) dy
dt :
dy
h i
|emf coil | N o (2)r2 (3y 4 )

4 dt
But dy
dt = v, since y is decreasing with time. Putting it all together:
h i
|emf coil | N o (2)r2 (3y 4 )v

4
y 4 |emf coil |
v =
6N 4o r2

(0.3 m)4 (2 103 V)

v =
6(1000)(1 107 CTm/s
m2
)(1.2 A m2 )(0.05 m)2
= 2.9 m/s
23.P.42
~ at the plane of the loop is into the page and decreasing. So,
(a) B dB
~
is out of the page, and ddtB is into the page.
~
dt
The right-hand rule shows that the current in the loop flows clockwise around the loop.
(b) The magnetic field at locations x on the plane of the loop is
o 2I1
B =
4 x
Since I is a function of time, then
dB o 2 dI1
=
dt 4 x t
Divide the loop into vertical strips of length dx and area dA = hdx, then B is uniform across the plane of each strip.
The flux through each strip is
d = BdA
= Bhdx
The rate of change of magnetic flux is
d dB
= hdx
dt dt
o 2 dI1
= hdx
4 x dt
o 2hdI1 dx
=
4 dt x
25
Apply Faradays Law. The emf around each strip is
d
|d(emf)| =
dt
The total emf around the loop is
d d+w
Z
|emf| =
x=d dt
o 2hdI1 dx
Z d+w
=
x=d 4 dt x
o 2hdI1 d+w dx
Z
=
4 dt x=d x
o 2hdI1
d+w
= ln x

4 dt d
o 2hdI1
= (ln (d + w) ln (d))
4 dt
o 2hdI1 d+w
= (ln( ))
4 dt d
Apply Ohms Law to the loop.
|emf|
I2 =
R
o 2h d + w dI1
= (ln ( ))
4 R d dt
23.P.43
(a)
p = mv
The magnetic force on the electron has a magnitude F = evB and is directed toward the center of the circle. For an
p mv 2
object in uniform circular motion, d~
dt = p v
R = R . Apply the Momentum Principle.
d~p

~

Fnet =
dt
pv
evB =
R
p = eBR
26
(b) Apply Faradays Law to the plane of the electrons orbit.
d

|emf| =
dt
dB
= A
dt
= r2 b
The change in the electric potential energy of the system in one orbit is |U | = e |V | = e |emf| = r2 be.
23.P.44
(a) The magnetic field of the plane of the protons orbit is into the page and nearly uniform. The force on the proton is
~F = q~v B
~ and it must point toward the center of the circle.
~ is toward the center.

As shown in the figure, the proton must travel counterclockwise in its orbit so that ~v B
(b) The magnetic field is
o 2I0 A
B =
4 R3

p mv 2
The force on the proton has a magnitude F = evB and d~
dt = r for a proton moving with speed v << c in a circle.
Apply the Momentum Principle.
27
d~p

~

Fnet =
dt
mv 2
evB =
r
mv
eB =
r
eBr
v =
m
e o 2I0 A

v = r
m 4 R3
~ is into the page and decreasing, so dB

(c) B
~ dB
~
dt is out of the page and dt is into the page.As a result, tangent to the plane
~
of the protons orbit, E curls clockwise (as determined by the right-hand rule). See the figure below.
NC
NC
E
Figure 6: a sketch of the protons orbit
~ is opposite ~v, the electric force on the proton causes it to slow down.
(d) Since E
23.P.45
See the diagrams and graphs in Figure 7. The key point is that current runs in opposite directions before and after the
neutron passes through the loop, whereas current runs the same direction before and after the monopole passes through the
loop, because the monopoles magnetic field points away from the monopole and changes direction as the monopole passes
through the loop.
23.P.46
(a) Apply Faradays Law to the loop.
d

|emf| =
dt
d

= (BA)

dt
dB dA

=
dt A + B
dt
28
Figure 7: Current produced in a loop by a neutron passing through and by a magnetic monopole passing through, for
Question 23.P.45.
At t = 0, B = B0 and dA
dt is negative since A is decreasing, so
bA B h dx

|emf| =

0
dt
= bA B hv

0
Apply Ohms Law to the loop: |emf| = IR, so

29
bA B hv

I = 0
~
(b) At the location of the compass, B points to the right, thus I flows downward in this wire and clockwise around the
wire
loop.
The magnetic force on the rod is ~F = I ~L B,
~ so the right-hand rule shows that ~F
mag
on the rod is to the right.
This seems odd since, if B is constant, the magnetic force would be to the left and I would be counterclockwise.
Evidently, the increasing magnetic field is changing the flux at a greater rate than the speed of the rod is changing the
flux. As a result, it dominates and drives current in the opposite direction than what we would get if B were constant.
The magnetic force is to the right and has a magnitude
~
= I ~L B
~

Fmag

= IhB
bA B hv

= 0
hB
R
(c) The force on the rod is in the same direction as the rods velocity. It will speed up.
23.P.47
At location < x, y, 0 >, B due to the ring points in the x direction, and increases with time, as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8: Magnetic field due to the current in the ring, in Question 23.P.47.
Choose a circular path in the yz plane, centered on the x-axis, with radius y, passing through location < x, y, 0 >, as shown
in the end view in Figure 9.
Assume that the magnetic field made by the ring is uniform and parallel to the x axis, and assume that x >> R, so we can
treat the ring as a magnetic dipole. Then inside the path (shown by dotted line in end view), B is uniform, into the page,
increasing with time. So ddtB is out of the page, and the non-Coulomb electric field along the path points counter-clockwise,
~
by the right-hand rule, as shown. This means that at location < x, y, 0 >, the electric field is in the +z direction.
By Faradays Law,
30
Figure 9: End view of the ring, in Question 23.P.47.
d
I Z
E~ d~l = ~
B ndA

dt
d
(B A )
dt ring inside path
d o 2R2 I

= (y 2 )
dt 4 x3
d
= o
2R2 I (y 2 ) (x3 )
4 dt
dx
= o
2R2 I (y 2 )(3x4 )
4
dt
2 2
= o
2R I (y )(3x )(v) 4
4
Since E is uniform in magnitude along the path,
~ d~l
H
E
E =
2y

o 2 2
4 2R I (y )(3x v)
4

=
2y
2
o 3R Iyv
=
4 x4
Believe it or not, the units do come out to N/C.

31
23.X.48
The total magnetic flux through 12 turns of the coil is N 1 = 12(1 103 T m2 ) = 12 103 T m2 .
Since is proportional to the magnetic field within the coil and since the magnetic field is proportional to the current through
the coil, then is proportional to the current. Write this as = kI where k is the proportionality constant.
According to Faradays Law
d

|emf| =
dt
d(kI)

=
dt

dI

= k
dt
Inductance is defined by:
dI

|emf| = L

dt
Comparing the above two equations, then L = k, and k can be found by:

k =
I
12 103 T m2
=
3A
= 4.0 103 H
= 4.0 mH
23.X.49
If the solenoid is filled with iron, the magnetic field inside would be much larger for a given current. Thus, changes in the
magnetic field (and hence the magnetic flux) would be larger for a given change in current, so its inductance would be larger
than without the iron.
23.X.50
(a) The current increases until it reaches its maximum (steady-state) value and can be described by the function I =
Imax (1 e(R/L)t ). Thus, at t = 0, I = 0.
(b) Assume that the resistance of the inductor is much less than R. Then, after a long time the inductor acts as a short
circuit since the induced emf across the inductor is zero. Then the Loop Rule (Conservation of Energy) applied to the
circuit gives emf = VR where VR is the potential difference across the resistor. Thus, after a long time the potential
difference across the resistor is equal to the emfof the battery, 1.5 V.
32
(c) Equilibrium refers to a situation where the net electric field is zero and mobile charges are at rest.
Steady-state refers to a situation where the net electric field is constant (and non-zero), and mobile charges have a
constant velocity. Note that the net force on the mobile charges is zero because drag is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the force due to the electric field on the mobile charges.
Current in an LC circuit is different from equilibrium and steady-state because the current oscillates sinusoidally (in
the ideal case of no resistance; if there is resistance then the current starts out sinusoidal and then dampens out to
zero after a long time as electrical and magnetic potential energy in the circuit is converted to thermal energy). In this
case, the charges are always accelerating, with a time-varying acceleration.
23.P.51
2 1 , 1 1
(a) If the period is 1 s, then = T = 2 rad/s. Since = LC
then L = 2 C = (2)2 (1 F) = 0.0253 H.
N2
The inductance of a solenoid is L = 0d R2 . Select reasonable parameters for d and R, and solve for N . Suppose
that R = 0.01 m and d = 0.04 m. Then
s
(0.0253 H)(0.04 m)
N =
0 (0.01 m)2
= 1600 turns
Q
(b) The maximum current is C
i
. The initial charge is determined by the voltage across the capacitor at t = 0. Thus,
Qi
VC,i =
C
Qi = (1 F)(3 V)
= 3C
So,
Q
Imax = i
LC
1

= Qi
LC
= Qi
= (3 C)(2 rad/s)
= 6 A
= 18.8 A
23.P.52
~ inside the solenoid is zero. At t = 1 s, B inside the solenoid is
At t = 0, B
33
0 N I
B =
d
~ is out of the page, so B

and its direction is out of the page. B ~ is into the page, and according to the right-hand rule
the induced current flows clockwise around the rectangular loop.
Apply Faradays Law to the loop. Note that the flux through the plane of the loop is equal to the flux through the area of the
solenoid since B outside the solenoid is zero. If the resistance of the solenoid is negligible, then Isolenoid = V 9V
R = 20 = 0.45 A.

|emf| =
t
B
= Nloop Asolenoid
t
NI
r2 0d
= Nloop
t
2(0.005 m)2 0 (300)(0.45 A)
=
(0.4 m)(1 106 s)
= 0.0666 V
Apply Ohms Law to the rectangular loop.
emf
I =
Rloop
0.0666 V
=
150
= 4.44 104 A
= 0.444 mA
1
24.X.1

~ ~
E = c B
8 m
5

3 10 1 10 T
s
3
3 10 N/C
24.X.2
~ and B
E ~ and ~v must satisfy ~v = E
~ B.
~

~ ~
B = E /c
8 m
6

1 10 N/C / 3 10
s
3
3 10 T
D 3
E
~
B = 3 10 , 0, 0 T
24.X.3
Yes, there is radiation. One pulse occurs when the particle accelerates from rest and the other occurs when the particle
accelerates back to rest.
24.X.4
The most intense radiation is directed perpendicular to the acceleration. The radiation is zero in the direction of, and opposite
to, the acceleration.
24.X.5
Decompose ~a into components parallel to, and perpendicular to, ~r. These components, along with ~a, must form a right
triangle.
E = qa
= a
Note that the particle is an electron, which has a negative charge.
24.X.6

1 q~a

~
E =
4o c2 |~r|

1.602 1019 C 1.8 1017 m/s2
N m2

9
9 10 2
C2 3 108 ms 2 102 m

7
1.4 10 N/C
2
24.X.7
8
c 3 10 ms
f =
532 109 m
14
5.6 10 Hz
24.X.8
8
c 3 10 ms
=
f 5 1015 Hz
8
6 10 m 60 nm
24.X.9

~ 1 ~ ~
S = E B
o
1 ~ 2
= E
c
ro
~ ~
E = c E
o

s
T m2

m
4 107 3 108 (1400 W/m2 )
C m/s s
2
7.3 10 N/C
24.X.10

~ 1 ~ 2 P
S = E =
c A
ro

~ P
E = o c
A
v
7 T m
5 103 W
u
2

8 m
u
t 4 10 3 10
C m/s s 2.5 103 m 2

2
3.1 10 N/C
24.X.11
3

~
S
1400 W/m2

2 2
c 3 108 ms
6
9.3 10 N/m2
24.X.12
The re-radiated field combines with the original field to give a net field of zero on the dark side of the cardboard.
24.X.13
When the foils are parallel to the wires, electrons in the foils are free to oscillate lengthwise and thus absorb electromagnetic
energy. With the foils perpendicular to the wires, the electrons cant do this as efficiently.
24.X.14
(A) The bulb is lit, but not as bright as if the receiving antenna is oriented parallel to the transmitting antenna. The radiative
electric field from the transmitting antenna oscillates parallel to the receiving antenna. A component of this electric field
(E cos ) is parallel to the receiving antenna and will cause electron current to oscillate through the filament of the bulb.
(B) The bulb will not be lit. The oscillating electric field at the location of the receiving antenna is perpendicular to the
antenna and would cause oscillating current across the width of the antenna and filament. This will not cause the filament
to light.
(C) The bulb will not be lit. The radiative electric field is zero at points along the axis of the transmitting antenna since
a = 0.
24.X.15
8 m
310
The speed of light in water is v = c
n = 1.33
s
= 2.66 108 m/s.
24.X.16
8
310 m
The index of refraction in gallium phosphide is n = c
v = s
8.57107 m/s = 3.50.
24.X.17
The largest angle is when the outgoing ray in air is parallel to the glass/air surface. In this case, the angle of the ray in air is
90 relative to the vertical. Apply Snells law to calculate the angle of the ray in the glass. In the following solution, 1 refers
to glass and 2 refers to air.
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
n2
sin 1 = sin 2
n1
1
= sin(90 )
1.6
= 0.625
1 = = 38.7
4
24.X.18
Use the thin-lens formula:
1 1 1
= +
f d1 d2
1 1 1
=
d2 f d1
1
1 1
d2 =
0.2 m 0.3 m
= 0.6 m
24.X.19
(a) The image is inverted. A ray from the top of the object that passes through the center of the lens will form the top
of the image, below the optic axis. This ray is the hypotenuse of similar triangles for the optic-axis and object, and the
optic axis and image. The ratio of the sides of these triangles must be the same. Thus,
y1 y2
=
d1 d2
d2
y2 = y1
d1
500 cm
= (5 cm)
20 cm
= 125 cm
(b) The magnification is the ratio of the image height to object height, 125 cm
5 cm = 25.
(c) Use the thin-lens formula to calculate the focal length of the lens:
1 1 1
= +
f d1 d2
1
1 1
f = +
0.2 m 5 m
= 0.192 m
= 19.2 cm
24.X.20
(a) (d) Ampere-Maxwell law
(b) (c) Faradays law
(c) (a) Gausss law
(d) (b) Gauss law for magnetism

5
24.P.21
(a) Use Ampres law with a circular loop C of radius R along the toroids midline.
I
~ d~l = I
B o
C

~
2R B = o N I

~ o 2N I
B =
4 R
(b) Use Ampres law, as modified by Maxwell, around the same loop C.
dE
I
~ d~l = I +
B
C
o o o
dt

~
dE
~
2R B = o I + o o A
dt

o 2N I R2 ~
dE
~
B = + o o
4 R 2R dt

o 2N I ~
R dE
= + 2
4 R 2c dt
As before, E
~ is directed to the upper left and is tangent to the Amperian loop.
24.P.22
Traverse the loop in the counterclockwise direction so positive change in electric flux is out of the page. Use Maxwells version
of Ampres law, and note there are no charged particles so the conventional current term is zero.
dE
I
~ d~l =
B o o
C dt
Z Z
= ~ d~l +
B ~ d~l
B
left right

1 ~
dE
~ ~
Bl L Br L = 2
LW
c dt

~ c2 ~ ~
dE
= Bl + Br
dt W
8
2
3 10 ms
(0.32 T + 0.25 T)
4 102 m
18 N/C
1.3 10
s
We can conclude that there is an electric field changing into the page inside the rectangular loop. In other words, there is
effectively a current into the page through the loop.
6
24.X.23
The direction of propagation is in the direction of E ~ Using the right-hand rule, B
~ B. ~ must be downward, toward the bottom
of the page (in the y direction).
24.X.24
(a) The direction of propagation of the wave is in the y direction.
(b) The direction of propagation is in the direction of E ~ Using the right-hand rule, B
~ B. ~ must be in the z direction.
24.X.25
(a) The direction of propagation is in the direction of E ~ which is in the +y direction. Using the right-hand rule, B
~ B ~
must be in the +z direction.
(b) The wave propagates at the speed of light. So:
distance
c =
t
distance
t =
c
6m
=
3 108 ms
= 2 108 s
24.X.26
The direction of propagation is in the direction of E ~ which is in the z direction. Using the right-hand rule, B
~ B ~ must be
in the +y direction.
24.X.27
The direction of propagation is in the direction of E ~ which by the right-hand rule must be in the x direction.
~ B
24.P.28
To be solutions to Maxwells equations, E
~ must be perpendicular to B~ and ~v must be in the direction of E B. The given
E and B are collinear, and so cant be solutions to Maxwells equations. Furthermore, the given propagation velocity isnt
~ ~
consistent with the cross product.
24.X.29
(a) a
(b) c
(c) g
(d) j
7
24.X.30
The radiative electric field is non-zero at locations A, B, and C. The radiative electric field along the axis of the acceleration
(point D) is zero.
24.X.31
a. For an electron, the radiative electric field is in the same direction as ~a , so in this case E
~ radiative is in the direction of
arrow a.
24.X.32
(a) Assume that is the angle between ~a and ~r. Then,
a = a sin
= (1.8 1017 m/s2 ) sin(40 )
= 1.16 1017 m/s2
(b) The radiative electric field is

~ 1 |q|a
E =
radiative 4o c2 r
19
9 Nm
2
C)(1.16 1017 m/s2 )

(1.602 10
= 9 10
C2 (3 10 ms )2 (0.011 m)
8
= 1.69 107 N/C

(c) (4). For a proton, the radiative electric field is opposite ~a , so at the given location, E is to the right.
~

radiative
(d) (5). The Coulomb electric field is in the direction of r.
(e) (8). The direction of propagation of the wave is in the radial direction and is in the direction of E ~ Using the
~ B.
right-hand rule, this means that B is out of the page.
~
24.X.33
Arrow (F).
24.X.34
(a) The wave propagates at the speed of light. So:
distance
c =
t
distance
t =
c
0.15 m
=
3 108 ms
= 5.00 1010 s
8
(b) For
a proton, the radiative electric field is opposite ~a which is in the y direction. Thus, at the given location,
is in the +y direction.
~
E
radiative

(c) For an electron, the radiative electric field is in the same direction as ~a . Thus, at the given location, E is in
~

radiative
the y direction.
24.X.35
(a) The radiation propagates at the speed of light. So the time elapsed for the wave to travel from the origin to point D is
distance
c =
t
distance
t =
c
26 m
=
3 108 ms
= 8.67 108 s
(b) The radiation propagates the x direction at point D.

(c) For an electron, the radiative electric field is in the same direction as ~a . Thus, at point D, E is in the +z
~

radiative
direction.
(d) The radiative electric field at point D is

~ 1 |q|a
E =
radiative 4o c2 r
19
9 Nm
2
C)(8 1017 m/s2 )

(1.602 10
= 9 10 2 8 m 2
C (3 10 s ) (26 m)
= 4.92 1010 N/C
(e) The direction of propagation is in the direction of E ~ Using the right-hand rule, B
~ B. ~ radiative must be in the +y
direction.
(f) The radiative magnetic field at point D has a magnitude given by:
E = cB
E
B =
c
4.92 1010 N/C
=
3 108 ms
= 1.64 1018 T
(g) The time elapsed for the wave to travel from the origin to point H is
9
distance
c =
t
distance
t =
c
16 m
=
3 108 ms
= 5.33 108 s
(h) The radiation propagates the +y direction at point H.

(i) For an electron, the radiative electric field is in the same direction as ~a . Thus, at point H, E is in the +z
~

radiative
direction.
(j) The radiative electric field at point H is

~ 1 |q|a
E =
radiative 4o c2 r
19
9 Nm
2
C)(8 1017 m/s2 )

(1.602 10
= 9 10 2 8 m 2
C (3 10 s ) (16 m)
= 8.00 1010 N/C
(k) The direction of propagation is in the direction of E ~ Using the right-hand rule, B
~ B. ~ radiative must be in the +x
direction.
(l) The radiative magnetic field at point H is
E = cB
E
B =
c
8.0 1010 N/C
=
3 108 ms
= 2.67 1018 T
24.X.36
A diagram of the situation is shown in Figure 1.
(a) The electrons and protons experience the same magnitude of force (eEcapacitor ), so the very low-mass electrons have a
much larger acceleration than the protons. Since the radiative electric field is proportional to the acceleration of the
source charge, the electrons contribute much more to the electric field at A than do the protons (the two contributions
are not drawn to scale; the electron contributions are about 2000 times that of the protons). The direction of the
radiative electric field at A is up (i.e. toward the top of the page).
(b) The same analysis is shown on the diagram for locations B and C. Note in particular at C that the electric field is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the radiation, and smaller because the electric field is proportional to
the perpendicular component of the acceleration.
(c) At location A we first see a (radiative) magnetic field at t = (3 m)/(3 108 m/s) = 108 s after initiation of the spark.
The direction of the magnetic field at A is into the page, so that E~ B ~ is in the direction of propagation (to the left,
away from the source charges).
10
Figure 1: The radiative electric field at the given points in Question 24.X.36.
(d) The ordinary electric and magnetic fields fall off like 1/r2 , whereas the radiative fields fall off like 1/r, so at large
distances the radiative fields are much larger than the ordinary fields.
24.P.37
During each time interval that the charge accelerates, a radiative electric and magnetic field is emanated and propagates
toward point A, traveling at the speed of light. (See Figure 2.)
Figure 2: Radiative electric and magnetic fields arriving at point A at different times, in Question 24.P.37.
Ignoring the very small horizontal Coulomb electric field, the first significant electric and magnetic fields to be observed will
be the radiative fields, first observed at t = 310
30 m
8 m = 10
7
s = 100 ns.
s
The radiative electric field is proportional to q~a . From t = 0tot = 1 ns the acceleration is downward, so from t = 100
ns to t = 101 ns we observe a radiative electric field whose direction is upward. There is an accompanying magnetic field
out of the page, because the direction of propagation E ~ is to the right. Note that the direction of the small, ordinary
~ B
Biot-Savart magnetic field of the upward-moving positive charge is into the page.
From t = 101 ns to t = 102 ns there are no radiative fields (zero acceleration from t = 1 ns to t = 2 ns).
From t = 2 ns to t = 3 ns the acceleration is upward, so from t = 102 ns to t = 103 ns we observe a radiative electric field
whose direction is downward (shown arriving later in Figure 2). There is an accompanying magnetic field out of the page,
because the direction of propagation E
~ B~ is to the right.
24.X.38
11
(a) The wavelength of the radiation is
c = f
c
=
f
8
3 10 ms
=
990 103 Hz
= 303 m
(b) The radiation propagates at the speed of light.
distance
c =
t
distance
t =
c
3000 m
=
3 108 ms
= 1 105 s
24.X.39
The frequency of the red light is
c = f
c
f =

8
3 10 ms
=
695 109 m
= 4.32 1014 Hz
Its period is T = 1/f = 2.32 1015 s.
24.X.40
radio, f = 100 kHz:
c = f
c
=
f
8
3 10 ms
=
1 106 Hz
= 300 m
television, f = 100 MHz:

12
c = f
c
=
f
8
3 10 ms
=
1 108 Hz
= 3m
red light, f = 4.3 1014 Hz:
c = f
c
=
f
8
3 10 ms
=
4.3 1014 Hz
= 6.98 107 m
= 698 nm
blue light, f = 7.5 1014 Hz:
c = f
c
=
f
8
3 10 ms
=
7.5 1014 Hz
= 4.00 107 m
= 400 nm
24.P.41
(a) At t2 = 1 ns the only electric field is the Coulomb field to the left, of magnitude
19
9 Nm
2

1 e 1.602 10 C
E = = 9 10 = 6.4 1012 N/C
4o r2 C2 (15 m)2
(b) The radiative electric is first observed at time t3 where:
15 m
t3 = m = 5 108 s = 50 ns
3 108 s
(c) The radiative electric field is proportional to q~a = +e~a , which is upward. So starting at t3 = 50 ns, we observe a
radiative field whose direction is upward. There is an accompanying magnetic field out of the page because the direction
of propagation E ~ B~ is to the right.
13
(d) The magnitude of the upward radiative field is

~ 1 ea
E =
radiative 4o c2 r
19
9 Nm
2
C)(1 1018 m/s2 )

(1.602 10
= 9 10 2 8 m 2
C (3 10 s ) (15 m)
= 1.07 109 N/C
This is so much larger than the Coulomb field to the left that the electric field at location A is almost solely just the
upward radiative field.
(e) A positive charge is accelerated upward by the upward radiative electric field. Now that there is an upward velocity,
the magnetic field out of the page exerts a force to the right (radiation pressure).
24.P.42
At the instant the electron accelerates downward, a radiative electric field propagates to the right toward the proton. The
radiative electric field is in the same direction as the acceleration of the electron (downward). At a time t0 = L/c, the
radiative electric field at the location exerts a downward force (~F = q E) ~ on the proton, accelerating the proton in the
downward direction. Now that the proton has a downward velocity, the radiative magnetic field exerts a force to the right
(~F = q~v B)
~ on the proton. For t > L/c, the radiative electric field at the location of the proton is zero, and the proton has
a constant velocity.
Note that the Coulomb electric force on the proton and the magnetic force on the proton due to the magnetic field that results
from the velocity of the electron (Biot-Savart law) are negligible for a large distance L from a moving electron, compared to
the much larger radiative electric and magnetic fields at the location of the proton (when the radiation passes by).
24.P.43
The radiative electric and magnetic fields are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Radiative electric and magnetic fields for Question 23.P.25.

14
Inside the pulse, B

~ must be to the left, because ~v is in the direction of E
~ B.
~
When the pulse reaches the copper wire, electrons in the wire are accelerated into the page (z direction). These accelerated
electrons produce radiation that propagates in all directions (except the direction of ~a ). You will see E
~ into the page and B
~
up as this new pulse propagates toward you. ~a is into the page, so ~a is out of the page, but q = e, so the electric field
of the radiation from the wire is into the page. B
~ is up because ~v is in the direction of E
~ B.
~
(a) As shown in Figure 3, B

~ is to the left inside the original pulse of radiation.
(b) Some time after the original pulse passes the wire, you see the new pulse, produced by reradiation from the copper wire
as shown on the diagram, with E ~ into the page, and B~ up.
Since you are 12 meters away from the wire, the time for the reradiation to reach you is:
d 12 m
t2 = = m = 4 108 s
c 3 108 s
The original pulse lasted for 0.15 m

3108 m
= 5 1010 s. This is how long the electrons in the wire were accelerated by the
s
original pulse, so this is also how long the reradiated pulse will last.
(c) The directions of the reradiated fields are shown and explained above and shown in the diagram.
Note: It is not adequate to say the incoming electric field polarizes the copper wire, producing an electric field into the page
at the location of the observer. That dipole field falls off like 1/r3 , whereas the radiative field due to the acceleration of
electrons in the copper wire falls off like 1/r.
24.P.44
The energy flux of the radiation on the spot, in W/m2 is
1
energy flux = EB
0

1 E
= E
0 c
2
1 E
=
0 c
p
E = 0 c(energy flux)
s
m 100 W
= (4 107 T m/A)(3 108 )
s (0.2 m)2
= 548 N/C
24.X.45
The radiative electric field exerts a force F = |q|E on a charged particle. The force on a proton, and the force on an electron
by the radiative electric field is the same. According to the Momentum Principle F = ma. Since a proton is about 2000
times more massive than an electron, its acceleration would be 2000 times less than an acceleration. So, the effect of the
radiation on the motion of a proton is much less than the effect of the same radiation on an electron.
24.X.46
15
Simply put, the direction of the force due to radiation pressure on a positively charged particle is in the same direction as
for a negatively charged particle. As a result, the net radiation pressure on the neutral dust grain will be to the right.
Model a neutral atom in the particle of dust as a positively charged nucleus with a negatively charged electron cloud
surrounding the nucleus, so it can be treated as an electric dipole. Suppose that a pulse of electromagnetic radiation travels
to the right in the +x direction, with E~ upward in the +y direction and B ~ outward in the +z direction. When this pulse
reaches the neutral atom, the electric force on the positively charged nucleus is upward, causing the nucleus to accelerate
upward. With an upward velocity, the magnetic field exerts a force on the nucleus that is to the right, in the +x direction.
Now consider the electron cloud. The electric field exerts a downward force on the electron cloud accelerating it downward
and giving it a downward velocity. The magnetic force by the magnetic field on the downward moving electron cloud is also
to the right. Thus, the radiation pressure on the neutral atom is to the right.
24.X.47
It tells you that the transmitting antennas must also be mounted horizontally. As seen in the textbook in Figure 24.42, the
maximum radiative electric field (which is what drives electrons in the receiving antenna) occurs along an axis parallel to the
transmitting antenna. The reason is that E ~ radiative is proportional to ~a .
24.X.48
Suppose we define East to be in the +x direction (to the right), so sunlight travels west. When you look overhead, you
mostly see light traveling in the y direction (with +y defined as upward, perpendicular Earths surface) that is reradiated
from air molecules. This reradiation is due to charges accelerating in the z direction (which in this case is the north-south
direction). As a result, the reradiated light that is traveling downward toward you is polarized parallel to the accelerating
charges, in the north-south direction.
24.X.49
The reason that on Earth you see light coming from other directions besides the Sun, but you do not see this on the Moon,
is that Earth has an atmosphere and the Moon does not. On Earth, when you look away from the Sun, air molecules in this
direction are being accelerated by radiation from the Sun, and they reradiate light toward you. Thus, you see a bright sky.
The reradiated sunlight from the sky has a much greater energy than the light from the stars, so the starlight cannot be seen
during the day on Earth.
On the Moon, there is no atmosphere. Thus, if you look away from the Sun, the only radiation interacting with your eye
comes from stars.
24.X.50
When the radiative electric field interacts with electrons in the metal rod, it accelerates the accelerates the electrons in the z
direction. The re-radiation from these electrons at a given location in space is proportional to the perpendicular component
of the acceleration of the electrons. Use this to answer the given questions.
(a) Detector A:
(1) The radiation propagates in the y direction.

(1) E
~ at detector A oscillates in the z direction.
(1) Since the wave propagates in the direction of E ~ then B

~ B, ~ oscillates in the x direction at detector A.
(b) Detector B:
Because detector B is along the same axis as the acceleration of the electrons in the wire, then there will be no radiation
detected at B. Thus, E
~ and B~ are zero.
16
24.P.51
The back metal bar reradiates, and the reradiated electric field can add to or subtract from the electric field in the front bar,
depending on the distance between the two bars. There is a 180 flip in the reradiated electric field from the back bar: if the
field is to the right, the acceleration of charges in the back bar is to the right, and the reradiated field is to the left (q~a ).
As an example, if the distance between the two bars is one-half wavelength, the round trip from front bar to back bar and
return is one wavelength, which takes one period. With the 180 flip, the (one-cycle-delayed) leftward-pointing electric field
subtracts from the rightward-pointing electric field hitting the front bar.
24.X.52
It travels slower than c, so
8
m
c 3 10
v = = s
= 2.29 108 m/s
n 1.31
24.X.53
Since water has a higher index of refraction than air, then a beam of light will bend away from the normal as it passes from
the water to air. Define 1 to be the water and 2 to be the air.
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
n1
sin 2 = sin 1
n2
1.33
= sin(29 )
1.00029
1 = = 40.1
24.X.54
(b) The emerging beam bends away from the normal. Let 1 be the higher index medium and 2 be the lower index medium.
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
n1
sin 2 = sin 1
n2
If n1 >n2 , then sin 2 > sin 1 , and 2 > 1 .
24.X.55
(a) 3. Plastic. The emerging beam bend must away from the normal, thus the beam must start in the material of higher
index and be transmitted to the material of lower index.
(b) The critical angle is the angle of the incoming ray that refracts at an angle of 90 relative to the vertical. Apply Snells
law to calculate the angle of the ray in the plastic. In the following solution, 1 refers to plastic and 2 refers to water.
17
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
n2
sin 1 = sin 2
n1
1.33
= sin(90 )
1.46
= 0.911
1 = = 65.6
24.X.56
The critical angle is the angle of the incoming ray that refracts at an angle of 90 relative to the vertical. Apply Snells law.
In the following solution, 1 refers to liquid and 2 refers to air.
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
sin(90 )
n1 = (1.00029)
sin(59.8 )
= 1.16
24.P.57
(a) You need to know the angle of the light beam as it interacts with the water. Use the triangle and geometry and
remember to define 1 as the angle of the light beam with respect to the vertical.
2.4 m
tan 1 =
1.2 m
= 2
1 = 63.4
(b) Use Snells law to calculate the angle that the beam emerges from the air in the water.
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
n1
sin 2 = sin 1
n2
1.00029
= sin 63.9
1.33
2 = 42.3
Note that it bent toward the normal, as expected.

(c) Now use geometry to find the horizontal distance traveled from the point where the beam entered the water to the point
where it hits the bottom of the pool.
x
tan 2 =
2.0 m
x = (2.0 m) tan(42.3 )
= 1.82 m
The total distance from the edge of the pool is 2.4 m + 1.82 m = 4.22 m 4.2 m.
18
24.X.58
Sketch a picture of the lens and the object and sketch a few rays from the object as shown in Figure 4. In this case, the
object is shown as an arrow, and the rays sketched are (1) the ray that passes through the center of the lens unrefracted, (2)
the ray that travels parallel to the optic axis and refracts through the focus, and (3) the ray that travels through the focus
and refracts parallel to the optic axis.
Figure 4: The object, lens, a few rays, and the image for Question 24.X.58.
Apply the thin-lens formula:
1 1 1
= +
f d1 d2
1 1 1
=
d2 f d1
1
1 1
d2 =
0.1 m 0.15 m
= 0.3 m
The image is located 0.3 m from the lens, on the opposite side of the lens from the object. The image is a real image. If you
place a sheet of paper at this location a green dot will appear on the piece of paper, because it is a real image. Thats one
possible definition of real imagean image that will appear on a screen at the location of the image.
Figure 5 shows a point source as the object. The rays intersect at the location of the image. Since the object is on the optic
axis, the image will be 0.3 m from the lens on the optic axis.
Figure 5: A point source and its image for Question 24.X.58.

19
24.X.59
Sketch a picture of the lens and the object and sketch a few rays from the object. In Figure 6, the object is to the left of the
image. In this case, the object is shown as an arrow, and the rays sketched are (1) the ray that passes through the center of
the lens unrefracted, (2) the ray that travels parallel to the optic axis and refracts through the focus, and (3) the ray that
travels through the focus and refracts parallel to the optic axis.
Figure 6: The object, lens, a few rays, and the image for Question 24.X.59
1 1 1
= +
f d1 d2
1 1 1
=
d2 f d1
1
1 1
d2 =
0.1 m 0.07 m
= 0.23 m
The image is located 0.23 m from the lens, on the same side of the lens from the object (in this case to the left of the lens).
The image is a virtual image. If you place a sheet of paper at this location nothing will appear on the piece of paper, because
it is a virtual image. The screen (i.e. piece of paper) will be blank (if we neglect the rays coming directly from the source).
There will be no image of the object on the screen.
Figure 7 shows a point source of light as the object. Note that its rays diverge from the lens. This is why a virtual image is
formed behind the lens. If you trace the diverging rays backward, then they will intersect on the optic axis at the location
of the image of the point source. Thus, the point source image will be on the optic axis, 0.23 m to the left of the lens.
Figure 7: A point source for Question 24.X.59.
(Note: ones eyes can see a virtual image, though that image would not appear on a screen at the image location. If the
20
outgoing rays from the lens intercept ones eye, then the eye will converge and focus these rays to form an image on the
retina and will see the image of the object as if it is 0.23 m behind the lens.)
24.X.60
Sketch a picture of the lens and the object and sketch a few rays from the object. In Figure 8, the object is to the left of the
image. In this case, the object is shown as an arrow, and the rays sketched are (1) the ray that passes through the center of
the lens unrefracted, (2) the ray that travels parallel to the optic axis and refracts through the focus, and (3) the ray that
Figure 8: The object, lens, a few rays, and the image for Question 24.X.60
1 1 1
= +
f d1 d2
1 1 1
=
d2 f d1
1
1 1
d2 =
0.25 m 0.18 m
= 0.10 m
The image is located 0.10 m from the lens, on the same side of the lens as the object. The image is a virtual image.
Figure 9 shows a point source of light. Note that its rays diverge from the lens. This is why a virtual image is formed behind
the lens. If you trace the diverging rays backward, then they will intersect on the optic axis at the location of the image of
the point source. Thus, the point source image will be on the optic axis, 0.1 m to the left of the lens (i.e. 0.08 m to the right
of the object).
24.X.61
Sketch a picture of the lens and the object and sketch a few rays from the object. The easiest rays to sketch are (1) the ray
that passes through the center of the lens unrefracted, (2) the ray that travels parallel to the optic axis and refracts through
the focus, and (3) the ray that travels through the focus and refracts parallel to the optic axis.
Apply the thin-lens formula to get the x-coordinate of the point source:
21
1 1 1
= +
f d1 d2
1 1 1
=
d2 f d1
1
1 1
d2 =
0.2 m 0.25 m
= 1.0 m
The image is located 1.0 m from the lens, on the opposite side of the lens from the object. The image is a real image because
it is formed by converging rays on the opposite of the lens from the object.
The vertical position is magnified and inverted, so the y-coordinate will be below the optic axis and will have a magnitude
greater than 0.01 m. If you analyze similar triangles using the ray that passes through the center of the lens and the optic
axis, then
y2 y1
=
d2 d1
y1
y2 = d2
d1
0.01 m
= (1.0 m)
0.25 m
= 0.04 m
So the image of the point source will be 4 cm below the optic axis. Figure 10 shows the image for a point source of light as
the object on the left side of the lens. It is at < 100, 4, 0 > cm.
24.X.62
Sketch a picture of the lens and the object and sketch a few rays from the object. In Figure 11, the object is to the left of
the image. In this case, the object is shown as an arrow, and the rays sketched are (1) the ray that passes through the center
of the lens unrefracted, (2) the ray that travels parallel to the optic axis and refracts through the focus, and (3) the ray that
22
Figure 10: A point source and its image for Question 24.X.61.
Figure 11: The object, lens, a few rays, and the image for Question 24.X.62.
1 1 1
= +
f d1 d2
1 1 1
=
d2 f d1
1
1 1
d2 =
0.2 m 0.14 m
= 0.47 m
The image is located 0.47 m from the lens, on the same side of the lens as the object. The image is a virtual image and
is magnified. The y-coordinate is magnified and is above the optic axis. If you analyze similar triangles using the ray that
passes through the center of the lens and the optic axis, then
y2 y1
=
d2 d1
y1
y2 = d2
d1
0.01 m
= (0.47 m)
0.14 m
= 0.034 m
23
Figure 12 shows a point source of light. If you trace the outgoing rays backward, then the point where they intersect is the
location of the virtual image, at < 47, 3, 0 > cm.
24.X.63
It is helpful to sketch a ray diagram. In the sketch in Figure 13, the tree is to the left of the lens. Note that the image is
very small and inverted. The ray diagram is not shown to scale.
Figure 13: A ray diagram showing the tree and its image, not to scale, for Question 24.X.63.
Find the image distance. Apply the thin-lens formula:
1 1 1
= +
f d1 d2
1 1 1
=
d2 f d1
1
1 1
d2 =
0.3 m 40 m
= 0.302 m
The image is located 0.302 m from the lens, just beyond the focal point, on the opposite side of the lens. Because the object
distance is so large compared to the focal length, the image is nearly at the focal point of the lens. The image is a real and
inverted. The paper should be placed at this location.
24
If you analyze similar triangles using the ray that passes through the center of the lens and the optic axis, then
y2 y1
=
d2 d1
y1
y2 = d2
d1
2m
= (0.3 m)
40 m
= 0.015 m
The image will be 1.5 cm tall and will be inverted.
24.P.64
It is helpful to sketch a ray diagram. In the sketch in Figure 14, the object (computer display) is to the left of the lens. The
ray diagram is not shown to scale.
Figure 14: A ray diagram showing the object and its image, not to scale, for Question 24.P.64.
(a) Since the image must be real (in order to appear on a screen), a converging lens should be used.
(b) Since the image must be larger than the object, then the object distance should be greater than the focal length of the
lens and less than 2f . (Note: If the object distance is equal to 2f , then the image distance will be equal to the object
distance and the magnification will be 1. In order to have a magnification greater than 1, the object distance must
satisfy the condition f < d1 < 2f .)
(c) Apply the thin-lens formula:
1 1 1
= +
f d1 d2
1
1 1
f = +
d1 6m
We dont know the object distance, so the equation above is, by itself, inadequate to solve for the focal length. If you
analyze similar triangles using the ray that passes through the center of the lens and the optic axis, then
25

y2 y1
=
d2 d1
y1
d1 = d2
y2
0.03 m
= (6 m)
2.5 m
= 0.0720 m
The object distance is 7.2 cm. Use this to get the focal length.
1
1 1
f = +
d1 6m
1
1 1
= +
0.072 6 m
= 0.071 m
Note that the object distance, 7.2 cm, is greater than the focal length, 7.1 cm, as expected.
(d) The image is inverted (relative to the object); therefore, the display should be inverted in order to compensate.
(e) Apply the thin-lens formula:
1 1 1
= +
f d1 d2
1
1 1
d1 =
f 6m
1
1 1
=
0.071 m 4 m
= 0.0724 m
Note that the object only had to be moved about 0.4 mm. At such close proximity to the focal point, small changes in
the object distance can produce large changes in the image distance.
(f) The image height has a magnitude:

y2 y1

d2 =
d1
y1
y2 = d2
d1
0.03 m
= (4 m)
0.0724 m
= 1.66 m
24.P.65
26
(a) Here is a sample VPython program. A scaling factor is used for the electric field arrows as well as the magnetic field
arrows so that they can be clearly displayed.
3
5 s c e n e . h e i g h t =1000
8
9 c = 3 e8
10 lamb = 600
11 omega = 2 p i c /lamb
12 s c e n e . r a n g e =3lamb
13
14 xx = a r a n g e (3lamb , 3 . 0 0 1 lamb , lamb / 2 0 )

15
16 xhat = v e c t o r ( 1 , 0 , 0 )
17
18 Evec = [ ]
19 z=0
20 y=0
21 f o r x in xx :
22 ea = arrow ( pos=(x , y , z ) , a x i s =(0 , lamb / 1 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r = ( 1 , . 6 , 0 ) ,
23 s h a f t w i d t h=lamb / 4 5 , f i x e d w i d t h =1)
24 ba = arrow ( pos=(x , y , z ) , a x i s = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r = ( 0 , 1 , 1 ) ,
26 ea . B = ba
27 Evec . append ( ea )
28
29 t = 0
30 dt = lamb/ c /100
31 E0 = 1 e4
32 B0 = E0/ c
33 E s c a l e = lamb /2/E0
34 Bscale = c Escale
35
36 print ' dt ( s ) = ' , dt

37 print ' wavelength (m) = ' , lamb
38 print ' omega ( rad / s ) = ' , omega
39 print ' f ( Hz ) = ' , omega /2/ p i
40 print 'E_0 (V/m) ' , E0
41
42 while 1 :
43 rate (100)
44 t = t+dt
45 f o r ea in Evec :
46 E=v e c t o r ( 0 , E0 c o s ( omega t 2 p i /lamb ea . x ) , 0 )
47 ea . a x i s = E s c a l e E
48 Bmag=mag(E) / c
49 Bdir=c r o s s ( xhat , norm (E) )
50 B=Bmag Bdir
51 ea . B . a x i s = B B s c a l e
27
(b) An example program is shown below. Note that the time step dt should be very small in order to reduce numerical
error.
3
5 s c e n e . h e i g h t =1000
8
9 c = 3 e8
10 lamb = 600
11 omega = 2 p i c /lamb
12 s c e n e . r a n g e =3lamb
13
14 p o s i t r o n=s p h e r e ( pos=(3lamb , 0 , 0 ) , r a d i u s=lamb / 1 0 , c o l o r=c o l o r . r e d )

15 p o s i t r o n .m=9.11 e 31
16 p o s i t r o n . q =1.6 e 19
17 p o s i t r o n . v=v e c t o r ( 0 , 0 , 0 )
18 p o s i t r o n . p=p o s i t r o n .m p o s i t r o n . v/ s q r t (1mag( p o s i t r o n . v ) 2/ c 2 )
19 p o s i t r o n . t r a i l = c u r v e ( c o l o r=p o s i t r o n . c o l o r )
20
21 xx = a r a n g e (3lamb , 3 . 0 0 1 lamb , lamb / 2 0 )

22
23 xhat = v e c t o r ( 1 , 0 , 0 )
24
25 Evec = [ ]
26 z=0
27 y=0
28 fo r x in xx :
29 ea = arrow ( pos=(x , y , z ) , a x i s =(0 , lamb / 1 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r = ( 1 , . 6 , 0 ) ,
31 ba = arrow ( pos=(x , y , z ) , a x i s = ( 0 , 0 , 0 ) , c o l o r = ( 0 , 1 , 1 ) ,
33 ea . B = ba
34 Evec . append ( ea )
35
36 t = 0
37 dt = lamb/ c /1000
38 E0 = 1 e4
39 B0 = E0/ c
40 E s c a l e = lamb /2/E0
41 Bscale = c Escale
42
43 print ' dt ( s ) = ' , dt

44 print ' wavelength (m) = ' , lamb
45 print ' omega ( rad / s ) = ' , omega
46 print ' f ( Hz ) = ' , omega /2/ p i
47 print 'E_0 (V/m) ' , E0
48
49
50 while 1 :
51 rate (100)
52 t = t+dt
28
53
54 #u p d a t e t h e wave
55 f o r ea in Evec :
56 E=v e c t o r ( 0 , E0 c o s ( omega t 2 p i /lamb ea . x ) , 0 )
57 ea . a x i s = E s c a l e E
58 Bmag=mag(E) / c
59 Bdir=c r o s s ( xhat , norm (E) )
60 B=Bmag Bdir
61 ea . B . a x i s = B B s c a l e
62
63 #c a l c u l a t e E, B, Fnet , and u p d a t e t h e p o s i t r o n ' s momentum , v e l o c i t y , and p o s i t i o n

64 E = v e c t o r ( 0 , E0 c o s ( omega t 2 p i /lamb p o s i t r o n . pos . x ) , 0 )
65 Bmag = mag(E) / c
66 Bdir = c r o s s ( xhat , norm (E) )
67 B = Bmag Bdir
68 Fnet = p o s i t r o n . qE + p o s i t r o n . q c r o s s ( p o s i t r o n . v , B)
69 p o s i t r o n . p = p o s i t r o n . p + Fnet dt
70 p o s i t r o n . v = p o s i t r o n . p/ p o s i t r o n .m ( 1 / s q r t (1+(mag( p o s i t r o n . p ) / ( p o s i t r o n .m c ) ) 2 ) )
71 p o s i t r o n . pos = p o s i t r o n . pos + p o s i t r o n . v dt
72 p o s i t r o n . t r a i l . append ( pos=p o s i t r o n . pos )
1
25.X.1
c
=
f
8
3 10 ms

1020 103 Hz
294 m
|~r|
t =
c
3
4 10 m
t
3 108 ms
5
1.3 10 s
25.X.2
c
f =

8
3 10 ms

400 109 m
14
7.5 10 Hz
1
T =
f
15
1.3 10 s
25.X.3
The graph of E cos(2t/T + ) has a minimum value of E when t takes on values of zero and even multiples of T /2. It
has a maximum value of E when t takes on values of odd multiples of T /2. To be out of phase means that two graphs reach
their minimum and maximum values at different times.
25.X.4
2
~
I E

~ 2
I0 (3 E )

~
9 E
9I
The intensity increases by a factor of nine.
25.X.5
2
(a)

` = d sin =
2
= 4.5 sin
1/2 1
sin = =
4.5 9
6.4
(b)
` = d sin = 4
= 4.5 sin
4 8
sin = =
4.5 9
62.7
25.X.6
Simply put, the condition for complete destructive interference is never met.
25.X.7
2d sin = n
n
sin =
2d
10
(1) 0.96 10 m

(2) 2 1010

m
0.96

4
13.9
25.X.8
film = 2t
air = nfilm
(1.6)2 (200 nm)
640 nm
25.X.9
The quantity hc can be shown to have the approximate value 1240 eV nm.
1240 eV nm
E

1240 eV nm

334 nm
3.7 eV
3
25.X.10
Use the Energy Principle. If all of the energy of the photon is given to the metal and ejected electron, then the metals work
function is
K = Ephoton W
W = 4.3 eV 0.9 eV
= 3.4 eV
25.X.11
The Compton scattering prediction gives:
h
2 1 = (1 cos )
mc
2.4 1012 m (1 cos 90 ) + 1

2 =
2.4 1012 m + 5 1011 m

=
= 5.24 1011 m
25.X.12
To exhibit diffraction, the wavelength of the electrons must be on the order of the diameter of an atom, which is about 1
angstrom, or 1 1010 m. Use this to solve for the accelerating potential.
h
=
2meV
h2
V =
2me2
34
2
6.626 10 Js
= 2
2(9.109 1031 kg)(1.602 1019 C) (1 1010 m)
= 151 V
25.X.13
To exhibit diffraction, the wavelength of the neutrons must be on the order of the diameter of an atom, which is about 1
angstrom, or 1 1010 m. Use this to solve for momentum and speed of the neutrons. Use the classical approximation for
momentum, unless the speed turns out to be relativistic.
4
h
=
p
h
=
mv
h
v =
m
34
6.626 10 Js
= 27

1.675 10 kg (1 1010 m)
= 3960 m/s
This speed is non-relativistic (i.e. not close to the speed of light), so using p mv is valid.
25.X.14
The first maximum occurs at an angle given by d sin = . Use this to solve for the wavelength:
= d sin
= (1 106 m) sin(36 )
= 5.88 107 m
A wavelength of this magnitude is more commonly expressed as 588 nm, where 1 nanometer = 1 109 meter.
25.X.15
The angular width of the maximum is 2 = 2/W . Calculate the angular width in this case:
angular width = 2

= 2
W
2(400 109 m
=
1 104 m
= 0.008 rad
The width on the screen is the arclength at a distance of 1 m from the slit. Arclength is s = R = (1 m)(0.008 rad) = 0.008 m.
The maximum on the screen will thus be 8 mm wide.
25.X.16
The angular width of the maximum is 2 = 2/W . Calculate the angular width in the case of = 550 nm:
angular width = 2

= 2
W
2(550 109 m
=
0.15 m
= 7.33 106 rad
5
The width on the ground is the arclength at a distance of 160 km from the lens. Arclength is s = R = (1.6 105 m)(7.33
106 rad) = 1.17 m. Thus, the camera can only resolve objects about 1.2 m apart. Any objects closer together than 1.2 m
will appear to be a single object.
25.X.17
The high frequency (low wavelength) standing wave will result in greater maximum speeds of a given piece of the rope since
the transverse velocity of a piece of the rope is v = A cos(t + ), and the maximum speed is A where A is the amplitude
of the wave and is the angular frequency, 2f . Since air resistance is proportional to the speed (or perhaps even the speed
squared), there will be more energy loss to air for a high frequency standing wave, and it will be require greater work to
maintain the high frequency standing wave.
25.X.18
Note that the general form of this equation is: y = A cos(t kx + ) where k = 2/ is called the wavenumber. (Note that
in spectroscopy, wavenumber is defined as 1/, so chemists generally use this definition of wavenumber.)
= 25.1 rad/s.
f= 2
= 4.0 Hz.
T = 1/f = 0.25 s.
2
= 2.51 m1 , so = 2.5 m.
v = f = (2.5 m)(4.0 Hz) = 10 m/s.
The direction of propagation is the +x direction because the sign in (t kx) is negative.
A = 1.5 m.
At x = 0 and t = 0, y = (1.5 m) cos(/2) = 0. Thus, the height of the piece of rope at x = 0 at the time t = 0 is zero.
25.X.19
v = f
340 m/s
=
256 Hz
= 1.33 m
25.X.20
Figure 1 shows two sources (i.e. speakers). Lines are drawn from the sources to a certain point where the sound is being
measured (or heard). If the path difference between the waves from each source to this point in space is 1/2, or 3/2, etc.
then total destructive interference will occur and the detector will not detect any sound since the amplitude of the sum of
the waves will be zero.
Lets choose a point such that the path difference of the waves from the speakers is 1/2. If d is the distance between the
speakers and is the direction of the wave from the second speaker toward the point in space (relative to the perpendicular),
then:
6
path difference
Figure 1: A diagram showing the path difference between waves from two point sources, for Question 25-X-20.
d sin = 1/2
1/2
sin =
d
v/f
=
2d
340 m/s
=
2(1 m)(440 Hz)
= 0.386
= 22.7
25.P.21
Let L represent the distance to the screen, let d represent the distance between slits, and let x represent the required quantity.
(a)
d sin =
x
sin =
d L
L
x
d
9
(2 m) 500 10 m

0.12 103 m
3
8.3 10 m 8.3 mm
(b) The distance between stripes is inversely proportional to the distance between the two slits, so as the slits get closer
together, the stripes get farther apart.
(c) The distance between stripes is directly proportional to the lights wavelength, so as the wavelength decreases the
stripes get closer together.
7
25.P.22
(a) Electrons in the copper wires can only appreciably oscillate back and forth along the zaxis. So the resulting re-
radiation will also be parallel to the zaxis. Thus it will be polarized. The radiative electric field will oscillate in the
z directions. The propagation direction (i.e. the direction to the detector) is c = hcos , sin , 0i and must satisfy
c = E B. Therefore, B must be in the xyplane and perpendicular to c at all times.
(b) For maximum intensity, the path difference must be an integer multiple of the wavelength. Take the multiple to be 1.
d sin 1 = m
2.5 sin 1 =
1
sin 1 =
2.5
1 23.6
For minimum intensity (zero), the path difference must be an odd integer multiple of half the wavelength. Again, take
the multiple to be 1.

d sin 2 = m
2

2.5 sin 2 =
2
1
sin 2 =
5
2 11.5
25.X.23
No, there is no such physics principle. However, we do have a wave model for light that we can use to explain this phenomenon.
When light interacts with atoms on the top surface of the mirror (generally aluminum atoms), the oscillating electric field
of the incident radiation causes these atoms to oscillate and thereby re-radiate light. This scattered light from the atoms
in the mirror interferes with the incident light. Constructive interference occurs for scattered light only for the case of the
path length equal to zero, which occurs only at the angle of reflection. Other angles result in destructive interference, so no
scattered light is detected at those angles.
In reality, surfaces are not perfectly planar and scattered light can be detected at multiple angles. This is generally called
diffuse reflection.
25.X.24
The strong beam at the reflection angle is due to constructive interference which occurs for 2d sin = n where n is an
integer. Essentially, we need to figure out what the integer might be. Use the lower limit for d and the upper limit for d to
figure out what n is.
For d = 1 1010 m:
2dsin =
n
2d sin
n =

2 1 1010 m sin(30 )

=
(0.4 1010 m)
= 2.5
8
For d = 1.8 1010 m:
2dsin = n
2d sin
n =

2 1.8 1010 m sin(30 )

=
(0.4 1010 m)
= 4.5
Thus the two possible values of n are n = 3 and n = 4. Calculate d for each of these integers.
For n = 3:
2dsin = n
n
d =
2 sin
3 0.4 1010 m

=
2 sin(30 )
= 1.2 1010 m
For n = 4:
2dsin = n
n
d =
2 sin
4 0.4 1010 m

=
2 sin(30 )
= 1.6 1010 m
Thus, the two possible spacings between atomic layers are d = 1.2 1010 m and d = 1.6 1010 m.
25.P.25
(a) The reflected wave will be strong for a wavelength of 0.5 1010 m if constructive interference occurs for this
wavelength. Since constructive interference occurs for 2d sin = n, then we need to figure out what the angle would
be for the incident radiation.
Using n = 1:
2d sin = n
n
sin =
2d
0.5 1010 m

=
2 (1.2 1010 m)
= 0.208
= 12
Note that there are other angles that correspond to n=2, 3, and 4. Note that n > 4 is not possible because it would
produce an angle larger than 90 which is not possible.
A sketch of the orientation of the crystal is shown in Figure 2. Its the same as Figure 25.17 in the textbook.
9
Incoming x-rays
1 2
Outgoing x-rays
2
1

d
d sin
d sin

Figure 2: Orientation of the crystal in Question 25.P.25.
(b) There is another possible combination of n that will produce constructive interference at = 12 . It is
n = 2d sin
2 1.2 1010 m sin(12 )

=
= 5.0 1011 m
Choosing n = 2 and solving for shows that = 0.25 1010 m will also constructively interfere at an angle of 12 .
Thus the reflected beam at this angle will be a superposition of light with = 0.25 1010 m and = 0.5 1010 m
and will not be a pure single-wavelength beam.
25.P.26
All colors (wavelengths) are present in the incident white light, while only certain colors are present in the reradiated light.
If we see magenta, it means that both red and blue light are present simultaneously in the re-radiated light, while green light
is not present. (Actually, it would be a muddy looking magenta, since other wavelengths, such as yellow and orange, would
also be present). So the film thickness must be equal to half the wavelength of green light, to produce a minimum for green.
In soap, n 1.3, so the wavelength of green light in soap is 0 /1.3 = 550 nm/1.3 = 423 nm.
To give destructive interference for green, the thickness of the film must be /2 = 423 nm/2 = 212 nm.
25.X.27
Apply the Energy Principle. To eject the electron with negligible kinetic energy, the energy of the incident photon must be
equal to the energy needed to break loose the electron. This is the work function of the metal. So,
Ephoton = W
hf = 3.9 eV
c
h = 3.9 eV

hc
=
3.9 eV
8
(4.14 1015 eV s)(3 10 m
s )
=
3.9 eV
= 3.18 107 m
= 318 nm
10
This wavelength is in the UV region of the spectrum.
25.X.28
The wave model of light predicts:
The kinetic energy of the ejected electron is proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
The kinetic energy of the ejected electron does not depend on the frequency of the incident light.
The particle model of light predicts:
The kinetic energy of a photon depends on its frequency. So, the kinetic energy of an ejected electron will depend on
the frequency of the incident light.
Higher intensity light will mean that more photons are incident on the metal. If the kinetic energy of each photon is
not enough to break an electron free from the metal, then the intensity will have no effect. If the kinetic energy of a
photon is great enough to break an electron free, then increasing the intensity will increase the number of electrons
liberated from the metal.
A minimum energy photon greater than the binding energy of an electron (called work function) is necessary to break
an electron free from the metal.
Experimental observations that support the particle model are:
A minimum frequency of light is needed before electrons are ejected from the metal.
The kinetic energy of liberated electrons is proportional to the frequency of the light, for frequencies greater than the
minimum frequency needed to break an electron free.
Increasing the intensity of the light increases the number of electrons liberated from the metal (for frequencies greater
than the minimum frequency needed to break an electron free).
25.X.29
According to the wave model of light, the energy of the light is proportional to the intensity of the light. According to the
particle model of light, the energy of a photon is proportional to the frequency of the light. A greater intensity means that
there are more photons per square meter, but the energy of the photon would remain the same regardless of the intensity.
25.X.30
The wavelength of the photon changes during the collision because the photon loses energy due to the collision, and the
wavelength of the photon is inversely proportional to its energy. Since the photon loses energy (kinetic energy to be exact),
its wavelength increases. This is because Ephoton = hc/.
25.X.31
hc
Ephoton =

15 8
(4.136 10 eV s)(3 10 m
s )
=
690 109 m
= 1.8 eV
11
25.X.32
Apply the Energy Principle. The maximum wavelength required to eject the electron means that the photon has the minimum
energy possible, which is equal to the energy needed to break the electron free from the metal. This is the work function of
the metal. So,
Ephoton = W
hf = 3.9 eV
c
h = 3.4 eV

hc
=
3.4 eV
8
(4.14 1015 eV s)(3 10 m
s )
=
3.4 eV
7
= 3.65 10 m
= 365 nm
This wavelength is in the UV region of the spectrum.
25.X.33
The wavelength of the electrons is inversely proportional to the square root of the accelerating potential difference, according
to:
h
=
2meV
If the potential difference is increased, the wavelength of the electrons will decrease. Since n = 2d sin for constructive
interference (i.e. the ring), then also decreases and the diffraction ring will have a smaller radius (i.e. a smaller angular
size).
25.X.34
The wavelength of an incident electron is:
h
=
2meV
34
6.626 10 Js
= p 31
2(9.109 10 kg)(1.602 1019 C)(1000 V)
= 3.88 1011 m
Constructive interference occurs for an atomic spacing that satisfies the condition 2d sin = n. Using n = 1 and d =
1 1010 m, solve for .
12
2d sin = n
n
sin =
2d
3.88 1011 m

=
2 (1 1010 m)
= 0.194
= 11.2
Diffraction rings will also be seen for angles where n=2, 3, etc., as long as < 90 .
25.P.35
The energy of the light incident on the spot per second per unit area is:
100 W
I =
(0.2 m)2
= 796 W/m2
The average intensity (average energy flow per second per unit area) is related to the amplitude of the electric field by:
1 2
I = 0 Emax c
2
(The factor of 1/2 comes from the fact that the average of cos2 (t) during one period is 1/2.) Solving for Emax gives:
s
I
Emax = 1
2 0 c
s
796 W/m2
= 1 12 C2 8 m
2 (9 10 N m2 )(3 10 s )
= 774 V/m
The power of the light hitting the spot is the energy per second. The total energy hitting the spot per second is N Ephoton
where N is the number of photons incident on the spot per second. So, the number of photons hitting the spot per second is:
100 J/s
N =
Ephoton
100 J/s
= hc

There are photons of many wavelengths hitting the spot. Lets choose a wavelength solidly in the middle of the visual
spectrum, 550 nm. Then,
13
100 J/s
N =
(6.6261034 J s)(3108 m
s )
(550109 m)
20
= 2.77 10 photons/s
25.X.36
Constructive interference (a bright line) occurs when the path difference is equal to an integer number of wavelengths,
d sin = n. For various n, solve for for < 90 .
For n = 1:
d sin =
400 109 m
sin =
(0.01 m/1 104 lines)
= 23.6
For n = 2:
d sin = 2
2(400 109 m)
sin =
(0.01 m/1 104 lines)
= 53.1
For n > 2, > 90 which is not possible since the diffracted light would have to travel backward through the grating.
25.X.37
Constructive interference (bright light) occurs when the path difference is equal to an integer number of wavelengths, d sin =
n. For various n, solve for for < 90 .
For n = 1:
d sin =
588 109 m
sin =
(0.01 m/1 104 lines)
= 36.0
For n > 1, > 90 which is not possible.
25.X.38
Imagine the incident wave that is normal to the surface and the re-radiated wave from an atom at the surface. The path
difference between these two waves is zero, so they will constructively interfere. This is true for the re-radiated wave traveling
normal to the surface. and the next atom in the line. Thus, the waves re-radiated from atoms normal to the surface will
constructively interfere, producing a wave that is effectively transmitted normal to the surface through the material.
However, for the incident wave and a re-radiated wave that is at some angle to the normal, the path different must equal n
for constructive interference to occur. This is much less probable, so very little light is transmitted at an angle through the
material.
Consider a side view of the swimming pool, with axes as shown in the diagram. The original light is unpolar-
ized, so light propagating in the +x direction can have components of electric field along the y or z axes
(but not the x axis).
When this light hits water molecules, it accelerates electrons in the water molecules, which can then re-radi-
ate. We need to find the direction of E in this re-radiated light. We are interested only in light propagating up,
14 along the y axis, toward your eye.
The x component of E in the original light is zero, so there can be no re-radiation with E along the x axis.
Components of E along the y axis accelerate electrons in water molecules along the y axis. Reradiation from
these electrons does not propagate along the y axis (because a A = 0 ), so none of this re-radiation reaches
your eye.
25.P.39 Components of E along the z axis accelerate electrons in water molecules along the z axis. Reradiation from
these electrons does propagate along the y axis, so this radiation reaches your eye.
Consider a side view of the swimming pool,

Since the reradiationwith axes
reaching your as shown
eye is polarized, with E along theinz axis,Figure
if you hold the3. The
polaroid
so the line is parallel to the z axis you will allow most of the radiation to go through and reach your eye.
oriented original light is unpolarized, so light
propagating in the +x direction can have components of electric field along the y or
Since you want to minimize the brightness, you should hold the film with the line parallel to the x axis (the z axes (but not the x axis).
direction of the original beam). This will not let the reradiated light through to your eye.
your eye
v reradiation
Ez
y
Ey
x v
Ez
z light source
Side view of pool
Figure 3: A sketch of the light in the swimming pool for Question 25.P.39.
When this light hits water molecules, it accelerates electrons in the water molecules, which can then reradiate. We need to
find the direction of E in this re-radiated light. We are interested only in light propagating up, along the y axis, toward your
eye.
The x component of E in the original light is zero, so there can be no re-radiation with E along the x axis. Components
of E along the y axis accelerate electrons in water molecules along the y axis. Re-radiation from these electrons does not
propagate along the y axis (because a = 0 ), so none of this re-radiation reaches your eye.
Components of E along the z axis accelerate electrons in water molecules along the z axis. Re-radiation from these electrons
does propagate along the y axis, so this radiation reaches your eye.
Since the re-radiation reaching your eye is polarized, with E along the z axis, if you hold the polaroid oriented so the line is
parallel to the z axis you will allow most of the radiation to go through and reach your eye. Since you want to minimize the
brightness, you should hold the film with the line parallel to the x axis (the direction of the original beam). This will not let
the re-radiated light through to your eye.
25.X.40
The ability to distinguish between one object and an object right next to it is called angular resolution, and it determines
minimum size object that can be resolved. The angular resolution of the camera goes as = W
where W in this case is
the diameter of the cameras lens.
25.X.41
The angular width of the maximum is 2 = 2/W . Calculate the angular width in this case:
angular width = 2

= 2
W
2(630 109 m
=
0.05 103 m
= 0.0252 rad
15
The width on the screen is the arclength at a distance of 5 m from the slit. Arclength is s = R = (5 m)(0.0252 rad) = 0.126 m.
The maximum on the screen will thus be 12.6 cm wide.
25.P.42
(a) The angular width of the maximum is 2 = 2/W . Calculate the angular width in this case:
angular width = 2

= 2
W
2(700 109 m)
=
0.01 103 m
= 0.14 rad
The width on the screen is the arclength at a distance of 2 m from the slit. Arclength is s = R = (2 m)(0.14 rad) =
0.28 m. The maximum on the screen will thus be 28 cm wide.
(b) If you make the slit narrower by decreasing W , then the angular width of the stripe increases, and the stripe
becomes wider.
(c) The question does not tell us what kind of light to use. Lets assume that we use visible light of shorter wavelength,
such as blue light. Then, the angular width decreases and the stripe becomes narrower.
25.P.43
The angular resolution is 2 = 2/W . Calculate the angular width of the in this case:
angular width = 2

= 2
W
2(c/f )
=
W
2(c)/(10 109 Hz)
=
2m
= 0.03 rad
This corresponds to an arclength at a distance of 40,000 km of s = (4 107 m)(0.03 rad) = 1.2 106 m. This is about 746
miles. Inside of this diameter, any number of satellite dishes cannot be resolved.
25.X.44
A standing wave is specifically the superposition (i.e. sum) of two traveling waves that have the same speed (wavelength and
frequency) and travel in opposite directions. In the following discussion, I will treat the traveling waves as sinusoidal waves.
Standing waves and traveling waves are different in the following ways:
For a standing wave, each point in the medium oscillates in simple harmonic motion with the same frequency, but each
point does not have the same amplitude. For a traveling wave, each point in the medium oscillates in simple harmonic
motion with the same amplitude and frequency, but with different phase.
A standing wave has nodes and antinodes. A traveling wave does not.
16
A traveling wave has a speed v = f . A standing wave does not have a speed.
Standing waves and traveling waves are similar in that they are described by a wavelength and frequency. They are also
similar in that a given point in the medium (that is not a node) will oscillate in simple harmonic motion, for both a traveling
wave and a standing wave. For a traveling wave, all points in the medium will have the same amplitude, but the amplitude
is not the same at all points for a standing wave.
25.X.45
(a) For the longest wavelength standing wave, = 2L. The speed of a traveling wave on the string in this case is
v = f
= 2Lf
= 2(0.7 m)(64 Hz)
= 89.6 m/s
(b) The speed of the wave does not change because it depends on the properties of the string: tension and density of the
string. So, it can be used to calculate the wavelengths and frequencies of the different modes.
For the 2nd mode, = L and
v = f
= Lf
v
f =
L
89.6 m/s
=
0.7 m
= 128 Hz
For the third mode, = 2L/3 and
v = f
2
= Lf
3
3v
f =
2L
3(89.6 m/s)
=
2(0.7 m)
= 192 Hz
At this point, you should notice a pattern for the frequencies of the modes: 64 Hz, 128 Hz, 192 Hz, ... The fourth and
fifth modes will be: 256 Hz and 320 Hz.
A sketch of the standing wave shape for each mode is shown in Figure 4.
25.X.46
17
n=1
n=2
n=3
n=4
n=5
Figure 4: Standing wave shape for each mode n for Question 25.X.45.
(a) The higher frequency modes dampen out more quickly. The reason is that air resistance is proportional to speed (or
even speed squared). The position of a point at a location x in the medium oscillates sinusoidally, y = Ax cos(t + x ).
The y-velocity, then, is sinusoidal, vy = dx/dt = Ax sin(t + x ). Thus, the maximum speed of a point in the
medium is vmax = Ax . Greater frequency modes will have greater maximum speeds. As a result, air resistance will
have a greater effect, and they will dampen out more quickly.
(b) When she presses down lightly on the string at the midpoint, she creates a node at that point. As a result, the lowest
frequency (longest wavelength) possible is for = L. Whereas, when she does not press down, the longest wavelength
possible is = 2L. Thus, this frequency (the one for = 2L) will be absent when she presses lightly at the midpoint.
Furthermore, only the wavelengths with a node at the midpoint will be possible, including = 1/2L, = 1/3L,
= 1/4L, etc. If you write the possible wavelengths when she does NOT touch the midpoint, they can be written as
= 2/nL where n = 1, 2, 3, ... When she presses lightly on the string, the only wavelengths possible are those with
n equal to an even number. The so-called odd harmonics are not present because they do not have a node at the
midpoint.
For example, youll notice in Figure 4 that the only modes for which there is a node in the midpoint of the string are:
n=2 and n=4.

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1

(a) The balls direction changes, so thats evidence of a significant interaction.

(a) This statement is correct.

(a) This statement is incorrect.

(b) This statement is incorrect.

(c) This statement is incorrect.

(d) This statement is correct.

(e) This statement is correct.

1.X.6 Three numbers (signed) are needed to specify a 3D position vector.

1.X.7 One number (signed) is needed to specify a scalar.

1.X.12 Simply multiply each component of ~a by f .

f~a = (3) h0.03, 1.4, 26.0i

h0, 6, 0i h0, 6, 0i h0, 6, 0i

1.X.17 ~a = h400, 200, 100im/s2 . First, we need the magnitude of ~a.

Now we need to get the direction a.

1.X.20 ~F1 = h300, 0, 200i and ~F2 = h150, 300, 0i

Note that technically, writing A

~F + ~F = h300, 0, 200i N + h150, 300, 0i N

= h450, 300, 200i N

= h150, 300, 200i N

= h150, 300, 200i N

(a) This statement is correct.

1.X.24 ~ri = h3, 2, 5i m at ti and ~rf = h6, 4, 25i m at tf .

~r = ~rf ~ri = h6, 4, 25i m h3, 2, 5i m

1.X.25 ~ri = h3, 0, 7i m at ti and ~rf = h2, 0, 8i m at tf .

~r = ~rf ~ri = h2, 0, 8i h3, 0, 7i m

1.X.26 Lets arbitrarily call the unknown unit vector a.

a = hcos 160 , cos 20 , 0i

1.X.27 Lets arbitrarily call the unknown unit vector s.

s = hcos 130 , cos 40 , 0i

(a) The average velocity of the tennis ball is

(b) Average speed is defined as:

average speed = |~vavg | (if direction of ~v stays the same)

average speed = |~vavg |

h8, 10, 12i m/s

(a) The average velocity of the spacecraft is

(b) Average speed is defined as:

average speed = |~vavg | (if direction of ~v stays the same)

h25, 55, 30i m/s

~rf = ~ri + ~vavg t

= 2.1 105 , 1.4 105 , 2.8 105 m

h25, 0, 0i m/s < 0, 0, 0 >

Thus, the magnitude of the acceleration of the car is

~r(t) = < 3 + 5t, 4t2 , 2t 6t3 >

To calculate ~v at t = 0, substitute t = 0 into the expression for ~v(t).

~v(0) = < 5, 0, 2 >

To calculate ~a at t = 0, substitute t = 0 into the expression for ~a(t).

~a(0) = < 0, 8, 0 >

The magnitude of its momentum is

|~p| = 2.4 1022 kg m/s

~rf = ~ri + ~vt

~rf = ~ri + ~vt

Figure 1: The initial momentum ~pi

Figure 2: The final momentum ~pf

Figure 3: The change in momentum ~p.

= (0.057 kg)(48 m/s 50 m/s)

Note that in general, |~p| =

Figure 4: The momentum of Mars at C and D.

Figure 5: The change in momentum vector.

Figure 6: Sketch of puck and momentum vectors

8 106 , 0, 2 107 m/s

(a) See Figure ??

Figure 7: Vector ~p.