1.

0 INTRODUCTION

Jar testing is a method of simulating a full-scale water treatment process, providing

system operators a reasonable idea of the way a treatment chemical will behave and
operate with a particular type of raw water. Because it mimics full-scale operation,
system operators can use jar testing to help determine which treatment chemical will
work best with their systems raw water.

Jar testing entails adjusting the amount of treatment chemicals and the sequence in
which they are added to samples of raw water held in jars or beakers. The sample is
then stirred so that the formation, development, and settlement of floc can be watched
just as it would be in the full-scale treatment plant. (Floc forms when treatment
chemicals react with material in the raw water and clump together.) The operator then
performs a series of tests to compare the effects of different amounts of floccula tio n
agents at different pH values to determine the right size floc for a particular plant. (The
right size of floc depends upon the systems filter dimensions and other consideratio ns.)

The jar testing process can be summarized as follows:

For each water sample (usually raw water) a number of beakers (jars) are filled with
equal amounts of the water sample;
Each beaker of the water sample is treated with a different dose of the chemical;
Other parameters may be altered besides dosage, including chemical types, mixing
rate, aeration level/time, filtration type, etc.;
By comparing the final water quality achieved in each beaker, the effect of the
different treatment parameters can be determined; and
Jar testing is normally carried out on several beakers at a time, with the results from
the first test guiding the choice of parameter amounts in the later tests.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

2.1 To visualize the coagulation- flocculation process in the laboratory.

2.2 To determine the optimum dosage of alum solution added to remove turbidity
over water sample.

3.0 THEORY

Raw water or wastewater must be treated to remove turbidity, colour and

bacteria. Colloidal particles are in the size range between dissolved substance and
suspended particles. The particles are too small to be removed by sedimentation or by
normal filtration processes. Colloidal particles exhibit the Tyndall effect; that is, when
light passes through liquid containing colloidal particles, the light is reflected by the
particles. The degree to which colloidal suspension reflects light at 90 angle to the
entrance beam is measured by turbidity. The unit of measure is a Turbidity Unit (TU)
or Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU). It is determined by reference to a chemica l
mixture that produces a reproducible refraction of light. Turbidity in excess of 5 TU are
easily detectable in a glass of water and are usually objectionable for aesthetic reasons.
For a given particle size, the higher the turbidity, the higher the concentration of
colloidal particles.

Colour is a useful term that is used to describe a solution state. But it is diffic ult
to distinguish dissolved colour and colloidal colour. Some colour is caused by
colloidal iron or manganese complexes. Although, the most common cause of colour is
from complex organic compounds that originate from the decomposition of organic
matter. Most colour seems to be between 3.5 and 10m, which is colloidal. Colour is
measured by the ability of the solution to absorb light. Colour particles can be removed
by the methods discussed for dissolved or colloidal, depending upon the state of the
colour.

Finely dispersed solid (colloids) suspended in wastewater are stabilized by

negative electric charges on their surfaces, causing them to repel each other. Since this
prevents these charged particles from colliding to form larger masses, called flocs, they
do not settle. To assists in the removal of colloidal particles form suspension, chemica l
coagulations and flocculation are required. These processes, usually done in sequence,
are a combination of physical and chemical procedures. Chemicals are mixed with
wastewater to promote the aggregation of the suspended solids into particles large
enough to settle or be removed. Coagulation is the destabilization of colloids by
neutralizing the forces that keep them apart. Cationic coagulants provide positive
electric charges to reduce the negative charge of the colloids. As a result, the particles
collide to form larger particles (floc). Rapid mixing is required to disperse the coagulant
throughout the liquid. The coagulants overdose can cause a complete charge reversal
and destabilize the colloid complex.

A coagulant is the substance (chemical) that is added to the water to accomplis h

coagulation. There are three key properties of a coagulant;

1. Trivalent cation: As indicated in the last section, the colloids most commonly
found in natural waters are negatively charged; hence a cation is required to
neutralize the charge. A trivalent cation is the most efficient cation.
2. Nontoxic: This requirement is obvious for the production of safe water.
3. Insoluble in the neutral pH range. The coagulant that is added must precipitate
out of solution so that high concentrations of the ion are not left in the water.
Such precipitation greatly assists the colloid removal process.

The two most commonly used coagulants are aluminium (Al3+) and ferric iron
(Fe3+). Both meet above three requirements. Aluminium can be purchased as either dry
or liquid alum [Al2 (SO 4 )3 14H2 O]. Commercial alum has an average molecular weight
of 594 g/mole. When alum added to a water containing alkalinity, the following reaction
occurs;

Al2 (SO 4 )3 14H2 O + 6HCO -3 2Al(OH)3 (s) + 6CO 2 + 14H2 O + (3SO 4 )2 -

 The above reaction shifts the carbonate equilibrium and decreases the pH. When
sufficient alkalinity is not present to neutralize the sulfuric acid production, the pH may
be greatly reduced;

Al2 (SO 4 )3 14H2 O 2Al(OH)3 (s) + 3H2 SO4 + 8H2 O

If the second reaction occurs, lime or sodium carbonate may be added to neutralize the
acid. The optimal pH range for alum is approximately 5.5 to 6.5 with coagulatio n
possible between pH 5to pH 8 under some conditions.

In flocculation process, the flocculating agent is added by slow and gentle

mixing to allow for contact between the small flocs and to agglomerate them into larger
particles. The newly formed agglomerated particles are quite fragile and can be broken
apart by shear forces during mixing. Increasing the dosage will increase the tendency
of the floc to float and not settle. Once suspended particles are flocculated into larger
particles, they can usually be removed from the liquid by sedimentation, provided that
a sufficient density difference exists between the suspended matter and liquid. When a
filtering process is used, the addition of a flocculants may not be required since the
particles formed by the coagulation reaction may be of sufficient size to allow removal.
The flocculation reaction not only increases the size of the floc particles to settle them
faster, but also affects the physicals nature of the floc, making these particles less
gelatinous and thereby easier to dewater.

4.0 APPARATUS

4.1 Three beaker (1000mL)

4.2 Jar Testing Machine (Flocculator)

4.3 Measuring cylinder

4.4 Turbidity meter

 4.5 PH meter

4.6 Watch

5.0 REAGENT

5.1 Aluminium sulphate (Alum)

6.0 PROCEDURE

6.1 Firstly, water sample is filled into measuring cylinder and being analyse for
turbidity and initial pH by manually stir it up for 10 times then measuring is
taking by using the turbidity meter. These steps are repeated for 3 times to
collect the average reading from the result analyse and the data is recorded in
the Initial Turbidity Table.
6.2 Secondly, filled each of the three 1000 mL beakers with water sample and
labelled each of beakers with 1 till 3.
6.3 Thirdly, the alum dosage required for each jar and the volume of alum solutio n
to be added.
6.4 The 3 beakers contain the prepared sample is placed in the Jar Testing Machine.
The paddles are release and adjusted to be in middle of the beakers then
beginning the two stirrers using rapid mixing (coagulation) that is at 100 rpm
for 1 minute.

6.5 After the rapid mixing, immediately add 5, 10, and 15 ml of alum dosage in
each beaker respectively then reduce the stirrer speed to 40 rpm and floccula te
for 10 minutes.

6.6 After the flocculation period, remove the paddles and allow solids to settle for
15 minutes. The floc settling characteristics is being observed. (A hazy sample
indicates poor coagulation. Properly coagulated water contains floc particles
that are well-formed and dense, with clear liquid between the particles)
6.7 The final turbidity being measured by taking a sample from the centre of each
one sample, about 2 inches down, and being done carefully for not disturb the
flocs that have settled.

6.8 Graph of Turbidity versus Alum dosage is plotted using the data recorded.
7.0 DATA AND ANALYSIS

Jar 1 2 3
Alum Dosage (ml) 5 10 15

Fast (rpm) 100 100 100

Slow (rpm) 40 40 40

Initial pH 5.91 5.82 5.72

Initial Turbidity (NTU) 514 515 485

Residual pH 4.46 4.58 4.80

Residual Turbidity (NTU) 19 19 17

Alum Stock Solution Concentration = 10,000 mg/L

mg/L = 10,000 X % w/w X SG.

= 10,000 x 3% x 1.29
= 387 mg/L

1. Plot graph Turbidity (NTU) vs. Alum Dosage (ml).

Residual Turbidity (NTU) vs. Alum Dosage (ml)

19.5

19
Residual Turbidity (NTU)

18.5

18

17.5

17

16.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Alum Dosage (ml)
8.0 DISCUSSION

8.1 How the coagulant works?

- Depending on the pH after the coagulant is added, two possible reactions

are generally possible:
with aluminium-based coagulants, the metal ion is hydrolysed to form
aluminium hydroxide floc as well as hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ions will
react with the alkalinity of the water and in the process, decrease the pH of
the water as can be seen from Equation (1) for alum.

Al2 (SO 4 )3 .18H2 O 2Al3+ + 3SO 4 2- + 18H2O 2Al(OH)3 + 6H+ + 3SO 42-
+ 12H2 O -(1)

Similar for ACH, which is described as being a pre-hydrolysed coagulant,

the following reaction takes place:

Al2 (OH)5 Cl Al2 (OH)5 + + Cl- + H2 O 2Al(OH)3 + H+ + Cl- -(2)

Note that from Equation (2), only one mole of hydrogen ions is produced,
reflecting the hydroxylated nature of this compound. PACl also shows
similar hydrolysis as represented by Equation (3). In this reaction, three
moles of H+ are formed.

Al2 (OH)3 Cl3 Al2 (OH)3 3+ + 3Cl- +3H2 O 2Al(OH)3 + 3H+ + 3Cl- -(3)

The above hydrolysis reactions typically take place at a dosed water pH in

the range 5.8 to 7.5, depending on the particular coagulant. Within this pH,
colour and colloidal matter is removed by adsorption onto/within the metal
hydroxide hydrolysis products that are formed. If an excess of alum is added
so that the dosed water Ph is less than 5.0, then the metal ions (Al3+) directly
neutralize the negatively charged organic compounds and colloids in the raw
water. This allows the organic molecules to contribute to floc formation and
is often referred to as enhanced coagulation. This is often done to boost the
removal of disinfection by-product (DBP) precursors. Obviously,
coagulating at such a low Ph requires attention to potential corrosion
problems, as well as the need for post-treatment Ph adjustment /alkalinity
adjustment to ensure that the treated water is not corrosive.
8.2 In what way, the dosage of aluminium sulphate in the treatment can be reduced?

- The pH of raw water gives an indication of how acidic or alkaline it is. It is

a very important parameter in water treatment, especially for effective
coagulation. Each coagulant has a narrow optimum operating pH range. For
example, alum tends to work best at a dosed-water pH of 5.8-6.5. If the pH
is lower or higher than this optimum, then problems of high residual colour,
aluminium or DBP s may occur in the finished water. This can create
problems when the raw water has a high alkalinity or pH. Very high alum
doses will then be required to achieve the right dosed-water pH. The
alternative is to dose acid to decease the pH to a lower value before dosing
the coagulant. This is the opposite of the more common practice of dosing
alkali (lime, soda ash or caustic soda) to raise the pH of low alkalinity
waters. If the pH falls outside the optimum range, you may have trouble
meeting the ADWG limit of 0.2 mg/L aluminium in the finished water, as
well as increasing the possibility of having floc precipitate out later in the
Clearwater Storage Tank or within the reticulation system. ACH can work
well over a higher pH range, anywhere from 6.5 to 7.5. In some cases, this
may mean that you can coagulate at a pH that avoids the need for
posttreatment alkali dosing. This has been successfully implemented at a
WTP located in Eastern Victoria. Changing over from alum to ACH has
enabled the Operator to decommission a lime dosing system. The treated
water pH is 7.0-7.2 after getting a boost from hypo addition for
disinfection, since disinfection with sodium hypochlorite actually raises the
pH of the finished water. Ferric coagulants also work well over a wide pH
range and often can be used at the higher end of the range, say from 7.5 to
8.0. Organic polyDADMAC s work pretty well at any pH and this may
prove to be an advantage in certain applications.

8.3 Instead of Al2 (SO 4 )3 , name another three coagulants that can be used as
coagulant aid.

- Ferric Chloride : FeCl3

- Ferric Sulphate : FeSO 4
- Polyelectrolytes
9.0 CONCLUSION

We had successfully done this experiment because the objective of this

experiment, to visualize the coagulation- flocculation process in the laboratory and to
determine the optimum dosage of alum solution added to remove turbidity over water
sample has achieved. Based from the result of jar test experiment, the optimum alum
dosage to remove turbidity in water sample is 15ml. The alum dosage of 15 ml reduced
the turbidity to 17 NTU and the residual pH is 4.80. Base on the data, we conclude that
although the turbidity is generally declines as the amount of the alum which added into
the water but there is a point where more alum should not be added. This is because
alum will make the water more acidic. Therefore, to overcome these problems, buffer
should be added with same amount of alum at the same time the alum is added.

10.0 REFERENCES

[1] http://www.engr.mun.ca/~baiyu/ENGI%209628_files/Winter%202015/Lab5.pdf
[2] http://documents.mx/documents/5-jar-test-report.html#
[3] http://www.mi-
wea.org/docs/Official%20Proced.%20for%20Laboratory%20Jar%20Test%204-
15.pdf
[4] http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/358.1.pdf
[5] https://ocw.tudelft.nl/wp-content/uploads/Jar-test.pdf
[6] http://www.wioa.org.au/conference_papers/2005/pdf/10wioa2005.pdf