Chemical Bonding

Chemical Bonding
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Chemical Bonding
Historical background
Theories of chemical bonds abound in the history of Science. One of the first was developed by Roman
poet Lucretius (95 55 B.C.). He was the author of De Rerum Natura (the title literally means "On the nature of things")
and in this poem, Lucretius described atoms as tiny spheres with fishhook-like arms.
According to Lucretius, atoms joined with other atoms to form larger entities when the hooked arms of two or more atoms
became entangled with each other.
Of course, this theory is now inconceivably naive, and even to some extent, ludicrously dim. We now know of bonds being
electrostatic interactions between positively and negatively charged entities. There are even special bonds discovered
where two bonds are formed by only 3 electrons.
Learning Outcomes
1. Describe the formation of ionic bonds between metals and non-metals, e.g., NaCl, MgCl2.
2. State that ionic materials contain a giant lattice in which ions are held together by electrostatic forces.
3. Deduce the formula and names of ionic compounds.
4. Relate the physical properties (including electrical property) of ionic compounds to their lattice structure.
5. Describe the formation of a covalent bond by the sharing of electrons.
6. Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the formation of covalent bonds between non-metallic elements.
7. Deduce the arrangement of electrons in covalent molecules.
8. Relate the physical properties (including electrical property) of covalent substances to their structure and bonding.
9. Compare the bonding and structures of diamond and graphite.
10. Describe the metals as a lattice of positive ions in a 'sea of electrons'.
11. Relate the electrical conductivity of metals to the mobility of the electrons in the structure.
12. Deduce the physical and chemical properties of substances from their structures and vice versa.\
13. Write chemical equations to show reactions.
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Chemical Bonding
1. Prelude to Chemical Bonding
Atoms lose or gain valence electrons to attain the stable electronic structure of a noble
gas. In doing so, they form ions, e.g., sodium chloride is made up of sodium cation and
chloride anion.
Atoms also share valence electrons to attain the stable electronic structure of a noble
gas. In doing so, they form molecules, e.g., water is made up of oxygen and two hydrogen
atoms.
Noble gases have a valence shell with 8 electrons (with the exception of Helium with 2 valence
electrons). We call this the noble gas configuration or octet configuration (see Figure 5.4.1).
Bonding refers to the way in which atoms join and combine with one another.
Chemical bond refers to the forces of attraction that holds the atoms together.
Structure refers to the arrangement of the particles as a result of bonding.
2. Why do Particles Undergo Bonding?
Every atom aims to attain the stable electronic configuration of a noble gas (true for the
first 20 elements of the Periodic Table only).
Only the outer shell/ valence electrons are involved in bonding.
2.1 Electronic Structure of Noble Gases
Helium atom Neon atom Argon atom

He (2) Ne (2.8) Ar (2.8.8)
He
Ne Ar
Figure 2.1.1 Electronic structure of helium, neon and argon
This explains why noble gases are monatomic (i.e., He, Ne and Ar) as they are unreactive and
do not readily form bonds with other atoms.
Chemical Bonding
3. Chemical Bonding
3.1 Metallic Bonding
A metallic bond is the electrostatic attractive force between the positively charge metal
ions and the negatively charged delocalised mobile valence electrons.
In a metal, the atoms are closely packed together in a regular, orderly manner.
The metal atoms are electropositive in nature therefore they lose one or more electrons
easily to become cations.
The electrons occupy the space between the metal ions and are free to move throughout the
metal. The electrons are said to be mobile or delocalised.
3.1.1 Structure of Metals
(1) Lattice of metal cations surrounded by a sea of mobile (or delocalised) valence
electrons.
+ + + +
metal cation
mobile valence
electrons
+ + + +
+ + + +
Figure 3.1.1.1 Metallic structure
(2) Metallic bonds are non-directional. There is no preferred attraction by the metal cation for the
mobile valence electrons in any particular direction.
+ + + +
electrostatic
+ + + + attraction
+ + + +
Figure 3.1.1.2 Non-directional attraction of delocalised electrons by metal
cations
3.1.2 Physical Properties of Metals
(1) Physical appearance
Typical metals are lustrous (shiny) and sonorous (producing a ringing sound when hit).
Chemical Bonding
Lustrous? What's that?
The luster of metals is due to its electronic structure. The

electrons in the orbitals of the metal atoms can absorb a
specific quantum of radiation during excitation. Free
electrons in the metallic structure often absorb radiation in
the visible light region. When these excited electrons lose
this excitation energy, they re-emit the same absorbed
quantum of radiation as visible light. The re-emission of
visible light by the electrons takes place over an extremely
short period of time (almost instantly). Hence, we do not
see the metal object as just a solid colour but it appears to
be shiny and reflective.
Figure 3.1.2.1 Lustrous copper metal
(2) High Density
Metals consist of a giant metallic lattice of closely-packed, regular arrangement of metal

cations surrounded by delocalised electrons. Hence, metals have high density as they have
a high mass in a given unit volume.
(3) Malleable and Ductile
force
applied + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
Metallic bonds are not broken

when the layers slide after a
force is applied.
Figure 3.1.2.2 Malleability of metals
Malleability and ductility of metals
- Pure metal contains metal cations of the same size and are arranged in a regular,
orderly manner, allowing the layers of cations to slide over one another easily.
- Non-directional nature of the metallic bonds allows layers of metal cations to slide
over one another without breaking the strong metallic bonds.
- Hence, pure metals are soft, malleable (can be beaten into thin sheets without breaking)
and ductile (can be drawn into thin wires).
(4) High Boiling & Melting Points
Strong metallic bonds hold the giant metallic structure tightly together.
Chemical Bonding
A large amount of energy is required to overcome the strong electrostatic attraction

forces between the cations and the negative delocalised electrons.
Hence, typical metals have high melting and boiling points and are solids at r.t.p.
Melting and boiling points of metals increase as strength of metallic bonds increase.
(5) Solubility in Water & Organic Solvents
Metals are insoluble in both polar and non-polar solvents.
(6) Good Electrical Conductivity
Figure 3.1.2.3 Conduction of electricity by metals
Presence of mobile valence electrons which can migrate freely through the metallic
structure when a potential difference is applied.
When a metal is connected to a circuit, the mobile valence electrons will move towards the
positive terminal. To replace them, more electrons are fed into the metal from the negative
terminal.
Hence, metals are good conductors of electricity.
The greater the number of mobile valence electrons, the higher the electrical conductivity
since more electrons can migrate.
Table 3.1.2.1 Electrical conductivity of some metals

Metal Number of valence electrons Electrical conductivity/
106 1 cm1
sodium 1 0.210
magnesium 2 0.226
aluminium 3 0.377
(7) Good Thermal Conductivity
When the temperature at one end of a metal is increased, the mobile valence electrons at
the heated end gain energy and move more rapidly.
Chemical Bonding
They then collide rapidly with other mobile valence electrons at the cooler regions of the
metal, transferring energy from one electron to another.
There is extensive distribution of mobile valence electrons throughout the giant metallic
lattice, allowing energy to be transferred quickly from one end to another.
Hence, metals are good thermal conductors.
Alloys: Metals Dissolving in Other Metals!
An alloy is a mixture of a metal and small amounts of other metals or non-

metals. The size of the atoms of the added metal is different from the atoms of
the parent metal. This disrupts the regular, orderly arrangement of metal atoms
and prevents them from sliding over each easily. This strengthens the metal.
Alloys have special properties which the individual alloying constituents do not
possess.
atom of alloying metal
atom of parent
metal
Figure 3.1.2.4 Structure of an alloy
The main reasons for making alloys include:

- Improve the strength and hardness of metals, e.g., brass is stronger than either copper or
zinc.
- Improve the resistance of metals, e.g., stainless steel contains chromium and does not
rust as easily as steel.
- Enhance the appearance of metals, e.g., brass has a nice gold colour compared to copper
or zinc.
- Lower the melting point of a metal, e.g., tin (239.1 oC) and lead (327.5 oC) to make solder
(180 - 190 oC).
However, alloys generally do not conduct electricity and thermal energy as well as pure
metals. Why?
Why Can Alloys Form?
The solubility of metal atoms in other metals is due to the ability of the sea of mobile valence
electrons to accommodate cations of other metals. Metallic bonds are formed between metal
cations and the mobile valence electrons. Neither the mobile valence electrons nor the metal
cations have any way of distinguishing other foreign metal cations or valence electrons as
the interaction is essentially electrostatic. This allows alloys to be made.
Chemical Bonding
Common Parent Alloying Special Properties Uses

Alloys Metal elements
Amalgam Hg Sn Durable Tooth Fillings
Brass Cu Zn Resistant to Electric
corrosion contracts,
musical
instrument
Bronze Cu Sn Hard and resistant to Medals, bells,
corrosion statues
Coinage metal Cu Ni Strong and durable Making coins
(cupronickel)
Constantan Cu Ni Electrical Thermocouple
Conductivity
Duralumin Al Cu, Mg, Mn Strong and light Aircraft bodies
Pewter Sn Sb, Cu Shiny and beautiful Ornaments,

souvenirs
Solder Pb Sn Lower melting point Joining metals
Stainless steel Fe Cr, Ni Strong and good Cutlery
corrosion / chemical
resistance
Steel Fe C Hard and strong Building
structures,
bridges
3.2 Ionic (or Electrovalent) Bonding
An ionic bond is the strong electrostatic attraction between positively charged ions
(cations) and negatively charged ions (anions).
Ionic bonding results when electrons are transferred from atoms of one element to atoms of
another element, producing cations and anions.
+ + +
+ + + chloride ion
+ + + sodium ion
+ + +
Figure 3.2.1 The giant ionic lattice representations of sodium chloride in 2D

and 3D.
Chemical Bonding
Ionic bonds are usually formed between metallic elements (in Group I, II and III) and non-
metallic elements. (in Group VI and VII)
An atom of metal tries to achieve a noble gas electronic configuration by losing/ donating
electron(s) and thus becomes a cation, e.g.,
Na Na+ + e (Group I metals)

Mg Mg + 2e (Group II metals)
2+
Al Al3+ + 3e (Group III metals)
An atom of non-metal tries to achieve a noble gas electronic configuration by gaining/

accepting electron(s) and thus becomes an anion.
Cl + e Cl (Group VII non-metals)

O + 2e O 2 (Group VI non-metals)
The positive & negative charges in an ionic compound must be equal since a compound is
electrically neutral.
As ionic bonds are found extensively throughout the structure, ionic compounds are said to take
on a giant ionic lattice structure.
3.2.1 Representations of Ionic bonding Using dot and cross Diagrams
The following dot and cross diagrams show the formation of sodium chloride.
(a) Diagram showing the full electronic structure.
Key
- electron of Na
- electron of Cl
Figure 3.2.1.1 Ionic bond formation in sodium chloride
Chemical Bonding
(b) Diagram showing only the valence electrons.
transfer of electron
Na Cl Cl
Na

Key
- electron of Na
- electron of Cl
Figure 3.2.1.2 Ionic bond formation in sodium chloride
Tips to Note When Drawing Ionic Bonding Diagrams!

1. Use a dotted arrow to trace the transfer of each electron. Label the arrow as transfer of
electrons.
2. Always provide a key for your dot and cross diagram (very important!).
3. Use different symbols to represent electrons of different types of atom (i.e. a dot represents
an electron of sodium atom and a cross represents an electron of chlorine atom)
Checkpoint 1
Using a 'dot-and-cross' diagram, draw the formation of LiBr, CaO, MgF2, AlCl3. Show only the
valence electrons.
Chemical Bonding
Chemical Bonding
3.2.2 Structure of Ionic Compounds

positive ions of the metal,
sodium, Na+
negative ion of the non-metal,

chlorine, Cl-
Figure 3.2.2.3 Model of the structure of sodium chloride
Ionic compounds consist of positive ions usually of metals and negative ions usually of non-
metals arranged in an orderly manner.
Alternating arrangement of cations and anions maximises attractions and minimises repulsions
in the structure of an ionic compound.
The cations and anions are arranged in a regular, three-dimensional network in the form of
giant ionic crystal lattice structure. The oppositely charged ions are held together by strong
electrostatic forces of attraction.
Common Misconception!
Ionic compounds do not consist of just one positive ion attracted to one negative ion by
electrostatic forces. There are many ions in the giant ionic lattice structure!
3.2.3 Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds
(1) Physical appearance
Ionic compounds are usually crystalline solids which are hard but brittle.
- Hard: A large amount of energy is required to overcome the strong electrostatic

attraction between the cations and anions.
- Brittle: When a large enough force is applied, the layers of ions can slide, bringing
ions of like charges next to each other. These ions of like charges repel each other
and the ionic lattice shatters.
Chemical Bonding
+ - + - + - + + - + - + - +
- + - + - + - - + - + - + -
large
+ - + - + - + repulsion
force + - + - + - +
applied - + - + - + - between ions of
- + - + - + -
like charges
+ - + - + - +
- + - + - + -
lattice breaks down along a
layer of ions
+ - + - + - +
- + - + - + -
Figure 3.2.3.1 Ionic solids are brittle
(2) High boiling and melting points
In ionic compounds, oppositely-charged ions are held tightly together by strong ionic bonds
in a giant ionic crystal lattice structure.
Large amount of energy must be supplied to overcome these strong forces of

electrostatic attraction between the cations and anions.
At room temperature, there is not enough energy from the surrounding to overcome these
strong forces of electrostatic attraction between the cations and anions. A very high
temperature is required.
Hence, ionic compounds are usually solids at room temperature due to its high melting point
and high boiling point, e.g., sodium chloride melts at 801 oC and boils at 1517 oC.
The melting points of ionic compounds depend on the strength of their ionic bonds.
Generally, the higher the charges of the positive and negative ions the stronger the
ionic bonds and the higher the melting point.
[Note: The strength of the ionic bonds also depends on the size of the ions. Generally, the
smaller the ions, the stronger the ionic bonds.]
Uses: Ionic compounds are used as refractory materials they are stable to heat.
- Compounds like magnesia (MgO) which melts at 2800 C is used to line the inside of
high temperature furnace. Alumina (Al2O3) which melts over 2000 C is used to make
crucible and spark plugs for motor cars.
Chemical Bonding
(3) Conducts electricity in molten and aqueous states but non-conducting in solid state
Solid state: The ions are held in fixed positions in a giant ionic crystal lattice structure by
strong electrostatic forces of attraction and thus, the ions are unable to move freely to
conduct electricity.
Molten or liquid or aqueous state: The ions are mobile and will migrate to the electrodes
when a potential difference is applied.
Figure 3.2.3.2 Molten ionic compounds can conduct electric current
(4) Generally soluble in water and polar solvents, insoluble in non-polar solvents
Ionic compounds usually do not dissolve in organic (non-polar) solvents, e.g., hexane.
Ionic compounds are generally soluble in polar solvents (e.g., water and ethanol) due to
the formation of ion-dipole interactions.
Chemical Bonding
How Does an Ionic Compound Dissolve (In Water for Example)?
Step 1: Water molecules are attracted to ions in the giant ionic crystal lattice.
The partially negatively charged oxygen atoms of water molecules are attracted towards the
cations of the ionic compound.
The partially positively charged hydrogen atoms of water molecules are attracted towards
the anions of the ionic compound.
Water molecules arrange themselves around the ions.
Step 2: Water molecules remove the ions from the crystal lattice structure and hence breaking up
the ionic bonds between ions.
Step 3 (not shown): Ions are solvated by the water molecules.
3.3 Covalent Bonding
A covalent bond is the force of attraction between the shared electrons and the two
positive nuclei of the atoms. [Note: 1 covalent bond comprises 2 electrons.]
No charged particles are formed. Groups of atoms are chemically combined to form molecules.
In the formation of a single covalent bond, each atom has an electron in the valence shell to
be shared. The electron shells of both atoms overlap so that an electron pair is produced and
shared by both atoms. A single covalent bond is formed.
In a double covalent bond, each atom provides two valence electrons so that two atoms
share a total of four electrons. (e.g. oxygen molecule)
In a triple covalent bond, each atom provides three valence electrons so that two atoms
share a total of six electrons. (e.g. nitrogen molecule)
Chemical Bonding
Covalent bonds are usually formed between non-metallic elements.
3.3.1 Representations of Covalent Bonding in Elements Using Dot and Cross Diagram
(a) The following diagrams show the formation of various diatomic elements:
(a) Hydrogen, H2
Key
- electron of H
x - electron of H
sharing of electrons to attain the duplet

electronic configuration of the noble gas
helium
one electron is shown as the dot, represents the covalent bond

one electron is shown as the
cross
(b) Chlorine, Cl2
- Diagram showing the full electronic structure.

Cl Cl Cl
Cl

Key
- electron of H
x - electron of H
Chemical Bonding
- Diagram showing the valence electrons. lone pairs
Key
- electron of Cl
x - electron of Cl
each chlorine atom now has 8 valence

electrons; it has attained the noble gas (or
octet) electronic configuration
represents the covalent bond (or a

pair of electrons)
Lewis representation showing only
the valence electrons
(c) Oxygen, O2
Key
- electron of O
x - electron of O
represents the double covalent bond

(d) Nitrogen, N2 (or two pairs of 2 electrons)
Key
- electron of N
x - electron of N
each nitrogen atom now has 8 valence

electrons; it has attained the noble gas (or
octet) electronic configuration
represents the triple covalent bond ( or

3 pairs of 2 electrons)
Chemical Bonding
Checkpoint 2
Describe the formation of the following molecules with the aid of diagrams: full electronic structure
for F2, valence electrons only for Br2
Chemical Bonding
3.3.2 Representations of Covalent Bonding in Compounds Using Dot and Cross Diagram
(a) Methane, CH4
Key
- electron of H
x - electron of C
the hydrogen atom now has 2 valence the carbon atom now has 8 valence
electrons; it has attained the noble gas electrons; it has attained the noble gas
(duplet) electronic configuration (octet) electronic configuration
(b) Water, H2O
Key
- electron of H
x - electron of O
(c) Carbon dioxide, CO2
Key
- electron of O
x - electron of C
Chemical Bonding
Checkpoint 3
Draw the dot-and-cross diagrams to represent the following compounds/ reactions:
a) H2 + Cl2 2HCl
b) CCl4
c) NH3
Chemical Bonding
d) The following diagram shows the structure of one molecule of a substance.
What is the possible electronic configuration for the atoms in the above substance?
A 1 2.3
B 2.6 2.5
C 2.7 2.3
D 2.8.7 2.5
e) The proton number of arsenic, As, is 33. What is the most likely formula for the compound it
forms with hydrogen?
3.3.3 Structure of Covalent Substances
Recall: A molecule is made up of a group of atoms chemically combined in a covalent structure.
Covalent substances
(I) Simple covalent / (II) Giant covalent /

simple molecular structure Giant molecular /
Macromolecular structure
Simple molecules Giant molecules /

Macromolecules
(I) Simple Molecular Structure
Structure consists of small, discrete covalent molecules, i.e., simple molecules.

- Molecules of elements, H2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2 (diatomic molecules).
- Molecules of covalent compounds, HCl, CO2, CH4.
Chemical Bonding
Atoms within a molecule are joined by strong intramolecular covalent bonds while weak
intermolecular forces of attraction exists between separate molecules and holds them
together. We call these weak intermolecular forces van der Waals forces.
The weak van der Waals gorces are easily overcome, hence substances with simple
covalent structures have low melting and boiling points.
Figure 3.3.3.1 Bromine is a substance with simple covalent structure
Note
1. Be very clear of the differences between INTERMOLECULAR forces (in between molecules) and
INTRAMOLECULAR forces (which are actually the strong covalent bonds between atoms in a
molecule). This is very important and a common misconception.
2. Van der Waals forces in substances with simple covalent structures are NOT covalent bonds.
Van der Waals forces are generally weak, while covalent bonds are strong.
(II) Giant Molecular/ Giant Covalent Structure
All the atoms in substances with giant covalent structure are held tightly by strong
covalent bonds and form a giant covalent molecule, e.g., diamond and graphite.
Key Key
- C atom - C atom
Giant
molecules
of strong covalent bond
carbon
weak
intermolecular forces
Diamond Graphite
Chemical Bonding
- Each carbon atom is joined to 4 - Each carbon atom is joined to 3 other

other carbon atoms by strong carbon atoms by strong covalent
covalent bonds to form a bonds to form a network of
tetrahedral structure (i.e., hexagons.
Structure three-dimensional covalent - The hexagons are arranged in layers
network structure). or, thus resulting in a layered structure.
- Weak van der Waals forces hold the
layers together.
- The hardest natural substance - Soft and slippery.

known and has abrasive
character.
Q. Why? Q. Why?
All the carbon atoms are held Layers of carbon can easily slip over
together by very strong covalent one another, since the weak van der
bonds into a giant molecular Waals forces between the layers can be
structure. A large amount of overcome by a small amount of energy.
energy is needed to break these
very strong covalent bonds.
- High melting point (3500 C) - High melting point (4000 C).

Properties
and boiling point (4800 C).
Why?
All the carbon atoms are joined by - Able to conduct electricity. Why?
very strong covalent bonds into a
giant covalent structure. A large Each carbon atom only makes use of 3
amount of energy is needed to electrons for bonding and has one
overcome the strong forces of outermost electron not used to form
attraction between all carbon covalent bonds. The electrons not used in
atoms. bond formation are delocalised between
the layers. They can move along the
layers and thus can conduct electricity.
- Jewellery - Pencil lead

Uses
- In saws and drills for cutting - Lubricant
Both the structures of diamond and graphite comprises only carbon atoms. They are carbon
in different forms but in the same physical state, and are known as allotropes.
Chemical Bonding
Key Key
- Si atom - Si atom
Giant - O atom
molecules

Silicon and
its oxide
Silicon Silicon dioxide/ silicon(IV) oxide

- Each silicon atom is joined to 4 - Each silicon atom is joined to 4
other silicon atoms by strong oxygen atoms and each oxygen
covalent bonds to form a atom is joined to 2 silicon atoms
Structure
tetrahedral structure. by strong covalent bonds to form
a tetrahedral structure.
- Melting point (1410 C) - Melting point (1710 C)
- Boiling point (2360 C) - Hard and has abrasive character.

Properties
- Able to conduct electricity at
high temperatures.
- Silicon is a semi-conductor used - Sand or silica is used in the making

Uses in the manufacture of chips in of glass.
micro-electronics. - Quartz is used in watches.
3.3.4 Physical Properties of Substances with Simple Covalent/ Simple Molecular Structure
(1) Soft
A small amount of energy is required to overcome the weak van der Waals forces
holding the discrete molecules together.
(2) Low melting and boiling points (compared to substances with giant ionic crystal lattice structure,
giant covalent structure and metals).
A small amount of energy is required to overcome the weak van der Waals forces
holding the discrete molecules together.
Hence, substances with a simple molecular structure are usually liquids or gases (i.e.,
some are very volatile) at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.), i.e., they have low
melting and boiling points.
Chemical Bonding
Checkpoint 4
Why does chlorine exists as a gas at r.t.p.?
(3) Soluble in solvents of similar polarity
Substances with simple covalent structures and are non-polar are generally more soluble
in non-polar solvents, e.g., iodine can dissolve readily in organic solvents like hexane and
methylbenzene.
Substances with simple covalent structures and are polar are generally more soluble in
polar solvents, e.g., ethanol is readily soluble in water.
.
(4) Non- conductor of Electricity.
Simple molecular substances usually do not conduct electricity due to the absence of
mobile charge carriers such as ions or electrons.
3.3.5 Physical Properties of Substances with Giant Covalent/ Giant Molecular Structure
(1) Hard (except graphite)
A large amount of energy is required to overcome the strong covalent bonds between
atoms.
For graphite, strong covalent bonds exist between the carbon atoms in the layers but weak
intermolecular forces hold the layers together. Only a small amount of energy is required
to overcome the weak van der Waals forces between the layers, allowing the layers to
slide over each other. Hence, graphite is often used as a lubricant.
(2) High melting and boiling points.
A large amount of energy is required to overcome the strong covalent bonds between
atoms.
Melting points of selected substances with giant covalent structure.

Compound Melting point/oC
diamond 3550
graphite 3652
silicon(IV) oxide 1650
(3) Insoluble in all solvents (either polar or non-polar).
Chemical Bonding
(4) Non-conductor of Electricity (except graphite).
No mobile charge carriers present. All valence electrons are involved in formation of
covalent bonds.
For graphite, the presence of delocalised electrons along the layers allows graphite to
conduct electricity by migration of electrons when a potential difference is applied.
For silicon, it is able to conduct electricity at high temperature.
Enrichment: A Special Covalent Bond - The Dative Bond

In a typical covalent bond, the two atoms involved in bonding share a valence electron each to
form the bond, e.g., H and H to form H2, HH, HH.
In a dative (or coordinate) bond, one atom provides both electrons for sharing. For example,
H2O + H+ H3O+
H H
O + H+ O H+
H H
+
O atom of H2O: H : acceptor dative bond formed
donor such that H+ ion can
achieve the stable
noble gas/ duplet
configuration
AlCl3 + AlCl3 Al2Cl6
Cl Cl Cl
Cl Al + Al Cl Cl Al Cl
Cl Cl Cl Al Cl
Cl
For each AlCl3 molecule, dative bonds formed
Cl: donor such that each Al atom
Al: acceptor can achieve the stable
noble gas/ octet
configuration
Chemical Bonding
Common misconception!
Covalent bonds are not weaker than ionic bonds nor metallic bonds. You should not compare
between the strength of metallic bonds, ionic bonds and covalent bonds. They are all
different to begin with!
Checkpoint 5
1. Why is diamond used as a cutting material or an abrasive?
2. Which of the following statements is/are not true of covalent bonding?
I. It is formed by sharing of electrons between atoms.

II. Its strength is indicated by the melting and boiling points of the substance.
III. It is the attraction between the shared electrons and the nuclei of the corresponding atoms.
IV. It is weaker than ionic bonds as most substances with covalent bonds melt at low
temperatures.
3. Some elements are able to form compounds by the sharing or the transfer of electrons. Which
of the following elements is not able to form compounds in this manner?
A. Oxygen
B. Fluorine
C. Hydrogen
D. Magnesium
4. An element X reacts with iron to form two different compounds with the formulae FeX and
Fe2X3. What would the proton number of X likely be?
A. 5
B. 7
C. 8
D. 9
Chemical Bonding
5. The noble gas elements, though being generally unreactive, are known to be able to react with
a few elements to form compounds. One such compound is xenon tetroxide with the following
structure:
What is the total number of electrons in the valence shell of the xenon atom in this compound?
A. 8
B. 12
C. 14
D. 16
Enrichment: The Hydrogen Bond, The Bond Which Gives Us Life

Many of Earth's life-forms today had its origins in water. Hence, we could rightly say that without
water, there would be no life. For example, a significant portion of humans comprises water,
almost 60%. Given that water is substance with a simple molecular structure, we would expect it
to have a low boiling point, and be extremely volatile, evaporating instantly at room temperature.
However, this is not the case. If this was the case, we would all not exist. Why is water so special?
This is because the water molecules are held together by not only weak van der Waals forces, but
also by much stronger hydrogen bonds.
A hydrogen bond is the weak electrostatic attraction between the protonic hydrogen of one
molecule with a lone pair on a highly electronegative atom of another molecule.
O
hydrogen bond
H + H+
protonic hydrogen
H O O
+
H +
H + H +
hydrogen bonding in water.
For hydrogen bonding to be present,
The molecules must have at least one H atom directly bonded to an electronegative element
(N, O, F).
Chemical Bonding
The neighbouring molecule/ ion must have at least one lone pair of electrons on a highly
electronegative atom.
Example: The boiling point of water, a substance with simple covalent structure, is significantly
higher than many other such substances. Why is this so?
The water molecules are held together by stronger hydrogen bonds. More energy is required to
overcome the stronger hydrogen bonds between water molecules compared to the weak van der
Waals forces between the molecules of other substances with simple covalent structure.
Chemical Bonding
SUMMARY
Type of bonding Ionic (or electrovalent) bonding Covalent bonding Metallic bonding
Type of bond
Ionic bond Covalent bond Metallic bond
formed
electrostatic attraction between
Electrostatic attraction between Electrostatic attraction between
positive metal cations & the sea
Definition positively-charged positive nuclei of bonded atoms &
of delocalised / mobile valence
& negatively-charged ions the shared electrons
electrons
e e
+e +e + e
+

Na Cl
Diagrammatic Cl Cl
+ + e +e + Ne

e
representation

Key: +e +e +
Key:
e of Na Key: metal cation sea of delocalised / mobile e of Ne
e of Cl , e of Cl valence electrons
Atoms of metal
Usually formed from Groups I, II or III Group VIII or 0
with atoms of non-metal(s) atoms of metals
between from Groups III, IV, V, VI & VII elements
atoms of non-metal
from Groups V, VI & VII
Type of
ionic covalent
substance
(or electrovalent) compounds (or molecular) substances metallic solids noble gases
formed
e.g., sodium chloride (NaCl) e.g., water (H2O) e.g., Fe, Al, Zn, Ni e.g., He, Ne, Ar
& examples

Chemical Bonding
Covalent substances
Ionic Giant covalent /
(or electrovalent) Simple covalent / Metallic solids
giant molecular /
compounds simple molecular
macromolecular
weak van der Waals forces
+ + strong covalent bond I I
e
+ e + e + e
e

+ + +

I I
I I + + e + e +
+ +

Type of
e
particles
involved
+ + + I I
I I
+ e + + e

in bonding
ions
atoms metal cations and
(cations: positively-charged
simple molecules in a giant molecule / a sea of delocalised valence
ions & anions: negatively-
macromolecule electrons
charged ions)
ionic bonding (i.e., transfer of
covalent bonding (i.e., sharing of electron) metallic bonding
electron)
Type of electrostatic attraction electrostatic attraction between electrostatic attraction between
bonding between positively & positive nuclei of bonded atoms & metal cations & the sea of
negatively-charged ions pair of valence electrons (in the region of overlap) delocalised valence / mobile e
Structure e.g., sodium chloride (NaCl) e.g., chlorine (Cl2) e.g., diamond e.g., iron (Fe)

Chemical Bonding
Each molecule of Cl2 consists of 1 Each carbon atom is joined to

Iron metal consists of a closely
chlorine atom joined to another 4 other carbon atoms by
packed, regular arrangement of
Positive sodium ions & chlorine atom by a strong single strong covalent bonds
positive iron metal cations
negative chloride ions are covalent bond. in a tetrahedral shape.
surrounded by a sea of mobile/
held together by strong ionic
delocalised valence electrons
bonds (OR electrostatic Each Cl2 molecule is then joined to All carbon atoms are held
which holds these cations
attraction) to form a giant other molecules by weak van der together by very strong
together by strong metallic
ionic crystal lattice structure. Waals forces to form a simple covalent bonds to form a
bonds to form a
molecular structure giant molecular network
giant metallic structure.
structure.
Other ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), water (H2O), graphite, aluminium (Al),
examples copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4) sulfur (S or S8) silicon dioxide (SiO2) sodium (Na)

Chemical Bonding
Covalent substances
Ionic
Giant covalent /
Physical property (or electrovalent) Simple covalent / Metallic solids
giant molecular /
compounds simple molecular
macromolecular
hard,
soft have a high density
1 Physical appearance hard but brittle hard (except graphite)
(e.g., sulfur is powdery) (except Group I metals)
shiny, malleable, ductile
(e.g., O2, H2, NH3,
solid gas
Physical state SO2) solid
2 (unless dissolved to form solid
at r.t.p. liquid (e.g., H2O, Br2) (except mercury liquid)
aqueous solution)
solid (e.g., S)
high very low high high
e.g., sodium chloride e.g., chlorine (Cl2) volatile e.g., diamond e.g., iron
Boiling points & melting
3 (NaCl) m.p. 103 C m.p. 3500 C m.p. 1535 C
points
m.p. 801 C b.p. 35 C b.p. 4800 C b.p. 3000 C
b.p. 1413 C
many
(a) Solubility in water few (e.g., HCl, NH3) insoluble insoluble
(e.g., Na , K+ & NH4+ salts)
+
4 many
(b) Solubility in non-polar
organic solvents insoluble (e.g., I2 dissolves in CCl4) insoluble insoluble
solid solid

molten
molten / liquid (except a few which
5 Electrical conductivity (except graphite and (i.e., liquid state)
dissolve in water
silicon)
aqueous to form ions, e.g., HCl, NH3)
6 Thermal conductivity
Legend: poor conductor / insulator; good conductor

Chemical Bonding

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Chemical Bonding

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Chemical Bonding

Full Lecture Videos for

1. Prelude to Chemical Bonding

Structure refers to the arrangement of the particles as a result of bonding.

2. Why do Particles Undergo Bonding?

Only the outer shell/ valence electrons are involved in bonding.

2.1 Electronic Structure of Noble Gases

Helium atom Neon atom Argon atom

Figure 2.1.1 Electronic structure of helium, neon and argon

3.1 Metallic Bonding

3.1.1 Structure of Metals

3.1.2 Physical Properties of Metals

(1) Physical appearance

Lustrous? What's that?

The luster of metals is due to its electronic structure. The

(2) High Density

Metals consist of a giant metallic lattice of closely-packed, regular arrangement of metal

(3) Malleable and Ductile

Metallic bonds are not broken

Malleability and ductility of metals

(4) High Boiling & Melting Points

A large amount of energy is required to overcome the strong electrostatic attraction

(5) Solubility in Water & Organic Solvents

Metals are insoluble in both polar and non-polar solvents.

(6) Good Electrical Conductivity

Figure 3.1.2.3 Conduction of electricity by metals

Hence, metals are good conductors of electricity.

Table 3.1.2.1 Electrical conductivity of some metals

(7) Good Thermal Conductivity

Hence, metals are good thermal conductors.

Alloys: Metals Dissolving in Other Metals!

An alloy is a mixture of a metal and small amounts of other metals or non-

atom of alloying metal

Figure 3.1.2.4 Structure of an alloy

The main reasons for making alloys include:

Why Can Alloys Form?

Common Parent Alloying Special Properties Uses

Pewter Sn Sb, Cu Shiny and beautiful Ornaments,

3.2 Ionic (or Electrovalent) Bonding

Figure 3.2.1 The giant ionic lattice representations of sodium chloride in 2D

Na Na+ + e (Group I metals)

Al Al3+ + 3e (Group III metals)

An atom of non-metal tries to achieve a noble gas electronic configuration by gaining/

Cl + e Cl (Group VII non-metals)

3.2.1 Representations of Ionic bonding Using dot and cross Diagrams

(a) Diagram showing the full electronic structure.

Figure 3.2.1.1 Ionic bond formation in sodium chloride

(b) Diagram showing only the valence electrons.

Tips to Note When Drawing Ionic Bonding Diagrams!

3.2.2 Structure of Ionic Compounds

negative ion of the non-metal,

Figure 3.2.2.3 Model of the structure of sodium chloride

3.2.3 Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds

(1) Physical appearance

- Hard: A large amount of energy is required to overcome the strong electrostatic

Figure 3.2.3.1 Ionic solids are brittle

(2) High boiling and melting points

Large amount of energy must be supplied to overcome these strong forces of

Figure 3.2.3.2 Molten ionic compounds can conduct electric current

How Does an Ionic Compound Dissolve (In Water for Example)?

Water molecules arrange themselves around the ions.

Step 3 (not shown): Ions are solvated by the water molecules.

3.3 Covalent Bonding

Covalent bonds are usually formed between non-metallic elements.