Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Review Article Diare Akut
Review Article Diare Akut
Acute Gastroenteritis
Deise Granado-Villar, MD,
Educational Gap
MPH,* Beatriz Cunill-De
Sautu, MD, Andrea In managing acute diarrhea in children, clinicians need to be aware that management
Granados, MD x based on bowel rest is outdated, and instead reinstitution of an appropriate diet has
been associated with decreased stool volume and duration of diarrhea. In general, drug
therapy is not indicated in managing diarrhea in children, although zinc supplementation
Author Disclosure and probiotic use show promise.
Drs Granado-Villar,
Cunill-De Sautu, and
Objectives After reading this article, readers should be able to:
Granados have
disclosed no financial 1. Recognize the electrolyte changes associated with isotonic dehydration.
relationships relevant 2. Effectively manage a child who has isotonic dehydration.
to this article. This 3. Understand the importance of early feedings on the nutritional status of a child who
commentary does has gastroenteritis.
contain a discussion of 4. Fully understand that antidiarrheal agents are not indicated nor recommended in the
an unapproved/ treatment of acute gastroenteritis in children.
investigative use of 5. Recognize the role of vomiting in the clinical presentation of acute gastroenteritis.
a commercial product/
device. Introduction
Acute gastroenteritis is an extremely common illness among infants and children world-
wide. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), acute diarrhea
among children in the United States accounts for more than 1.5 million outpatient visits,
200,000 hospitalizations, and approximately 300 deaths per year. In developing countries,
diarrhea is a common cause of mortality among children younger than age 5 years, with an
estimated 2 million deaths each year. American children younger than 5 years have an av-
erage of two episodes of gastroenteritis per year, leading to 2 million to 3 million ofce visits
and 10% of all pediatric hospital admissions. Furthermore, approximately one third of all
hospitalizations for diarrhea in children younger than 5 years are due to rotavirus, with an
associated direct cost of $250 million annually. (1)(2)
Definitions
Diarrhea is dened as the passage of three or more loose or watery stools per day (or more
frequent passage of stool than is normal for the individual).
Stool patterns may vary among children; thus, it is important
Abbreviations to note that diarrhea should represent a change from the
norm. Frequent passage of formed stools is not diarrhea,
CDC: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention nor is the passing of pasty stools by breastfed young infants.
IV: intravenous (2)(3)
KD: potassium There are three clinical classications of diarrheal
NaD: sodium conditions:
NG: nasogastric
ORS: oral rehydration solution Acute diarrhea, lasting several hours or days
WHO: World Health Organization Acute bloody diarrhea or dysentery
Persistent diarrhea, lasting 14 days or longer
*Chief Medical Officer, Senior Vice President for Medical & Academic Affairs, Miami Childrens Hospital; Clinical Associate Professor of
Pediatrics, Affiliate Dean for Miami Childrens Hospital, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University.
Director, Pediatric Residency Program, Miami Childrens Hospital; Clinical Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, Herbert Wertheim
College of Medicine, Florida International University.
x
Chief Resident, Miami Childrens Hospital; currently Pediatric Endocrinology Fellow, University of Michigan.
Clinical Presentation
The clinical manifestations of acute gastroenteritis can in- Causes of Acute
Table 1.
clude diarrhea, vomiting, fever, anorexia, and abdominal Gastroenteritis in Children (2)
cramps. Vomiting followed by diarrhea may be the initial
presentation in children, or vice versa. However, when Viruses
emesis is the only presenting sign, the clinician must con- Rotaviruses
Noroviruses (Norwalk-like viruses)
template other diagnostic possibilities, such as diabetes, Enteric adenoviruses
metabolic disorders, urinary tract infections, meningitis, Caliciviruses
gastrointestinal obstruction, and ingestion. The charac- Astroviruses
teristics of the emesis, such as color, intensity, and fre- Enteroviruses
quency, as well as relationship to feedings, often lead Bacteria
Campylobacter jejuni
to the most likely diagnoses. (1)(2)(4) Nontyphoid Salmonella spp
A complete history and physical examination always Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli
must be performed. The clinician should inquire about Shigella spp
the duration of illness; the number of episodes of vomit- Yersinia enterocolitica
ing and diarrhea per day; urine output; the presence of Shiga toxin producing E coli
Salmonella typhi and S paratyphi
blood in the stool; accompanying symptoms such as fe- Vibrio cholerae
ver, abdominal pain, and urinary complaints; and recent Protozoa
uid and food intake. Recent medications and the childs Cryptosporidium
immunization history also should be reviewed. The phys- Giardia lamblia
ical examination should focus on identifying signs of de- Entamoeba histolytica
Helminths
hydration such as level of alertness, presence of sunken Strongyloides stercoralis
eyes, dry mucous membranes, and skin turgor. (1)(3)
Viruses are the cause of the majority of cases of acute
gastroenteritis in children worldwide. Viral infections
usually are characterized by low-grade fever and watery by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1995, which
diarrhea without blood. Bacterial infections may result also divided patients into three groups: no signs of dehydra-
in inltration of the mucosal lining of the small and large tion (<3%5%), some signs of dehydration (5%10%), and
intestines, which in turn causes inammation. Children severe dehydration (>10%).
thus are more likely to present with high fever and the The authors of studies have evaluated the correlation
presence of blood and white blood cells in the stool. of clinical signs of dehydration with posttreatment weight
Table 1 lists the common causal pathogens of acute gas- gain and have demonstrated that the rst signs of dehy-
troenteritis in children. (2) dration might not be evident until 3% to 4% dehydration.
Furthermore, more obvious clinical signs of dehydration
Assessment of Dehydration become apparent at 5% dehydration, and indications of
Dehydration related to acute gastroenteritis is a major severe dehydration become evident when the uid loss
concern in pediatric patients. Therefore, clinicians in pri- reaches 9% to 10%. As a result, the CDC revised its recom-
mary care ofces, emergency departments, and hospital mendations in 2003 and combined the mild and moderate
settings must assess the circulatory volume status as part dehydration categories, acknowledging that the signs of
of the initial evaluation of children presenting with acute dehydration might be apparent over a relatively wide
gastroenteritis. This assessment is essential in guiding the range of uid loss (Table 2). The ultimate goal of this as-
decision making regarding therapy and patient disposition. sessment is to identify which patients can be sent home
In 1996, the CDC published recommendations on safely, which should remain under observation, and which
the assessment of dehydration, which were subsequently are candidates for immediate, aggressive therapy. (1)
endorsed by the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP).
These guidelines classied patients into three groups Laboratory Evaluation
based on their estimated uid decit: mild dehydration Serum electrolytes are not indicated routinely in patients
(3%5% uid decit), moderate dehydration (6%9% who have acute gastroenteritis. Authors of several studies
uid decit), and severe dehydration (>10% uid decit have evaluated the utility of laboratory tests in assessing
or shock). These classications are similar to those delineated the degree of dehydration, and the evidence reveals that
such studies are imprecise and may distract clinicians from is the cornerstone of therapy in managing uncomplicated
focusing on signs and symptoms that have proven diag- cases of diarrhea.
nostic utility. Commonly obtained laboratory tests, such ORSs began to evolve in the 1940s, as an initiative of
as blood urea nitrogen and bicarbonate concentrations, Daniel Darrow at Yale and Harold Harrison at Baltimore
generally are helpful only when the results are markedly City Hospital. Darrow performed studies in children who
abnormal. Thus, these laboratory tests should not be had acute diarrhea and identied the need for appropriate
considered denitive predictors of dehydration. (1)(5) replacement of sodium (Na), potassium (K), and alkali
(6)(7) Additionally, current evidence demonstrates that to correct the metabolic acidosis. Subsequently, Harrison
urinary indices, including specic gravity and the pres- added glucose to a balanced electrolyte solution and estab-
ence of ketones, also are not useful diagnostic tests for lished that such a solution could be used successfully for
identifying the presence of dehydration. (8)(9) There- rehydration. In 1953, Chatterjee rst demonstrated that
fore, measurement of electrolytes should be reserved ORSs could rehydrate patients who have cholera and avoid
for patients aficted with severe dehydration who require the need for IV uids.
intravenous (IV) uid therapy upon initial clinical assess- Studies evaluating the mechanism of intestinal solute
ment and for those in whom hypernatremic dehydration transport have revealed that the absorption of water in
is suspected (ie, ingestion of hypertonic solutions). (1) the gastrointestinal tract is a passive process that depends
Stool studies should be considered during outbreaks, on the osmotic gradient created by the transcellular trans-
especially in child care settings, schools, and hospitals, port of electrolytes and nutrients. Although there are al-
where there is a public health concern that mandates ternate mechanisms that contribute to the absorption of
the identication of a pathogen and the identication Na in the enterocyte, it is the coupled transport of Na
of the source of disease. Other special circumstances that and glucose at the intestinal brush border that is respon-
warrant the collection of stool samples for identication sible for the success of ORSs.
of enteric pathogens include the evaluation of children Sodium-solute-coupled cotransport is an energy-
who have dysentery, a history of recent foreign travel, dependent process. The Na gradient within the cell is
and managing young or immunocompromised children maintained by the NaK adenosine triphosphatase
who present with high fever. (2) pump on the basolateral membrane of the enterocyte.
Subsequent research has revealed that other solutes, such
The Evolution of Oral Rehydration Solutions as amino acids, also were absorbed by active transport
The introduction of oral rehydration solutions (ORSs) mechanisms involving Na ion coupling.
has decreased signicantly the morbidity and mortality Clinical studies of ORSs in patients who have cholera
associated with acute gastroenteritis worldwide. (1) ORS in the Philippines and India have conrmed that oral
replacement of water and electrolytes produced a suf- ORS is recommended by the WHO and the AAP as
cient osmotic gradient to rehydrate patients successfully, the preferred treatment of uid and electrolyte losses
even in severe diarrheal disease. Solutions of lower osmo- caused by diarrhea in children with mild to moderate de-
larity that maintain the 1:1 glucose to Na ratio function hydration. The basis of this endorsement is meta-analysis
optimally as oral solutions for diarrhea management. comparing ORSs with traditional IV rehydration. The ev-
Subsequent clinical studies have conrmed the dramatic idence supports low overall treatment failures with ORSs
effect that ORSs had on decreasing mortality in acute di- (3.6%), dened as the need to revert to IV therapy, with-
arrheal disease; consequently, the WHO and the AAP out an increased incidence of iatrogenic hyponatremia or
have endorsed the implementation ORSs worldwide. (4) hypernatremia. (10) Other advantages of ORS include its
lower cost, the elimination of the need for intravascular
Management line placement, and the involvement of the parents in
Most cases of acute gastroenteritis in children are self-limiting providing oral uid replacement in the home environ-
and do not require the use of medications. An initial critical ment when tolerated.
step in the management of acute gastroenteritis usually be- Common household beverages such as fruit juices,
gins at home with early uid replacement. Families should sports drinks, tea, and soft drinks should be avoided in
be instructed to begin feeding a commercially available the management of acute gastroenteritis. Many of these
ORS product as soon as the diarrhea develops. Although beverages have a high osmolality due to their high sugar
producing a homemade solution with appropriate concen- content and contain little Na and K; consequently,
trations of glucose and Na is possible, serious errors can use of these uids may worsen the patients condition
result in attempting to use a homemade solution. Thus, by increasing the stool output and increasing the risk
standard commercial oral rehydration preparations should of hyponatremia. Table 3 provides a comparison of
be recommended where they are readily available. (4) the carbohydrate load and electrolyte composition of
dropper, small volumes of uid should be offered initially maternal age, lack of immediate and follow-up access
and increased gradually as tolerated. If a child appears to to a health-care facility, and other socio-economic stres-
want more than the estimated amount of ORS, more can sors. Clinical indications for the management of acute
be offered. Nasogastric (NG) feeding allows continuous gastroenteritis in a hospital setting are described in the
administration of ORS at a slow, steady rate for patients following scenarios (1):
who have persistent vomiting or oral ulcerations. Clinical
Intractable emesis, poor ORS tolerance, or ORS refusal.
trials support using NG feedings as a well-tolerated, more
Severe dehydration dened as loss of more than 9%
cost-effective method associated with fewer complica-
body weight.
tions when compared with IV hydration. This method
Young age (<1 year old), irritability, lethargy, or an
is particularly useful in the emergency department, where
uncertain diagnosis that may require close observation.
hospital admissions can be avoided if oral rehydration ef-
Underlying illness that may complicate the course of
forts are successful. In addition, a meta-analysis of ran-
the disease.
domized controlled trials comparing ORS versus IV
ORS treatment failure, including worsening of diarrhea
rehydration in dehydrated children demonstrated shorter
and dehydration despite appropriate administration of
hospital stays and improved parental satisfaction with oral
ORS.
rehydration. (1)(4)
Concerns regarding adequate care at home by
Hydration status should be evaluated on a regular ba-
caretakers.
sis in the clinical setting to objectively assess the response
to therapy and to evaluate the correction of the dehydra-
tion. Upon return to the home setting, caregivers must Limitations of ORS Therapy
be provided with and must understand fully the instruc- There are several clinical settings in which oral rehydra-
tions containing specic indications prompting their re- tion therapy is contraindicated. These conditions include
turn for re-evaluation and further medical care. (1) the care of children who have hemodynamic instability,
altered mental status, and shock in which the use of ORSs
Severe Dehydration can increase the risk of aspiration because of the loss of
Severe dehydration is characterized by a state of hypovo- airway protective reexes. Likewise, ORSs should not be
lemic shock requiring rapid treatment. Initial manage- used in cases of abdominal ileus until bowel sounds are
ment includes placement of an IV or intraosseous line present. In cases of suspected intestinal intussusception,
and rapid administration of 20 mL/kg of an isotonic crys- which might present with diarrhea or dysentery, the need
talloid (eg, lactated Ringer solution, 0.9% sodium chlo- for radiologic studies and surgical evaluation may be war-
ride). Hypotonic solutions should not be used for ranted before considering the use of ORSs. (1)(10)
acute parenteral rehydration. The patient should be ob- If the stool output exceeds 10 mL/kg body weight
served closely and monitored on a regular and frequent per hour, the rate of ORS treatment failure is higher.
basis. Serum electrolytes, bicarbonate, urea nitrogen, However, ORSs should continue to be offered because
creatinine, and glucose levels should be obtained, al- the majority of patients will respond well if adequate uid
though commencing rehydration therapy without these replacement is administered. (1)
results is safe. A poor response to the initial, immediate For children presenting with persistent emesis, physi-
treatment should raise the suspicion of an alternative di- cians should instruct parents to offer small amounts of
agnosis, including septic shock as well as neurologic or ORS; for example, 5 mL with a spoon or syringe every
metabolic disorders. Therapy may be switched to an oral 5 minutes, with a gradual increase in the uid amount
or NG route as soon as hemodynamic stability is accom- consumed. This technique frequently results in successful
plished and the patients level of consciousness is re- uid replacement and often a decrease in the frequency of
stored. (1)(4) vomiting as well. (1)(10)
5. Porter SC, Fleisher GR, Kohane IS, Mandl KD. The value
Based on strong evidence, administration of ORSs is of parental report for diagnosis and management of dehydration in
the preferred method for replacing fluid and the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2003;41(2):196205
electrolyte deficits resulting from intestinal tract 6. Gorelick MH, Shaw KN, Murphy KO. Validity and reliability of
losses in children who have acute gastroenteritis. clinical signs in the diagnosis of dehydration in children. Pediatrics.
Based on strong evidence, rapid reinstitution of an 1997;99(5):E6
unrestricted age-appropriate diet should be introduced 7. Steiner MJ, DeWalt DA, Byerley JS. Is this child dehydrated?
as part of the maintenance phase of treatment. JAMA. 2004;291(22):27462754
Strong evidence suggests that pharmacologic therapy 8. Nager AL, Wang VJ. Comparison of nasogastric and intravenous
generally is not indicated in cases of acute methods of rehydration in pediatric patients with acute dehydra-
gastroenteritis, and the use of drugs may complicate tion. Pediatrics. 2002;109(4):566572
the natural course of the disease. 9. Steiner MJ, Nager AL, Wang VJ. Urine specic gravity and other
urinary indices: inaccurate tests for dehydration. Pediatr Emerg
Care. 2007;23(5):298303
10. American Academy of Pediatrics. Statement of Endorsement.
References Managing acute gastroenteritis among children: oral rehydration,
maintenance, and nutritional therapy. Centers for Disease Control
1. King CK, Glass R, Bresee JS, Duggan C; Centers for Disease
and Prevention. Pediatrics. 2004;114(2):507
Control and Prevention. Managing acute gastroenteritis among
11. Reeves JJ, Shannon MW, Fleisher GR. Ondansetron decreases
children: oral rehydration, maintenance, and nutritional therapy.
vomiting associated with acute gastroenteritis: a randomized, con-
MMWR Recomm Rep. 2003;52(RR-16):116 trolled trial. Pediatrics. 2002;109(4):e62
2. Elliott EJ. Acute gastroenteritis in children. BMJ. 2007;334 12. Freedman SB, Adler M, Seshadri R, Powell EC. Oral ondanse-
(7583):3540 tron for gastroenteritis in a pediatric emergency department. N Engl
3. World Health Organization. The treatment of diarrhea: a manual J Med. 2006;354(16):16981705
for physicians and other senior health workers. Geneva, Switzerland: 13. Lukacik M, Thomas RL, Aranda JV. A meta-analysis of the
World Health Organization; 2005. Available at: http://www. effects of oral zinc in the treatment of acute and persistent diarrhea.
who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/documents/9241593180/en/. Pediatrics. 2008;121(2):326336
Accessed February 29, 2012 14. Thomas DW, Greer FR; American Academy of Pediatrics
4. Committee on Nutrition. Oral therapy for acute diarrhea. In: Committee on Nutrition; American Academy of Pediatrics Section
Kleinman RE, ed. Pediatric Nutrition Handbook. 6th ed. Elk Grove on Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition. Probiotics and
Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2009:651659 prebiotics in pediatrics. Pediatrics. 2010;126(6):12171231
PIR Quiz
This quiz is available online at http://www.pedsinreview.aappublications.org. NOTE: Since January 2012, learners can
take Pediatrics in Review quizzes and claim credit online only. No paper answer form will be printed in the journal.
1. A previously healthy 3-year-old boy presents with a 1-day history of a fever up to 39C accompanied by bloody
diarrhea. The most likely explanation of his problem is an infection with
A. Enteric adenovirus.
B. Giardia lamblia.
C. Norovirus.
D. Rotavirus.
E. Shigella dysenteriae.
2. A previously healthy 15-month-old girl vomited twice this morning. She has not vomited since but has now
experienced three episodes of profuse watery diarrhea. She has been afebrile. On examination, she refuses
fluids but is alert. The following are normal: bowel sounds, capillary refill, heart rate, and respiratory rate and
effort. If the clinician draws a blood sample to check a basic metabolic panel, he would expect to find:
A. A normal profile.
B. Significantly elevated blood urea nitrogen.
C. Significantly elevated serum potassium.
D. Very low serum bicarbonate.
E. Very low serum potassium.
4. This same patient does not vomit again; hence, small frequent feedings of oral rehydration solution are not
required, although her watery diarrhea continues. Optimal nutritional management of the diarrhea now
requires
A. Avoidance of breastfeeding.
B. Complete bowel rest.
C. Limitation of protein intake.
D. Resumption of an unrestricted regular diet as tolerated.
E. Routine use of a special lactose-free formula.
5. Aside from appropriate fluids and nutrition, the BEST way one can shorten the course of diarrhea and promote
recovery of this child is by giving her oral
A. Lactobacillus rhamnosus.
B. Loperamide.
C. Metoclopramide.
D. Ondansetron.
E. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole.
Updated Information & including high resolution figures, can be found at:
Services http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/content/33/11/487
References This article cites 11 articles, 5 of which you can access for free at:
http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/content/33/11/487#BIBL
Subspecialty Collections This article, along with others on similar topics, appears in the
following collection(s):
Gastroenterology
http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/cgi/collection/gastroenterolo
gy_sub
Infectious Diseases
http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/cgi/collection/infectious_dis
eases_sub
Permissions & Licensing Information about reproducing this article in parts (figures, tables) or
in its entirety can be found online at:
http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/site/misc/Permissions.xhtml
Reprints Information about ordering reprints can be found online:
http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/site/misc/reprints.xhtml
The online version of this article, along with updated information and services, is
located on the World Wide Web at:
http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/content/33/11/487
Pediatrics in Review is the official journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics. A monthly
publication, it has been published continuously since 1979. Pediatrics in Review is owned,
published, and trademarked by the American Academy of Pediatrics, 141 Northwest Point
Boulevard, Elk Grove Village, Illinois, 60007. Copyright 2012 by the American Academy of
Pediatrics. All rights reserved. Print ISSN: 0191-9601.