9.1 Introduction to complex numbers By the 16°" century, it was known that the quadratic equation ax +be+c=0, where a,b,cER has solutions _ —b+ Vb? — 4ac — 2a , provided that a 4 0 and b? — dac > 0. The quantity b? — dac is called the discriminant of the quadratic equation. A quadratic equation (with real coefficients) having a negative discriminant has no solution over the real numbers. In the next century, the first steps were taken to enlarge the real number system and create a new number system called the complex numbers, denoted C, in which all quadratic equations have solutions. The idea that allowed the formation of the complex numbers was the introduction of the symbol 7, which satisfies i? = —1. Eventually engineers and scientists discovered uses for complex numbers and they are now used extensively in many applications, including electric circuits and electromagnetic waves. MATH1030, 2011. Section 9. Page 238e A complex number is an expression of the form|a-+ bj, where abeR andi =i The set of such numbers is called the complex numbers and is denote C_) e Ifz=a+bi €C, then we call a the real part of z and b the imaginary part of z. We write this as a = Re(z) and b= Im(z). e The representation of a complex number in the form a + bi is called the Cartesian form of the complex number. Example 9.1.1 Let z = —3 — 4i. State Re(z) and Im(z). fe (2\- all ; Ton (2} -y¥ NOT =H e Two complex numbers a + bi and c+ di are equal if and only ifa=cand b=d. e Let z=a+bi and w =c+ di be two complex numbers. Addition z+w (a+ bi) + (c+ di) (a+c)+(b+d)i So Re(z + w) = Re(z) + Re(w) and Im(z + w) = Im(z) + Im(w). I Multiplication (a+ bi)(c-+ di) oat ac + adi + bei +odi ac + adi + bei — bd = (ac—bd) + (ad + be)i. Zw ll MATH1080, 2011. Section 9. Page 239Example 9.1.2. Let z= —3+ 2% and w = 4-1. Write each of the following in Cartesian form. a)det2w = 3(-ge2s)4 r(+4-8) re oF ta 6 2) Sma ge b) wz ye (4 )(-3 421) UP Lt hl eV 2 ~ Sine el sete eee eae c) iw ee . | 10. dy Example 9.1.3 Solve for@e C where a? 4204 ari 0. xe -a FY ar-teyre oe ee 2 2-24 a heey u u — = oj i ~ t{u: 2220 -~: BT. ashe. 2284 a a 2 MATH1050, 2011. Section 9. Page 240 aaxve ats ata * 20% e Let z=a+bieC. The complex conjugate of z, denoted Z, is Z=a— bi. — e The complex conjugate is useful because the product 27 gives a real number. L 6 22 =(atbi)(a—bf) =a +0? a e This is useful when we need to divide by a non-zero complex number. ath _ a+bi c~di ctdi — c+di~ c—di _ (a+ bi)(c — di) ~ c? + d? _ ac+bd | be— ad, Ctd@' e+e ‘ in Cartesian form. Q~*b) De OO at Het rea: TOTO < ae gat ave UED OS Example 9.1.4 Write of v 3,4 5° MATH1050, 2011. Section 9. Page 241e The modulus of the complex number z = to) denoted |z|. It is defined to be |2| = V2z = Va? +b. Properties of the modulus and complex conjugate Let z= a+ bi and w= c+ di be complex numbers. eld=lzl zeathe Zak l2\> Jor? [Ze Jar eu = \ahe™ == / a L Low . . . terme) = atut 22 = Gh) G4) ° lel? 7 { B19 = axe—(lad) Ziw = atctbiad = arcOlea) é Zz > Aten (Lead . — els LW ll aif Bee evita! e Z=z ifand only ifzeR Zeaths Z+ arbi 24th zMHbi > abiro - bi=o ez=2 bzo zeal} 2. Z2 ath) Z = arbi wat Ou Bo- aie Z TO GR,Geometric representation of complex numbers e The complex number z = a + bi can be represented by a point (a,b) in the complex plane. To represent the complex plane we use a pair of axes where the horizontal axis is the Real axis and the vertical axis is the Imaginary axis. e The illustration of complex numbers in the complex plane is often called an Argand diagram. e If we represent each complex number by its position vector, then the sum of two complex numbers corresponds to vector addition. ¢ The point corresponding to 2 is the reflection of the point corresponding to z in the Real axis. e The modulus of a complex number z is the length of the position vector corresponding to z. 342i a 3 Re G42) + C54) = 2431 MATH1050, 2011. Section 9. Page 243Aut i als . orvtonl 4 Complex numbers in polar form Suppose that the complex number z = a + bi is represented as a point in the complex plane. Grlet ion f Wy e The modulus of z gives the distance from z to the origin. e The argument of z, arg(z), is the angle that the position vector of z makes with the positive Real axis. Note that there can be many different arguments for a non-zero complex number z, since the angle @ is equivalent to the angle @ plus or minus any multiple of 27 radians. e Note that positive angles are in an anti-clockwise direction and negative angles are in a clockwise direction from the positive Real axis. e We call the argument of z that lies in the inter a.) the principal argument of z, denoted Arg(z). ——— If z = a+ bi then arg(z) = @ where tan@ = 4. Always draw a sketch to help you choose the correct value for 0. Example 9.2.1 Let z= —4+ 4. Determine |z| and Arsl2). 7 lel: Tenv oF “eA he a a & e g “ ae tan (t = yn x aes i : oot i ot eee Agese Consider the representation of a+ bijin the complex plane — which shows that a = |z|cos@ and b = |z|sin6. z= abi a be = |z|cos@ + |z|sin di \z|(cos 0 + isin 6). = = or ay [A OF ¢ The complex number z with modulus |z| = r and principal argument @ can be written in polar form as SS zen cos @ + isin 6). The polar coordinates of z are @®. e The abbreviation Gis 9Jis often used for cos 6 + isin @. I Example 9.2.2 a) Express the complex number z = —1—i in polar form. eq Gyr No t aretoun (+) b) Express the complex numige = = Beis 3} Cartesian | a ath zeal ¥e lon) eae ; Nels 30 Nhe = 7a + BU ST Re 3 1 MATH1050, 2011. Section 9 Page 245 =e Let a =ricis@: and 22 = 12 cis 02. Multiplication in polar form niza = Tara.cis (Bs + 63) Division in polar form = cis (01 = 4 02) >) Example 9.2.3 Let z = 10 cis 2= “ and w = 6cis §. a) Calculate zw and express rs answer in polar form. Zw a bo cis ( oe F) 60 cis % ¢ (me) = 60 cid (-= hu g fi b) Calculate = and express your answer in polar form. w 22% at ( $2) WwW 7 6 3 "Fee (e | = Sac /£ ges (Z) MATH1050, 2011. Section 9. Page 246ex + + + e Recall that the number e < 5.71828 ,.. is an irrational number. It can be nha «CS 8 (1+. ne =lim n—00 The following important result is known as | Euler’s formula: Z= Y(cos#@+isind te"? This result was introduced by the Swiss mathematician Euler in 1748. The proof is beyond the scope of this course. e Every non-zero complex number z = a+ bi with polar coordinates (7,9) can be written as a z=rcis@ (polar form) and z= re" (exponential form). e Some people call both of the above forms the polar form of | z, since they are both based on the polar coordinates of z. | Example 9.2.4 Write the complex number z = 1 — V3i in | 25-7 | exponential form. It a g aS | ore tan (3 a 8 + cis “¥) polar farm) St MATH1050, 2011. Section 9. Page 247Example 9.2.5 Let z= re’. Write % in exponential form. = ath) we Zab; mt" re (> ré*), Ni Example 9.2.6 Write —1 in exponential form. In : i Z| 2 x == ape Ze It O08 Cactetion Pen ei \.eis (wr) Polar Levy Dogoenial Tt is wonderful that two irrational numbers and the square root of a negative number combine in this way to give —1. MATH1050, 2011. Section 9. Page 248e The exponential form of a complex number can be used to show that multiplication by(z)can be interpreted geometrically as a counter-clockwise rotation throug! radians about the origin. If z= re, then - ods A eee tlom en cons = rete? rete . i e The complex numbers that can be written as z = e”® for some @ are the complex numbers with modulus 1. Their corresponding points in the complex plane make up a circle of radius one, centered at the origin. Multiplication of any complex number z by the complex number(¢)can be interpreted geometrically as a counter-clockwise rotation through @bdout the origin. rs If z=re**, then ez = e? x re? = re ei? = rei(St8), In k 243i z 342i 442i Re Re 1 GH) =-2431 re oe FRG c 2 -Q4h MATH1050, 2011. Section 9 Page 249Zearhy 2*= (awilact:) = onl + 125 9.3 Powers of complex numbers , ,2-,2,3 © De Moivre’s Theorem states that if z = r(cos@ +isin@) and a —— 7 is a natural number, then | 2” = rf (cos(pQ) + isin(nd)). This theorem was named after the French mathematician Abraham de Moivre (1667-1754). Proof: Let Z=7(cos+ising). Thus z = re, and “wa z= (rey = rp = r®(cos(nd) +isin(né)). e Notice that de Moivre’s theorem is also true (fn eR) Se « De Moivre’s Theorem allows us to calculate powers of complex numbers with ease. ( ano | Ezample 9.3.1 * Evaluate (1— V3i)8. 1 7 ales To e B \ age 0+ oreton 8) Ty Nz 2. Ache - (4 ze Aas (F) = a(cos($)+ can (-F)) zh of (cos (6B) + (a5 (be F)) 2 Guy (coo (2m) + (od ( -27)) MATH1050, 2011. Section 9. . Page 250 bs) abs = 64 (1+ @ty9) = 64.“Siar fe = 2 ¢ De Moivre’s Theorem also allows us to calculate the n™” roots of any complex number, where n € N. oe ¢ The n‘ roots of the complex number w are the values of z such that]z r = w.| There are exactly n such values of z. e To solve the equation z” =@)for some w € C and n EN. ct 1. Express w in polar form as w = r cis 0. maya tes ——— 2. Since the angle 6 is equivalent to the angle (0 for any k € Z, we know that rcis0 = rcis (0 , where k € Z is f ce = 3. Thus z = (rcis (6+ 2kn) fay and by the extension $f de Moivre’s theorem 1. (4) z=>T% cls eee n ofSED Example 9.3.2 Determine the four values of z for which @ )(c-a). MATH1050, 2011. Section 9. ‘\ ” Page 258a (2° [d2«715) (Z-«) = go- az M24 Wea #7182 -154 = 2° ~ (as )z* + (tarts) 2-15, oz - Sule SSze ISO, -(asi0)2 -€ 9 ar-2 lWads = > 2 arr -15a = ISd > ar-?. (z-a) * (z+a). Solutions oft 54548) | Sica sui 2)