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 POLAND.
AN HISTORICAL SKETCH.
 POLAND
AN HISTORICAL SKETCH

BY

FIELD-MARSHAL COUNT,VON MOLTKE

Jlttthxrrizfb llrsnstetutn, toith a gixrflrapltrcal S-^ixct

EMMA S. BUCHHEIM

LONDON: CHAPMAN AND HALL

LIMITED
i88s
 *- Ty^

^"CQRHEL

9t^^r^i7ivT

LONDON
PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED,
CITY ROAD.
 PREFACE.

The present essay was written by Count

Helmuth von Moltke upwards of half a
century ago, when he was engaged in the
Topographical Department of the Prussian
Generalstab (1828-1831). Moltke, at that
time a young lieutenant, was entrusted with
the task of surveying and levelling in Silesia
and the province of Posen, and he occupied
his spare time with studying the history of
Poland and the manners and customs of her
unhappy population. The result was an
essay on Poland, which appeared at Berlin
in 1832. This was the time when the
whole of Europe was stirred by events of
vital importance, and as a matter of course,
vl Preface.

the publication of the obscure Prussian

officer remained unheeded, so that, as far as

we know, it has not been mentioned in any

biography of the author. The merit of
having- rescued this valuable contribution to
the history of Poland from oblivion belongs
to the able Berlin litterateur. Dr. G. Karpeles,

who came across the essay in the course

of his historical researches, and obtained
the author's permission to republish it at

home and to have it translated abroad.*

A higher value attaches to this essay than

that of being the work of a well-known man,
although in these days Moltke's name would
suffice of itself to arouse interest for any-
thing emanating from his pen. It not only
presents us with a vivid picture of the
various discordant elements which con-
stituted Poland, but it explains how it was

* The German original was republished in the recent

numbers of the monthly Review, Vom Fels zum Meer.
We understand that a Polish and a Russian translation of
this essay will also shortly appear.
 Preface. vii

possible for an entire kingdom to be dis-

membered with, comparatively speaking, so

little difficulty. The Partition of Poland is

but briefly touched upon, as the facts belong

to a period of history which recent events
had brought prominently before the public
at the time when Moltke wrote.
Like a true historian, the author states his
facts dispassionately and leaves us to draw
the conclusions; it is this feature that consti-

tutes the merit of his essay from an historical

point of view. While a perusal of the sketch

arouses our heart-felt sympathy for the
struggles of all true Polish patriots, we can-
not but feel that the dismemberment of the
country was an historical necessity.
 COUNT MOLTKE.
A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.

The days are past when the wielders of the

sword and pen looked upon each other with
contempt ; from antagonists they have be-
come faithful allies, and literature numbers
among its votaries many of thq world's best
soldiers. Foremost among these stands
Count Moltke. It is impossible to say with
absolute certainty what path a man might
have followed had the circumstances that
directed his life been different, but looking
at Moltke' s writings, we cannot avoid think-

ing that the laurels which he won as a

soldier might have been won as a writer.
 Count Moltke.

But although his genius has displayed Itself

pre-eminently in a military career, he may

also claim an honourable place in the world

of letters.
Helmuth Karl Bernhard von Moltke was
born in Mecklenburg, October 26th, 1800,
so that his first childhood fell in the time

when the land which he was to help raise

to such greatness was abandoned to the

conqueror. Pastor Knickbein, of Hohen-
felde, was the first instructor of the future

general and his brother, who in 181 1 were

sent to the Military Academy at Copen-
hagen. Moltke soon distinguished himself,
and he passed his examinations brilliantly,

but his life was not a very happy one. He

was in a foreign land, separated from his
family, surrounded by uncongenial com-
panions to quote his own words, he spent a
"joyless childhood." Six years' study and,
for those who like Moltke owed their train-

ing to the State, a year's service as "court

page," were necessary in order to qualify
 A Biographical Sketch. xi

for military service in Denmark. At the

end of that time, Moltke entered the army.
The prospects of a Danish officer were not
brilliant ; there was no hope of advance-
ment, and Moltke, whose parents had lost

their property and were unable to assist

him, followed the example of a large number
of officers and left the Danish service.

Nothing daunted by the fact that his former

examinations and his term of service would
not be taken into consideration, he deter-
mined to enter the German army, for birth

and inclination stamped him as a German.

The next few years were spent in study. The
attention of his superior officers was attracted
by his industry and evident talent, and his

promotion was a matter of course. In 1832

he was placed on the General Staff, and soon

after he obtained leave of absence to enable
him to travel. It was not merely the desire

of change that
induced him to take this

step; he wished to increase his knowledge

and experience by studying closely the state
xii Count Moltke.

of Turkish affairs, which were attracting

much attention at the time. He went to

Constantinople, intending to stay three

weeks, but he remained four years years
which, full of privation, danger, and often
disappointment, yet matured his genius and
left him no regret at his undertaking.

When Moltke reached Constantinople,

the Sultan, Mahmoud II., was attempting
to replace the rotten foundations on which
the constitution of his country rested, by
a sounder and more durable structure. He
had already sought for foreign aid to assist

him in the reorganization of his army,

but the results had proved unsatisfactory.
Moltke made so good an impression on the
Vizier Mehemed Chosref Pasha, that a re-
quest was addressed to the Prussian govern-
ment to extend his leave. The request was
granted and Moltke entered on his task
with the energy and skill which he devoted
to all his undertakings. He was the chief
adviser of the Vizier on military matters, he
 A Biographical Sketch. xiii

was commissioned to draw up plans of forti-

fications and other defences, and also a

scheme for the reorgfanization of the army
on the Prussian system. He had an inter-

view with the Sultan, who was much pleased

with him. Moltke accompanied him on his

journeys through the land, and every facility

for examining the fortresses was afforded

him. He closely watched the course of
affairs, with a view to ascertaining the
causes that had led to the ruin of the
empire; his ideas on this subject, and on
the cause of the failure of Mahmoud's pro-
jected reforms, are embodied in the interest-
ing collection of letters entitled Briefe iiber

Zustdnde und Begebnisse in der Turkei.

Moltke was sent by the Sultan to take

part in the Kurdish war and subsequently
in the war with Mehemet AH. He trod

paths in Asia Minor which no European

had trodden before him, he was often in

danger, but he profited by every new

experience and he learnt to act with prompt-
xiv Count Moltke.

ness and decision. His advice was not

followed in the campaign against Mehemet
AH, and the result was that the Turkish
army was defeated at Nisib and completely
disbanded itself in the rout that followed.

Moltke, his maps and plans lost, returned

to Constantinople and soon after to Ger-
many.
Moltke married in 1842, the daughter of
an Englishman named Burt, and was in

1845 appointed adjutant to Prince Henry of

Prussia, who resided at Rome. He spent
his spare time in studying the topography
of Rome, an account of which, accompanied
by plans, was afterwards published. On the
death of the Prince, he became equerry to
the present Crown Prince, whom he accom-
panied on his journeys to London, Paris,
and St. Petersburg.
He was appointed chief of the General
Staff in 1858; he made his influence felt by
all who came in contact with him, and under
his direction were begun the army reforms
 A Biographical Sketch. xv

which led to the successes of 1866 and 1870.

He was entrusted with the drawing up of

plans for the defence of the North German

coast, but in spite of the importance of
these defences the diet at Frankfort, insti-
gated by the jealousy of Prussia felt by
the minor German states, refused to agree to
the necessary work.
In 1 86 1, the present Emperor ascended
the throne. A united Germany was his

dream, as it was that of his able ministers,

Bismarck, Von Roon, Minister of War, and

Moltke, men who stood by him in all his
undertakings and whose efforts raised

Germany to the height to which she has

attained. It has been usual to say that

" Bismarck was the head, Moltke the hand;"

but it is questionable whether such grand

results would have been achieved, had
Moltke been no more than the hand that
carried out Bismarck's plans.
The men on whom depended Germany's
future knew that this future was likely to
xvi Count Moltke.

be imperilled by her neighbours. While

Bismarck and Von Roon fought out the
question of supplies with the Chamber of
Deputies, Moltke undertook the reorgani-
zation of army and staff. He was soon
enabled to test the efficiency of his reforms
in the Schleswig-Holstein war, and though
he did not take as prominent a part in this
war as in subsequent campaigns, he guided
and superintended the whole and helped to

bring matters to a successful issue.

The Prussian ministers felt that this was
but the beginning that sooner or later
the conflict with Austria was inevitable.

Austria was made up of so many hetero-

geneous states and had so many conflict-
ing interests at stake, that it was impossible
that her influence in the German diet should
always be for Germany's good but it was
;

highly improbable that she would resign

her power without a struggle.
When the long discussions which had
taken place relative to the fate of Schleswig-
 A Biographical Sketch. xvii

Holstein were broken off and war was

declared in 1866, Moltke was ready.
Energy, attention to every detail, a
thorough state of efficiency as regards all

arrangements, care in the choice of officers,

caution beforehand, promptness in striking at
the right moment these were the weapons
with which Moltke fought for his country's
integrity.

As the South-German states refused to

remain neutral, it was necessary that a

portion of the Prussian army should be
employed in keeping them in check, but
the Austrians presented the most serious

danger if they were defeated it was not

likely that the minor German states would
offer a long opposition. Moltke determined
to move the main body of troops into

Bohemia. This was achieved in spite of

bad roads and ignorance of the whereabouts
of the enemy. His skill in seizing ever}-

opportunity and the rapidity with which his

orders were obeyed by troops, often weary
b
xviii Count Moltke.

with long marches, led to the victory of

Sadowa or Koniggratz, to the subsequent

treaty with Austria, and to the submission

of the states.
Austria was obliged to renounce her
claim to the disputed provinces and to con-
sent to her own exclusion from the German
confederation. The supremacy of Prussia
over the remaining German states was
established.

The jealousy of France, which had so long

kept Germany disunited, received a new
stimulus from Prussia's victory, and her
ministers foresaw that the excellence of the
German army was likely to receive a new
and severe test. Moltke had the task of
supervising the preparations and of drawing
up the plans. The veteran soldier accom-
plished his work so well, that when, in 1870,
war was declared and orders were issued for

the mobilization of the army, the date alone

was wanting to complete the time-tables
which announced the time of departure, &c.,
 A Biographical Sketch. xix

of every regiment. Each department had

been attended to and the troops were ready-
some days earlier than even Moltke had
thought possible. Every emergency that
could be foreseen was provided for ; which-
ever route the French took, Moltke' s plans
were in readiness and he could thoroughly
rely on his generals. The state of the
French army in those days is so well known,
that it is needless to dwell upon the causes
of Napoleon's failure in carrying out his plan
of paralysing the efforts of the German army
and forcing the southern states to maintain

their neutrality. The French army was cut

off from Paris, victory followed victory with

astonishing rapidity. Bazaine was shut up
in Metz ; Macmahon, urged by the terrified

government, went to his assistance, but was

forced to retire into Sedan accompanied by
the Emperor, and finally to surrender.

Paris was besieged and the efforts of the

French to raise new armies, were rendered

futile by the vigilance of Moltke and his

XX Count Moltke.

generals. The details are so well known

that it is not necessary to enlarge upon
them. Suffice it to say that Paris capitu-
lated and that Prussia's king became
Germany's emperor.
Moltke was appointed field-marshal and
received large grants of money, but surely
the gratitude of his countrymen, the know-
ledge that he had saved his fatherland from
the horrors of a defeat, and that he had
helped to cement the bond that bound its

members, must have been his greatest re-

ward.
His speeches in the Upper Chamber, of
which he is a life member, show how deeply
he has the welfare of his country at heart.
He seldom speaks, but when he does, the
same note rings through his words :
" Exist-
ence is the first necessity of a state, but in
order to exist it must secure itself externally.

The greatest crime a government can com-

mit is to leave a country defenceless. Do
not forget that what we save in our army
 A Biographical Sketch. xxi

expenses during several years of peace may-

be lost in one year of war." (Speech of
Feb. 1 6th, 1874.)

He is no advocate of war he hopes the

day will come when Europe will no longer
be forced to maintain huge armies, but till

that happy time comes, he insists that the

hope of peace lies in the strength of a land;

what has been gained by hard fighting is

not to be risked for fear of expfense. " As

regards the peace-footing, I must impres-
sively warn you," he says, "against allow-
ing it to become a question of finance. I

know that many honourable members of this

House think it necessary to remain firm on
this point, in order to secure the indisputable

and indisputed right of the diet to control

the public purse. But consider whether in

doing so you are not impairing the right of

the country to seek your support in a
matter, where the very existence of the
state is at stake." (Feb. i6th, 1874.)

The clearness and decision that charac-



xxii Count Mo/tke^

terise his actions, mark his speeches and his

writings ; they are the work not of a mere

soldier, but of a scholar. His style is

straightforward and simple but full of

strength, so that he has often been com-
pared with Lessing. His work on the
Russisch-tUrkischer Feldzug in der europdi-
schen TUrkei, 1828 und 1829, shows what
power he has of striking at the root of a
matter and laying bare the causes of failure.

No political rancour has dimmed the fame

of Moltke or lessened the esteem of the
nation ; to his countrymen he is still what
he was when his honours were newly won
a brave and skilled soldier and a true patriot.
 POLAND.
AN HISTORICAL SKETCH.

I.

Poland is the only country in which the

organisation of the state had for its imme-
diate result the character of the nobles. No-
where else has the destiny of the state been
equally dependent on the character, dispo-
sition, and habits of the nobles ; for nowhere
else were the nobles and the constitution
identical.

When in remote times the Eastern plains

of Europe were overrun by Slavonic nations,
who spread from the Black Sea and the
Adriatic to the shores of the Baltic and the
Arctic Ocean, hordes of Tartars poured
forth in rapid succession from the regions

B
 Poland.

deserted by the Sarmates, and forced this

tribe of nomads to assume the character of
warriors. Here, as everywhere, those men
who had the means to procure a horse and
weapons, and strength to use them, became
the protectors of the newly-acquired territory.

Their wealth, the obligations it imposed,

and the personal authority which was the
result of both, became hereditary, for inherit-

ance is as old as possession ; both are closely

related, and the first result of social com-
munion. A class was thus formed of
nobles or of defenders, both words being
identical in their primary meaning. The
protected became dependent on the protec-
tor ; the power, privileges and influence

of the latter increased, the relations between

him and his equals assumed a republican
character.

The military origin and the military ten-

dencies of the nobles necessitated unity of

command and unity of government, and here
we find the origin of that part of the mo-
 7-

Poland. 3

narchical principle which was adopted by the

constitution in later times.

The nobles were in exclusive possession of

all political rights ; they formed the entire
state. Poland was a republic made up of
about 300,000 petty suzerainties, each of
which was immediately connected with the
state, and was subject to the whole body
alone, acknowledging no kind of feudal supe-
riority or of feudal dependence. No Polish
noble was the vassal of a superior lord.

Even the retainer, if a nobleman, shared the

political rights of his master ; the meanest of
them appeared at the diet in the full enjoy-

ment of that power which belonged to all with-

out distinction. It is here that we find the

fundamental difference between the Polish

constitution and the feudal states of the

West and the despotism of the East, and to

our astonishment we see the very earliest

political system of Europe, that of the Kelts,
Franks, and Goths, surviving down to our

own time.
 Poland.

Those Slavonic tribes, which at a much

later period were known by the general name
of Russians, owed their earliest culture, their

religion, their manners, their customs, their

alphabet, even a portion of their language, to
the Greeks. But the Poles came under the
influence of Western Europe, and at an early
stage a wide divergence became manifest in

the culture and development of these kindred

races.

The mutual relations of the nobles were

based upon perfect equality among all, and as
much independence for the individual as was
compatible therewith.
Starting from the principle that a free man
cannot be taxed or governed contrary to his
own declared will, the unanimous consent of
all was required for resolutions dealing with

these matters, in other words, for all laws ;

the dissent of a few or of a single individual

sufficed for the rejection of a measure. We
must therefore take it for granted that those
nations which submitted to the decision of the
 Poland. 5

majority (and under no other condition can

we now conceive a constitution to be stable),
resolved at one period at least of their

history to acknowledge the decision of the

majority.* Thus by one last unanimous act

the necessity for unanimity was done away

with.

"Xhe Polish noble acknowledged his obliga-

tion to his country, he submitted to the law,

but the law was to express the unanimous

will of the nation. If he had acknowledged
the power of the majority, he would have
thought that he was yielding to tyranny ; the

principle of equality was carried so far that

the will of the individual outweighed the will

of the multitude, so that the dissent of one
man in the field of election could annul the

assent of 10,000 nobles, and the individual

thus had the power of interfering with the
machinery of the state and bringing it to a

standstill.

We will first deal with the right of the

*
J. J.
Rousseau.
6 Poland.

absolute veto (liherum veto), because, justifi-

able as it was in principle, dangerous in its

use, ruinous in its abuse, the Poles have

always considered it the most sacred pledge
of their personal independence.
When habit and inclination scattered the

Polish nobles in their distant estates, where

the power of each was absolute, it became
necessary to unite the common interests of

the state in the person of a chief It was

owing to this spirit of independence that the
chief, who latterly bore the inappropriate title

of " king," was invested with the highest

dignity, but by no means with the highest
power. The dignity of the crown brought
him no privileges beyond the right to appoint

the state officials, to distribute the state

domains, and to administer justice.

The election of the king depended upon

the will of the assembled nobles. Whenever
it happened that distinguished families were
able for a time to make the crown hereditary

among their members, the nation never

 Poland. 7

failed, on the extinction of the race, to

reassert its right of election.

By the side of the king existed the senate.

It consisted of bishops, woiwodes (woy =
war, wody = leader) or palatines, and castel-

lans, who were appointed by the king, but

who (since the time of Casimir the Great)
could not be deposed, and therefore possessed
a high degree of freedom and independence.
The woiwodes or palatines were governors

of a province or palatinate, and were at the

head of the nobles in their province, acting as

their leaders when they assembled for purposes

of election or war. The right of fixing the

price of all produce, of regulating the weights

and measures, belonged to them, and they
had their own courts of justice. After

the palatines came the castellans, who were

originally commanders in the royal cities and
fortresses non-hereditary burgraves. In
their districts they had the privileges of
palatines, and acted as their deputies during

their absence. The original work of the

8 Poland:

castellans was performed by the starosts

(elders). The starosts administered justice

in the towns, and received important grants
of land as a reward for their services to the
state. Only one of them, the Starost of
Samogetia, had a seat in the senate.
That senate consisted of two archbishops,
fifteen bishops, thirty-three palatines, eighty-

five castellans, making a total of one hundred

and thirty-five senators.

The Archbishop of Gnesen, as primate of

the kingdom, stood at the head of the senate.

He was next in rank to the king, and during

the interregnum he actually filled the place
of king ; hence he was called Inter Rex.
He was legatus natus of the pope, he
received all royal honours, he had like the
king his own marshal, his chancellor, and
numerous mounted household troops.*
The king received the primate standing,

* "Avec un titnbalier et des trompettes qui jouent

quand il est i table et qui sonnent la diane et la retraite."
Histoire de ^. Sobieshy, par 1' Abb6 Coyer. Amsterdam.
 Poland.

and the latter had the right of remonstrating

with him on his government, and of repeat-
ing his accusations in the senate or diet, if

the king persisted in his course. In spite of

the maxim, "The Church abhors blood-
*

shed," a bull of Clement VIII. empowered

the bishops to vote for war, to sign death
warrants and to take part in the councils.
The senate gave temporary decisions

until the next diet met, and shared the

highest power with the king ; it constantly

strove to weaken the royal prerogative,

until deprived of its own privileges by the

diet.* The general tendency of the con-
stitution shows that the great offices and
dignities of the state were elective like the

throne, and the repeated efforts to make

them hereditary were rendered futile by the
jealousy of the entire body. Since the

offices of palatine (which may be compared

to the ducal dignity of the Teutonic races),

of castellan and of starost were not hereditary,

* Solignac.
 ;

lo Poland,

it was impossible for an electorate, a peerage,

or a higher nobility to exist by the side of

the monarchy, and thus to enable the latter

to take firm root in the people.*

It is true that the right of nomination to

these offices was vested in the king alone,
but as he was not able to depose men whom
he had chosen, the royal power was felt less

by those who held the high offices than by

those who did not hold them. The king
was therefore surrounded by flattering cour-

tiers rather than by dependent state officials

the former were possibly attached to the

interest of the crown by their expectations,

the latter at most by their gratitude. To

those who sought important offices, they were
gifts depending on the royal favour, to those
who had obtained them, they were the pro-
perty of the republic, and the bestowal of one
such place generally created a hundred dis-
contented men and one ungrateful one.

* Rhuliire, " Histoire de 1' Anarchic de Pologne," livre i.

Paris, 1807.
 Poland. 1

The king had ten ministers, whose titles

follow in the order of their rank : the royal

field-marshals for Poland and Lithuania, the
high chancellors for Poland and Lithuania,
the four chancellors, the lord high treasurer,
and the marshal of the royal household for

Poland and Lithuania. These ministers had

a seat in the senate, but took no part in the
discussions.

The field-marshal ranked third in the state,

his power was almost unlimited, and more
extensive than that of the constables, who so

often endangered the crown of France. In

time of war the field-marshal was quite inde-
pendent of the king, and was master over the
life and death of his subordinates.
Although it seems difficult, nay, almost

impossible, under these circumstances, for a

king to form a party in the state which

should endanger the privileges of the indi-

vidual, the nation thought it necessary to pro-
vide against a possible abuse of power, and
employed a method unknown in the annals
 2

1 Poland.

of any other nation. This was the " con-

federation."

It cannot be denied that the oldest of all

rights the right of the strongest continu-

ously exercised its influence throughout the
history of Poland, and that in the eyes of
the people it actually had almost a legal

existence. We recognise its presence even in

the execution of the king's sentences, which

were carried out by the armed nobility on
those concerned, who in their turn seemed
fully justified if they used their power, influ-

ence and connections, and summoned depen-

dents and household troops to oppose the
execution of the royal command. It was
even taken for granted that if the judicial
expedition was repulsed three times, no
further steps should be taken till the inter-
vention of the diet.

This law of might is equally noticeable in

the assemblies of the nobles for the purpose
of consultations or elections. If on such
occasions individuals or parties dared obsti-
 Poland. 13

nately to oppose their personal interests to

the will of the nation, if persuasion or threats

were all in vain, it was by no means an un-
common occurrence, on the utterance of the
fatal nie pozwalam (" I do not consent"), for

a thousand swords to be drawn, and for the

opposition to be ended by the death of the

bold opponents. This method of establishing

unanimity was the only restriction (though
one which had a salutary effect upon the
whole community) placed on the abuse of
the dangerous liberum veto, the evil effects

of which became apparent in the last three

hundred years, when these assemblies were

represented by meetings of delegates who
refrained from such acts of violence. The
right of the strongest was not so much an
abuse, as a necessary element, of this peculiar

constitution.

The legitimate use of violence appears

to have reached its climax in the " confedera-

tion."

Contrary to the theory of other nations.

14 Poland.

who look on a revolution as the greatest

misfortune in the state, revolution was legally

organized in Poland. If any question of
interest received sufficient support in the re-

public, but could not be carried because of the

opposition of the existing government or the
veto of individuals, those concerned formed
a " confederation " {rokoss), bound them-
selves by solemn oaths, appointed a leader,

and took up arms in order to do battle for

their opinions.

The strength of the " confederations"

constituted their right ; whatever the result

of the undertaking, none of the confederates

could be punished or looked upon as rebels.
The decisions of the majority were recog-
nised in these " confederations," which were
in reality nothing else than the forcible

carrying out of the will of the nation. The

liherum veto was suspended during this dic-

tatorship, which often had no other object

than the carrying out of the liherum veto.

But to prevent this violent remedy for

 Poland. 1

tyranny from becoming a tyrant in its turn,

"
the time of duration of these " confederations
was settled beforehand, and all their resolu-

tions became void at their dissolution. What

was settled unanimously remained law, and
every " confederation " ended with the sum-
moning of a diet.

Although king and senate exercised the,

highest power in the state, the real sovereignty

rested in the united body of the nobles, who
in spite of both, could legally carry out their
will, if unanimous, at the diet ; if not, by
means of a "confederation." Every time the
throne became vacant, they took back the
rights with which they had parted, examined
the use which the last ruler had made of his
power and bestowed it on his successor.
The petty diets in the palatinates preceded
the general diet by six weeks ; here those
questions were brought forward and prepared,
which were to be decided at the general

assembly of the nation. The most violent

and sanguinary scenes could not fail to occur

] 6 Poland.

at these assemblies, where the judges of the

two tribunals, and later on also the deputies,
were elected, and where every nobleman of
the province appeared in person, armed and
mounted.
The king was bound to summon the diet
every two years. If he neglected to call one
the nation had the right to do so. The
diet elected a "marshal," who exercised a
great influence on affairs. All deliberations
took place in the open air or with open
doors, and in the diet the greatest legislative

power was vested, based on the condition of

unanimity of votes.
The affairs of individuals were settled by
a majority and in a summary way. Lawyers
were unknown. Those concerned stated

their case themselves, and the decision fol-

lowed without delay and expense. It is

characteristic that the same men deliberated

in the senate, made laws in the diet, admi-

nistered justice in the tribunals and wielded

the sword in battle. The nobles, who pos-
 Poland. 1

sessed all the honours and privileges of the

state, felt themselves responsible for its

defence.

II.

Poland is the only European state which,

down to the sixteenth century possessed no
military force, except that of its armed and
mounted nobles. The infantry was of no
account whatever ; the only distinction was
between hussars and cuirassiers. The former
were the more numerous, and the young
nobles were obliged to serve in this corps, in
order to qualify themselves for the dignities
of the state. The hussars and their equip-
ments were very different from those of the
present day. They wore helmet and cuirass,

and a tiger skin thrown round their shoul-

ders ; they carried a lance fifteen feet long

with a small streamer attached, two pistols,

two swords, one of which hung from the

saddle. It was not till Sobiesky's time that

the hussars changed their lances for muskets.

 8

1 Poland.

The cavalry consisted of the dlite of the

nobility, was splendidly mounted, and num-
bered 40,000 men.
The cuirassiers were somewhat inferior.
They wore scale or chain armour and were
generally the household troops of the digni-
taries of state, the bishops and the arch-
bishops.

These soldiers called themselves towarisz,

i.e. brothers, and were called so even by the

king.

In times of emergency, Poland presented

the extraordinary spectacle of from 150,000
to 200,000 nobles who formed an enormous
but undisciplined army. These gatherings
were called pospolite ruszenie.
An admirable peculiarity of this warlike
nobility was the simplicity of their habits.

They lived the greater part of the year on

their estates ; there they spent their income,

practised an extensive hospitality, which
would appear to be of Eastern origin, and
remained at a distance from and independent
 Poland. 19

of the court. The wealth which the noble

obtained from his subjects returned to them
again. A few benches, tables and carpets
formed the furniture of the richest palatine.

The women did not care for luxury, nor

did they interfere in politics, as they did so
often in later years. Good armour and
excellent horses formed the sole splendour of

the men. Their dress had an oriental

character. A long cloak trimmed with fur,

slashed sleeves, a broad belt, a fur cap, curved

sword and half boots formed their costume.

Like the Tartars, they shaved their heads,

leaving only a tuft on the crown.*

The ancient Poles were very tolerant.
They took no part in the religious wars
which devastated Europe in the sixteenth

and seventeenth centuries, f Calvinists, Lu-

* Cromer (page 'j'^ affirms that this fashion was intro-

duced by order of Pope Clement when he absolved the

II.,

monk Casimir from his vow, that he might place him on

the Polish throne in 1041, and that the fashion had been
scrupulously observed since that time.
f " La Pologne n'a vu dans son sein ni conspiration
des poudres, ni St. Barth616my, ni s^nat 6gorg6, ni rois
 20 Poland.

therans, Greeks, Schismatics, Mohammedans,

long lived peacefully in their midst, and
Poland for a time was justly called the
"promised land" of the Jews. The Poles
actually forced their kings to swear, in the

facta conventa, that they would tolerate all

sects. When Henry of Valois tried to avoid

taking this oath, the grand marshal of the
crown declared bluntly, " Si non jurabis, non
regnabis."

Still the Poles were very strict in observ-

ing the outward ceremonials of the Church.
Christianity always seemed too mild to them.

They imposed harder privations on them-

selves, and to the fasts of Friday and Satur-
day added those of Wednesday and Septua-
gesima. The popes themselves abolished
some of the severer penances practised by

the Poles.

assassin^s ou sur un ichafaut ni des freres arrays centre les

freres ; c'^tait le pays ou Ton a brfil6 le moins de monde pour
s' tromp^ dans le dogme. La Pologne cependant 6toit bar-
etre

bare ce qui prouve qu'une demi-science est plus orageuse
que la grossiere ignorance." L'Abbe Coyer, livre i.
 Poland. 2

The intercourse of the nobles was cordial

and liberal, and no excessive deference was
shown to the rich and powerful. Owing to

the few requirements, poverty was not allied

to dependence in those days. The dealings
of the nobles with each other bore the stamp
of their original equality. Their form of
address, which still survives, was " Brother,"

{Brat). They had no titles or outward marks

of distinction.*
When Lithuania was joined to Poland,
the Czartorysky, the Sangusko and Wiegno-
wiesky were the only families who, contrary
to the spirit of the constitution, retained
their rank as princes in the republic. Orders
and other decorations were arbitrary gifts

of the king, which were introduced in the

days of Augustus II. and Poniatowsky, and
which were never much valued, f The noble

* " Les titres de marquis et de comte s'y sont introduits

avec les cuisiniers franjais. II n'y en a que pour des
valets et des flatteurs." L'ABB^ Coyee., Histoire de J.
Sobiesky. ,

\ Augustus II. founded the Order of the White Eagle

22 Poland.

owed his rank to his position in the state

alone.

The rapid development of other states, and

their increasing subordination to the will of

their rulers, allowed them to act with growing

unity. The admirable qualities of Poland's

citizens enabled it, however, to maintain

its place in their midst, and to attain to a
high degree of power and influence, in spite
of the primitive simplicity of its laws, the

unlimited respect paid to the privileges of the

individual, and the necessarily slow develop-
ment of the state.

We may add that the Poland of the

fifteenth century was one of the most
civilised states of Europe. It is true that

the virtues of the citizens had much to

atone for in the badly organized constitution

of the republic, so that moral qualities had to
supply the place of good laws. Side by side

in 1705, during the war with Sweden. The Order of St.

Stanislaus (1765) and the Order of Merit for Military Dis-
tinction were founded by Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski.
 Poland. 23

with the advantages of a high state of civilisa-

tion, luxury, corruption, and all the attendant

vices made their appearance, and the moment
the constitution was no longer based upon
the probity of individuals, the imperfection of

the laws and the difficulty of enforcing them

led to great abuses in all departments of the
administration. The old laws were still in

force, but customs had changed ; and as no

law can continue to exist when opposed to

general usage, it was only the letter that sur-

vived, with a new interpretation. This was a

misfortune for which the constitution had no
cure, because it practically did away with the

constitution.

Contrary to the fundamental principle of

the constitution, " Perfect equality of all

citizens," there sprang up immense differ-

ences of property, and consequently an actual

inequality among the proprietors.
.
The king's favour had often bestowed
great offices of state and starosties on one
man, and invested his son and grandson with
24 Poland.

them, so that these estates, though not here-

ditary, remained long in one family. A more
or less careful management of the estate,
marriages, legacies, in short, luck and skill,

brought immense wealth to individual fami-

lies, while other less fortunate families, either
through their extravagance or their very
virtues, became destitute. Henceforth wealth
was not merely the reward which the king
bestowed on the meritorious, it assumed an
hereditary character.
There were Polish nobles who possessed
estates exceeding in extent many a kingdom
of those days. Thus, contrary to the spirit

of the constitution, the Radziwills, centuries

ago, founded an entail in the family, which

made its chief the most powerful private in-

dividual in Europe. He had a retinue of

several hundred nobles, possessed many for-

tresses, and maintained 6,000 household

troops. The Oginsky, Czartorysky, Tarlo,
Potocki, Zamojski, Lubomirsky, and others
were scarcely less rich and powerful. When
 Poland. 25

we consider that the execution of judicial

sentences had to be carried out by force of
arms, we can understand that it was not easy
to obtain justice from such citizens.

Even the confusion which existed on nearly

all these great estates tended to increase the
influence of the rich families. The greater
part of the estates were pledged for compara-
tively small sums. The growing value of
land and the increase of money caused a
decrease in the value of capital, which would
have made the redemption of the pledged
lands a great misfortune for the mortgagee,
while the payment of the debt would have
been his ruin. Hence a large number of
small landowners were directly dependent on
the great families, and secured their own
prosperity only by an unconditional attach-

ment to their interests.

While a small number of the nobles amassed

unlimited wealth, the greater part lost all

their property. These impoverished nobles

found a hospitable reception in the houses of
26 Poland.

the chiefs of powerful families. They formed

a court, and a thoroughly military one,

received weapons, horses, shelter and sup-

port from their protector, and in return they
devoted to his service their vote in the diet

and their sword in his almost incessant

feuds.

This unlimited hospitality was quite in

keeping with the immense wealth of these

nobles. Besides, the large number of poor
dependent nobles was of vital importance to
the great noble, for not only his influence,
but not unfrequently his welfare and personal
safety, depended on the number and courage
of those whom he had in his service. He
was constantly needing this small host of
brave men, who had nothing to lose but their

lives. Now they had to take by force a

town or castle which had been pledged, now
to prevent the execution of a sentence in a

summary way, then to intimidate a restless

neighbour.
But above all he needed them at the diet,
 Poland. 27

where besides the interests of the community,

those of the individual were dealt with in
proportion to his wealth, strength and influ-

ence. There the retinue of nobles derived a

twofold importance from their vote and their
sword, which was nearly always appealed to
as a last resort, and it was considered a
special sign of the advancement of civilisa-

tion, that during the assembly of the nobles

in 1764 only thirteen were killed.*
Nevertheless a superior and inferior no-
bility was never recognised in Poland. The
title of count borne by Poles of to-day would
have been despised by their ancestors. In-

fluence, honours and wealth did not bring

political privileges or rank and the poorest
noble did not give up a single claim because
of his poverty. It is obvious that the poor ,

noble would cling obstinately to a constitu-

tion which valued him according to his birth

alone. The liherum veto gave weight to

the least among them, and the diet gave him

^.
* Rhuliere, " Histoire de I'Anarchie de Pologne."
 ;

28 Poland.

occasion to use his power. An instance is

not wanting where a poor, deformed, insig-

nificant noble was raised to the throne,
greatly to his own astonishment, because the
powerful parties could not agree on a candi-
date. Great therefore as was the depend-
ence of the poor noble on his host or lord
(the relations are here identical), the latter

was obliged to honour as his equal even the

meanest of his clients, whose personal opposi-

tion could be used against him and his party

in each individual of the nation he was

obliged to respect the sovereignty of the
people.

It was for this reason that distinctions of

class, the arbitrary treatment of the inferior

by his superior, did not develope in Poland as
in other countries. In the humble, fawning
courtesy of the poor noble, degraded perhaps
to the position of servant, we to this day
recognise the hidden consciousness of his
equality, and in the dignified kindness of the
great noble, a patriarchal protection extended
 Poland. 29

to the lowest. Owing to this democracy of

the nobles, the monarchy in Poland degene-
rated into an aristocracy and the aristocracy
into an oligarchy.*

III.

Among the chief causes of the fall of the

republic was the continual decrease of. the

royal power in the state.

In all European countries the royal power

increased steadily, though at a varying rate.
In some it attained to such a height that it

destroyed all other authority, and a violent

reaction was needed to restore the balance

between the privileges of the sovereign and

the rights of the people. The Polish rulers,

on the other hand, could never gain sufficient

authority to maintain peace at home, much

less to exercise influence abroad. It could

scarcely be otherwise in a land where the

throne was elective. Concessions made to

* Ferrand, " Hist, du D^membreraent de la Pologne."

30 Poland.

the advantage of the electors, often to the

disadvantage of the king, were frequently the
only means by which the latter could obtain
the throne, or keep it when obtained. This
throne, the only office in the state which
could be filled by a foreigner, was the reward
of merit, ambition, favour and intrigue.
Most disastrous was the influence exercised

by the papal chair on the kingdom in the

reign of Boleslaw II., 1058. Still more
disastrous was the useless struggle of Casimir

the Great in 1366 with the senate, which

upheld the pretension's of the nobles in order
that it might in its turn be supported by
them. The nobles became more independent
as the senate became more powerful. This
could only happen at the expense of the
throne on the one hand and of the peasants
on the other. But of this I shall speak later
on.

To the Jagellons belonged the merit of

having united to the republic the important
province of Lithuania. This race produced
 Poland. 3

several distinguished men and the crown,

though still elective, remained for centuries
in their family. On the death of the last
when Bohemia and
Jagellon, 1573, at a time
Hungary were deprived of the power of
electing their kings, when Sweden renounced
this right in favour of its monarchs, Poland
renewed its privilege in its most compre-
hensive form. At a time when European
monarchs gradually deprived the great feudal
barons of all share in the administration of
the law, the Polish kings were deprived of
this power by the nobles. While the people
of Denmark gave their kings unlimited
power, the Polish nobles destroyed the last

vestiges of the royal prerogative.

Henceforth, great as was the homage paid

to the candidate for the throne by the
majority, he never failed to encounter a
violent opposition. The more powerful his
means of destroying it, the greater the

sacrifices he made to conciliate it, the weaker

and more untenable became his position.

32 Poland.

The nobles began to look upon it as a

privilege of their rank, to give laws which
they did not respect, and to appoint kings
whom they did not obey.
The extension of the kingdom made it

impossible for the kings to administer justice

in person.* In the long wars of Stephen
Bathori this privilege was finally lost. The
nobility declared itself the judge of its own
quarrels.

Tribunals, to last for fifteen months only,

were established to carry out the laws, and

as the members were appointed, not by the
king, but by the nobles of the province them-
selves, these law courts were often only the
tools of political rancour. As the position of
judge bestowed upon the most unimportant a
decided influence on the affairs of the most
powerful in the province, we can understand
that these elections and the privileges they

bestowed, formed a wide field for intrigues

and violence. In the year 1578 the kings

* " lis n'ont fait qu'unjuge de moi," said Henry ofValois.

 Poland. 33

lost the right of bestowing the patent of

nobiHty, which was made over to the diet.

The kings had no share in the legislation,

as the laws were made in every interregnum.
As soon as the throne became vacant by
the death of a king, and before the diet
appointed a successor, the nobles of the
provinces assembled to examine into the
administration of the late king and his

senate. Any law that was not approved of

could be repealed and new arrangements
proposed, which became law if the votes of

the diet were unanimous. This unanimity

was most easily obtained when a law was to

be repealed which threatened the individual

or when the royal prerogative was to be
decreased. The Poles were always more
jealous of a power which sprang up in their

midst, than of one which came from without,

and thus it came to pass that while the

freedom of the state was lost, the Polish

nobles retained their personal independence.

However much a king might have endea-
D
 34 Poland.

voured to extend his power, his successor

had to begin his work anew.
The king had no share in the administra-
tion, and even the most urgent circumstances
did not justify his acting without the co-
operation of the senate.

I
The senate* deprived the king of the
power of making peace or war. An offensive
war was contrary to the constitution and
rendered almost impossible by the organiza-
tion of the state. It was illegal for the
nobles to be kept under arms for more than
three weeks, or for them to be led more than
three hours' march across the frontier. If

there was a hostile invasion, war became a

matter of course, but it was carried on, on

their own account, by the palatines most

nearly concerned and often without the
assistance of the king.

When the example of her neighbours forced

Poland to establish a standing army, it was
not placed under the immediate control of
* Ferrand, " Histoire du D^membrement de la Pologne."
 Poland, 35

the king. He appointed a royal field-marshal

for Poland and one for Lithuania, but he
could not deprive them of office. A definite

portion of the revenue was not set aside for

the support of the army, but subsidies were

voted by each diet and paid very irregularly.

The troops were therefore very inferior and
able to afford but little support to the king,
since at times many a noble kept more house-
hold troops than the king himself
In 1572 it was enacted that the nobles
must be present at the elections in person,

instead of sending representatives as they

had hitherto done ; that all taxes were to be
commuted for a fixed tax on land, and that
the king was to keep no starosties, but to

give them all away irrevocably and for a life-

time. It follows that bribery, intrigue and

party spirit were the only means of influence
that could be employed by a king, who was
excluded from the administration, who was
without domains, without private property or
settled revenue, who was surrounded by
36 Poland.

officers he could not depose and by judges

who could be deposed and who was, in short,
without real power of any sort. The senate
itself* was deprived of its power, and the
representatives of the nobles seized upon the
highest authority. The power of the nobles
was in the ascendant, they alone held the
public offices and the highest ecclesiastical

benefices. They filled the seats of the judges

exclusively, and enjoyed perfect immunity
from taxes, duties, &c. The nobles seized
upon the jurisdiction over the peasantry and
forced from the crown the statute " Nemi-
nem captivahimus" in consequence of which
they enjoyed perfect impunity, since they
could not be arrested before conviction.
It is not surprising that in a country like
Poland the original punishment for murder
was not severe. Every noble carried a
* Blackstone's remarks on the Long Parliament are
perfectly applicable to Poland :
'
' When the houses assumed
the power of legislation in exclusion of the royal authority,
they soon after assumed likewise the reins of administration,
and in consequence of this united power overturned both
church and state, and established a worse oppression than
any they pretended to remedy."
 Poland. 37

sword, and knew that he carried it for self-

defence. Murder was punished by a fine

(the mandehode of the Scandinavians). Sixty

marks (about ;^75) were paid for a noble-

man, thirty for a commoner, for a village

mayor or soldier fifteen, for a peasant ten, six
of which went to his widow and children, and
four to his lord (Const. 1547, vol. i. foL 7).

The valuation was according to birth only.

Hence the murder of a priest, even if a
bishop, could under certain circumstances be

atoned for by ten marks. This law that set

a price on human life continued in force till

1768. Matthias Corvinus had, it is true,

declared death to be' the penalty for murder,

but Casimir the Great had abolished this law.

Capital punishment existed in Lithuania, but

a murder had to be proved by six witnesses,

two of them being nobles.*
*
J. Jeckel, vol. iii. The following law was also in
existence : "He who accuses another man of not being

noble {i.e. of having arrogated to himself the title of

nobility), without being able to prove it, is flogged in
Lithuania, but suffers death in Poland" (Const. 1633, ^ol-

806).
38 Poland.

The ruler was made utterly helpless by

having to agree to the pacta conventa, to
which a new restriction was added during
every interregnum.
Another great evil from which the re-

public suffered was the abuse of the liberum

veto, which, dangerous as it was in itself, had
become law in 1652, and was called by the
Poles unicum et specialissimum. jus cardi-
nale a law which was based on the assump-
tion, that every one knew what was right and
was ready to do it.

At first there were but few occasions which

called for an assembly of the nobles, who
formed the body of the nation. But as
Poland increased in power and extent and
came into closer contact with foreign
countries, it became necessary to frame im-

portant resolutions regarding the interests of

the country at large. When finally Poland,

yielding to necessity, established a standing

army, but refused to make permanent pro-

vision for its support, it became inevitable
 Poland. 39

that frequent assemblies of the nobles should

be held. It was for this reason that in

1467, for the first time, a meeting of dele-

gates or deputies took the place of the diet

(a custom which had prevailed in the rest of
Europe for more than 200 years), but the ;

nobles expressly reserved to themselves the

right of deliberating on all important ques-
tions. The transactions of the assembly of

representatives were also based on perfect

unanimity.
As we have already said, these deputies

were elected at the petty diet, convened by

the king by means of printed writs, at

appointed places in each district, six weeks

before the general assembly. The nobles

of the district met on the appointed day and

elected a marshal, who presided. The king's

deputy now proceeded to address them on

the business of the diet. After he had with-
drawn, the deputies were chosen and their
instructions decided upon by unanimity of
vote. Many of these petty diets were in
40 Poland.

consequence broken up, and the number of

deputies at the diet was never complete but ;

this was not considered necessary. There

was a curious law which sentenced the

deputy whose veto dissolved the meeting, to

six months' imprisonment and a fine of 3,000
marks. But this law was not enacted till

1764.
The person of a deputy was inviolable

four weeks before and four weeks after the

diet; whoever assaulted him was punished

for high treason.*
At first resident and landed nobles alone
were eligible, but later on it was considered a
sufficient qualification to be related to such a
noble.

To occupy by soldiers the place where the

petty diet met was illegal, firearms could not
be brought to the assembly, and it was cus-

tomary not to sharpen the swords.

* The interest of the court did not avail to save the life
of a Saxon colonel, who in the time of Augustus II. had
taken vengeance on a deputy who had offended him.
 Poland. 41

At the outset the diet met at Lublin,

Parkow, Piotrkow, and Lomza. After 1569

Warsaw became the place of assembly. In

order to satisfy the Lithuanians, every third

diet met at Grodno. The assemblies which

took place on the death of the king, were held

at Warsaw.
The diet was held two days after Michael-
mas every other year but in urgent cases
;

the king could summon a diet earlier and at

various places. This diet lasted a fortnight,

instead of six weeks. Under no circum-

stances could the time be extended or

shortened. All deliberations had to take

place by daylight.

The marshal of the diet was chosen on

the first day, and the titles of the deputies

were examined. Then the deputies, led by

the president, welcomed the king, and the

pacta conventa were read. The king made
suggestions. The senators voted the business

of the diet in the presence of the deputies,

in order to show them what was to the
42 Poland.

advantage of the state. The administration

of the ministers was next reviewed, and then
the deputies withdrew from the senate in

order to draw up the laws for the diet, the

chief object of which was to be the general

security.

The last five days were called the great

days. The two chambers came together,

the president read to the assembled diet

the laws on which the deputies had agreed

unanimously, and even then every member
could still exercise his right of veto. What-
ever was now unanimously agrged upon
passed into law.
The deputies, indeed, themselves respected

their inviolability and no longer secured the

requisite unanimity by murdering the resist-

ing faction. But this only made matters

worse.
After their election, the deputies could
never consider themselves at liberty to act
according to their own opinions for the
interest of the whole country. They could
 Poland. 43

never place the welfare of the country above

the interest of their own province. They
received definite instructions as to the

demands they were to bring forward, and

the concessions they were to make. After

1589 petty diets were appointed by law,

before which the deputies had to answer for

their conduct on their return. An assembly
of 400 members, each of whom was the
mouthpiece of a' community, was far less
compliant than if each member had only

supported his own privileges. In olden times

men were stabbed for stubborn resistance to
the diet. Now the compliance of a deputy

would be punished by death, by those whose

instructions he had transgressed. The same
terror which had forced men to yield and
which was the only barrier opposed to

anarchy, now became an excuse for stubborn

resistance.

In vain the king brought patience, per-

suasion, obstinacy and courage to bear on

this disorder. King Wladislaw refused to

44 Poland.

adjourn the diet until a certain decision had

been arrived at. As it was necessary for all

deliberations to take place by daylight, it

was resolved that the members should

remain assembled all night, and the world
beheld the spectacle of a sleeping diet,

presided over by a sleeping president, and of

a king asleep on his throne.
One step only was wanting before unani-
mity of votes became an impossibility, and
anarchy was completely organized. This
step was taken when individual palatines
enjoined their deputies to oppose every
discussion at the diet, till their own pro-
posals had been heard and acceded to.

Before long several deputies received the

same instructions, and thus the diet was in

fact dissolved before it was opened.

Other deputies refused to consent to any
proposals, if those of their own province
were not accepted ; so that the veto of one

deputy in a single transaction could bring

about the dissolution of the entire diet, and
 Poland. 45

the exercise of the royal authority was thus

suspended for two years. The veto of the
deputy was the magic charm, at the utterance
of which the whole commonwealth sank
into a death-like trance. No law could be
passed, nothing could be resolved upon.
The army received no pay. Provinces were
desolated by enemies, and none came to

their aid. Justice was delayed, the coinage

was debased ; in short, Poland ceased for the

next two years to exist as a state.

Every time that a rupture occurred in the

diet, it was looked on as a national calamity.

The curse of posterity was invoked on that

deputy who had occasioned it, and on his

family. In order to save themselves from

popular fury, these deputies were accustomed
to hand in their protest in writing, and then
to wander about, unknown and without rest,

cursed by the nation and the object of its

aversion.

But the nobles went still further in the art

of making the efforts of true patriots futile.

46 Poland.

In 1652 the voluntary withdrawal of a

member was declared sufficient to justify the
dissolution of the diet.*

The influence of religious differences could

not fail to be most disastrous in a land that

combined so many conflicting elements, and
these dissensions were now added to the long

list of Poland's misfortunes. For a long

time no state in Europe was as tolerant as
Poland. After the great church schism in
the sixteenth century, Poland still remained
tranquil. Inter nos dissidemus, said both
Catholics and Protestants, and both parties

were dissidents. It was not till the influence

of the Jesuits and foreign emissaries fanned
the flames of religious discord, that this name
was applied to the Protestants alone. Poland
was accustomed to violent insurrections, the

opposition of the minority was a common

event, and constantly led to contentions and
* In the years 1695, i6g8, 1701, 1720, 1729, 1730, 1732,
1750, 1754, 1760, 1761, and 1762, the diets were dissolved
before the election of the marshal had taken place twelve
diets in 67 years.
 Poland. 47

discord in the numerous assemblies of the

nobles, which had now become necessary ;

but this new source of division was to con-

vulse the whole land in a terrible fashion.

Now the diets became useless; seven diets

were dissolved in thirty-six years (1536
1572); and in the reign of Augustus III. the
nation assembled in vain during thirty-one
years.

The number of the dissenters was compara-

tively small, but as they afforded a dangerous
pretext and basis for foreign interference,

they dealt the state a dangerous wound.

IV.

Though the peasant soon disappears from [

Polish history, we must not omit his condi- '

tion in enumerating the causes which led to )

the downfall of the republic.

The statements of the Polish nobles and
their historians, to the effect that the peasant

was always the hereditary property of the

48 Poland.

lord of the manor are false. This relation

between eleven million men and barely half
a million masters is an abuse of the last two
hundred years, and was preceded by one
thousand years of a better state of things.*
Originally the noble did not even possess
jurisdiction over the peasant. It was wielded
by the royal castellans, and in exceptional
cases was bestowed on individual nobles, as

a reward for distinguished services, f

Even though a peasant died childless, his
property went to his relations, and the lord
had no right to exact a fine. If a peasant

deserted his farm, it could not be bestowed

on another until the fugitive had been sum-
moned two or three times to return. On
payment of a definite land tax the peasant

* Von Gravenitz, " The Peasant in Poland." The quota-

tions from ancient records, which have been introduced on

account of the importance of the subject, are borrowed from
work we do not claim to have examined
this excellent little ;

the original sources.

t Deed of gift of the convent of Tyratz, 1286. Boleslaw

appoints Rusezyn to the jurisdiction, 1252.
 Poland. 49

was freed from all taxes, from the necessity

of providing supplies, and of keeping his

cattle at the disposal of his lord.* These

laws of Casimir the Great, the Henry IV. of

Poland, won him the honourable nickname of

" Peasant King."
Those peasants were who were domi-
free

ciled according to German law, or who dwelt

on the land which they themselves had re-

claimed.t It was owing to the feudal lord's

need of labourers, that the rest of the peasants

were bound to the soil and could not leave

the land without permission.
But the peasant did not belong to the lord,

he could not be sold. The estate might pass

into other hands, but the peasant was not

obliofed to leave his farm. The fact that he

could possess land prevented him from ever
becoming a mere serf
There were laws in Poland which mitt-

gated the hardship of this state of affairs^

* Statute W^ladislaw Jagellos, 1420 and 1433.

t Statute Jagellos, 1420.

X Skrzetusky prawo
polityczne narodu polskiego.

E
50 Poland.

Every year two families were free to leave

each village. The father of many sons could

destine one for foreign service, and science
and art were declared free.* Under certain

circumstances all peasants had the right of

emigrating duty free when, for instance,

secular or ecclesiastical punishment fell on

the community as well as on the lord, or
when a woman was violated.

The police regulations of John Albert,

1496, show plainly what was the condition of
the peasant. " He transgresses his bounds,
loves splendid attire, and practises great
extravagance, so that he is often arrested for
debt by the town people."
These regulations decree with regard to

these matters, that the citizen is not to evade

the tribunals of the peasant, but to bring his

actions there. The peasant was therefore

well off, he could raise money on his property,
and had regular tribunals.

If we sum up the condition of the peasant,

;
* Statute of Alexander, 1501.
 Poland. 5

as established by law and justice, we find

that he enjoyed the possession of home and
land, that the conditions under which he was
attached to the soil were restricted, that
he was liable to a reasonable amount of
statute labour, and moderate state and church
rates.

This happy state of affairs ended with the

extinction of the Jagellons, when the nobles
increased their power at the expense of both
king and peasant.
It is remarkable that the Polish peasant
enjoyed these privileges at a time when
-
villeinage existed in all the rest of Europe,*
and that his slavery began when other
nations became free. Villeinage ceased in

Germany as early as the twelfth and thir-

*
J. Jeckel is inclined to take for granted the existence
of villeinage in Poland before the eleventh century, but he
admits that history gives no satisfactory answer to the
questions " What were the peasants ? What were their
:

obligations? Under what laws did they live ? " ("Reforms

in the Polish Constitution," part iii. p. 87.) It is enough
that history, as far as it goes, shows us no serfs, but only
glcebcB adscri^ti.
 52 Poland.

teenth centuries, except in Mecklenburg,

Pomerania, and Lusetia, which had had a
Slavonic population. Louis X. put an end to
it in France in 1315. Elizabeth emancipated
some English serfs as late as 1574. In
Bohemia and Moravia villeinage lasted till

the reign of Joseph II., 1781. In Poland it

/ began in the sixteenth century. The kings

;
were forced to promise that they would grant
the peasant no letters of protection* against
his lord. Henceforth the lord was to have
the right of punishing his disobedient subjects
at his own discretion, "f

The axiom, " Air gives possession," was

applied to all strangers who resided for a
year in a village. J Without the repeal of a
single statute favourable to the peasants, it

became a fundamental principle of the consti-

tution, that " Henceforth no temporal court

in existence can grant the peasant redress
* Alexander, 1505 ; Sigismund I., 1543 ; Sigismund III.,

1588.
+ Article 4 of the religious bond, 1515.
\ Statute of 1633.
 Poland, 53

against his lord, though property, honour, or

life be at stake.''

The peasant was thus handed over to an

arbitrary power, which had no limit, except
that which the excess of an evil imposes on

the evil itself. Every noble was absolute

master on his own estate. There was no
help for the peasant save in the mercy of his
lord or in his own despair.

The result was those terrible insurrections

of the peasants the very threat of which

alarmed the nobles the ruin of landed pro-
pert}', and the failure of those sources from
which a nation should derive its prosperity

and its strength.

The utter misery of the Polish peasant is

proved by statutes like that passed by the

diet of 1768, articles 18 and 19. "The
absolute dominion of the nobles over land
and people is to be maintained, but the
right over life and death of the peasant
is no longer to be vested in his lord." In

1 79 1 it was found necessary to enact: "If

 54 Poland.

henceforth an agreement is drawn up be-

tween lord and serf, in proper form, it

shall form a valid contract." From Polish

historians* we learn with regard to the con-

dition of the peasant t that he " lives without
justice or judge, without law or king, often
without religion ; that he is forced to work
on Sundays and feast-days ; in many places,

for every hide of land his cattle must be at

the disposal of his lord for five days."

It was this arbitrary enforcement of labour
which made it so difficult to restore the
balance. " The peasant % is looked on as a
nonentity. He cannot sue without his lord's
consent. He cannot obtain justice from his
lord. Laws were once made in his favour,

but they were forgotten long ago. There is

no appeal against this oppression, the lord

has long been master over life and death of

* We must quote these passages, so as not to be accused

of exaggeration.

t Warszewicky.
X Nikolaus Zalaczewsky.
 Poland. 55

his peasants." * " Poland is the only country

where the common people are deprived of
the rights of humanity." f

V.

In spite of the enormous gulf that sepa-

rated master and serf, noble and peasant,
it was impossible for a middle class to arise in

Poland. Trade and industry ij: could not

flourish, where the government afforded

neither protection nor encouragement, where

arbitrary encroachments endangered the

safety of property, and destroyed that con-

fidence which is an essential condition of
trade.

These facts explain the poverty of a

country containing 282,000 square miles, with

a population of eleven and a half millions of

* Vincent Rozitusky.
King Stanislaus St. Lesczynslcy, "Observation
t sur le
Gouvemement de Pologne," liv. c. page g.
" Polens Handelsgeschichte." Wien, 1809.
\ J. Jeckel,
 56 Poland.

inhabitants, and possessing great navigable

rivers that flowed to the Baltic or the Black

Sea, an abundance of corn, wheat, wax, honey,

hops, fish, fur, countless herds of splendid
cattle, excellent horses, inexhaustible salt

mines and immense quantities of timber.

Inland industry could make no better use
of this wealth than to manufacture coarse
linen, canvas, ropes, potash, and planks for

ship-building ; the remainder was left to

foreign enterprise. Only the seventh part
of the land was cultivated. In order to render
possible the export of corn and cattle, the
greater part of the nation, i.e. the unhappy
peasant, was deprived of these productions,
and an increase of population rendered im-
possible, for he dragged on his miserable
existence by means of rye bread, in the same
way as he does now on potatoes (meat he ate
barely three times a year).
The remaining exports were insignificant,
and out of proportion to the expensive luxuries

which, contrary to the sumptuary laws, were

 Poland. 57

largely imported in order to supply the increas-

ing demand.
The lead mines of Olkusz were no longer
worked, the inexhaustible mines of rock-salt
in Wieliczka and Bochnia and the salt springs

of the Eastern Provinces of old Poland (Red

Russia) were neglected, so that not only was
no salt exported, but, to the great detriment
of the crown, the whole province of Prussia
had to be supplied with foreign sea salt.

The nations which traded with Poland

consequently received all the profits, while
her own losses were immense.
In the year 1777 the imports amounted

to* 47,488,876 Polish florins,t and the exports

to 29,839,238 Polish florins, so that the im-

ports exceeded the exports by 17,649,638.

Of these Prussia received over 5,000,000,

Austria nearly 11,000,000, and Russia and

Turkey 1,500,000.

In 1776 the imports amounted to 48,640,6 79

* " Polens Handelsgeschichte,"

J. Jeckel, vol. ii. p. 87.

t The Polish florin is about 4s. 6d.

58 Poland.

Polish florins, the exports to 22,096,360, a

difference of 26,544,319 florins in one year.

The chief source of money in Poland was the

sale of the crown.

In spite of all the natural sources of wealth

at her disposal, many a European city was
richer than the commonwealth, and two or
three London and Amsterdam merchants
derived a larger income from trade than the
king of Poland from his domains. In the
midst of all her natural wealth Poland was
poor. She derived no profits from her
abundance, she had neither roads nor ships
to convey her exports, factories to work her
produce, nor trade to turn them to account.
The history of commerce in Poland is

almost entirely comprised in the history of

the town of Danzig.
In the thirteenth century a league was
formed by the most important German
towns, in order to oppose those arbitrary

laws and encroachments on their privileges,

which they were too weak to resist single-
 Poland. 59

handed, to throw open the roads, which were

obstructed by the castles of robber-knights,
and by other obstacles, and to administer
themselves the justice which their princes
were unable to grant. This was the Hanseatic
League, which for centuries controlled the
trade of two great oceans, and Danzig, could

not fail to recognise the great advantages

which would accrue to her if she joined the
league.

The people of Danzig were of German

origin, they were ruled according to German
law and had their own constitution. For a
time they were protected by the Order of
Teutonic Knights, and when they finally re-

cognised the supremacy of Poland, they main-

tained their independence as far as possible.

The citizens fortified the towns at their own

expense, they defended their independence,
not only against foreign countries, but also
against Poland.* They refused to let the

* In 1576 against Stephan Bathori, and in 1733 against

Augustus II.
6o Poland.

Russians enter their walls long after the

Poles had ceased to resist this foe.

After the loss of the Black Sea, Danzig
was the best, and, soon after, the only port,
by means of which Poland could trade with
other countries, and it attained to a high
degree of wealth and importance.
After the royal towns of Poland obtained
the right of appeal to the Magdeburg Law,
a number of industrious foreigners immi-
grated into Poland who might have been
able to improve the condition of trade
and industry. The towns of Thorn, Culm,
Elbing, Konigsberg, Braunsberg, Cracow,
joined the Hanseatic League. They were,
however, unable to maintain their independ-
ence, and had to submit to the ever-increas-

ing power of the nobles. The descendants

of these immigrants led a wretched, poverty-
stricken existence.

The rest of Poland's towns lay deserted

and unfortified, for destitution dwelt within

them.
 Poland. 6

Their inhabitants were agriculturists, among

them not even the commonest artisans were
to be found. Whoever was not noble
dragged on a despised existence in the towns,

or dwelt oppressed in the villages. There

was no middle class in Poland.

The rest of Poland's trade lay stagnant.

The merchants could make no profit out of
the peasants who possessed nothing, literally
nothing. From the noble he could earn as
little. The rich and powerful nobles, who
should have purchased most from the
merchant, received their wine and other
luxuries duty free, in return for the wood,

corn, &c., which they sent to Danzig. How

then could a merchant buy or sell at a profit

in a country where the most influential class

exported and imported duty free those very

articles on which he had to pay duty, at

public and private custom houses ? The bad

state of the laws, especially those referring to

the recovery of debts, made it impossible to

give credit It was impossible to obtain a

6i Poland.

nobleman as partner, since trade carried with

it the loss of nobility.

For a time Poland acted as agent for
Russia, buying the indispensable commodities

at Danzig, Breslau, or Leipzig, and convey-

ing them to Russia by land, but this source

of gain vanished, when Peter the Great threw

open the Baltic and the Black Sea to his

people.

VI.

The small amount of trade still carried on

in Poland was in the hands of the Jews. It

cannot be denied that this frugal, careful race

formed the only class of traders in the land.

That branch of industry which the nobleman

despised, owing to pride or carelessness, and

from which the peasant was excluded by

stupidity and ignorance, fell to the share of

the Jews. Though their presence may have

been a misfortune for the nation in after

years, they were certainly at the same time a

national necessity. They were a misfortune
 Poland. 63

owing to the imperfect organization of the

government, which made it easier to burn

them than to turn them into good citizens

they were a necessity because, though they

were viewed with hatred and envy, no one
thought of imitating the diligence which won
for them their wealth.

We must glance for a moment at this

peculiar race,* at once so important and so
little understood, who, exiled from their home,
multiplied rapidly and found entrance into

every country till they spread over the whole

world.
Perpetually oppressed by capricious laws,
the race raised itself by perseverance and
cunning. Ill-treated, persecuted by fire and
sword, still they returned, or others took their
place ; robbed and plundered repeatedly, the
wealth of the land was yet theirs. A strange
mixture of outward weakness and inward
strength, humble and fawning to superiors,

* " Tableau de Pologne ancienne et moderne," par

Malte-Brun, refondu par Leonard Chodzko. Paris, 1830.
64 Poland.

cruel and despotic to dependents, oppressed,

ill-treated as a whole, they yet individually
repaid their oppressors with despotism.
Even in his degradation, the memory of his

natural dignity, the sense of his oppression,

clings to man, and the Jews opposed hatred
and contempt to violence and enmity ; senti-

ments that took deeper root in their hearts

because of the concealment which was neces-

sary.

The political position of the Jews and their

own laws debarred them from possessing
land, serving the state, holding offices, in

short from every kind of public activity.

They could never use their talents, know-

ledge, and diligence for the national welfare.

Patriotism, ambition, the longing for action,

all the forces which urge other men to

energy, were nothing to them. Everywhere
repulsed with contempt, the Jew was thrown
back on his own resources, and thus of
necessity self became his only consideration.

The highest position to which a Jew could

 Poland. 65

attain was that of a rich man. But his wealth

did not bring him civil rights, it did not

protect him against public hatred, and he was
forced to conceal it, or else to enjoy it in the

midst of danger.
When money ceased to be a means of
happiness for the Jews, they sought it for its

own sake. Wealth was the one goal of each

individual, and all means of obtaining it

were lawful in his eyes, and afforded him a

means of vengeance on his oppressors.

Meek under insult and indignity, sober and

frugal in his habits, never neglectful of an
advantage, was it strange that all wealth
flowed to his coffers, that gradually the op-
pressors became dependent on the despised
foreigner ?

The first Jewish immigrants were exiles

from Germany and Bohemia.* In 1096

they fled to Poland, where at that time there
was more religious tolerance than in the

Compare Leonard Chodzko's edition of " Tableau de

Pologne," par Malte-Brun.

F
66 Poland.

rest of Europe. The cruelty and greed of

the first crusaders caused this exodus of
the Jews. They declared them to be the
natural enemies of Christ. In Mayence
1,400 Jews were burnt, 12,000 victims fell

in Bavaria. Women killed their children,

men killed themselves, to escape baptism

and the baptisers. All the Jews fled from
Bohemia. They were forced to leave their
property behind them, for " since they brought
no wealth from Judsea, they must leave Bo-
hemia as poor as they came."
Casimir the Great, instigated by his love
for Esther, the beautiful Jewess of Opofino,
gave the Jews such civil rights and privi-
leges as a Polish king could grant, which
conduced to the advantage of the land ; but
already in the time: of Lewis of Hungary,

1 37 1, they were sentenced to exile. Not-

withstanding this, we find them scattered
over the whole of Poland in 1386. Chris-
tians were forbidden on pain of excommuni-
cation to have any intercourse with. Jews or
 Poland. 67

to purchase from them. When they settled

in towns they were forced to live in par-

ticular suburbs. They were forbidden to

practise usury. John Olbracht cancelled at

one stroke all the mortgages, which would

have brought into their hands the greater
part of the estates of the nobles pledged in

times of war. The loans were, however, to

be repaid with legal interest.

The " Privilegium " of Boleslav the Pious,

1505, is characteristic of the times, and shows

that the king was forced to protect the Jews
from the universal hatred and oppression of
the Christians.* It contains the following
sentences :
" The corpses of Jews can be
removed duty free. For the desecration of
a synagogue, a Christian is to pay a fine of

two stones of pepper to the woiwode. No

one is to put up at a Jewish house. It is

false that Jews use human blood. If a Jew

is accused of having kidnapped a Christian
child, the act must be proved by three
* Jeckel, " Reforms in the Polish Constitution," part ii.
68 Poland.

Christian and three Jewish witnesses. If he

is not found guilty, the accuser must undergo
the punishment that would have been inflicted

on the Jew. If a Jew is ill-treated in the

night and calls for help, the Christians must

come to his aid, on pain of punishment."
Many a resolution of the diet, many a
law that would have ruined their trade,

many a storm roused by fanatic priests, was

averted by their money (Miczynsky says
by their "magic"), which won them high
patrons. Some writers, however, asserted,
" God blesses those who persecute the Jews,"
and they cited several Polish families as an.

example.*
According to the Jews there were in 1540

* Ziechowsky declares in his Oglos Procesu, " Since the

Jew Alexander did not confess to infanticide under torture,
his judges should not have rested satisfied with burning
him : they should also have burned his shadow, since it is

very likely that the devil, for the sake of a Jew, substituted
a phantom, and that the shadow was the real Jew." As '

late as 1783 Tyskowsky, a monk of the Order of St. Ber-

nard, accused Jewesses of sorcery. (Jeckel, " Reforms in
the Polish Constitution," part i. p. 44, and part iii. p. 14.)
 Poland. 69

500 Christian and 3,200 Jewish merchants,

and 9,600 Jewish goldsmiths and other
manufacturers. The wealthy Jews began to

dress like the Polish nobles ; they even

surpassed them in splendour. There is an
edict of Sigismund II. which forbids their

wearing gold chains, signet rings, and swords

inlaid with jewels. The Jews had their own
diet, every province sent deputies to War-
saw, where they formed a great assembly
and elected their own marshal, whose
appointment was confirmed by the govern-
ment. In short, next to the nobles, the Jews
formed the most influential and powerful
class in the country.

The incredible increase of the Jewish

population, supposed to be three times as
rapid as that of the Polish inhabitants, was
very alarming, as the Jews managed to avoid
all public burdens and taxes. Sigismund
Augustus resolved, in spite of their objec-
tions, to impose a poll tax of pne florin per
head, and at the same time to discover by
yo Poland.

this means their actual number. It was

estimated at 200,000, but only 16,000 florins
were paid as tax.*
Their power was increased by John
Sobiesky, to whom they had prophesied that
he would ascend the throne. He favoured
the Jews so much, that the senate in 1682
implored him to regard the welfare of the
state, and not to let the favours of the crown
pass through their hands.
The laws forbidding the Jews on pain of
death to trade with the peasants, to keep
inns, to sell brandy laws which were passed
anew in every reign show that they never
ceased to carry on these trades, so profitable
for them, so ruinous for the peasant.

* " Dites-moi," said King Sigismund to the Bishop of

Cracow, " vous qui ne croyez pas aux sorciers, ou que le

diable puisse se m^ler de nos affaires, dites-moi comment
il se que 200,000 Juifs ont pu se cacher sous terre, pour
fait,

ne parattre que 16,598 aujourd'hui qu'il s'agit de payer la

capitation." "Votre Majesty sait," replied the Bishop,
" que les Juifs n'ont pas besoin du diable pour 6tre

sorciers."
 Poland. 7

VII.

We have now glanced at the various

conflicting elements which composed the
state. A powerless king, a powerful demo-
cratic nobility divided as to interest and
religious belief, a middle class which lived in

the state without belonging to it, and the

peasants who formed the mass of the nation,
without political rights, almost without the
common rights of humanity, and living in
utter misery.

What a dreadful picture of confusion does

this unhappy country present
At an early date Poland reached a certain

standard of culture, but when the nobles

robbed the crown of all influence in order to

maintain their entire independence, when the

people legally deprived themselves of the

power of giving laws, it remained at a stand-
still. While other nations advanced, Poland
was centuries behind the age.

At last all administration ceased. The

']2 Poland.

coinage became a monopoly after 1658, and as

Polish money had a higher intrinsic value
than that of neighbouring states, it disap-

peared from circulation or false coinage took

its place. It is said that the whole coinage of
Poland was twice melted down and recoined
abroad. Foreign coins had an arbitrary
value. The confusion was so great, that

Augustus III. had Saxon money coined in

Warsaw on his own responsibility, though

not empowered to do so by the senate or the
nation, for in his long reign no diet met
without being dissolved before it could have
given him the necessary authority.
Not only the king, but also the high state
officials, were forced by necessity to assume
an authority to which they had no right, and
which far exceeded that which would have
been bestowed on an absolute government.
They were forced to exceed their authority,
in order to satisfy the most urgent demands.
Each one reigned supreme in his own depart-
ment, and was obliged to exercise a power
 Poland. 73

over the whole people, which would have

laid him open to a charge of abuse from each

individual, but which his successor would
have been obliged to adopt.

Poland had no ambassadors at foreign ^

courts, the land had no fortresses, no

navy, no roads, no arsenals, no treasury,

no fixed revenue. The army was small, un-

disciplined, often unpaid, so that the troops

were forced to unite and to encamp before

the place of assembly of the diet, and to
add an unlawful weight to their lawful de-

mands.
The confederation was the sole safeguard
which could be opposed to foreign powers. \

The kings, who feared a power which

exceeded their own, brought intrigue and
obstruction to bear on these associations ; if

they themselves formed the confederation,

want of confidence prevented the people
from joining them. The once warlike Polish
nobles had become weak and degenerate,
owing to the luxurious life which they led,
74 Poland.

and which was partly promoted by the

government.
Nearly all the great estates were burdened
with debts and lawsuits. The majority of
the nobles had neither weapons nor horses,

and formed a tumultuous assembly without

order, discipline, or leaders.

On the other hand, it was impossible to

run the risk of arming the mass of the nation

for the defence of the country. To the
peasant, who had nothing to lose, it was a
matter of indifference whether he was sub-
ject to his territorial lord or to a foreign foe.

Every promise of improvement, nay, even a

mere change in his condition offered by the
enemy, was calculated to make the peasant
the most terrible enemy of his master. The
mere possibility of an insurrection of the
peasants, accompanied by horrors which can
originate only in the most excited fancy, and
which had already devastated the country
more than once, prevented the noble and his

household troops from undertaking the de-

 Poland. 75

fence of the republic ; for, how could they

venture to leave wife and children, hearth
and home, to the mercy of the furious, un-

bridled peasants ?

Thus Poland owed its existence to an

usurped power at home and its weakness
abroad.* Whoever attacked the country
with an army intended to conquer it, and for

a long time the sole obstacle to this was the

mutual jealousy of neighbouring states.

The election of the king and religious

quarrels first opened the land to foreign

influence. In 1697 an army of 10,000

Saxons put the Elector Augustus II. in

possession of the throne contrary to the will

of the greater part of the Polish nation.

For this reason Augustus constantly required

his army in order to defend his crown against
the people.
In spite of its condition, though too weak
to defend itself, Poland preferred remaining
unarmed among its armed neighbours, to

* Polonia confusione regitur-

 76 Poland.

seeing the army of its king in the country.

The diets, anxious to maintain the rights of
the individual and jealous of the royal
power, energetically insisted upon the
removal of the Saxon army, preferring to

endanger the freedom of the state, rather

than the prerogatives of the nobles. The
king was unsuccessful in the wars, which he
undertook for the purpose of defending his
right to retain that army, which alone could

give him any influence. Swedish arms, not

the will of the nation, gave the crown to

Stanislaus Leszczynski in 1704.

After the misfortunes of Charles XII.,

Augustus II. returned with a Saxon army to
regain possession of the throne. As soon as
the king attempted to carry out what had
evidently been his object from the first,

namely, the firm establishment of the royal

power in the state, the confederation opposed
him so vigorously, that Augustus was obliged
to seek Russian interference and protection
in order to maintain his position, and thus he
 Poland. 77

set his successors a pernicious example, which

caused the ruin of the state.

Augustus III. succeeded his father, not by-

means of Saxon arms, but through the

influence and the protection of Russia. In
order to maintain his hold on the throne, hc;
became entirely dependent on that power.
The armaments required for the twofold
conquest of Poland and the wars of Augus-
tus II., the bribes and the luxuries by which
he tried to subdue the nobles when war was
unavailing, and finally the boundless extra-
vagance of Augustus III., exhausted the
supplies of Poland and Saxony.
When during the Seven Years' War the
latter country was lost, Augustus, once a
powerful elector, became the weakest of
kings.

The death of Augustus III. was the signal

which had been awaited by all parties at

home and abroad, in order to set in motion,

every power and every passion for the at-

tainment of their object. Politics, patriotism,

78 Poland.

treachery, ambition, bribery, intrigue, vio-

lence, all these forces were brought to bear

on each other, and caused a terrible storm

in the republic.

We will select from the midst of the

general confusion that party which desired
to use the ensuing election for the improve-

ment of the social condition of their country.

Many Poles looked on that condition as the

perfection of statesmanship. They thought
with pride of the rights bestowed on
individuals, without considering that nine-

tenths of the people were in abject slavery,

and that the independence of the nobles was

far from being freedom. The weakness of
the state which resulted therefrom, did not
guarantee the stability of the constitution,
since it could not guarantee the existence of
the state. The men who held these views
were constantly dreading the abuse of power,
but they never saw what danger lay in the
abuse of liberty. A long apprenticeship in
the school of misfortune was needed to
 Poland. 79

convince them that a change in the constitu-

tion was inevitable. There were not wanting
men who recognised the grave mistakes in
the constitution.
" All our deliberations," said the primate
to the diet, " lead to no object. The diets

are without results. Few of us can boast of

having been present at a diet where freedom
of deliberation was respected. We call our-

selves a free nation, but we bear, the yoke of

slavery, and the fear of the sword subdues us.

We feel that our dependence is a misfortune,

but we have not sufficient skill to help our-

selves nor strength to improve our condition,

and yet we rush with closed eyes to our ruin.

" All our misfortunes are the consequences
of our actions. We are fettered by our own
terror, and there is nothing to give us hope
for the future, neither strength nor wise
counsel.
" We have no fortresses, for they are in,

ruins, no garrisons, for they are weak ; we

have no arms, no ammunition, neither .safe;
 ;

8o Poland.

frontiers nor an army to defend them. Let

us confess that the kingdom is like an open
house, a dwelling desolated by storms, a
building without an owner, whose weak
foundations would collapse if providence did
not uphold them.
" Let us look for an instant at the abuses
which are well-nigh incredible. The laws,

degenerated and despised, are not executed

the tribunals which should judge criminals
are abolished ;
perjury is permitted at the
expense of the salvation of our soul and the
fatherland. Liberty is oppressed by violence
and despotism, the royall treasure depreciated
by the introduction of foreign and debased
coin. The country towns, the loveliest spots
of the land, are depopulated, the advantages,
derived from commerce are the spoils of the
Jews. We must seek for the town in the

towns ; markets, streets and fields have been

so desolated.
" Fifty years have brought this about. And
why ? Because we live contrary to the spirit
 Poland. 8

of Christianity and brotherly love, without

concord, confidence, and honesty. Let us
reflect how such conduct must burden our
conscience,how hard it is to restore what we
destroy, how great will be the punishment of

the avenger, which we call down upon our

heads. Let us consider the account which
we owe to God and the land, when we
subject our boundaries to the danger of being

conquered.
"Now, while our liberty, without limits,

without restrictions, becomes licence, it needs

nothing so much as fetters, to keep it from
excesses, that would lead to destruction and
slavery. A freedom such as ours is merely
licentiousness. Its ruinous influence is felt

even in this assembly, and renders it neces-

sary that we should submit to law and order.

This diet is the place, where we must subdue
the excesses of liberty, which lead to our ruin
it injures and oppresses us, annuls our laws,
obstructs justice, and destroys public safety."*

* Ferrand, " Histoire du D6membrement de la Pologne."

G
82 Poland.

If words like these were spoken in vain to

the masses, and were unheeded by those

who were interested in the continuance of

anarchy, there were yet many who felt their

truth. There were always men in Poland
who were ready to sacrifice themselves for
their country. Though the rotten fabric of
the republic threatened to bury in its ruins

those who touched it, brave men did not fear

to destroy with strong hands the old founda-
tions and replace them by new ones.
But these efforts to bring about a better
state of affairs, must be looked on as the final

causes of the ruin of the republic.

Among the parties which desired a revolu-

tion in the state, we must firs^ name the

court, for its hopes of greater independence
were based on the general disorder, on the
necessities of the country, and the degenerate
condition of the nobles, which it had helped
to bring about.

The great offices were given away to the

most submissive, the nobleman sank to the

 Poland. 83

level of the courtier, and the solidity of the

nation was intentionally undermined. The

excess of the evil was to become the dawn
of a better state of things. The great mass
of the nobles had fallen into the most abject
poverty, through that excessive luxury, of
which the court had set the example. Whilst
about one hundred palatines, bishops, and
starosts united, in their households and in

their public processions, French fashions with

oriental pomp, a far larger number of nobles
hired themselves out as servants.* Many of

them wanted to devote themselves to com-

merce in order to emancipate themselves
from their deplorable state ; had they done so
they would have rendered a great service to
the state. The diet of 1677 was foolish enough
to declare that commerce, being unworthy
of the nobility, destroys all its privileges.

And yet the patent of Polish nobility, which

* " Le gentilhomme sous la livrle, fait-il une faute, le

cantchou le corrige. Mais on lui met un tapis sous les

genoux par respect pour sa g6n6alogie." Histoire de

Jean Soiiesky, par I'Abb^ Coyer.
84 Poland.

was formerly sought by foreign princes, was

given away indiscriminately. A Jew who left

the faith of his fathers became a Polish noble

by baptism ; and as the newer nobility is

always the most arrogant, these converts

made more noise at the diets than those in
whose veins flowed the blood of the Jagellons.

VIII.

The Pototsky (Potocki), one of the most

important families, formed another important
faction. Two brothers Pototsky were at its

head, one was the primate of the kingdom,

the other the crown field - marshal. The
measures of these men were carried out with
all the caution necessary for an undertaking
which places the existence of the state in

jeopardy. The regeneration of Poland was

to be the work of the Poles, and it was to be
carried out by its own strength. Its great
object was the abolition of the liberum
veto, which had become an unwieldy
 Poland. 85

instrument, but which was still dear to the

majority. The Pototsky looked upon this

greatest of evils as the only obstacle to

despotism in the present degenerate con-
dition of the nobles. Before they removed
it, they thought it necessary to deprive the
crown of the power of distributing dignities
and offices a dangerous weapon, since it

brought about the subjection of nobles,

dependent on the favour of the court. They

therefore desired to establish a commission,
which was to make these offices not the gifts

of court favour, but the reward of merit.

These changes touched the interests of the

king and the poor nobles too nearly, for them

not to offer the most violent opposition.
The Czartorinsky (Czartoryski) and their

party were bolder, and brought an irresistible

skill to bear on their designs. The unsuc-
cessful efforts of the Pototsky at the diet of

1742, showed that the Polish constitution

had reached a point where anarchy itself
resulted in stability, where it was impos-
86 Poland.

sible for the constitution to develope im-

provement, and Poland was hurried along
on the rushing torrent of history, like a boat-
man who has voluntarily thrown away his
rudder. The very rottenness of the consti-
tution made it impossible to touch it. No
power in the state could rise against it, for

though each had the means of preventing

action, none had the strength to act. As
long as the state existed none could touch
the constitution. A change meant the over-
throw of the state. The very faults which
called for a reform, prevented its being
effected.

All power in the state being levelled so

that no power could arise, this perfect equi-

librium prevented every movement. These

are most important circumstances, which
must never be forgotten, when we judge
those who sought the starting point for the
necessary revolution outside the country.
Two brothers, Michael and Augustus, the
former, palatine of Polish Russia, the latter
 Poland. 87

chancellor of Lithuania, were at the head of

the Czartorinsky family. This family, which,
through its glorious descent from the Dukes
of Lithuania, had raised itself above re-

publican equality, had filled the first offices

in the land, and by means of marriages had

attained to great wealth. If, on the one
hand, the Pototsky wished to bestow the
sovereign power on the great families at the
expense of the throne, and by means of its

few remaining privileges, the faction of the

Czartorinsky, on the other hand, desired to
establish it by increasing the strength of the
throne, by limiting the power of the great
families, and by asserting the rights of the
majority. They were the more inclined to

this course, because they, the descendants of

the Jagellons, felt within themselves the power

to ascend this throne, and because patriot-

ism and family spirit were united in them.

The Czartorinsky soon recognised the

impossibility of accomplishing the reform

of the nation by means of the nation itself.
88 Poland.

and they looked abroad to see whence they

could derive the requisite strength.
Poland had always looked on France as its

natural ally, and a sound policy would always

have done its best to assist a reform such as
that desired by the Czartorinsky. This was
the sole method of raising Poland to a state
which would have influence abroad, and
France, while it proved its friendship by
conferring an actual benefit on that country,
would have created for itself a powerful and
faithful ally in the East. Though history
enumerates a number of factions, which
French intrigue stirred up and supported
in Poland, yet at the decisive moment we
see them constantly deserted and abandoned.
These inconsistencies can only be explained
by the frequent change of mistresses at the

court of Versailles.
In ancient as well as in modern times,

France has frequently made use of Poland

for its own objects, without ever doing any-
thing for the benefit of the nation. No
 Poland. 89

other country so frequently held Poland's

fate In its hands, no other deceived it so
often.

We must add to this the alliance between

France and Austria, that strange creation of
Prince Kaunitz, which taught the Poles that
they had little to expect from the assistance
of France. Austria and Prussia had just
ended that terrible war, at the conclusion of

which Prussia, owing to the glory of its

arms, and the greatness of its king, took its

place with all honours among the great

powers of Europe. Prussia had fought
against Europe, Austria against Prussia.
It is usual to estimate the strength of a
state by its victories and its successful cam-
paigns, but it is by means of her defeats that

Austria gives us the highest opinion of her

power and her inexhaustible resources. After
a long succession of misfortunes she always
remains unsubdued.
Peace was concluded, but neither power
disarmed. Each state held its armies of
go Poland.

200,000 men in readiness to renew the war

if necessary, and each watched the other
jealously. Each country needed and desired
peace, and remained armed in order to
maintain it.*

Poland could naturally expect no help

from either of these powers. If one of them
gave assistance, war with the other became
inevitable.

The ancient sceptre of the old empire was

as threatening as the sword of the young
kingdom. Both Austria and Prussia were
unanimous in their opinion, that they would
prefer the anarchy of the republic, to assist-

ing in turning a good neighbour into a

powerful monarchy, which would be dan-
gerous to all adjoining states.
It seems natural, that the Turks should
have taken a lively interest in the affairs of

Poland ; and the renewed and destructive

wars, which already at that time Russia
waged against that country, might have led
* Dohms Denkwiirdigkeiten seiner Zeit.
 Poland. 9

it to support an enemy of its hereditary foe.

But the belief of the Turks in fatalism

made them divide all Christian powers

into enemies who attacked them and
enemies who left them in peace. As the
Porte had no ambassadors at foreign courts,
it saw things only in the light in which the
ambassadors of foreign courts represented
them. Absolute ignorance of politics was
combined with religious dogma, utter con-

tempt for their foes, and a state of perfect

weakness. Since the Turks, instead of "en-

'
camping in Europe ' took up their residence
there, since they ceased to subjugate their

neighbours, they have lost the power of

defending themselves against them. All the
institutions which had rendered them so

formidable have changed their character,

and from a warlike race the Turks have

degenerated into a nation whose weakness
makes it peaceful.

The Janizaries were no longer the ilite of the

Turkish army they were no longer Christian
;
92 Poland.

boys who had been kidnapped, and who,

without wife, child, or home, followed the
splendour of the crescent and lived for fame
and booty. The corps was formed chiefly

of effeminate Turks, domiciled citizens, who

arrogated to themselves the privileges of the
Janizaries without being able even to use
their weapons. The Spahis, it is true, had
not entirely lost their former fame ; but their
enemies had meanwhile made great progress,
and now they came into contact with two
obstacles which not even their fanatical,

almost insane, courage could overcome, the

chevaux de /rise* and the artillery. The
remainder of these armies, numbering hun-
dreds of thousands, which the Porte thought
it necessary to arm in every campaign, con-
sisted of rabble which were scarcely enlisted
when they deserted, in order to enlist anew.

* The chevaux de frise were beams provided with six

rows of pointed spikes forming a breastwork four to five
feet high,which the Russian infantry always carried with
them in their Turkish campaigns, and which rendered vain
the most furious cavalry attacks.
 Poland. 93

After a lost battle, 80,000 of these men fled

to Constantinople, and the Sultan gave them

provisions and ships to convey them to Asia
Minor, in order to get rid of these wild
undisciplined hordes.
To call in the assistance, of such an army-
was, in the words of the Bishop of Kamenitz,
" to set the house on fire in order to get rid
of the vermin."

IX.

As Poland had nothing to hope from its

friends in Europe, the Czartorinsky boldly

determined to use their enemies for their

own designs, never doubting, that they
could at the right moment annihilate the

power which they would be obliged to bestow

on them, and destroy the dangerous tool

when it had served their purpose. They

felt a great contempt for semi-barbarous
Russia, but they purposed to use its material

forces for the regeneration of Poland; and

then, by means of this new and powerful


94 Poland.

Poland, to repel the pretensions of Russia,

which already pressed heavily on the

republic. But the task was begun under the

weak government of Peter III., and by the
time it was completed, Catherine's powerful
hand wielded the sceptre of Peter the Great,
and no charm could lay the spirits that had
been so rashly summoned.
Russia's development had been thoroughly
Asiatic. Although, i ,000 years after its

rising, the sun of Christianity cast a ray on

these great deserts, gentle manners and
customs, science, and intercourse with other
countries did not flourish. At an early

period the independence of the people was

lost in serfdom ;* that of the nobles in the

* In the law books of Joroslaw (1050) it is said " A man

:

becomes a serf or slave who is bought before a witness, who

cannot pay his creditors, who marries a slave, &c. A horse-
stealer is delivered to the Prince, and loses his civil rights,
freedom, and property. No Wergeld (indemnity to the
family) is paid for a slave, but whoever kills him without
cause must pay his lord the value of the killed man."
Karamsin, History of the Russian Emj^ire, vol. ii. art.

3," Criminal Law."

 Poland. 95

absolute power of the princes, and that of

the princes in the great states which arose in
Kiew, Novgorod, Moscow, and finally in St.

Petersburg.
The will of the individual was lost sight of
more and more in the will of the state, or
rather in that of the head of the state, who
united in his person the highest civil and
ecclesiastical power, in a manner unknown in

any other part of Europe. Hence the unity

and strength manifested in the enterprises of

the state, and its quick development, for

despotism is the best government for bar-
barians. The Polish annals are thus the
histories of great men, the Russian annals the
history of a great state. In the former we
see the virtues of the individual contend-
ing with the faults of the community; in
the latter, a line of princes with hereditary
power, who force the nation to assume a

higher civilization.
For centuries Russia was isolated and cut
off from the rest of the world. The great
96 Poland.

rivers which flowed from its endless woods,

ran into a sea with no outlet, or into regions
of eternal ice. Immense deserts separated it

from all other nations, and great as was the

territory of the new Russian state, its further

extension was a sine qud non condition, if

it was ever to emerge from its isolation.

In the South it was bounded by insur-

mountable mountains and immense steppes,

in the East by a nation of 400 million souls,
civilized for centuries ; in the North by in-
superable natural obstacles.
Peter the Great roused his people with his
iron hand from the sleep of barbarism, but
was not able to raise them to a state of civili-

zation, which time alone can give, and which

cannot be the work of a moment in spite
of the most gigantic exertions. By opening
the Baltic for Russia, he opened the first

outlet for the political life of his land, and he

turned from the wealth of the East to the
arts of the West ; he gave the impulse which
made Russia an European state.
 Poland^ 97

Since that time the conquest of Poland

was the aim of the rulers of Russia, and this

republic, one of the oldest of European

states, discovered with terror that it lay
between the two newest monarchies of the
continent, and that its geographical position
was an obstacle to their further development.

Since the last century Poland had become

accustomed to seeing Russian armies within
its boundaries, now to protect the dissidents

who were said to be oppressed, then to pre-

serve the rights of the nobles ; at one time to

maintain the liberty of the nation, i.e. the

anarchy which was so useful to its neigh-

bours, then again to support the liberum
veto; for after it had been condemned by
public opinion, Russian arms restored its

use. At another time they came to support

the Saxons on the throne, or again to

deprive them of it.

During the Seven Years' War,, Poland
had to consent passively to the passage of

100,000 R.ussians, and was obliged to be-

H
 a

gS Poland,

come the scene of their winter quarters

suffering witness of their excesses and op-
pressions; it had to provide them with
clothing and food. After the peace, 12,006
Russians remained in Graudenz, under pre-
text of protecting the military stores because

they could not sell them profitably. With

the exception of Danzig, which protected
itself, the few fortresses still belonging to
Poland were in the hands of the Russians,
who even with a smaller army would have
been able to rule over a country, where
those who possessed power had no common
basis of action ; for the confederations them-
selves, in the hands of the Russians, became
a terrible means of subjection.

It was by means of the Russian arms,

which had almost subjugated it, that the
Czartorinsky intended to free Poland.
This family had so long enjoyed all the
 Poland. 99

favours of the court, that the loss of this

favour could not injure it; it was indepen-
dent of the court, and had become its most
dangerous enemy. Their name, which was
associated with great historical events, their
extensive family alliances, gave the Czar-
torinsky great influence over the chief

families of the country. Immense wealth,

a hospitality in accordance with this wealth
and the spirit of the times, made many of the
poorer nobles dependent on them. Finally,

the extensive privileges bestowed on them by

the high offices they filled, caused those to
seek their favour who wished to rise through

office. All their power and popularity did

not suffice to deprive the democracy of
nobles of those rights, which gave it the
sole influence in the state.

In order to advance their affairs, the

Czartorinsky had succeeded in getting their
nephew, Poniatowsky, sent as ambassador to
Russia, but he had the pursuit of his own
ambitious plans alone in view. While yet
lOO Poland^

an infant in the cradle, it had been pro-

phesied that he would wear a crown, and
this prophecy helped to bring about its own
fulfilment.

The strange events of his parents' lives

had accustomed them to think nothing im-

possible, and they gave the child the por-

tentous name of "Stanislaus Augustus."

His education was conducted with a view to
this high aim, and when still a mere boy
he was initiated in the secret of their hopes.*

During his stay at St. Petersburg he was

fortunate enough to win the favour of the
young grand-duchess, afterwards Catherine
II. When Poniatowsky was recalled at the
instigation of the grand-duke, her affection

changed to passion, and she solemnly vowed

that the prophecy should become true.

When she ascended the throne of her

unfortunate husband and a new king was to

be elected in Poland, she at once prepared

to keep her word, either from, a romantic
* Rhuliere, ^' Histoirfe de 1' Anarchic de Pologne," tome i.
 Poland. loi

attachment for Poniatowsky, or because it

flattered her vanity to give away a crown.

Perhaps she really contemplated a marriage
with him and the union of the two Slavonic
races, or else she was ambitious enough
to desire to gain an important influence on
European affairs.

Catherine's position on the Russian throne,

which she had just ascended by means of a
revolution, was not yet firm enough to permit

her to take any important step against a

nation which was still considered powerful,
unless she had a strong party of that nation

on her side.

This party she found in the Czartorinsky,

who seemed willing to put the nation in fet-

ters in order to prepare it for the designs of

the Empress.
The Czartorinsky, without paying atten-
tion to the two laws which outlawed those
who during an interregnum summoned
foreign troops into the country, and which
annulled all decrees passed by their means,
I02 Poland.

demanded that a Russian army should be

called in. This was agreed to, as each
party was convinced that it was working
for itself, and that the other was merely a
tool, while in reality both were working into
each other's hands.
The great influence of the Czartorinsky

was shown in the diet of 1762, when it was

found necessary to take measures to prevent
the Russian troops from occupying Cour-
land. Violent scenes took place, and the
diet was dissolved like so many previous
ones. These princes, whose real object
was to place all power in the hands of the
king, proposed that the offices of state
should be distributed by a national com-
mission, and protested against the way in

which they were filled.

On the death of Augustus III. the Czar-

torinsky outvoted every proposal at the diet,
which had been convoked for the purpose
of introducing reforms in the administration.
The fact that they themselves intended to
 Poland. 103

introduce important reforms, induced them

to avoid anything that might awaken the
distrust of the nobles before they were in

their power. They knew from experience,

that their plans could not succeed as long as
the nation was free.

XI.

At moment which was so decisive

last the

for Poland arrived

a new king was to be
elected. The election was decisive, not so
much because it mattered who was chosen,
but because of the conditions under which
the king elect was to obtain the throne.
In order to have sufficient funds in hand for

the diet, Catherine stopped all payments in

the empire, even the pay of the soldiers.*

The Russian revenues, which were to buy

* " Les soldats n'en murmuraient point, espdrant biea

s'en d6domager par le pillage des provinces polonaises,
habitu6s depuis longtemps i regarder le choix d'un roi de
Pologne comme un droit que leurs souverains exer^aient

avec quelques efforts." RHULifeRE, tome ii. livre 2.
 I04 Poland.

the Polish deputies, were sent to Warsaw

under a large military escort; 12,000 men
were encamped before the gates of the
town, and were brought thither in forced
marches. An army of 60,000 men stood on
the frontiers of the republic. The princes
Czartorinsky brought 2,000 of their house-
hold troops, and were certain of finding a
large number of friends or dependents
among, the deputies, as they had greatly
influenced the elections and lavishly dis-

tributed large sums of money.

If the Russian party was fully prepared
for action, the republicans, who had for the

time being combined with the Saxons, were

equally ready and fully determined to brave
the threatened danger. A sum of 50,000
ducats, sent from Saxony, helped to inspire

the multitude with enthusiasm for a cause,

which for a long time had been chiefly

influenced by money.
Branizki and Mokranowski were the two
men on whom the hopes of the republic
 Poland. 105

were fixed. The former was generally

respected on account of a long life full of
glory, while the latter aroused the hopes of

all by means of his steadfast honesty and

courage, which seemed to promise him a
glorious future.
The republicans were unable to assemble
their army, which consisted of 4,000 undis-
ciplined troops.
The aged field-marshal of the crown there-
fore marched towards Warsaw with all his

household troops, leaving his own estates

exposed to the mercy of the Russians. The
nucleus of his little army consisted of Hun-
garians, Janizaries, and Tartars. Radziwill
joined him with his troops, filled with the
proud conviction, that none would dare to

attack the liberty of the republic until he

himself had perished. The Oginski, Mas-
salski, Malachowski, Lubomirski, and other
well-known families also joined his ranks.
Though this faction was numerically weak
when compared with its enemies, yet the
io6 Poland.

leaders did not despair of holding a free

diet, and, if this was impossible, of dissolv-

ing the diet which was under Russian

protection. Mokranowski undertook the
perilous task of dissolving it by his veto.

At this time the Prussian ambassador

arrived in Warsaw escorted by a squadron of
hussars. Warsaw in those days wore a
strangely splendid aspect, the like of which
was to be found in no other European town.
Beside a number of citizens and foreigners
whom secret missions or their own interests

brought thither, all the powerful nobles and

great men of Poland were assembled within
its walls. The enormous sums of money
collected for purposes of bribery, easily

earned and lavishly spent, animated trade in

an unparalleled manner.
Articles of luxury, brought from both
hemispheres, were exhibited in the splendid
shops. Magnificent shawls from Armenia,
the expensive toys of Parisian fashion,

pearls from India, native horses, all these,

 Poland. 107

however expensive, found purchasers.

Heavily laden vessels sailed up the stream,
the streets were crowded by Christians,

Jews, and Mussulmans. The turban of the

Janizary, the dolman of the Hungarian, were
seen side by side with the fur cap of the
Pole. Beside the carbine of the Prussian
and the bayonet of the Russian appeared
the bow and arrows of the Tartar. The
crowded balls and banquets, the beauty of
the women, the splendour of their assemblies,
seemed to betoken a great national festival.

But the houses of the nobles were sur-

rounded by their troops. Poniatowski had
provided his palace with loopholes, and
cannons stood in the courtyard of the

Russian embassy. Every one was armed,

and though as yet all was at peace, every

one trembled lest an accident, a quarrel,

might prove the spark which should cause a
terrible explosion in a place where personal
passions and important interests were
strained to the highest pitch, so that violent


io8 Poland.

outbreaks were well-nigh inevitable. The

7th of May, 1764, arrived, the day fixed for
the opening of the diet.
The guards were doubled, strong detach-
ments of cavalry filled the streets, five

hundred grenadiers protected the palace of

the Russian ambassador. Von Kaiserling,
and the Russian army was drawn up in order
of battle before the town, ready to enter at
the word of command. The adherents of
the Czartorinsky, distinguished by a cockade
of the colours of the family, went to the
house of assembly accompanied by a large
escort.

The house of assembly was surrounded

and filled by Russian soldiers, who even
appeared in the seats of the deputies. When
the marshal of the diet, Malachowski, entered
accompanied by Mokranowski, the assembly
waited with intense interest for what should
follow. When the latter had taken his seat
as deputy, he addressed the assembly in the
following words ;
 Poland. 109

" As liberty has disappeared from among

us, as Russian troops have entered into the
very midst of the assembly of the republic,
and as the representatives of our country
wear the livery of a family, in the name of
twenty-two senators and of forty-five depu-
ties, as well as in my own, I declare the diet
annulled and dissolved."
A fearful uproar arose at these words.
The marshal of the diet, who stood in the
centre of the hall with his staff lowered, was
asked to raise it, as a sign that the diet was
opened. But the marshal, an old man of
eighty years, replied, " You cannot delibe-

rate in the presence of the Russians. You

may cut off this hand, but never shall it raise

the staff while we are enslaved. A free

nation entrusted it to my care, a free nation

alone can take it from me. I demand per-

mission to leave the hall."

A general tumult took place, all swords
were drawn, and the daring speakers were
surrounded. The Russians rushed from the
I lo Poland.

galleries towards the latter, but the Czarto-

rinsky gathered round them and protected

them with their own bodies, horrified at the
disgrace which the murder of two men, so
universally respected, would have brought
on their enterprise. They succeeded in

saving them from the rage of the multitude.

Malachowski carried off his marshal's staff

in face of the Russians, the deputies, and

the people.
The following morning the republicans
left the town. They had been requested not
to pass through the Russian camp, but
Branizki answered, " I do not ask where the
Russians stand, but shall take the usual
road." In profound silence, prepared for
battle, the republican army passed along the

Russian lines. Neither greeting nor chal-

lenge was heard, and with tears in his eyes
Poniatowski saw many a true friend of the
country separate from his cause.
 Poland. 1 1

XII.

All these events had been foreseen by the

Czartorinsky, and they were fully prepared
for them. If they wished to attain their great
object, the reconstruction of Poland, they
must not allow themselves to be moved by
the fury of the people, the hate of all honest
patriots, the appearance of treachery, nor the
danger of subjection.
The diet was legally dissolved by the
protest of Mokranowski, but in reality the
presence of the Russian army, and the fact
that the Russians had prevented the elec-

tion of the deputy of the Prussian nobles

at Graudenz, had already sufficed to render

it illegal. Might had to take the place

of right, and therefore the Czartorinsky
made use of that power, which they had
obtained by dint of so many sacrifices.

The few remaining deputies, who were not

entirely dependent on the Czartorinsky, were
outvoted or deceived. The princes amused
112 Poland..

the mass of the people with unimportant

discussions, or sacrificed the demands of the
dissidents to their fanaticism, so that as far

as their rights were concerned the latter

saw themselves placed on a level with the

protected Jews. It was not till the greater

part of the time appointed for the diet had
passed, that they brought forward their

important affairs, which were clothed in

ambiguous phrases, and discussed with such

haste, that the majority hardly knew what
was the subject under discussion. The
foreign ambassadors had declared against
the abolition of the liberum veto, but the
princes, though obliged to yield on this

point, managed to evade this law almost

entirely by means of new decrees.
The high officials in the departments of
finance, law, war, and police, had hitherto
been so many independent sovereigns.
These men, the natural opponents of the
intended reforms, were all deposed. Michael
Czartorinsky, the chancellor of Lithuania,
 Poland. 113

voluntarily laid down his high office. In

each department a court, consisting of sixteen

members, was to be named by the diet, and
the king was only to appoint them when it

was not assembled. But as it was evident

that as long as the liberum veto existed no
diet would be able to finish its sittings, this

terrible liberum veto served to extend the

power of the king.
It was also decided, that all proposals and
matters of business which had direct

reference to the welfare of the republic,

should be decided at the commencement of
the diet in due legal form by means of the
majority- This expression was so vague,
that all manner of affairs could be included ,

in it, and it was little less than the actual

abolishment of the liberum veto. Poland now

became strong enough to hold its own
against foreign countries. Order was
restored in the different branches of the
administration by means of various decrees.

The war department was entrusted with

I
114 Poland.

the recruiting of the troops, with the

instruction, discipline and maintenance of

the army, which was to be increased. As
regards the judicial department, the
peasants once more received a court of
justice. The power of the nobles was
broken, those offices which were almost
independent of the king were abolished, the
arbitrary conduct of the nobles towards their

subjects was restricted, the privileges of

the great cities, of the provinces, and of the
religious sects were abolished, and all -were

subordinated to the government. On

September yth, 1764, Stanislaus Augustus
Poniatowski ascended the throne, which his
uncle had strengthened and endowed with
such important privileges. The four regi-

ments of guards were placed under his im-

mediate control, the postal service and the

mint were placed in his hands, and he was
allowed to choose for himself four of. the
most important domains belonging to the

nobles.
 Poland. 115

In this manner the chancellor of Lithuania

succeeded in changing the anarchical admi-
nistration into an actual monarchy.
What was ostensibly a reform of a few
departments, amounted practically to a re-
construction of the constitution. In order
that in the eyes of foreign countries Poland
might still appear to retain its former consti-
tution and its former abuses ; in order, too,

that the nobles might be forced to submit

to the new state of affairs and arm against
foreign foes, the diet at the end of the
session was changed into a confederation at

the head of which a Czartorinsky was placed.

Never before had an undertaking accom-
panied by so many difficulties been so boldly

planned, so skilfully and apparently success-

fully accomplished.

The presence of foreign enemies had kept

in check the enemies at home. The threats
of plunder and violence on the part of the
Russians were a powerful weapon in the

hands of the princes. Their arms subdued

 6

1 1 Poland.

the nobles, and the confederate nobles were

able to protect the new constitution with the

means which created it.

The princes had made use not only of the

Russian arms, but also of the passions of
the Empress. Since their pride had made
the sacrifice of a crown and of the splendour
of an unstable throne, they were certain that
they would be able to retain the exercise
of all their rights in the newly-founded
monarchy.
Those who had helped Poland did not
discover, that the land had received a new
constitution, and that the foundation of a
strong monarchy had been laid, until this

well-nigh incredible event was consum-

mated.
The new sceptre of Poland wanted nothing
but a powerful hand to wield it, but Stanis-
laus Augustus was not fitted for this difficult

task. He was terrified at the thought of

a war with Russia and of a revolution of the
discontented nobles. But when he separated
 Poland. 1 1

his interests from those of his uncles, he

renounced both their creation and Poland.
When he placed all his hopes on the gene-
rosity of the Empress, he became the victim
of her policy.
The ruin of the republic, and the final

division of the country, were the natural con-

sequences of the internal condition of the
state, whose existence had become impossible;
so that we can only feel surprised that it

continued to exist so long. The constitution

of May 3, 1791, was a last effort to save the

existence of the country by the reform of
its institutions. After their long apprentice-
ship to sorrow, the Poles learned to seek the
foundation of a wise administration in the
greater power of the crown and in its here-

ditary character, in the abolition of the

liberum veto, in the emancipation of the
middle classes, and in the granting of a
certain amount of freedom to the peasants.*

* With regard to the insufficiency of this constitution, and

to the difference that existed between what it was intended
 :

ii8 Poland.

But this effort came a hundred years too late

and had no efifect on the fate of the country.

XIII.

The dismemberment of the republic was

bound to cause its complete destruction,
and with dismay Poland saw her children in

the ranks of the foe.

Another reason why social reforms, instead

of taking root in Poland, only served to

bring about the downfall of the republic, is

to be found in the fact, that those classes of

society for whose benefit the reforms were

meant, had not yet been called into exist-

ence, or else stood so low in culture and

to do and what it actually effected, we can say with Mably

"On ne pent attaquer directement les abus las plus con-

siderables sans effaroucher les citoyens qui trouveront un

avantage k les conserver. Cette multitude innombrable se
liguera, elle conjurera centre la patrie ; et ses efforts r^unis
empficheront sans doute qu'on ne pflt fixer les principes du
gouvemement. Combien de Mgislateurs n'ont p<i r^parer
la faute qu'ils avaient faite de montrer ou de laisser entrevoir
toute r^tendue des projets qu'ils mdditaient."
 Poland. 119

influence, that it was useless for the re-

formers to look to them for aid and support.

Finally, the position of Poland made it a
stumbling block to two powerful neighbours,
who had in the last centuries made immense
progress, and whose rapid development was
certain either to bring about their own ruin

or to annihilate all obstacles. The formation

of the land alone sufiSced to bring Poland
into collision with Prussia, a fact which
became patent from the moment when these
states emerged from their barbarous isola-

tion. When Russia deprived Poland of the

Black Sea, all its rivers and means of com-
munication led through Prussia Prussia
separated it from the sea and the mainland.
The Vistula was the pulse of Poland, but
the mouth of the river was in the hands of
Prussia. It is impossible, in fact, to see how
Poland could exist without Prussia. It was
impossible that the possession of Danzig,
or free navigation on the Vistula, should
suffice for its existence. Woe to the land
1 20 Poland.

whose existence depends on title deeds

which cannot be guaranteed by its own
strength. Sooner or later Prussia must
have become Polish, or Poland Prussian, or
the republic must have ceased to exist. The
probable fate of the state, if it had sum-
moned to its throne a Brandenburg prince
instead of a Saxon, is an interesting subject
for reflection. The threefold partition of
Poland did not end the numerous convul-
sions of the country, and after it had ceased
to be a state, that unhappy land still re-

mained the scene of revolutions.

Many Poles emigrated after the catas-
trophe of 1795, which decided the fate of
their country ; those who were capable of
bearing arms, gradually enlisted under the
French flag. It is well known, what dis-
tinction the Poles won in the splendid cam-
paigns in which they took part, and which
were destined to raise France to that supre-
macy which lay so heavily on all Europe.
The Poles, who looked on their rulers as
 Poland. 121

oppressors, and sought their welfare in the

restoration of the state, placed their hopes

on France, their oldest ally, their natural

friend, for whom they had just fought with

more success than for themselves. Surely
Napoleon, the arbitrator of the world, who
had founded so many new realms on the
ruins of those he had destroyed, was capable
of cementing together the fragments of one
of the oldest powers, which had ever been his
faithful ally.

When the peace of Tilsit enabled him to

give away one-half of Prussia, and to over-

whelm the remainder, he actually formed
an independent state out of that part of
Poland which had belonged to Prussia,

namely, the duchy of Warsaw. This new

Polish duchy received a French constitution
and a German sovereign, the king of Saxony.
The diets were re-organized and divided
into two chambers; the French code was
introduced and villeinage abolished.
Let us glance for a moment at the course
12 2 Poland,

of events, and see what it was that aroused

the enthusiasm of the multitude. A surface
of 1, 800 square miles, with a population of
one million Poles, had been formed into an
independent duchy, and the new state was
soon to feel the whole weight of its political

existence.

The proximity of Russia and Austria

rendered necessary an arm)' which had no
connection with the inhabitants of the land.
It is true that a respected and paternal ruler

had been given to Poland, but Saxony itself

was not of sufficient importance to save the

country from the oppression of Napoleon.
The levies for the French armies, which
were forcibly supplied by means of the con-
scription, robbed the land of its strength.

The civil list, which was drawn up on a high

scale, and the endowments of the French
marshals, exhausted its revenues. But it

was, above all, the *'

Berlin Decrees" that
exhausted the sources of wealth which might
have been of such benefit. Trade ceased.
 Poland. ^ 123

and the Poles suffered great want in the

midst of their manifold productions.
To these great sacrifices was added the
conviction, that the new duchy would be the
scene of the first war between France and
Austria or Russia, and that it would be
deserted by France and by its own troops.

For the army, which was supported with so

much difficulty, was not even destined for

the protection of the land, but was dis-

tributed in the Prussian fortresses, or was
fighting in Spain.

The duchy was heavily burdened by its con-

stitution as well as by the obligations of the

country, which were out of all proportion to
its size; but many were of opinion, that in
this they had a safe pledge that Napoleon
had only formed the framework of a new
state, which was subsequently to be filled

in by an united Poland. The greatness of

the sacrifices which Poland made for France,

seemed calculated to arouse great expecta-

tions. Napoleon himself expressed the inten-

1 24 Poland.

tion of restoring that kingdom. At Berlin,

Posen, and Warsaw, he had received the

Galician deputies, and he had himself sent
emissaries to Lithuania.
Some of the Poles, on the other hand,
began to think that little was to be expected
from the generosity of the Emperor. The
readiness with which, at the treaty of Tilsit,
Bialystok had been ceded to Russia, led
them to think that Napoleon would have
sacrificed the rest of Prussian Poland, if his

interests had required it. He demanded

money, arms, men and horses, and paid his

debts with hopes for the distant future,

and with indefinite promises. It seemed

to them, that Napoleon had a high opinion
of the Poles as soldiers, but thought little of
their statesmanship.

Kosciusko was probably of the same opi-

nion. A word from him would have been
worth an army to the Emperor, but the most
faithful friend of his fatherland remained
silent, and the most splendid promises of
 Poland. 125

Napoleon could not induce him to take part

in the creation of that new Polish duchy.

XIV.

If, on the one hand, the educated classes,

in whose minds lived patriotism and hope,

felt themselves deceived, the citizens and
peasants, on the other hand, saw their misery
increased.

That high taxes, the " Berlin decrees,"

and the instability of political existence in

the country proved ruinous to trade, needs

no proof. The result was that the newly-
founded factories, which had cost Prussia
many millions, were almost ruined.
The peasant had been emancipated. The
principle for which France had foug-ht so

long and with such success, did not permit

its ruler to perpetuate the slavery of a

nation. He therefore declared, with great

ostentation, that all villeinage was abolished;

" enforced service and the burdens of the
 1 26 Poland.

peasant could only be the result of a con-

tract. House, farm, and land belong to
the lord, but the peasant is absolutely free."
The result of this law was that the peasant
could annually be deprived of his farm, and
must leave it without receiving any com-
pensation ; the right of emigrating and
carrying on his trade abroad, even in the
lowest grade of society, would have provided
him with an endurable existence. But habit,

poverty, ignorance, and his native language,

bound the unhappy man to his land, and
the only use he could make of his freedom
was that he could leave a place where things
went ill with him, for another place where
he was not better off. Villeinage was a
benefit, compared with such freedom. The
misery of the peasantry now reached its

height, and the words of a peasant, "nothing

is mine but what I drink up," were at the
same time a proverb and a terrible truth.
For life had no joys for them, but such as
they found in intoxication, and no hope save
 Poland. 127

that in another world, which their priests

held out to them.
When in the war of 181 2, which Napoleon
called the second Polish war, the general
confederation Warsaw announced the
at

restoration of Poland, much was wanting to

make the enthusiasm universal. Lithuania
was too much influenced by the example of
the duchy. Its nobles had been kindly
treated by Russia, they were flattered by the
respect paid to their customs. Alexander
also roused their hopes for the unity of
Poland, in a peaceful manner, under Russian
sway. France freed their peasantry and de-
manded great sacrifices. Its armies, made
up of ten nations, were forced to commit

deeds of violence, sack towns, villages, and

huts, and desolate the land to keep them-
selves from starvation.

The duchy had made tremendous exer-

tions, it had raised and armed an army of

60,000 men. The expenses were over 100
millions. The yearly revenue was 40 million
128 Poland.

florins, the deficit of the year i8i i was 2 1 mil-

lion florins of unpaid taxes, which had to be

paid in kind. There had been very abundant
harvests for five years, but the land had no
longer any export. In the north, the "Berlin
Decrees" closed Danzig; in the south, Odessa
was closed by the Turkish war. In 1 8 1 2 the

crops failed. The taxes were increased, but

no duties were paid, and many landowners
made their lands over to the treasury-

commission, because they could not afford

to pay the taxes. The public functionaries
were no longer paid, the contractors had
fled. The payment of 7 millions which
France owed for supplies, was refused with
trivial excuses. The salt-mines of Wieliczka
were already pledged for 1 2 millions. For
the month of June, 181 2, Napoleon had
advanced the pay for the army ; but it was
entirely stopped in July, and the payment
was never afterwards resumed. At the same
time, the French armies marched through
the land, plundered the inhabitants, and led
 Poland, 1
29

away peasants and horses. Their number

increased. Sick or well, they had to be
clothed, fed, and provided with everything.
Warsaw was the chief magazine, the prin-
cipal hospital and ammunition store^ When
the Durutte division arrived there, rations
for 64,000 men were served out, less than

6,000 were never distributed.

Since we are considering Poland with
regard to the state of its interior and its

social condition, it was necessary to refer to

the episode of the duchy of Warsaw, not

because it was an event which hastened or
established the development of that condi-
tion, but because it partly hindered, partly

retarded it, by destroying much that Prussia

had created at great expense. The fate of

the Polish nation varied, since it was in the

power of such different states as Austria,

Russia, and Prussia. Whatever we may

think of the partition of a state, in one
respect it is certain, that the majority of the

nation received immeasurable benefits with

K
130 Poland.

regard to the administration of the police

and commerce, when they were subordinated
to nations which were in advance of them in

these matters. They were placed by force

in a condition which the constitution of

May 3rd, 1 79 1, even if it had been carried
out and had continued to exist, could never
have effected.

But no one likes to be forced, not even

forced to be happy ; how often, too, has an
idea been valued more than an actual advan-
tage.

It was, moreover, impossible to formulate

any measure for the public good which did
not, in some way or other, oppose the inte-

rest of the nobles ; for the simple reason that

they were already in exclusive possession of

all privileges. It was therefore inevitable that
they should suffer for the moment from any
changes which must necessarily take place.
These changes were not only contrary to

their interests, they also diminished their

privileges, which had become hallowed by
 Poland. 131

two hundred years of undisturbed possession.

And though their ancestors had usurped
their privileges, it was not the fault of those

who now suffered by their abolition.

In addition to this, the downfall of their

country was strongly felt by the nobles, the

only educated class in Poland, though per-
haps by them alone ; imbued as they were
with a feeling of nationality, their interest
and their patriotism were wounded at the
same time.

It was therefore difficult for the govern-

ment to watch and hold in check this large,

powerful, and influential class of citizens,

and at the same time to act on liberal

principles ; and this must never be over-

looked, when we are inclined to criticise

unfavorably its actions and the resistance,

secret or open, which it encountered.

XV.
In order to give an idea of the way in
which the different governments strove to
132 Poland.

fulfil their task, we will mention the following-

measures referring to the Austrian part of
the country, measures which at the same
time throw full light on the existing state of
affairs in the interior.
The nobles were in the first instance
ordered to remove all cannon and ammu-
nition from the land, on pain of confiscation

(Law of April, 1776). The sale of the

nobles' estates could only be effected on
payment of a duty of 10 per cent (Sep-
tember, 1 781), and strangers who were not
naturalised could not buy estates in the
country. Permission to leave the land was
only given to those who had reached their
twenty-eighth year. Those subjects who
did not spend half the year on their estates
in Galicia, had to pay double taxes (Law of
1788, repealed in 1790). The landowners
were forced to advance their peasants corn for

sowing ; where this was not done, the state

provided corn and paid itself for the loan by

sequestrating the lord's land (April, 1787),
 Poland. 133

The estates had to be surveyed at a great

expense. This expense was covered by a
land-tax, for a portion of which each village

was responsible, and which the landlords

collected from the peasants.

The landlord was answerable for this tax,

as well as for all oppressions on the part of
his servants and stewards (June, 1784), &c.
It cannot be denied that many of these mea-
sures, which were beneficial for the whole,
must have seemed oppressive to many
privileged individuals, especially when they 1

attacked personal liberties, and that the

nobles did not find themselves compensated

by the fact, that the woiwodes or starosts

were raised to the rank of counts, and the

deputies of the districts to the rank of
Austrian barons.
We must not pass over what was done by

the government for commerce and industry,

which had sunk so low. Already in 1809, in

Galicia alone, 250 miles of roads were laid

down. The mines, which had fallen into
134 Poland.

decay, were industriously worked. The

salt-mines of Wieliczka, which during Polish
rule produced 600,000 cwt. under favourable

circumstances, produced in i8og, 1,700,000

cwt. of salt, and the smelting furnaces of
Jakubeny produced more than 4,000 cwt.
of iron. The breed of horses was improved
by excellent studs, and not only supplied
the cavalry of the greater part of Austria,
but allowed of a considerable sale abroad.
Galicia had over 311,000 horses in 18 17.
Trade and commerce were left principally in

-the hands of the Jews. On account of their

enormous increase this race could not fail to

attract the attention of the government,

especially in Russia and Austria.

XVI.

As the Jews marry when they are still

almost children, they are soon surrounded by

a numerous progeny. Their number shows
 Poland. 135

an incredible increase, and we may assume

that in the census of each nation it is

put too low.

The following statistics will give some
idea of the extent to which they have spread,
especially in the towns.

Posen contains 25,000^ inhabitants, of

whom 5,000, that is one-fifth, are Jews,
Warsaw, with 130,000 inhabitants, con-
tained in the year 1807 about 9,000 Jews,
who rapidly increased, so that in the year
1822 their number had risen to 27,000, and
they thus formed one-fifth of the popula-
tion.

Lemberg has 50,000 inhabitants, of whom

15,000, i.e. almost one-third, are Jews.
In Wilna, 30,000 of the 50,000 inhabitants
are Jews, therefore they form three-fifths of
the population.
In Brody two-thirds of the 25,000 inhabit-

ants, i.e. 17,000, are Jews*

In the open country the Jews are certainly
not so numerous, but even if we survey the
 ;

136 Poland.

inhabitants of the provinces their number

is surprising.

The province of Posen contains 980,000

inhabitants, but one-fourteenth of the popu-

lation, i.e. 70,000 souls, are Jews. One-

thirteenth of the 4,000,000 inhabitants of
Galicia, i.e. 300,000, are of Jewish race.
The kingdom of Poland numbered 3,700,000
inhabitants: one-ninth, i.e. 400,000, were
Jews. Lithuania, Samagitia, Volh'ynia,

Podolia, the Ukraine, White Russia, number

8,800,000 inhabitants, of whom 1,400,000,
i.e. one-sixth, are Jews.

The totals are as follows : 17,480,000 in-

habitants 15,410,000 Christians, 2,070,000

Jews.
An eighth of the Polish population con-
sists of Jews, and this greatly exceeds the
number of inhabitants in kingdoms like

Wurtemberg, Saxony, or Denmark. In

those provinces where Jews are least

numerous, every fourteenth person is a Jew

in others it is every ninth person; in the
 Poland. 137

most important towns at least every fifth

man is a Jew ; in others, out of three people

two are Jews.
These aliens were formerly forced to live

in the suburbs of the towns ; now they

have transformed these suburbs into towns.
Their district is marked by a gate consisting
of two posts which are joined by an iron
railing, and often the walled synagogue rises

above the wooden church, which is richly

decorated within, but half in ruins. In the

country towns the Jewish houses are certainly

miserable huts, but they are better than the
houses of the Christian citizens. Their
costume is the same everywhere, and quite
Oriental, flowing black garments fastened
as far as the waist with many hooks, and
reaching to the ankles, high fur caps, worn
even in summer, and under them a black
'cap, their heads shaved with the exception
of two long ringlets on each side, and long
beards. Except when travelling' they wear
slippers; their costume, the great poverty
138 Poland.

of the majority, their uncleanliness, ren-

der their appearance more conspicuous than

agreeable.
All Jews, even those in Lithuania, speak
German, a circumstance which is of great
use to travellers, who are seldom acquainted
with the difiEicult language of the country.
The majority also speak Hebrew, and a
certain superiority is conferred on them by
their ability to consult in the presence of the

lower classes without being understood.

A stranger is astonished at the number of
these people, who sit idle before their doors
in the sun and converse with the vivacity of
gesture and expression, which is peculiar to
their race.

Thousands of them are found unemployed,

and yet they exist.

Many of them are mechanics ; they are

tailors, upholsterers, carpenters, cabinet-
makers, rope-makers, weavers, millers, &c.,
but, above all, they are watchmakers and
jewellers. In the large towns they crowd
 Poland, 1 39

round the travellers and hire themselves

out as " factors," a kind of hired servants
who, for a trifling sum, punctually carry out
all commissions. They know everything,
or make the necessary inquiries, provide
all that is asked for, and though their im-

portunity is tiresome, they are indispens-

able.

The inns everywhere belong to the Jews.

The Polish traveller, with his excellent

horses, of which he is used to drive five,

makes very long journeys, and remains

wherever he is at nightfall, without making
a choice. The rich take with them their
cook, their plate, their Hungarian wine;
every one takes his supper, several cushions
and carpets, which are to be his bed, and
even his forage. None of these things are

to be found in the inns, and the stranger

who comes unprovided would run the risk

of starving, if every manor-house did not

offer him a hearty hospitable reception, on

which he may count everywhere.

 ;

140 Poland.

The Jews derive still greater advantages

from the fact, that it is they that first give a
value to the produce of the land, which they
work for the owner or turn to money. The
mills, distilleries, public-houses, are inex-
haustible sources of wealth, and the whole
produce of the estate often passes through
the hands of the Jews. From the Jew who
has rented a village public -house the land-
lord obtains most of his income. This Jew,
on whom he knows he can safely vent his

ill-humour, and with whom he cannot dis-

pense, receives from him the chief power

over the peasantry without mercy, and with-
out consideration for the oppression which
such a man will exercise. All his purchases
are made through the Jews.
The Karaites are a notable exception
they reject the Talmud, and keep to the text
of the Bible. They are mostly agricultur-
ists, and keep themselves quite apart from
the other Jews, who are their greatest
enemies. There are betweea four and five
 Poland. 141

thousand of this sect, who live chiefly in

Lithuania and Volhynia.

Much has been done lately for the moral

improvement of the Jews. The Emperor

Joseph thought, that the race was naturally
not more depraved than other nations ; that
it would not conform to the duties and
habits of citizens, because it was deprived of
all civil rights and advantages. Normal
schools were founded, which, in spite of all

opposition, even the girls had to attend.

Without the school certificate, no youth
might be instructed in the Talmud, no
marriage could take place, and no appren-
tice be freed.

No restriction was placed on the exercise

of their religious customs, but no man might
marry before eighteen, no girl before sixteen ;

the Rabbis were deprived of their jurisdiction,

and they were not allowed to excommunicate
any one. Fourteen thousand Jewish families
were actually established as agriculturists,
and the Jewish communities paid for the
142 Poland.

purchase of the land, the necessary tools,

and the erection of the farmhouses.

An important law, which enacted that no
Jew can dwell in the country unless he be a
mechanic or a farmer, was repealed in 1792.

On pain of banishment they were forbidden

to buy from the peasants the uncut corn,
the unborn cattle, and the unshorn wool,
which had usually been sold beforehand for

drink in the public-houses. The Jews in

Galicia are liable to military service, but

they are only employed in the baggage
train, unless they voluntarily desire to use a
gun. In the wars of 18 13 18 15, over fifteen

thousand Jews enlisted under the Austrian

flag. The Russian Jews are liable to mili-
tary service since 1827, the Prussian Jews

since 1817.

XVII.

The most important regulation in favour

of the Galician peasant was passed by the
Emperor Joseph, April 5th, 1783, when
 Poland. 143

he abolished villeinage. Those subjects

who had no houses were allowed at once to

leave their masters, and were not forced to

"
stand guard. Statute labour continued, but
in July, 1786, it was regulated and modified.
The immaturity of the peasants is best
seen by the laws made in their favour. No
one was allowed to lend them more than
three florins. No one was to give them
brandy on credit. Henceforth they were
not compelled to buy a certain quantity of
brandy from their masters, and the govern-
ment sought to lessen the consumption of
brandy by establishing breweries.
No special laws were made in Prussia for

Polish subjects, but they were subjected to

those laws which were in force in other

provinces ; it was the easier to do this since

the number of Poles under Prussian rule was

comparatively small.
It was a heterogeneous element that was
added to Prussia in the shape of Poland,
and the greater the local importance of
144 Poland.

this addition to the land, the greater was

the necessity for amalgamating it with the
whole. The strong desire of all the Poles to
preserve their nationality even amidst the
dismemberment of their country, and to see

herein the sole and last pledge of their future

re-union, brought them into conflict with the

natural tendencies of the administration.

Those institutions which in Prussia were
the result of the gradual development of the
people, were in the new province called into

life at one stroke. Neither the spirit nor

the mind of the people was prepared for

them. Wherever enlightenment had not pre- >

pared the way they caused surprise, and the

extension to Polish subjects of the laws which
had been created for the monarchy was for

them a revolution.

The equality of all classes before the law,

and the protection of the lowest by means

of the law, were natural consequences of
the union with Prussia. It accorded the

oppressed peasant protection from excessive

 Poland. 145

ill-treatment. But as the Prussian law only

alleviated the existing burdens when a dimi-
nution of the incomes had taken place, for
example, when the fields were flooded or
sanded, &c., and as such a diminution of
income can only take place where there is

any income, the condition of the peasant

who had nothing to lose but his life was not
improved. Common measures were of no
avail to lessen so great an evil. Yet an im-
provement, in the condition of the peasant,
was absolutely necessary; agriculture had
reached its lowest stage.
Since the former customary "three-field
system" robbed the land of its strength,

even when cultivated by the owner, how

much more must this have been the case
with a farmer, who held the farm for a year
and who was new to the place.
The fields lay waste, the dwellings were
in ruins. No peasant raised his hand to
restore his hut, which threatened to fall in

upon him, and in which he had no right of

146 Poland.

ownership. Though wood, straw, chalk,

and stones abounded, and nature had pro-

vided all building materials in the fields

which surrounded the wretched villages, still

the peasant never dreamed of using them,

for he did not know if next year he might
not be forced to leave without compensation,
what he had built to-day. No fruit-trees, no
gardens surrounded the dwellings, for before
the fruit ripened he who planted it was
possibly evicted ; there were neither hedges,,
ditches, nor fences, for there was nothing
left to be protected or to be hedged in-

Even the animal world degenerated under

the curse of serfdom. Nowhere were more
miserable horses than those of the peasants
in Poland, which is celebrated for its splendid
breeds.
It is easy to understand the reason : the
common peasant used a two-year-old horse,
overworked it daily, never tended it, and gave
it most miserable food. If the cattle of the
peasant died, his landlord had to replace it,
 Poland. 147

ielse he could not do the work which was due

to his master. The landlord had to do
everything ; he had to rebuild houses, which
might have lasted for a long time, if the
inmates had repaired them; he had to replace
things, which might have been used for a

long while, if the owner had beeii careful^

but that owner had no interest in their

preservation. Bread, it should be remem-

bered, was a rarity for the peasant in the
great granary of Europe; potatoes were
his sole nourishment. They were his daily

food, and unfortunately his only drink.

When the potato store was exhausted,

usually early in the year, the peasant
expected to be miserably fed by his landlord.
He begged everything from his master
medicine in his sickness, boards for his

coffin^ masses for the salvation of his

soul.

This is not the Polish peasant of the

middle ages, but under Prussian rule. This
condition of things continued in all the vil-
 148 Poland.

lages where the relation between landlord

and peasant remained unaltered.
One of the most important laws of that
epoch was the edict of September 14, 181 1,

which regulated that relation, and which,

extended to Posen when this province was
retaken, has revolutionised the condition of
the peasant, and must continue to do so.

We must therefore refer to the fundamental

principles of this edict.*

According to the general principles of

public law and political economy, the right
of the state to ordinary and extraordinary
taxes and dues is paramount, and the dues
to the landlord are limited by the fact that

he must leave the peasants means to exist

and to satisfy the state.

Their ability to do this can be taken for

granted, where the taxes due to the landlord
do not exceed one-third of the income of a
hereditary estate.
The rights of the landlord could therefore

* Compare the Prussian Code, part i. p. 281.

 Poland. 149

never have been greater, or, if they were, it

was illegal. While the above edict gave

all peasants, small farmers, cottagers, &c.,
the right to two-thirds of the land they had
hitherto used, and freed them from all

demands of statute labour which were con-

nected with this use, it gave at the same
time the landlord one-third of the land as
equivalent compensation. The new owners
had to give up all claim to the obligations
hitherto fulfilled by their landlords, namely
the repairing of buildings and furnishing of
all agricultural implements, the liability for

public dues and taxation, and various kinds

of support which he accorded them ; the

willingness to afford this help was certainly

absent.
The landlords naturally looked on the

measures as severe and injurious, especially

when they compared them with their former
privileges. " They compensate us," they

said, "with what is already our property,

they increase the size of our fields, which

15(5 Poland.

are already too large, and they rob us of

the hands which tilled them for us. Even if

we would look on the cession of one-third

and one-half of the peasant-lands as a com-
pensation, it cannot be compared with what
we lose; The fields are badly cultivated and
therefore of little The sloth and
value.

idleness of the peasants will make labourers

scarce and wages high ; since they must
be paid chiefly in money, it will be
almost impossible to pay them. The duties
from which we are freed did not burden us,

our extensive forests provided us with the

means of fulfilling them. The surveying of
the estates, and the special commission,
cause us great expense, and we are sub-
jected to the exactions of subordinates, who
are always inclined to side with the peasant
against us, and this is done in matters
where our property depends on the insight,
impartiality, and honesty of the commis-
sion.
" This reform will, however, be of no avail
 Poland. 151

to the common people, at least not to the

poor peasants.* He has lived in such a
state of tutelage that the dangerous privi-

leges accorded him, namely the right of

encumbering his property with debts and of
selling it, are sure to bring about his ruin.
Even now the mere prospect of these new
rights induces the greater part of the peasants

to pledge their farms to the Jews, so that

after being entirely lost to the owners they
are placed in the hands of persons who
will not husband them, but who will transT

form them into merchandize."

XVIIL
After having described the relation of the
peasant to the lord of the manor, we need
scarcely say anything more about the neces-^

* It is true that it was necessary in some places to com -

pel the peasants by force to accept their new property.

But this proves nothing. The same fact occurred in France
under Lewis IX. The serf cannot appreciate freedom before
h.e knows it.
152 Poland.

sity of coming to his rescue, nor about

the justice of the measures that have
this object in view. With regard to their

utility, however, it might be advisable to

determine the point of view from which we

should judge, the reasonableness or unrea-
sonableness, of the complaints raised against
them.
Until now the great landowner had tilled
his immense fields by forced labour ; the
labourer had no interest in the success of
his work, and the produce passed through
the hands of subordinates ; it was therefore
impossible, that the land should have the

same value in his eyes as in those of the

small landowner, who ploughed, sowed, and

reaped for himself, and left nothing unused.
He alone can offer the highest price for the
land, even the fourfold amount of that which
it yields, to the great landowner. Evidently
the value of the land is increased by decreas-
ing the extent of property and increasing
the number of owners, especially in a country
 Poland. 153

like Poland, where the produce of the fields

can be so greatly increased, where endless

woods, which bring in nothing, cover excel-
lent wheat-ground, and where only work-
men are wanted to make the soil avail-

able. Agriculture and in this it differs

from industry can attain a height of perfec-

tion which cannot be much improved upon,
and in many Prussian provinces this height
has been reached.
In Poland a great deal still remains to
be done by industry and diligence. The
surest means of attaining this, was by distri-

bution of property. The peasant is now

certain that he is working for himself and
his family, that every improvement, even if

he does not live to see its result, will benefit

his children, among whom he may divide his

property at will. It is no longer a ques-

tion of obtaining the greatest possible value

from the land in a short time, without caring

whether its fertility is thereby injured, but
it is in the interest of the owner to keep it

M
154 Poland.

in the best possible condition. Though day-

labour costs more than forced labour, the

former is incomparably the better system
of the two ; agriculture gains more hands,,

and owing to their voluntary exertions,

every workman does more work than for-

merly.
The state has obtained at last a nume-
rous and valuable class of landowners, who,,
because they are bound to it by interest,

are faithful and trustworthy subjects; a

circumstance which should not be forgot-
ten. A revolution may bring loss to the
new owners, and as they form the mass of
the people, their increasing power furnishes
the best guarantee to the government.
Nowhere does the comparison between the
old and new condition of things become
more evident, than in the province of Posen,

where extreme contrasts are met with, and

where a few hundred paces bring the observer
from villages, which one would not expect
.

to find in Europe, to others, where there

 Poland. 1 55

are clean houses, with gardens and fruit-

trees carefully fenced in.

Schools were founded, factories estab-

lished, and trade was raised by abolishing
all restrictions. The Prussian government
may now hope, in course of time to bring
about the liberation of the peasants, and to
change the greater part of them into land-

owners a change which even their rulers

thought impossible, and which would have

been so for centuries in independent Poland.
From whence could the government have
derived sufficient strength to resist the op-
position which was raised to uphold selfish

interests, whence could have come the

authority which was needed to subdue un-
licensed passions ? Such laws could only
be carried out under the rule of a stable,

highly developed state like Prussia, if the

land was to be saved from revolutions and

violent reactions.

PKINTEO BY J. S. VIRTUE AMD CO., UMITED, CITY KOAD LONDON.

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CHRISTMAS BOOKS, with 8 Illustrations, cloth, is.'ed;

SIXPENNY RKPRINTS.
(I.)

A CHRISTMAS CAROL and THE

HAUNTED MAN.
By Charles Dickens. Illustrated.

READINGS FROM THE WORKS OF

CHARLES DICKENS.
'

As selected and read by himself and now published for the first time. Illustrated;

(III-)

THE CHIMES: A Goblin Story, and THE.

CRICKET ON THE HEARTH.
Illustrated.

(IV.)

THE BATTLE OF LIFE; A Love Story,

HUNTED DOWN, and A HOLIDAY-

- ROMANCE.' lUusti-ated.
 CHAPMAN in- HALL, LIMITED. 27

List of Books, Drawing Examples. Diagrams, Models,

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THOSE ISSUED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE SCIENCE

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CATALOGUE OF MODERN WORKS ON SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY. 8vo, sewed, is.

BENSON (W.)
PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR.
Small 4tO] 155.

MANUAL OF THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR. Coloured

Frontispiece and Illustrations. i2mo, 2S. 6d.

BRADLEY (THOMAS), of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich

ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. In Two
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CARROLL \yOHN)~ ~ "

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DA VISON (ELLIS A. )
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GRAMMATIK DER ORNAMENTE, in 7 Parts of 20
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JEWITT
HANDBOOK OF PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. i8mo,
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UNDLEY (JOHN)
SYMMETRY OF VEGETATION: Principles to be
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MARSHALL
HUMAN BODY. Text and Plates reduced from the large
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NEWTON (E. TULLEY), F.G.S.

THE TYPICAL PARTS IN THE SKELETONS OF A
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OLIVER (PROFESSOR)
ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
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POYNTER (E. J.), R.A., issued under the superintendence of

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REDGRAVE
MANUAL AND CATECHISM ON COLOUR. Fifth
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ELEMENTARY BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. Oblone
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 ;

CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED. 29

WALLIS (GEORGE)
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WORNUM {R. N.)
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ELEMENTARY DRAWING COPY-BOOKS, for the Usfe of

Children from four years old and upwards, in Schools and Families. Compiled by
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SOLID MODELS, &lc. Continued.

Skeleton Cube in wood, 3s. d.
i8-incli Skeleton Cube in wood, X2S.
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Davidson's Advanced Drawing Models; ,f). The following is a brief description
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An Obelisk^r-composed of a Octagonal Slabs, 26 and 20 inches
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united by mortise and tenon joints ; complete height, 3 feet 9 inches. A Step-
Ladder, 23 inches high. A Kitchen Table, x^% inches high. A Chair to corre-
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A
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J,
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. Hollow Cylinder, 9 inches A
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in diameter, divided into semi-spheres, one of which is again divided into quarters ;
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Davidson's Apparatus for Teaching Practical Geometry (22. models), $.\ .
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*Binn's Models for Illustrating the Elementary Principles of Orthographic Projection as

applied to Mechanical Drawing; in box, z los.
Miller's Class Drawing Models. These Models are particularly adapted fdr teaching '

large classes; the stand is very Strong, and the universal joint will hold the
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Models in any position. Wood Models : Square Prism, 12 inches side, 18 inches
high ; Hexagonal Prism, 14 inches side, 18 inches high ; Cube, 14 inches side
Cylinder, 13 inches diameter, id inches high ; Hexagon Pyramid, 14 inches
diameter, 22!^ inches side ; Square P3^amid, 14 inches side, 22^^ inches side ;
Cone, 13 inches diameter, 22j^ inches side ; Skeleton Cube, ig inches solid wood
z% inch square ; Intersecting Circles, ig inches solid wood al^ by 1% inches.
Wire Models Triangular Pnsm, 17 inches side, 22 inches high ; Square Prism'
',

i^ inches side, 20 inches hi|;h ; Hexagonal Prism, 16 inches diameter, 21 inches

high; Cylinder, 14 inches diameter, 21 inches high ; Hexagon Pyramidj 18 inches
diameter, 24 inches high Square Pyramid, 17 inches side, 24 inches high ;. Cone
;_

J7 inches side, 24 inches high ; Skeleton Cube, ig inches side; Intersecting Circles'
ig inches side ; Plain Circle, ig inches side ; Plain Square, iginehes side. Table'
'
27 inches hy2.i% inches. Stand. The set complete, n^ 13s. , , .

Vulcanite Set, Square, 55.

Large Compasses, with chalk'bolder, 5s.
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*
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-inch Compasses, with shifting pen -and point, 4s. 6d. .., .

^
, .
,
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LARGE DIAGRAMS.
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TWEtVfi' SHEETS. By John Dkew, PE. Dr.v F.R.S,ft, -Sheets',' 2 8s.; co
rollers and varnished, ;4 45.
 : , .

CHAPMAN b' HALL, LIMITED. 31

BOTANICAL:
NINE SHEETS. Illustrating a Practical Method of Teaching Botany. By Professor
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CLASS. DIVISION, SECTION.
C /Thalamifloral .

21&3.
J g^S'
Dicotyledon .. . .
) Angiospermous ..
4
/ \ Incomplete 5
V. Gymnospermous 6
{ Petaloid . . . . f Superior 7
Monocotyledons ..<, \l
1 Inferior . S
( Glumaceous 9
- * ModelSf &c., entered as sets^ can only be supplied in sets.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION:
TEN SHEETS. By William J, Glknny. In sets, ,1 is.
LAXTON'S EXAMPLES OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION, containing
32 Imperial Plates, ,\, i
^^

BUSBRIDGE'S DRAWING OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. 36 Sheets,

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GEOLOGICAL

DIAGRAM OF BRITISH STRATA. By H. W. Bristow, F.R.S., F.G.S.
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MECHANICAL:
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DIAGRAMS OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. ByProf. Goodkve and Prof. Shbllet.

Stout paper, 40 inches by 27 inches, highly coloured. 41 Diagrams (s'^% Sheets),
j^6 6s.; varnished and mounted on rollers, ,^1 zis.
MACHINE DETAILS. By Prof. Unwin. 16 Coloured Diagrams. Sheets, ;s 2S.;
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SELECTED EXAMPLES OF MACHINES, OF IRON AND WOOD (French).
ir
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BUSBRIDGE'S DRAWINGS OF MACHINE CONSTRUCTION/ 50 Sheets,

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PHYSIOLOGICAL:
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1. THE SKELETON AND LIGAMENTS.

2. THE MUSCLES, 'JOINTS, AND ANIMAL MECHANICS.

3. THE VISCERA JN POSITION.THE STRUCTURE OF THE LUNGS.

4. THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION.
5. THE LYMPHATICS OR ABSORBENTS. .

6. THE ORGANS OFDIGESTION.

7. THE BRAIN AND NERVES. THE ORGANS OF

THE VOICE,
8 & 9. THE ORGANS OF THE SENSES.
'

10 & II. THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF THE TEXTURES AND

ORGANS. . -
i_.- _ - .

HUMAN BODY, LIFE SIZE.' Bv John Marshall, F.R.S., F.R.C.S. Each

Sheet, I2S. fid. ; on canvas and rollers, varnished, 1 is. Explanatory Key, is,

I, 2, 3. THE SKELETON, Front, Back, and Side View. .... .

I
5, 6, 7. THE MUSCLES,, Front,-Bacli, and Side View. ''

ZOOLOGICAL:
TEN SHEETS. Illustrating the Classification of Animals. By Robert Patterson.
1 \ on canvas and rollers, varnished, z los.

PHYSIOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF THE HONEY BEE.

Two Diagrams, 71. 6d.
 :

32 BOOKS PUBLISHED BY CHAPMAN &= HALL, LIMITED.

THE FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW.

Edited by T. H. S. ESCOTT.

HTHE FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW is published on the ist of

every month, and a Volume is completed every Six Months.

The foUowing are among (ke Contributors

SkR RUTHERFORD ALCOCK. T. E.CLIFFE LESLIE
MATHEW ARNOLD. SIR JOHN LUBBOCK, M.P.
PROFESSOR BAIN. THE EARL LYTTON.
SIR SAMUEL BAKER. SIR H. S. MAINE.
. PROFESSOR BEESLY. DR. MAUDSLEY.
PAUL BERT. PROFESSOR MAX MULLER.
BARON GE0RGE* BUNSEN. G. OSBORNE MORGAN, Q.C, M.P.
DR. BRIDGES. PROFESSOR HENRY MORLEY.
HON. GEORGE C. BRODRlCK. WILLIAM MORRIS.
. JAMES BRYCE, M.P. A PROFESSOR H. N. MOSELEY.
THOMAS BURT, M.P. F. W. H. MYERS.
SIR GEORGE CAMPBELL, M.P. F. W. NEWMAN.
THE EARL OF CARNARVON. PROFESSOR JOHN NICfiOL.
EMILIO CASTELAR. W. PALGRAVE.
G.
RT. HON.J. CHAMBERLAIN, M.P. WALTER H. PATER,
PROFESSOR SIDNEY COLVIN. RT. HON. LYON PLAYFAIR, M.P.
MONTAGUE COOKSON, Q.C DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI.
L. H. COURTNEY, M.P. LORD SHERBROOKE.
G. H. DARWIN. HERBERT SPENCER.
SIR GEORGE W. DASENT. HON. E. L. STANLEY.
PROFESSOR A. V. DICEY. SIR J. FITZJAMES STEPHEN, Q.C.
RIGHT HON. H. FAWCETT, M.P. LESLIE STEPHEN.
EDWARD A. FREEMAN. J. HUTCHISON STIRLING.
SIR BARTLE FRERE, Bart. A. C. SWINBURNE.
J. FROUDE.
A. DR. VON SYBEI,.
MRS. GARRET-ANDERSON. J. A. SYMONDS.
J. W. L. GLAISHER, F.R.S. THE REV. EDWARD F. TALBOT
M. E. GRANT DUFF, M.P. (Warden of Keble College).
THOMAS HARE. SIR RICHARD TEMPLE, Baet.
F. HARRISON. W. T. THORNTON.
LORD HOUGHTON. HON. LIONEL A. TOLLEMACHE
PROFESSOR HUXLEY. ,
H. D. TRAILL.
PROFESSOR R. C. JEBB. ANTHONY TROLLOPE.
PROFESSOR JEVONS. PROFESSOR TYNDALL.
ANDREW LANG. A. J. WILSON.
EMILE DE LAVELEYE. ' THE EDITOR.
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CHARLES CICKEHS AD ifVAHS,! [CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS,