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Research in Geothermal Energy by JNT
Research in Geothermal Energy by JNT
Research in Geothermal Energy by JNT
Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth. It's clean and sustainable. Resources of
geothermal energy range from the shallow ground to hot water and hot rock found a few miles
beneath the Earth's surface, and down even deeper to the extremely high temperatures of molten
rock called magma. Almost everywhere, the shallow ground or upper 10 feet of the Earth's surface
maintains a nearly constant temperature between 50 and 60F (10 and 16C). Geothermal heat
pumps can tap into this resource to heat and cool buildings. A geothermal heat pump system
consists of a heat pump, an air delivery system (ductwork), and a heat exchanger-a system of pipes
buried in the shallow ground near the building. In the summer, the process is reversed, and the heat
pump moves heat from the indoor air into the heat exchanger.
In the United States, most geothermal reservoirs of hot water are located in the western
states, Alaska, and Hawaii. Wells can be drilled into underground reservoirs for the generation of
electricity. Some geothermal power plants use the steam from a reservoir to power a
turbine/generator, while others use the hot water to boil a working fluid that vaporizes and then
turns a turbine.
History
It is not surprising that Man has sought to make use of this heat. In ancient times the
Romans, and in modern times the Icelanders, Japanese, Turks and others have used it for baths and
for space heating. The Maoris in New Zealand too have exploited natural heat for their domestic
needs. One of the more interesting sights in their country is a Maori village near Rotorua, in
North Island, where one may see a fisherman catch his trout and drop it into an early pool of boiling
In the first century AD, Romans conquered Aquae Sulis, now Bath, Somerset, England,
and used the hot springs there to feed public baths and underfloor heating. The admission fees for
these baths probably represent the first commercial use of geothermal power. The world's oldest
geothermal district heating system in Chaudes-Aigues, France, has been operating since the 14th
century. The earliest industrial exploitation began in 1827 with the use of geyser steam to
In 1892, America's first district heating system in Boise, Idaho was powered directly by
geothermal energy, and was copied in Klamath Falls, Oregon in 1900. The first known building in
the world to utilize geothermal energy as its primary heat source was the Hot Lake Hotel in Union
In 1892, America's first district heating system in Boise, Idaho was powered directly by
geothermal energy, and was copied in Klamath Falls, Oregon in 1900. The first known building in
the world to utilize geothermal energy as its primary heat source was the Hot Lake Hotel in Union
A deep geothermal well was used to heat greenhouses in Boise in 1926, and geysers were
used to heat greenhouses in Iceland and Tuscany at about the same time. Charlie Lieb developed
the first downhole heat exchanger in 1930 to heat his house. Steam and hot water from geysers
In the 20th century, demand for electricity led to the consideration of geothermal power as
a generating source. Prince Piero Ginori Contitested the first geothermal power generator on 4 July
1904, at the same Larderello dry steam field where geothermal acid extraction began. It
successfully lit four light bulbs. Later, in 1911, the world's first commercial geothermal power
plant was built there. It was the world's only industrial producer of geothermal electricity until
New Zealand built a plant in 1958. In 2012, it produced some 594 megawatts.
Modern Days
This technology allows the generation of electricity from much lower temperature
resources than previously. In 2006, a binary cycle plant in Chena Hot Springs, Alaska, came on-
line, producing electricity from a record low fluid temperature of 57 C (135 F).
10,715 megawatts (MW) of geothermal power in 24 countries is online, which was expected to
generate 67,246 GWh of electricity in 2010. This represents a 20% increase in online capacity
since 2005. IGA projects growth to 18,500 MW by 2015, due to the projects presently under
In 2010, the United States led the world in geothermal electricity production with 3,086
MW of installed capacity from 77 power plants. The largest group of geothermal power plants in
the world is located at The Geysers, a geothermal field in California. The Philippines is the second
highest producer, with 1,904 MW of capacity online. Geothermal power makes up approximately
Philippines at 1,870 MW, but Indonesia will become second due to an additional online 130 MW
at the end of 2016 and 255 MW in 2017. Indonesia's 28,994 MW are the largest geothermal
reserves in the world, and it is predicted to overtake the USA in the next decade.
There are three basic types of geothermal power plants: dry steam plants, flash
Dry steam plants use hydrothermal fluids (steam) directly from a geothermal reservoir to turn
generator turbines. The first geothermal power plant was built in 1904 in Tuscany, Italy, where
Flash steam plants are the most common type of geothermal power generation plants in
operation today. Fluid at temperatures greater than 360F (182C) is pumped under high pressure
into a tank at the surface held at a much lower pressure, causing some of the fluid to rapidly
vaporize, or "flash." The vapor then drives a turbine, which drives a generator. If any liquid
remains in the tank, it can be flashed again in a second tank to extract even more energy.
Binary cycle power plants are closed-loop systems, and virtually nothing (except water
vapor) is emitted to the atmosphere. Because resources below 300F represent the most common
geothermal resource, a significant proportion of geothermal electricity in the future could come
Turbine the water strikes and turn the large blades of a turbine, which is attach to a
Transformer the transformer inside the powerhouse takes the AC and coverts it to a
Condenser - is a device or unit used to condense a substance from its gaseous to its liquid
Cooling Tower - is a specialized heat exchanger in which air and water are brought into
direct contact with each other in order to reduce the water's temperature.
Gas removal system - refers to a group of processes that use aqueous solutions of various
alky lamines (commonly referred to simply as amines) to remove hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
Geothermal energy consists of the thermal energy stored in the Earths crust. Thermal
energy in the earth is distributed between the constituent host rock and the natural fluid that is
contained in its fractures and pores at temperatures above ambient levels. These fluids are mostly
water with varying amounts of dissolved salts; typically, in their natural in situ state, they are
present as a liquid phase but sometimes may consist of a saturated, liquid-vapor mixture or
superheated steam vapor phase. The amounts of hot rock and contained fluids are substantially
larger and more widely distributed in comparison to hydrocarbon (oil and gas) fluids contained in
The source and transport mechanisms of geothermal heat are unique to this energy source.
Heat flows through the crust of the Earth at an average rate of almost 59 mW/m2 [1.9 x 10-2
Btu/h/ft2]. The intrusion of large masses of molten rock can increase this normal heat flow locally;
but for most of the continental crust, the heat flow is due to two primary processes:
1. Upward convection and conduction of heat from the Earths mantle and core, and
2. Heat generated by the decay of radioactive elements in the crust, particularly isotopes of
In all cases, certain conditions must be met before one has a viable geothermal resource.
The first requirement is accessibility. This is usually achieved by drilling to depths of interest,
frequently using conventional methods similar to those used to extract oil and gas from
hydrothermal systems, one normally needs to have large amounts of hot, natural fluids contained
in an aquifer with high natural rock permeability and porosity to ensure long-term production at
economically acceptable levels. When sufficient natural recharge to the hydrothermal system does
not occur, which is often the case, a reinjection scheme is necessary to ensure production rates will
be maintained.
Thermal energy is extracted from the reservoir by coupled transport processes (convective
heat transfer in porous and/or fractured regions of rock and conduction through the rock itself).
The heat extraction process must be designed with the constraints imposed by prevailing in situ
hydrologic, lithologic, and geologic conditions. Typically, hot water or steam is produced and its
energy is converted into a marketable product (electricity, process heat, or space heat). Water or
working fluid is heated (or used directly in case of geothermal dry steam power plants), and then
sent through a steam turbine where the thermal energy (heat) is converted to electricity with a
Any waste products must be properly treated and safely disposed of to complete the
process. Many aspects of geothermal heat extraction are similar to those found in the oil, gas, coal,
and mining industries. Because of these similarities, equipment, techniques, and terminology have
been borrowed or adapted for use in geothermal development, a fact that has, to some degree,
accelerated the development of geothermal resources. Nonetheless, there are inherent differences
that have limited development such as higher well-flow requirements and temperature limitations
Benefits
The worlds only geothermally heated prawn farm was established in 1987 on the banks of the
Waikato River, next to the Wairkei power station. Geothermal waste heat is used at Taup to
cultivate giant river prawns which require warm temperatures (2428C). This is a good example
of what is known as cascade use, where geothermal heat has a function past its primary purpose.
Cascading improves the overall efficiency of a resource by using its waste products. In the case of
the prawn farm, cascading also reduces the discharge of hot water into the river, where it can harm
aquatic life.
Horticulture
Geothermal waters are used for heating greenhouses on a small scale (covering 10
flowers and fruit.This includes a large greenhouse (0.8 hectares) for growing orchids for
export, and another set up to grow capsicums with heat from the Kawerau geothermal field.
Other Benefits
Electricity Generation
Food Processing
Paper processing
Aquaculture
Environmental Impacts
Water Quality and Use
Geothermal power plants can have impacts on both water quality and consumption. Hot
water pumped from underground reservoirs often contains high levels of sulfur, salt, and other
minerals. Most geothermal facilities have closed-loop water systems, in which extracted water is
pumped directly back into the geothermal reservoir after it has been used for heat or electricity
production. In such systems, the water is contained within steel well casings cemented to the
surrounding rock
Air Emissions
The distinction between open- and closed-loop systems is important with respect to air
emissions. In closed-loop systems, gases removed from the well are not exposed to the atmosphere
and are injected back into the ground after giving up their heat, so air emissions are minimal. In
contrast, open-loop systems emit hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, ammonia, methane, and boron.
Hydrogen sulfide, which has a distinctive rotten egg smell, is the most common emission
Land use
The amount of land required by a geothermal plant varies depending on the properties of
the resource reservoir, the amount of power capacity, the type of energy conversion system, the
type of cooling system, the arrangement of wells and piping systems, and the substation and
In open-loop geothermal systems, approximately 10 percent of the air emissions are carbon
dioxide, and a smaller amount of emissions are methane, a more potent global warming gas.
Estimates of global warming emissions for open-loop systems are approximately 0.1 pounds of
carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour. In closed-loop systems, these gases are not released
into the atmosphere, but there are a still some emissions associated with plant construction and
surrounding infrastructure.
MERITS OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT
4) Geothermal energy can be used directly. In ancient times, people used this source of energy
6) Geothermal power plants don't occupy too much space and thus help in protecting natural
environment.
2) Most of the sites, where geothermal energy is produced, are far from markets or cities, where
it needs to be consumed.
6) There is no guarantee that the amount of energy which is produced will justify the capital
during construction.
In our country geothermal energy makes up a significant portion of the national energy
budget. While, in theory, geothermal heat pumps can be used anywhere in the world, the extent
to which geothermal power plants or district heating systems can contribute to a given area varies
by location and depends on the preexisting geothermal aquifers, dry steam fields, or subsurface
heat flow in hot rocks three to ten kilometers underground. Thorsteinsson notes that, Unlike wind
and solar where the resource can be measured relatively easily, in geothermal developments
nothing is 100% certain about the resource until a well has been drilled and an economical flow of
fluid/steam has been found (Thorsteinsson 2008, 104). Consequently district heating projects are
risky, complex, and require high levels of initial capital investment. This, combined with
regulatory and informational barriers, makes it unlikely that district heating will contribute
significantly to meeting the United States space heating needs in the near future. Because of rate
structures, district heating is well suited to large buildings of 50,000 square feet or more and
institutional developments with multiple large buildings. The high cost of retrofitting and
connecting preexisting homes or small buildings make district heating economically impractical
in many built-up areas despite the presence of geothermal resources. New developments that
incorporate district heating systems can be economically attractive and such developments are
The use of geothermal heat pumps will continue to grow and an increase in qualified and
experienced installers in underserved areas can lower costs. The Friends Center case illustrates
that ground source heat pumps can be utilized in dense urban settings and retrofit situations. Even
at this early stage in the development of deep standing-column geothermal projects in urban
settings, economic benefits can be achieved within a reasonable timeframe for building owners
planning on holding their building for the long-term. This is especially true in the case of owners
The presence of geothermal resources and their utilization can be important factors in
creating a sense of place. The Earths geothermal heat content is enormous, 99% of the earths
volume has temperatures greater than 1000C, and only 0.1% of the volume is at temperatures less
than 100C (Rybach 2007, 2). Society is just beginning to tap the immense potential of the Earths
heat to meet some of its energy needs. Sustainable use of geothermal resources requires finding
the appropriate level of production for the resources being tapped, which in turn is dependent on
the field size, natural recharge rate, and other characteristics. There are potential negative impacts:
perhaps the most critical is the potential harm to aquatic environments if effluent is discharged into
surface water bodies. Most negative impacts can be minimized by the reinjection of geothermal
fluids back into the reservoir. Geothermal energy is both renewable and one of the cleanest sources
of energy and its use has the potential to greatly reduce greenhouse gas emissions by displacing
fossil fuels.
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY