Student: Date received:

Handout 12 of 14

(Topic 5.1)

Civil Engineering

The Adelaide to Crafers Highway Project, completed in 1999,

was one of the most expensive civil engineering projects in the
States history (Photo: Bernd Michaelsen).
The Impact of Human Activities on the Earth
Civil Engineering
Key Ideas
The surface of the Earth has been considerably
altered to meet the perceived needs of
technological societies.
The construction of large civil engineering projects
requires a knowledge of the geology of the area
concerned.
Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering
Intended Student Learning
Discuss the range of deliberate alterations that
human beings have made to the surface of the Earth.
Describe local examples of these changes.
Explain how the geology of an area dictates the
location and nature of each of the following
structures:
Dams Building foundations.
Roads and railways
Describe causes of slope failure and preventive
measures that can be taken.
Discuss the role of a geologist in the feasibility
study and site selection stages of a large civil
engineering project.
Page 2 of 26
5.1 Civil Engineering
INTRODUCTION
Earth's surface has been considerably altered to meet the perceived needs of
technological societies. The deliberate alterations which humans have made to
Earths surface have generally involved extraction of materials or construction
of facilities for human use. Examples of facilities that require considerable
alteration of Earths surface are highways, railways, bridges, dams and
pipelines.
The branch of engineering that deals with the planning, construction and
maintenance of these major structures is known as CIVIL ENGINEERING.
This unit summarises some geological aspects of civil engineering.
An example of a large-scale and recent civil engineering project in the Adelaide
region is the Adelaide to Crafers Highway Project, completed in December
1999.
During construction of this
project, 10.4 km of the
existing Mt Barker Road were
replaced by 8.3 km of divided
road, comprising two three-
lane tunnels. Since the
completion of the project,
travelling times and fuel costs
have been reduced, and safety
improved for the many Hills
residents who commute to
Adelaide each day. The
project cost $138 million and
its construction employed
about 1500 people.

GEOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS
The geology of an area dictates the location and nature of any civil engineering
structures.
Roads and Railways
Problems for a road or railway project may be caused by any of the following
geological features:
faults
junctions between hard and soft formations

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 3 of 26

 boundaries between porous and impermeable formations
spring-lines
fractured granites
weathered schists
landslip areas
areas where beds dip towards the road or
railway, as shown in the adjacent diagram.

If the terrain and proposed route are such that these features cannot be
avoided, construction of suitable safety features is required. Earthwork
construction must include an embankment to stabilise areas of landslip.
Lightweight material on a concrete
raft may be needed where the road
traverses deep, compressible
deposits.

Drainage holes can be drilled into

rock to ensure that water is
drained from potential slip
surfaces, such as bedding planes.
Unless water is properly drained
from a rock embankment,
pressures will build-up within and
behind the rock, eventually causing it to fracture and collapse. The Thredbo
Village land-slide (1997) is an Australian example of a catastrophic geological
slope failure due to the build-up of water within rocks and soil.

The Adelaide to Crafers Highway Project

Because the terrain in the vicinity of the Adelaide-Crafers tunnels is so steep,
the project encountered many civil engineering challenges. Notably, the
steepness of the terrain increases the probability that rock-falls and landslides
will occur.
The Crafers Highway is located on the western margin of the Mt Lofty Ranges,
The ranges themselves were formed by movement along fault lines. The
highway crosses three major faults, and there are many smaller faults in the
area. These faults can and do have a major impact on road-cutting stability.
Many of the rocks are siltstones or mudstones often described generically as
slates which show slaty cleavage. The area is geologically complex,
consisting of slates and quartzite with variable strengths ranging from low to
very high. The amount of weathering of the rock also varies considerably. Some
sections are very weathered, while in others the rock is fresh and unaltered.
Sometimes joints are closely spaced, whereas in some areas others there are
very few.

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 4 of 26

Consequently, some of the road cuttings have been reinforced to prevent rock-
falls. Various treatments can be seen as you drive along the highway. In some
places wire mesh has been used, while other faces have been sprayed with
concrete a treatment known as shotcrete. Similarly different support types
were used in the tunnel when different rock types were being tunnelled. When
the tunnel excavation was completed, a permanent concrete lining was
installed.

Photographs of Crafers Highway road-cutting. Left: Wire mesh prevents loose locks from
dislodging from high on the cliff and falling onto the highway. Right: Partial shotcrete
treatment of road-cutting.

Dams
Geological investigations of a site proposed for construction of a dam must be
complete and detailed. Features such as rock-types, geological structures,
weathering, fractures and fissures must all be considered. The main
considerations are that the material on which the dam rests must be able to
carry the weight of the structure without failing. The geology upon which the
dam is built must also be impervious to water. The abutments, (the rock faces
to which the dam wall is attached) must also be impervious and strong enough
to support the dam wall, especially in the case of an arch dam (where more
force is transmitted to the abutments).

Left: Cross-section through an arch dam.

Failure of a dam can be due to many factors including:

earthquakes
a sudden drop in water level
inadequate protection of the reservoir side of the dam from wave action
insufficient spillway capacity, so that water flows over the whole of the
dam surface, with consequent erosion

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 5 of 26

The type of dam selected depends largely on the nature of the surrounding
rocks. If they are strong and stable, an arch dam, such as the one shown in the
adjacent diagram can be constructed. This type of dam requires a minimum of
construction materials, but the concrete must be of high quality. The Barossa
Reservoir Dam (the Whispering Wall) is an example of an arch dam.

Above: The Roosevelt Dam in the United States is an example of an arch dam. It is also the
worlds highest masonry dam. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Roosevelt_Dam.jpg

An earth and rock fill embankment dam, as shown in the diagram below must
be constructed where the surrounding rocks are not strong enough to support
an arch dam. This type of dam is more expensive to build, requiring much more
material. The main weight and strength of the dam is provided by compacted
quarried rock. The core is made of impermeable material, such as clay, bitumen
or concrete.

Above: Cross-section through an embankment dam.

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 6 of 26

Above: The Scrivener Dam (an embankment dam) in Canberra which holds back the waters
of Lake Burley Griffin (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Burley_Griffin). It has been
designed to withstand a one in 5000 year flood.

Kangaroo Creek Dam

Construction of the Kangaroo Creek Dam was first proposed around 1945.
Tests of the surrounding rocks, mainly schists and gneisses, were carried out
and it was concluded that they would be strong enough to support an arch dam.
However, the project was shelved. During the 1950s, an arch dam was
constructed in Europe in an area where the geology was similar to the Torrens
Gorge. The geologists did not realise that there was a fault at right angles to
the foliation planes of the schist. This dam collapsed in 1958, and several
hundred lives were lost.
When construction of the Kangaroo Creek Dam was again proposed in the
1960s, a careful assessment of the surrounding rocks was made. The
investigation took about 18 months. Eventually it was decided that the
foundation rocks on the south bank of the proposed site were unstable to a
considerable depth, and not strong enough to support an arch dam.
A much larger and more expensive earth and rock fill embankment dam was
subsequently built.

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 7 of 26

Building Foundations
Since the type of rock and soil inevitably affects stability of buildings, the
quality of the foundation rock must be investigated before construction
commences. This rock must not be weak, crushed, water saturated or have been
subjected to chemical weathering. The presence of fractures, faults, joints,
cleavages, etc may indicate that the site is unsuitable for building. The
possibility of soil-creep, slope movement, landslides etc must be borne in mind
and factored into the design of any building foundation. Obviously, buildings
should not be situated too close to the coast, especially where the sea level is
rising relative to the land.

Left: The Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy. This

is possibly the most famous example of
failed foundations (http://en.wikipedia.org
/wiki/To wer_of_Pisa).

Rock and soil tests are taken before

homes are built. For larger buildings,
deep holes may be drilled to test the
strength and stability of the rocks
under the proposed building. The
type and strength of foundations
required are determined from the
results of these tests.

People who build houses in areas of

clay soil are likely to find that
windows and doors stick and that
cracks appear in brick walls. Piers
under the house move and concrete
slabs may crack. This is because
clays swell when wet and shrink after
drying. Adelaides Bay of Biscay
soils, which underlie some of the north-eastern suburbs, contain a type of clay
called montmorillonite which swells to almost twice its dry volume when wet.
This is responsible for many cracks in older buildings. These soils are said to be
expansive.
Two other types of problem soils are collapsing soils, which settle rapidly on
wetting, and compressible soils that consolidate and settle slowly over several
years.
The footing is that part of a house that is in direct contact with the soil or rock
forming the foundation. Strip footings were the earliest type used. These
consisted of concrete strips beneath the walls of the house.

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 8 of 26

Strip footings proved to be unsuitable in areas of expansive soil, as the soil
under the house dried out and shrank, causing the problems shown in the
diagram below.

Above: Cross-section through strip footings

A range of footings has now been developed,

designed to be rigid enough to resist much of the
long-term expansive soil movement and to minimise
the moisture changes that could occur beneath a
house. An example is the grillage raft shown in the
adjacent diagram.

An alternative approach is to build articulated

houses, in which the walls are built in separate
sections. Each section is free to move with respect to the other sections.

One advantage offered by multi-story buildings is that their foundation loads

are generally great enough to resist uplift caused by swelling of expansive soils.

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 9 of 26

In the 1960s, the footings of high-rise office buildings in the CBD area were
carried down to the Hallett Cove Sandstone that underlies much of the
Adelaide Plains. However, during excavations for some of these buildings, the
sandstone was found to contain caves and sinkholes. More recent buildings use
concrete raft foundations that rest on the top stratum the Hindmarsh Clay.
The diagram below contrasts the two different techniques.

SLOPE FAILURE
The term slope failure covers a wide range of ground movement, such as rock
falls, deep failure of slopes, and shallow debris flows. The photograph below
shows the Thredbo landslide (30 July 1997) where 18 people died.

http://www.schools.ash.org.au/elanorah/auThred.jpg

Causes of Slope Failure

Gravity
Although gravity acting on an over-steepened slope is the primary cause of a
landslide, other contributing factors include:
earthquakes that create stresses causing weak slopes to fail.
volcanic eruptions that produce loose ash deposits and debris flows.
vibrations from machinery, traffic, blasting, and even atmospheric
thunder that may trigger failure of very weak slopes.
excess weight from accumulation of rain, snow, the stockpiling of rock or
ore, or from built structures that may stress weak slopes to failure.

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 10 of 26

Relief
Slope failure occurs in hilly or mountainous regions all over the world
essentially wherever there is any significant topographic relief. In Australia,
significant landslides coincides with mountainous areas.

Left: Location of significant Australian

landslides (http://www.ga.gov.au/image
_cache/GA2773.jpg)

Water
Rock and soil slopes are weakened
through saturation by melting snow or
heavy rain. Water filling the pores of
permeable materials allows the grains to
slide past each other with little friction.
Water acts as a lubricant increasing the
ease of movement of rock and soil
particles (and therefore slope failure).
Slope material that becomes saturated with water may develop a debris flow or
mudflow. The resulting slurry of rock and mud can pick up trees, houses, and
cars, causing the blocking of bridges and tributaries and increasing the
likelihood of flooding.

Undercutting
Undercutting is erosion of material at the foot of a cliff or steep bank e.g. on
the outside of a meander. Ultimately the overhang collapses and the process is
repeated. Undercutting caused by rivers, glaciers, or ocean waves creates over-
steepened slopes, which are prone to failure. Human activities, such as
quarrying and road construction also result in undercutting.

Rock Types
In unconsolidated material, that is material not held together by cement or by a
strong interlocking crystal structure, landslides start after a significant part of
the whole rock mass is saturated with water and therefore lubricated. A single
shock or vibration can trigger the down-slope movement of an entire unstable
hillside. Any area of very weak or fractured materials resting on a steep slope
will be likely to experience landslides.

Slope Angle
A pile of sand always assumes the same angle of slope, whether it is a few
centimetres high, or a huge sand dune. The angle that the sand makes with the

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 11 of 26

horizontal is called the angle of repose. It is about 37 for fine sand, and steeper
for coarse sand and angular pebbles, as shown in the diagrams below.

Fine sand

Coarse sand

Angular pebbles

If a slope is steepened beyond this natural angle, for example for a road cutting,
it then becomes unstable and the slightest vibration may lead to slope failure.
The angle of repose is reduced if the sand or unconsolidated rock material
becomes water-saturated. Moreover, the angle of repose is significantly reduced
underwater.

PREVENTION OF SLOPE FAILURE

Although the physical cause of many landslides cannot be removed, geologic
investigations, good engineering practices, and effective enforcement of land-
use management regulations can reduce landslide hazards. Strategies that can
be used to control the mass movement of rock and soil include:

the construction of retaining walls

putting drains through retaining walls so that water is not trapped
behind them
constructing terraces to reduce the angle of slope
using grasses or other plants whose roots anchor the slope
sinking piles through unstable debris down to firm bedrock
inserting bolts (rock bolts) to hold unstable rocks.

Of course, the best solution is not to build, or cut roads, through sites
susceptible to slope failure but that means changing human nature. This
may also have significant economic drawbacks.

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 12 of 26

THE ROLE OF THE GEOLOGIST
The branch of geology that deals with application of geological knowledge to
civil engineering projects is known as geological engineering or engineering
geology. Engineering geologists are needed wherever an understanding of rock
properties and geological structures is required, i.e. road construction, building
foundations, dam construction etc.
All structures designed and constructed by civil engineers are located in and
supported by naturally occurring rocks and soil. Any structure, no matter how
strong its materials or how well it is built, will fail unless the rocks and soil on
which it is built are strong and stable. Experience shows that dam disasters
have usually been the result of failure of the foundation rocks, rather than of
the dam itself.
The local geology of an area is important when planning a major construction.
The role of an engineering geologist is to ensure that proper assessment of the
geological information is made during the planning and building of a project.
He/she must have a good understanding of the work of a civil engineer.
Moreover, all engineers (whether geological or civil) must have a knowledge of
natural processes and products.
Input from a geologist is most important during the feasibility study and site
selection stages of a civil engineering project. He/she must determine whether
the rocks and other geological features are suitable for the proposed
construction.
A geologist and or geological engineer may use:
1. Regional geological mapping to determine distribution of rock types and
location of geological structures such as folds, faults etc. Satellite imagery,
aerial photographs and topographical maps may provide useful
information about these features.
2. Detailed geological mapping of the site area. Sluicing or excavation may be
used to remove the soil cover and expose the underlying rocks.
Some of the significant features in the area may be:
topographical features gullies, swamps etc
geological surface features outcrops, soil types, scree slopes etc
Geological bedrock features joints, cleavage planes, mineralised
zones.
3. Geophysical methods e.g. a seismic survey or tests of electrical
conductivity of the subsurface geology.
4. Drilling (using diamond drills) to test:

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 13 of 26

 a. the depth of the overburden (soil and loose rock).
b. the permeability of the rock; i.e.- how fast water moves through the
rock (Water is poured into a drill-hole, and the time taken for it to
seep into the surrounding rock is measured).
5. Porosity (% of pore spaces) testing of fresh rock and soil samples in the
laboratory. Destructive testing can also be used to determine the strength
of the rock.

Site Investigations for the Adelaide to Crafers Highway Project

Once the preferred route for the Crafers Highway had been determined, site
investigations took place over a period of ten years, commencing in 1987. These
are summarised below.

YEAR PHASE SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS

1987 Preliminary Surface mapping of exploratory features along the

proposed route.

Exploratory trenching.

Boreholes.

Seismic refraction surveys.

Two inclinometers to monitor slope movement on the side

of Mt Osmond.

1990 Tunnel investigation Investigation of tunnel alignment.

As for 1987, plus laboratory testing.

1991 Roadworks and As in previous years, to supplement existing information

structure investigation so that detailed design can proceed.

1996 Pilot tunnel Exploratory pilot tunnel excavated due to uncertainty

investigation about geology along the alignment.

Because of the sudden termination of a large body of

quartzite, the presence of a significant fault was
suspected.

A pilot tunnel was constructed to provide access for stress

testing of the rocks in the tunnel, and removal of rocks
for laboratory testing.

It was found that the sudden termination of the quartzite

was due to slumping of sands soon after deposition. It
was not related to any fault

1999 Project completed 10.4 km of dual 3-lane roads completed, including dual
500-metre 3-lane tunnels (Heysen Tunnels)

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 14 of 26

 EXERCISES
INTRODUCTION

1. Suggest some reasons why humans have made deliberate large-scale

alterations to Earths surface.

2. What is civil engineering?

3. List some types of projects that are the concern of civil engineers.

4. Describe the essential features of the Adelaide to Crafers Highway Project.

5. Why should a geologist be consulted before a large civil engineering

project, such as a dam, is designed and constructed?

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 15 of 26

6. The photograph below shows road construction activities.

In order to withstand the constant wear from traffic and weather, roads
must be carefully built with level, durable foundations and surfaces. Here,
a large truck slowly lets out its load of gravel onto a new road bed. Gravel
acts as part of the foundation and will be groomed and pressed by heavy
rollers before the asphalt layer is added.

Describe some of the alterations that have to be made to Earths surface in

order to carry out the road construction shown above.

GEOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS

Roads and Railways

1. List some of the geological features that may cause problems for a road or
railway project.

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 16 of 26

2. Describe some of the steps which can be taken to stabilise the edges of a
road in mountainous country.

3. a. Explain why drainage holes may be drilled into a rock where a cutting
has been made for a road or railway.

b. Draw a diagram to show

the location of such holes.

4. The diagram below shows the dip of the bedding in three road cuttings.

In each case, comment on the safety of the cutting.

A:

B:

C:

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 17 of 26

5. Explain why there were bound to be engineering geology problems
associated with the Adelaide to Crafers Highway Project.

6. Describe some features of the rocks themselves that caused concern to the
engineering geologists?

7. Describe the precautions that must be taken to prevent rock-falls in

cuttings and in the tunnel?

Dams

1. What are the two most important requirements when considering a site for
a dam?

2. What features of the surrounding rocks must be considered?

3. a. What are the abutments of a dam?

b. What are the requirements for the abutments?

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 18 of 26

4. List some of the causes of dam failure.

5. Draw diagrams showing the essential features of an arch dam and an

earth and rock fill embankment dam.

Arch Dam Embankment Dam

6. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each type of dam.

7. Explain why an embankment dam was selected when Kangaroo Creek

dam was eventually built.

Building Foundations

1. Describe some of the rock types and structures that are unsuitable as
foundation rocks for a building.

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 19 of 26

2. What events could have led to the situation shown in the above diagram?

3. Describe the properties of expansive soils.

4. Explain why problems arise for those who build houses on highly
expansive soils.

5. An expansive soil which underlies much of Adelaides north-eastern

suburbs is called:

6. What are the footings of a building?

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 20 of 26

7. Discuss some of the advantages
and disadvantages of the strip
footings shown in the adjacent
diagram.

8. Suggest reasons why the

grillage raft would result in a
more stable house with less
cracking.

9. Name one advantage of the strip footing over the grillage raft.

10. Explain why multi-story buildings may present fewer problems in areas of
expansive soils.

11. Draw diagrams showing two different techniques for construction of the
footings for multi-story buildings in the City of Adelaide.

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 21 of 26

12. Explain why the concrete raft has been preferred over the piled footings.

SLOPE FAILURE

Causes of Slope Failure

1. What is the primary cause of a landslide?

2. List some of the other contributing factors.

3. Explain, with the aid of a

diagram, the meaning of the
term angle of repose.

4. Explain how the angle of repose depends on the nature of the sediment,
including its wetness.

5. What is the disadvantage of steepening a slope beyond its natural angle?

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 22 of 26

6. Describe the contribution of water to landslides.

7. What is undercutting?

8. What types of material are most prone to landslides?

9. Explain, with the aid of a

diagram, how the dip of rock
strata can affect the stability of
a road cutting.

PREVENTION OF SLOPE FAILURE

1. The photographs below compare steps taken by neighbouring householders

to prevent slope failure below their homes.

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 23 of 26

 a. What steps have the owners of the centre block taken to protect their
property?

b. Why do you think their construction has been more effective than the
efforts of their neighbours on either side?

2. The photograph below contrasts the effectiveness of different types of

vegetation in preventing landslides.

a. Which type of ground cover appears to be more effective?

b. Why do you think this is so?

3. List some other steps that can be taken to control the mass movement of
rock and soil.

4. What is the best solution to the problem?

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 24 of 26

THE ROLE OF THE GEOLOGIST

1. In what situations is an engineering geologist needed?

2. Explain why an engineering geologist is needed in these situations.

3. In what stages of a civil engineering project is a geologist most important?

4. List the steps that might be taken by an engineering geologist to

determine whether a site proposed by a group of civil engineers for a large
construction (such as a dam) would be suitable for that purpose.

5. The table below summarises the site investigations that were carried out
for the Adelaide to Crafers Highway Project. In the right hand column,
suggest the purpose of each investigation, bearing in mind the nature of
the regional geology.
SUMMARY OF PURPOSE OF
YEAR PHASE
INVESTIGATIONS INVESTIGATIONS

1987 Preliminary Surface mapping along

the proposed route.

Exploratory trenching
and drilling boreholes.

Seismic refraction
surveys.

Two inclinometers to
monitor slope

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 25 of 26

 movement on the side
of Mt Osmond.

1990 Tunnel Investigation of tunnel

investigation alignment.

As for 1987, plus

laboratory testing.

SUMMARY OF PURPOSE OF
YEAR PHASE
INVESTIGATIONS INVESTIGATIONS

1991 Roadworks As in previous years.

and structure
investigation

1996 Pilot tunnel Exploratory pilot

investigation tunnel. excavated.

Topic 5.1 Civil Engineering Page 26 of 26