MIFTAKHUR RAHMAT

3714100052

TUGAS EKSPLORASI GEOLISTRIK

REVIEW

Time Domain
Paper : Application of time domain induced polarization to the mapping of lithotypes in a
landfill site

By : A. Gazoty, G. Fiandaca, J. Pedersen, E. Auken, A. V. Christiansen, and J. K. Pedersen

A direct current (DC) resistivity and time domain induced polarization (TDIP) survey was
undertaken at a decommissioned landfill site situated in Hrlkke, Denmark, for the purpose of
mapping the waste deposits and to discriminate important geological units that control the
hydrology of the surrounding area. It is known that both waste deposits and clay have clear
signatures in TDIP data, making it possible to enhance the resolution of geological structures
compared to DC surveys alone. Four DC/TDIP profiles were carried out crossing the landfill, and
another seven profiles in the surroundings provide a sufficiently dense coverage of the entire area.
The whole dataset was inverted using a 1-D laterally constrained inversion scheme, recently
implemented for TDIP data, in order to use the entire decay curves for reconstructing the electrical
parameters of the soil in terms of the Cole-Cole polarization model. Results show that it is possible
to resolve both the geometry of the buried waste body and key geological structures. In particular, it
was possible to find a silt/clay lens at depth that correlates with the flow direction of the pollution
plume spreading out from the landfill and to map a shallow sandy layer rich in clay that likely has a
strong influence on the hydrology of the site. This interpretation of the geophysical findings was
constrained by borehole data, in terms of geology and gamma ray logging. The results of this study
are important for the impact of the resolved geological units on th hydrology of the area, making it
possible to construct more realistic scenarios of the variation of the pollution plume as a function of
the climate change.

The present study only focussed on results of the M0 parameter, because it is the only one for
which a straightforward correlation with the lithology, the waste content and borehole information
is possible. Indeed, M0 indicates how polarizable the medium is, and whether there is a signature in
chargeability or not. Several papers, however, show that the normalized chargeability (i.e. the ratio
between chargeability and resistivity) is a better parameter for discriminating lithotypes when
compared with chargeability alone (Lesmes and Frye, 2001; Slater and Lesmes, 2002). Despite this
we chose to not plot the inversion results in terms of normalized chargeability, but to show the
parameters directly used in the inversion process. This is because, in this study, the parameter M0
shows a better correlation with the gamma log when compared to the normalized chargeability. In
any case. The parameter shows some general trends, such as a small magnitude within 50200 m
laterally, where the stream is located, and an increase of magnitude with depth beyond 20 m. In Fig.
9d, high values of the parameter c fit well with the clay layer, as evident in boreholes 151.1605 and
151.1587. It is known from literature that and c are relevant parameters for providing significant
information at the pore scale. They can be linked somehow with hydrogeological parameters such as
hydraulic conductivity, but their use involves further modelling and analysis, which is beyond the
scope of this study. In the present case, we do not haveenough information to link the observed
trends in and c with petrophysical properties.

The quality of the inverted sections presented in this paper can be attested by the perfect match
between all information provided by the 2-D sections wherever they cross each other, even though
each single section was inverted individually, i.e. without any spatial constraints. More importantly,
the borehole information also allowed the outputs of the geophysical survey to be verified; the
match between both is good, inside and outside the landfill. The boreholes were also essential for
the interpretation of the geophysical results, mainly for the clay-rich sandy layer and the silt/clay
lens at depth. In our experience, the new inversion scheme adopted for inverting the data also
played a significant role in the success of the interpretation of TDIP data. The different geological
units pointed out are then summarized in Fig. 12.

The fact that geophysical results can provide a detailed and reliable geological description is of
primary importance for modelling the effects of climate changes. In the framework of the CLIWAT
project, the Hrlkke area was widely investigated by different geophysical methods (Stvring et al.,
2011; Foged et al., 2009; Siemon et al., 2010). Airborne EM data, together with drillings and surface
measurements like pulled array continuous electrical profiling (PACEP, see Srensen, 1996) and
multiple electrode profiling (MEP), were used in order to provide a strong input for geological
models, on the basis of which dynamic hydrogeological solute transport models have been run. It
was shown that the combination of geological/geophysical surveys, geological modelling and
hydrogeological modelling was a powerful tool for the prediction of climate change effects on the
groundwater conditions (Stvring et al., 2011).

The geophysical survey, together with the borehole information, allowed the recognition and
spatial delineation of several geological units important for the hydrology of the area. In particular,
it was possible to map three key structures that influence the water flow of the site: the clay layer
just underneath the Billund Creek north of the landfill; a clay-rich sandy layer at a depth of 2040 m
that likely exhibits a different hydraulic conductivity when compared to the upper and lower clay-
poor sandy soil; a silt/clay lens at depth, which extends about 350 m west from the landfill and that
likely supports the flow of pollution in a westerly direction. The use of both DC and TDIP data,
instead of DC measurements alone, greatly enhanced the resolution power of the survey not only
for the landfill delineation, but also for the characterization of the creek aquitard and for the
recognition of theclay-rich sandy layer. In particular, this last finding is noticeable, because the DC
data alone did not show any evidence of the enriched clay content. These results are a good
example of the potential of the IP method for hydrogeological studies and in landfill delineation, but
more care is necessary in the field to obtain a good data quality in comparison with the acquisition
of DC data only. The detailed geological knowledge gained with the geophysical survey is particularly
important in the investigated area, where the presence of the landfill and the related pollution
plume provide a high risk for the underlying aquifer. More realistic scenarios of the variation of the
outwash of chemical components from landfills to nearby aquifers, as a consequence of the climate
change and modification in the groundwater level, are available when incorporating such kinds of
information in the hydrogeological modelling.

Frequency Domain
Paper : Electromagnetic coupling in frequency-domain induced polarization data: a
method for removal

By : Partha S. Routh and Douglas W. Oldenburg

Electromagnetic (EM) coupling is generally considered to be noise in induced polarization (IP)

data and interpretation is difficult when its contribution is large compared to the IP signal. The
effect is exacerbated by conductive environments and large-array survey geometries designed to
explore deeper targets. In this paper we present a methodology to remove EM coupling from
frequency-domain IP data. We first investigate the effect of EM coupling on the IP data and derive
the necessary equations to represent the IP effect for both amplitude and phase responses of the
signal. The separation of the inductive response from the total response in the low-frequency
regime is derived using the electric field due to a horizontal electric dipole and it is assumed that at
low frequencies the interaction of EM effects and IP effects is negligible. The total electric field is
then expressed as a product of a scalar function, which is due to IP effects, and an electric field,
which depends on the EM coupling response. It is this representation that enables us to obtain the
IP response from EM-coupling-contaminated data. To compute the EM coupling response we
recognize that conductivity information is necessary. We illustrate this with a synthetic example.
The removal method developed in this work for the phase and the per cent frequency effect (PFE)
data are applicable to 1-D, 2-D and 3-D structures. The practical utility of the method is illustrated
on a 2-D field example that is typical of mineral exploration problems.

EM coupling has been a long-standing problem in IP data interpretation because the

conventional forward modelling to generate IP responses does not take into account the inductive
effects of the ground. There are two approaches to solving theproblem: (i) using a forward
modelling solution that models both IP and the EM coupling effects, and (ii) removing EM coupling
responses from the data and using the traditional DC resistivity formulation to model the IP effects.
The first approach requires the solution of Maxwells equations for electric fields due to finite-length
grounded wires; this is computationally intensive to solve, especially in two and three dimensions.
The second approach, using conventional DC forward modelling, requires that EM coupling be
removed from the IP data. In this paper we have developed a practical algorithm for removing EM
coupling responses from IP data in the low-frequency regime.

The methodology is general and can be applied to 1-D, 2-D and 3-D conductivity models. We
also note that this method does not assume any particular form of complex conductivity model. The
foundation of the removal method is based upon theoretical derivations with the electric field
generated from a horizontal electric dipole in a complex conductivity medium. We show that the
observed electric field can be expressed as a product of two frequency-dependent responses. The
first is an IP response function that depends on the chargeability of the ground. The second is an
electric field due to inductive and DC resistivity effects that depends on the conductivity of the
ground. Recognizing that both the amplitude and the phase of the IP response function are
indicators of chargeability allowed us to develop removal methodologies for the PFE and phase
data. To correct the PFE responses, we normalized the measured amplitudes with the expected EM
responses computed at the desired frequency. For the correction of phase data, we computed the
phase due to EM coupling and subtracted it from the measured responses. We presented 1-D
synthetic examples to illustrate EM coupling removal. Synthetic examples show that it is important
to know the conductivity structure of the ground for computing the EM coupling responses. In
practice, the true conductivity of the ground is not known a priori. Our best option is to invert the
amplitude data at the lowest available frequency using a DC inversion algorithm. Our hope is that
this model is sufficiently close to the true conductivity that the procedure outlined here will work to
a good approximation.

The examples presented make us optimistic that this is valid. To apply our methodology to 2-D
problems we ideally need a 2-D EM forward modelling. This was not available to us so we have
designed an approximate method that uses a localized averaged 1-D conductivity model that has
been constructed from the 2-D conductivity obtained from the DC resistivity inversion. Each
transmitter position is associated with its own 1-D conductivity. The advantage of using a local
averaged conductivity model, compared to a simple half-space or a single layered model, is that the
lateral conductivity variation along the survey line is approximately accounted for. However, a full 2-
D EM forward modelling would be ideal for computing the phases due to EM coupling, especially
when there are topography and significant lateral conductivity variations. The application of our
method to a field example has shown significant improvement in the recovered model compared to
the existing methods such as three-point decoupling and manual decoupling techniques. Overall,
the improvement in the signalto-noise ratio in all of the examples presented in this paper is
substantial, and this will lead to much greater interpretability of the IP data.

Spectral
Paper :An overview of the spectral inducedpolarization method for near
surface applications
By : Andreas Kemna, Andrew Binley, Giorgio Cassiani, Ernst Niederleithinger, Andr Revil,
Lee Slater, Kenneth H. Williams, Adrin Flores Orozco, Franz-Hubert Haegel, Andreas
Hrdt, Sabine Kruschwitz, Virginie Leroux, Konstantin Titov, Egon Zimmermann

Over the last 15 years significant advancementsin induced polarization (IP) research have taken
place, particularly with respect to spectral IP (SIP), concerning the understanding of the
mechanisms of the IP phenomenon, the conduction of accurate and broadband laboratory
measurements, the modelling and inversion of IP data for imaging purposes, and the increasing
application of the method in near-surface investigations. We here summarized the current state of
the science of the SIP method for near-surface applications and describe which aspects still
represent open issues and should be the focus of future research efforts. Significant progress has
been made over the last decade in the understanding of the microscopic mechanisms of IP;
however, integrated mechanistic models involving the different possible polarization processes at
the grain/pore scale are still lacking. A prerequisite for the advances in the mechanistic
understanding of IP was the development of improved laboratory instrumentation, which has led to
a continuously growing database of SIP measurements on various soil and rock samples. We
summarize the experience of numerous experimental studies by formulating key recommendations
for reliable SIP laboratory measurements. To make use of the established theoretical and empirical
relationships between SIP characteristics and target petrophysical properties at the field scale,
sophisticated forward modelling and inversion algorithms are needed. Considerable progress has
been made also in this field, in particular with the development of complex resistivity algorithms
allowing the modelling and inversion of IP data in the frequency domain. The ultimate goal for the
future are algorithms and codes for the integral inversion of 3-D, time-3 lapse and multi-frequency
IP data, which defines a 5-D inversion problem involving the dimensions space (for imaging), time
(for monitoring) and frequency (for spectroscopy). We also offer guidelines for reliable and accurate
measurements of IP spectra, which are essential for improved understanding of IP mechanisms and
their links to physical, chemical and biological properties of interest. We believe that the SIP
method offers potential for subsurface structure and process characterization, in particular in
hydrogeophysical and biogeophysical studies.

In this review we summarized the state of the science and the perspectives of the spectral
induced polarization method for near-surface applications as reflected by the outcome of intense
discussions held among leading researchers in the field at the recent international IP workshop in
Bonn, Germany. Considerable progress has been made over the last decade in the understanding of
the microscopic mechanisms of IP; however, the development of integrated mechanistic models
involving the different possible polarization processes at the grain/pore scale remains a challenging
task. Such models are required to establish constitutive relationships at the scale of effective IP
properties, which are measuredin the field, and take understanding of IP signatures beyond the
stage of empiricism. Especially important is the case-by-case quantification of the importance of
each IP-generating mechanism, in order to derive useful information from the measured IP signals.
 With the advances in IP modelling and inversion algorithms, in particular those formulated in
the frequency domain (complex resistivity), the improved understanding of SIP signatures inferred
from the numerous recent laboratory studies can now be exploited in field applications. However,
the integral inversion of3-D, time-lapse and multi-frequency IP data, defining a 5-D inverse problem
(3-D space, signal frequency, experimental time), and the understanding of image resolution and
uncertainty with respect to spectral characteristics are still major goals for the future. This also
holds for the inclusion of the full electromagnetic equations in the modelling, in order to overcome
spectral limitations associated with EM coupling effects masking the higher-frequency SIP response,
as well as for the inclusion of available a prioriinformation in flexible inversion schemes.

We believe that the SIP method, by combining the diagnostic advantages of spectroscopy and
the spatial resolution benefits of a geophysical field method, in particular when applied in an
imaging framework and if the above-stated measurement guidelines are followed, offers potential
for subsurface structure and process characterization. The most promising nearsurface applications
include hydrogeophysical and biogeophysical studies, where SIP may be established as a routine,
non-invasive characterization and monitoring tool allowing direct access to textural, hydraulic
and/or biogeochemical information.