CONTENTS . Fort worD (Cuartex I—INtRoDUCTION : ) : Cuavier 2—Tower Conrigt: ox: 2.1 Scope 22 Constituents of an Gi. ¢ Diagram > 2.3 Length of Cross-arm —t Conductor Spacirgs 2.4 Tower Widths at Base ad Top Hamper 4 . 2.5 Type of Bracing Patt 2.6 Conclusions : 5 CHAPTER I—ANALYSIS OF $1505 AND PROPORTION:NG OF MuuiuaR $i 3.1 Scope ) 3.2 Culeulitions of Lox. and Load Combinations "3.3 Stress Analysis 3.4 Pyint of Applicatic. of Loads AS Analysis of Stress. the Transmission Line Tower Members ) 3.6 Permissible Stress 3.7 Selection of Mer, Cuapren 4—FAuRICATION GALVANISING AND TesTING : 4.1 Fabrication 4.2 Galvanising 4.3 Testing Charter S—DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS ¢ 5.1 General Consit eration 5.2 Design Requirements 5.3 Soil Invess",--tong @ Noe. Soils (0) Cohesive (©) Rocks 5.4 Evaluation of the Soil Resistances (a) Bearing Capacity ES AND JowTs : acs 7 7 18 19 20 21 60 62 63 16 76 16 7 7 n 71, 7(0) Uplift Resistance * we (©) Lateral Soil Resistance Boe 5.5 Permissible Soil Pressure se 5.6 Types of Foundation . a © (@) Concrete Pad and Chimney Type . red (8) Steel Grillage : aid (©) Concrete Spread Footings a 6 (@) Avgered Foundations . BY (© Grouted Rock Footings 85 (f) Precast Concrete Foundation’ . » ‘ 86 (8) Pile Foundations 87 (H) Special Types of Footings . 88 (O Examples of Special Foundations we af "5.7 Design Procedure - : 92 — - (@) Design for Vertical Loads—Maximum Toe Pressure 96 (®) Design for Uplift—Available Uplift Resistance 7 (©) Design for Side Thrust—Moment and Available + 99 Soil Resistance 5.8 Lateral Deflections of Footing 4103, 5.9 Special Considerations ~ 105, 5.10 Illustrative Design Examples = 108 (Cuarrer 6—ERECTION'oF Towers : c 6.1 General see DD 6.2 Stub-setting 2 -| 6.3 Erection of Tower Superstructure 132" 6.4 Tightening of Nuts and Punching of Threads = 27 6.5 Painting of Joints ns’ 6.6 Verticality of Erected Towers me Cnarrer 7: F ( A. Bibliography . 1B B. List of Indian Standards required for References for this Manual .. 132INTRODUCTION 2 The purpose of @ transmission line tower is to “support conductors carrying electrical power and one or two ground wires at suitable distances above th ground level and from each other. The transmission, line towers cost ubout 35-45 percent of the total cost of the transmission line and development of an optimuns design can, therefore, result in substantial econom Great responsibilty thus rests on the transmission line engineer Who has 10 prepare not only economical but 2 dezenduble design, A transmission line tower is a space-frame and a ‘der indeterminate structure. lis cost is influen- ht. The weight in turn is influenced by ‘Signer's diligence and his efficient application of voverning specifications. Given the same code in F material, ruling dimension loads, unit. stres- ers could produce gu structures which are strikingly similar in weight. This sunilas..y is oaly possible if designers ‘im at selecting the most ecos~omical configuration. for 3d the Coive of the varivus sevticns fs done west thought of conserving every pound of Pessitle within the limvations ofthe specitestions consistent with reliability. 3 Reli bility of a transmission structure depends not aly upon its design, but also. on the development of ‘ructural. arrangement, detailing of connections, ty of quality of’ structural sections, accurate ation, erection in the field and ‘ultimately naintenanc le maintaining permissible inces, galvanising and testing of towers ‘are, there fre, very essential. An economical foundation 2. a 4 proper erection techniques are also very vital for tise safety of the tower. An effort has beca made tu lake. this manual comprehensive so as. to cover all the as. pests of the tower namely its. design with particular reference to Barrel type, using mild stecl angle sections, srication, design of foundation and erection, iransmission line towers, starting from the fixation of the tower configuration, designing the different tower members, their fabrication, testing, foundstions for towers aad finally the erection of towers. The manual deals mainly with self-supporting structures and do not cover specia? und guyed Si, uetures.2 2.1 Scope ‘The selection of an optimum outline and system of bracing patterns contributes to a great extent in developing an economical design of a transmission line tower and. thereby reducing their overall cost. The selection of an outline is, of course, flexible in ature and for HV and EHV towers, many configurations have been tried and adopted from considerations of econo- my, efficient perforinance of line and to some extént aesthetic Values. For a particular tower configuration selected, the outline decided shall satisfy both electrical and structural requirements, in consistent with economy, ‘ Tower configurations adopted are generally. rectun- gular and square types. The square. type broad-base Towers are the most commonly used. The number of circuits the tower is to carry, the number of earth- Wires, right of way, etc., also affect its configuration. Tn alll along the transmission line route, depending upon the profile along, the centre of the transmission line, the type of such towers fall into three or four categories such as tangent, angle and dead-end types. Each type fulfils slightly altered functional requirements, with some modifications which simplifies the problem of working out so many tower outline diagrams each Suitable at’ a little varying conditions. The various factors in arriving at suitable configurations for towers for 66 kV to 400 KV transmission lines are discussed below. 22 Constituents of an Outline Diagram The tower outline diagram comprises ; (a) Tower height considered from grousid level, (8) Length of the cross-arms, and phase spac- ings, (©) Tower widths at (#) base and (ji) top hamper, and (d)_ Bracing pattern adopted. The various constituents are shown in Figure 2.1. Both electrical and mechanical considerations deter ‘mine these dimensions. ‘TOWER CONFIGURATION _ Tower Height . The height of @ tower (/#) in level country comprises the permissible ground clearance of conductors require” in accordance with the overhead line regulations. (hi), ‘maximum sag for the lowermost conductors (Ay), vert spacing between conductors including maximu. insulator siring length (ly), and height of the ground- ‘ire peak portion (hy. " Each ‘tem is determined « follows. MiuiMuM Grounp ‘CLEARANCE Power conductors, slong the entire route of. the transmission fine, should maintain requisite clearance to ground over open country, national highways, impor- ant roads, clectrfied and unelectrified railway track. navigable ‘and non-navigable rivers, telecommunicas tion ‘and power lines, etc, as laid down in the. varior National Standards issued by the respective Authorities. Clause No. 77 of the Indian Electricity Rules-195¢ incorporating the latest amendment) stipulates . the following clearances above ground of the lowest poir= of the conductor, For extra high voltage fines, this clause stipulates that the clearance above ground’ shall not be Jess than $.1 a plus 0.3 m (17 ft plus 1. ft). fo. every 33,000 volts or part thefeof by which the voltage of the line ‘exceeds 33,000 volts. The. permissib! minimum ground clearances for different voltages, therefore, work out as follows * 132 kV—6,100 mm 220 KV—7,015 mm 400 KV—8,840 mm The above minimum ground clearances are applica ble for transmission lines running in the open country. ‘The minimum clearance of conductors ovet rivers is specified as 3,050 mm over maximum fiood level for rivers which are not navigable. | For navigable rivers, clearances are fixed in relation to the tallest mast. in consultation with the concemed navigating authorities In case, the power line crosses over a telephone line, the minimum clearances between the: conductors oP the power line and telecommunication wires are. spe fied as follows:‘TOWER CONFIGURATIONo 66 132 kV—2,745 mm 220 KV—3,050 mm 400 kV—4,880 mm Bevween power lines up to 220 kV crossing over another power line of any other voltage up to 220 kV the clearances shall not be less than 4,550 mm ; between 132 KV the clearance is 2,750 mm and for 66" kV. line the figure is 2,440 mm. For 400 KV, the clearance may be assumed a5 6,000 mm tentatively. : ‘The minimum height above rail level of the lowest portion of any conductor under conditions of maxi- num sag are as follows in accordance with the Regula- tions for Electrical Crossings of Railway Tracks, 1963 : ( For Unsvecrririep TRACKS on TRACKS MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS taken into consideration in fixing the overall height of the steel structures, In snow regions, the maximum sag may occur even at 0°C with conductors loaded with ice in still wind. conditions. While working: 01 tension in arriving at the maximum sag, the folk stipelations laid down, in LE. Rules (1956) are satisfied : ng be () The minim factor of safety for condustars shall be 2 based on their ultimate , strength. x external load shall not exceed the: following percentages of the ‘ultimate teneile. raph es the conductor. : Initial unloaded tension. ELECTRIFIED ON 1500 voLTs D.C. ., Final unloaded tension: sae 25 ber Broad Gauge Meterand Narrow _‘In-accordance with this stipulation, the maximum : Gauge working tension under stringent roudiogoonatons shall Wa on = not exceed 50 percent of the ultimate tensile ¥ Inside Quiside Inside” Outtide... conductor: Sag-Tension computations. made, for: final iinet imia"> limite” - stringing of the conductors,. therefore, 3 “ uy nc) (ium), Gum)“ that factor of safety of 2 and 4 are: ‘maximum loading condition an a 103007900 3100 §700- condition, respectively. BOLy 138) Eo aon oo 7 - done 13jg00 10200, 12800 104000. Standard Sag-Teusion parabolic equation consider ing the combined effect of elasticity and temperature is iven as: eS ~ xs (if) Tracus ELecrnirie on 25 KV A.C. Y F e : — flfo@- For Broad, Meter and Narrow. Gauees fe = wheres!) 28s : Inside Oui ame eee pinion f = Working tensile sttess of conductor in ky (mom) |<, K=Constant computed from initial te Ky, kv 20kV ‘ooLV? “Tentatively assumed. No conductor of an extra high voltage overhead line crossing a tramway or trolley bus using trolley wires should have a clearance less than 3,050 mm above the trolley line. Maximus Sac oF Lowexmost CONDUCTOR “The size and type of conductor, wind and climatic * conditions, of the region and span length determine the ‘conductor sag and tensions, Span length is fixed from + esonomic considerations, The piaximum ang for cone The_maximum ang for eos Guctor-span occurs at the maximum temperature and | Sill, wind condigjbqs; . This _maximim Yalue o so iene oN ee sion wind pressing te-Change in tempera in Tata ‘temperature = fexSpan length in metres where, te ‘4=Cross-sectional area of conductor in em? q=Loading factor. 2cuar. 2 “TOWER CONFIGURATION “where, is hae W-=Weight of conductor in- kg/m length of. con: oe ductor P=Wind oad on conductor in kg/m length of ‘conductor. If suffix ‘1° corresponds to temperature condition at minimum temperature with maximum wind, ‘'2' to Everyday temperature with still wind condition, and ‘3 fo maximum temperature in still wind condition, the ‘Sbove Sag-Tension formulae are written as follows = (@), Evéryday temperature 32°C in_ still wind (Assumed as starting initial condition—Suffix 2) i [Ae bey = SEA Assume eal) E =2 and initial temperature 4,=32°C "Bate, Ultimate strength of conductor (ke) 4X cross-sectional area in em*(4) fee Substituting the above vilues in the equation and solving : A : coh- (b) Minimum temperature with full wind (Suffix 1). au: —{x- sua} ]=zat san) Value of K computed from (c) is substititted in (2) and the cubic equation is solved for f,—the maximum ‘tensile stress of the conductor. If Ty is*the maximum tension at the minimum temperature with full wind Tf Fos, =1 (Ultimate strength) T, Factor of safety is to be equal for greater than 2.” (© Maximum temperature and still wind (6uffix 3). a Lan fee teiah ee Vale of K computed from (a) and gud art bubs 28 stituted in GY tion SURTaf the ondustor Goder naximuty sag coxdions, /slectrical Having. determined the conductor tensile: ‘under maximum temperature in still wind. = ‘Typical’ Sag-Tension: calculations” are given. im = Appendix ‘A= Except in snowy zones, the Sag-Tension computa tions (for SCA conductor) may be’ started, from. the conditions of. everybody temperature (32°C). in still wind. with a factor’ of safety of 4 assuming this to be an initial condition;- Computations show that: corres | ponding factor of safety under worst loading. condition at 32°C with full wind pressure or minimum. tempera- ture with two-third full wind pressure is. always more. than 2. Maximum sag i determined from the working stress computed under maximum temperature. nd still wind conditions after the above two stipulations are... > For. lines running in’ snowy zones, the maximum tension occurs under snow conditions,” The’ ‘maximum sag may perhaps occur at @°C with’ conduc- tors loaded under snow. For SCA conductors’ with higher aluminium contents normally used: for: 220 KV: and 400 kV Tines, an increased sag of: ubout-2 percent to 4 percent of tho maximuin sag values is allowed to account for conductor creepage and the likely s differential arising due to the assumption of parabolic shape of the conductor span instead of catenary: : Heron ano’ Location or’ Grounb wii Earthwire provides protection against direct’ stroke of Jightaing, It intercepts. the direct lightning strokes and conducts the charge to the nearest ground: connec- tions. The. location of. the’ groundwire/groundwires determines’ the heigh ciwire. peak. ‘The height and Ic be such that the d Outetmast’ condustorsh les" of appre ‘mately 20 tg 30 degsces withthe" vertical. is called the shield angle. The smaller the angle, - better the shielding provided: The practiée is to specify.) 30 degrees for 66 KV and 132 kV lines and 25 or’ even 30_tegrecs for 220° kV. lines... A’ lower’ angle’ of 20- degrees is suggested for 400 KV. lines::: The’ protective value’ against’ direct” strokes: tothe phase conductors. approaches 100 percent if the’ protective angle: is less: than 20 degrees, but it may not, be advisable’ to. keep smaller « angles’ from: economic. considerations. - The shield angle is to be: taken’ from’ out Su the bundle in the case of 400 kV lines. The posit the conductors: with! reference’ to’ which, grc sition is: determined is: fixed” depending” length of the insulator strings to which the: are” attached; theip.” swings aad. the: ¢ as “On extra high voltage lines ‘spacings, the use of two earthwires adequate protection, : Two epcthwiSec eas Coors of pone entra groan Condusior Condition © Tension Aes (0 Minimum temperature + snaximum wind es 3,882 (a) Minimum temperature, tll wind 7 3,050 1,380 (i) Everyday temperature, sill vind a 2282 Ls 5,100 f (Gv) Maximum temperature, still wind 3 of 1,938 10305 5,30") ig Loaded inclined sag. s*Vertcal sag. in that they have a lower surge impedance and the coupling effect with the conductors is increased. In case of two earthwires, the protective zone -between ‘two earthwires forms a semi-circle with the line con- necting two earthwires forming the base diameter. Therefore, the height of the middle conductor below. the earthwire plane should be more than half the space ing between the two earthwires. Having fixed the angle of shield, the location of the groundwire is fixed. and height of groundwire peak portion is determined. Minimum Mid-Span Clearances: In case of direct lightning stroke on the mid-span of. ‘overhead earthwires, the potential. of the. mid-span. is. built up during the duration of propagation of surge current, and the mid-span flashover may occur. from: Broundwite to conductor. before the current: is dis- charged through the tower. The mid-span_cleatance between the earthwires and conductors isy therefore, _ Kept_more than the clearance at the tower. The, usual Practice inthis regard i to mainian the +4 of ground- Wire at least 1@ percent less than that of the power conductor under all temperature conditions in still wind’ ~ at the normal spans so as to give a mid-span separation greater than that at the supports. It is, however, ensured that under minimum temperature. and maximum wind conditions, the sag of the. ground- wire does not exceed the sag of power conductor: It is _ under the minimum temperature condition that the problem of coordination of conductor and_groundwire, sags generally arise whereas sufficient sag differen is available at maximum or other. temperature condi Al + 7/3 mm se, (183.398) and” groundwire mm, 110 kg/mm quality (IS; 2141), In the case of. stroke to. mid-span en one of the, ‘carthwires when two, earthwires: are used,” it is pre ferable, ifthe stricken. earthwire’ flashes. over, to! the second’ groundwire: instead of to the conductor.;.For - this, it is necessary that the spacing between. the two earthwires is less than the mid:span clearances between earthwire and conductor. Mid-span clearances. vary with ‘the span lengths. Increased: spans increase the mid-span clearances. he Ose Seat ‘The design spans normally adopted are 250. m. for 66 KV, 305: to. 335! m for 132 kV, 350 m for 220 kV: and 350—400 m for 400 kV. lines, - The. following. are <~ the vertical clearances generally permitted at the middle. of the span betweea the earthwire and the conductors "Vertical el oo he mal 500 tions. Iris the practice therefore fo asuine’ the’ same temperate and win presre condone Tor Working! “out the. for the and wir ‘ower conductor atone maim apertars of ie. groundwire ‘aived ti ‘Gevdiona ees for power condicior and: aroun Powire. The - power--conductor is . ‘Panther’. 30/3 mm. iN 5 These figures are aed ‘on the KA/micro-second of Iiphtn bility of flashover of 3 pet 400 ohms. fnuae. 2 Length of tension string up to the jumper terminal. Depth of jumper D is selected in such manner that maximum specified clearance is maintained ‘tall points along the jumper profile. This value is formally 18 percent more than the specified “maximum clearance of conductor to earthed steel that is, D= 1.10 x,, ‘The. various dimensions explained above are shown in Figure 2.2 (c, d & e). The length of eross-arm for tension towers equals si. sin $ St. Sin $ + D. Sin Ob xy+ BEC where, $ = Angle of line deviation: ‘ 4 = Jumper swing and x, is the corresponding clearance. + D.Sin 6,4x4B+C or, = Maximum jumper swing and x is the corresponding clearance, Pe 2 __ The practice is also to specify one angle of defiec- tion for the jumper and, the corresponding electrical clearance. : The greater of the two values. gives the length of cross-arm considered from the point of attachment (7) of conductor to centre of gravity of main leg members. The horizontal spacing between conductors obtaina- ble as above are adequate so as not to cause any arc- over between them at the mid-span due to out of step swinging of conductors, if any, under dynamic condi- tions. In case of lines ‘running through snow . bound areas, these spacings are checked from the considera- tion of galloping of conductors also, under specific conditions of snow and wind. In case of barrel type of towers where the conductors are hung one below the other in vertical plane, necessary off-setting to the extent ‘of 600 mm between conductors is generally provided in ‘order to avoid any possibility of conductors coming closer or in contact with each other under. conditions of non-uniform shedding of ice from them and causing, flashover. 3 Vertical Spacing between 1wo Conductors or 1we. Adja~ cent Cross-arms ~~, SUSPENSION Towns For determining the vertical spacing between: two cross-arms, the approximate value. of the angle between the lower main members and the upper inclined ‘members of the cross-arm is assumed, This also’ deter- mines the heights of panels between two cross-arms. in = the main tower body, |For EHV. lines, i.e; 220. kV and 400 kV lines, the angle between lower main member and the upper inclined member. ofthe ‘cross- ‘arm generally lies between 20° to 25° (20° bei minimum preferable angle between any 1 |i MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS common to a joint of trussed frame in order to. avoid any uncertainty of the amount of stress distribution between two closely spaced members) and that for 66 KV and 132 KV lines this angle lies between 20° to 30°. The distance between the conductor and the inclined member of the lower cross-arm is minimum when the Jine drawn from the conductor in its deflected position to the inlined anember is perpendicular. . This. pet- pendicular makes an angle with vertical, the angle (a) equals the angle between the inclined ‘member and lower main member of the cross-arms. In case angle 2 (between lower main member and inclined member) is less than @, the insulator string should deflect by, an angle 2 in order to have minimum vertical spacing ‘between two cross-arms. Allowance is made for flange width of plan redundants connected to the bottom of the lower main menibers of the eross-arm and at-the top of ie members and also for the centre of gravity of lower main members and top inclined members of arm while computing vertical spacings. The minimum vertical spacing between two crossarms equals H': 6 +h where, H-= Height of hunger (xy84+-0)-8. Cos b or (4 +B+0)—S. Cos higher may be adopted. be(S+%tB+C) Cos a ‘h=(a-+offset between two cross-arms) tan & where, ab tine or a=(S+3;+B+C) Sin a In case, 2 is greater than 8, and less than 6 Nertical spacing=H+b-+h where, b= S Cos 6, +(x, +B4+C) Cos « : (‘S+x+B+C) Cos % whichever value is sreater may be adopted. ha (a-offset) tan & ; where, a=S Sin +(x4+B-+C) Sin or = (St%,+B+C) Sina whichever value is or “The value of ‘a’ should correspond to greater value of 6. In suspension tower, angle thant: the. second "alte required to be worked out: not generally greater ive is, therefore, not Axoie Townns Angle between eross-arm lower main member and upper inclined member is always more than 0. If angle a is less than @ and more than 6—Figure, 2.2(c) vertical spacing=Y¥-Fb-+h where, Y= Depth of jumper terminal point below cross- arm level {B b= D Cos (x, +B+C) Cosa or =(D+%y+B+C) Cos a, whichever is ‘greater, © b= (atS1Sin $+ oft) tan « Where, a= D Sin0,+(x,+B-+C) Sin « or =(D+%,+B+C) Sina ‘The value of ‘a’ should correspond to greater, value of *b", If angle « is greitet than 8, Figure 2.3 (u) then b= D Cos 0,+(x,-+B+G) Cos « or =D Cos +(x,+8+6) Cos «, whichever is greater +81 Sin $4 offset) tin a =D Sin ® + (%+B+C) Sin « or =D Sin og + (¥4+B+C) Sin a [The value of ‘a should correspond to. greater value of The spacings are determined both corresponding to single suspension/double suspension string and. single) double tension string. It is preferable t0 make an allowance for additional distance of 50 mm while determining the final spacings to account for any slight deviations from the values of B and C assumed above. The spacings can also be determined graphically besides. the analytical method explained. above. In the graphi- il method the swings. and clearances are actually drawn on the paper for determining the vertical and horizontal spacings. 2.4 Tower Widths at Base and Tep Hamper Spacing, between the, tower footings, that, is, the baie width at the concrete level (or at’ the foot: of, bottom panel) is the distance from the cenire of gravity of one corner leg to the centre of gravity of the adja- cent cornet leg angle. This width depends” upon the magnitude of the physical loads imposed upon: the towers, calculated from the size, type of the conductors and wind loads, and also depends upon the heights of application of external loads from ground level. Towers with larger base width result in low footing costs und lighter main leg members at the expense of longer bracing members. There is a particular base width which gives the best compromise and for which total cost of the tower and foundations is minimum, Through ex ience expanded ovet a number of years, certain empiri cal relations have. also been developed which are good fuide in determining the base widths. ‘The relation etween total height of tower up to the lower cross- arm and base width is generally between 2.4 and 4. The ratio of base width to height which is the height of the inter-section of the slope of the legs from ground varies between 1:3 for, single. circuit and 1:4 for double circuit towers us por an American practice." AS Pet anoiher American practice, the slope of leg members+ four faces of the square tower. uae. 2 jor suspension ste medium angle towers for the portion islow Bottom cross-arm is about Lon 8. This value sidered to be an optimum value as the range Tie <1 on 5to I on 12, Another formula gives the eco- ‘uwssucal base width of lattice tower proportional to the square root of overturning moment that is B=K'¥f where, BeBase width of tower at ground — 21 in sentimeters. Af=The overturning moment, in ke-m. kK constant ‘The value of K lies between 1.38 and 25 and 1.9 good average figure. ‘The determination’ of the correct value of 48 onstant for Suspemsivn and angle towers becaus. of uch 2 wide range suggested, may lead (o differ. ag ‘els With a view to arriving at a simpler empi jonship, ‘ths are tabulated in Table 2.4 for typic: | of ull voltage. classes both single and double cisuits. It is seen that the base width generally varies Between 1/4 to 1/6 of the overall height of the tower up to concrete level the values may be 1/6 for suspen sinn tower, 1/5 for medium angle towers and 1/4 for heavy angle towers. ‘This empirical relationship beiay simpler as compared t0 others stated above is sugges ted in working out the base wi In mediv.n and heavy angle towers for the bracings 16 cairy min. anuin possible loads it is suggested att the base width and the slopes of the leg members may be adjusted ia such a manner that the legs. whicn exwnded may preferably meet at the line: of action of she resultant loads. This reduces the forces in bracings to 2 large extent and a stronger and more stable tower emerges. Width at Top Hamper (Table 2.4) Top hamper widdh is the wideh of the tower’ at the level of the lower cross-arm in the case of barrel type. of towers (in doable circuit svwvers it may be. at the middle cross-arm level) and waist ine in case of towers with horizontal configuration of conductors, The width of top hamper is mainly decided by torsion loading. ‘The torsional stresses “are evenly distributed on the The top hamper width is also decided in a tanner that- the angle between Jower main member and the tie member of the same cross-arm is not less than 20° in Tine with the general structural engineering practices as an angle less than 26" muy introduce bending stresses in the members. The top hamper width is generally found to be about 1,3 of the base width for tangent and light angle towers aid about 13.5 of the base, width for, medium and heavy angle towers, For horizontal configurations, the ar Sealer ling However foundete vary Troon 28 of the base width TOWER CONFIGURATION 25 Type of Bracing Patterus Several bracing patterns are adopted few of these shown in Figure 2.3 are ¢ Single Web System—Figures 2.3 (a) and 2 It comprises either diagonals and struts (@)] oF all diagonals [Figure 2.3 (6)).CIn spouse aud strut system, struts are designed in compression. While diagonals in tension, whereas in a system with all diagonals the members are designed both for tension and compressive load to permit reversal of the applied external shear.) This. system is particularly used for narrow base “towers,” in cross-arm girders, and for portal type of towers: Except for 66 KV. single circuit line towers, single web system has litte application for wide base NV and EHV towers. It is preferable to keep the four faces identical in, cave of CS AY single circuit tower using single web system as it resulls sa lighter leg mesuber size: Double Web or Warren System —Figure 2.3 (c) This system is made v\».:th diagonal eross-bracings, Shear is equally distributed between the two diagonals, fone in compression and other in tension.( Both diagonals ate designed for tension and comptessive loads in order to permit reversal of estermally “applied shears) The diagonal braces are connected at their cross Points, The tension diagonal gives an effective suppott to the compression diagonal at the poiat of Usit cos.aections, and reduces the unsupported fengih of brasinys whicli results in tighter sizes of bracing members, ‘This syotein is used for both Large and smail towers and can be economically adopted throughout the shaft and pedestal of suspension and smail angle towers, and also in wide base laige towers except in lower one oriwo panels, where diamond or portal system of bracing is more suitable. These bracings result in better distribution of loads in ings and footings. Pratt System ~ Figure 2.3 (d) (shear is carried entisely by one of the diagonal 6 mbers under tension, the other member is assumed be redundant car’ jing no. stress. Struts, Le, Ubrizontal members in ‘compression are necessary at every panel level to provide contiauity to the bracing system.) Advantage of this system is that the sizes of diagonal members would be small because these are designed for high slenderness ratioin order to make them act in tension. This type of bracings result in Jarger deflection of tower under heavy loadings, be-ause the tension members are smaller in cross-section (uaa. compression members ould be for. similar. loading. If ‘such a. tower is overloaded, the inactive diagonal will fail in compression duie to farge deflection in the panel, although the active tension member can very well take the tension load’, THIS system of beasing imparts torsional stresses in leg members of the square based tower and ulso result in Wrequal sheers. at" the top ofMANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS faV'Single web system (b) (to: Moditied syarem (Hghter toward (a) Pratt system (A: Side ntextension WitModitied system (heavier tower) (9X: Diomond bracing system FIGURE 2.3 (wi): Varlous types of bracing system,TOWER CONFIGURATION TABLE 24 qT Base width, top hamper widih and height for typical 66/132/220/400 kV standard “pe of Tower Widihe at ‘Total Base width Vertical —— —“itiop,. heght ateongrete cing Concicie, Top Hamper hamper) ‘above level Total beoneen fea width st Ground height Condsto fore’ tbove fence (mm) (um) (om) soe (mm) (ram) 1 4 5 6 7 3 ° 15 6641": Dunle Cincit Ao) 3075 1,000 13808 19,00 1613170 4.70 . B i230") 4.400 1,075 14.10 18,895 14.3, 2,060 4,880 Ciau-00") 4500 ise 1881 20,090 1442440" 6000 ot. vii) 6 AV: Sinatle Circuit A0-2') 1695 1 122015910 19S 1080 4,040 30°) 2.590 sis 1280 Isas 16 100 4270 © 3060" 3050122506240 153, m0" = 4.80 4: 121: Double Circuit [4,050 1,250, 13.24 26,230 16.4 3,965 7,020 SAO SHO 18S | 2684s 1483 3.9 S800 1068 ERBT Dh 1SAb 3087320 3000") ED 6a00 gt 1438 470840 fv SPV Single Creuit At: 3900 haw 130 23,0 ko 2.40 \Bi0- 15%) 42 1400130, 22,060 132 6290 custo) 48% 1,00 30,085 147 7150 30°00", DED 63s 2.000 30 24,060 14 820 1) 22040": Double Chet AL? 7000 226010931680 3300" 9.300, B 8500. 2.500. 135631300 5200 10;100 - c 10,344 3,000 1345 29,900 5.200 9,700 (vy 20KY = Single Circuit A Pe 163 5200500 8 5300 1,700 att 28,080 iové 5.250. 10.500 c 3000 2.000.150 31,680 14326700” 12,600 (ot) 20 KY: Single Cirene: Hertontalconigartion A 4000 260s 7400 2 4900 330s 83300 c 580036006 8.800 ci) 409 69: Single Chen At) 2.000 16a 790023760 Baas, 2,000 14947400 12.640 2.200 1478 7800 14,900, 2400 Mak h390teao014 : MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS four stubs for the design of foundation, Portal System (Shear Divided 50 : 50 between Diagonals K Systen)— Figures 2.3 (e) and (f) * The diagonals are designed for both tension and compressions Itis stiffer than the Pratt system, and has the advantage that the horizontal struts are supported at mid-length by the diagonals and the same 4are correspondingly smaller than that in Pratt system. Used for approximately the same size panels as Pratt braving, portals are used in conjunction with Warren system of bracings. Used when it is desirable to provide clearunce between the bottom legs of a tower, Ithas been found advantageous to use the Portal system for bottom panels, extensions, "and heavy river crossing lowers when rigidity is a prime consi- deration. If side-hill or corner extensions are antici- pated, the portal panel is particularly attractive due to its versatility of application—Figure 2.3( f), Diamond Bracing System—Figure 2.3 (g) Somewhat similar to the Warren system, this bra- cing arrangement can also be derived from the Portal system by inverting every second panel: As for each of these systems, all diagonals are designed for tension ind compression and share the web shear. Applicable to panels of approximately the same size as the Pratt and Portal systems, this arrangement has the advantage that the struts carry no. primary loads and are designed as redundant supports. Modified System of Bracings—Figures 2.3 (i) and 2.3 (i) In EHY towers where the torsional loads are of high magnitude, the top hamper width is kept large to resist the torsional loads. Standard Warren. System, if used, give longer unsupported lengths of legs and bracings which increases the weight of tower dispro- portionately. For such towers modified system of bracings used is shown in Figures 2.3 (i) and 2.3 (i). The advantage of this system is that the unsupported lengths of Jeg members and bracings ure reduced substantially thereby incréasing their strength and re- ducing the member sizes, Although there is an increase in the number of bolts, fabrication and erection cost "yet the above system gives overall reduction in weight and cost of steel The bracings on the transverse and longitudinal Faces may be stagyered as slight reduction in tower weight is. achieved by staggering: the’ bracings. The system is preferable only for suspension and medium angle towers. In heavy angle and dead end towers, bracings on transverse and longitudinal faces may not, however, be staggered in order to have more rigidity, 2.6 Conclusions While determining the tower height, the sags of the power conductors and ground wires may be co-ordina ted in such a manner that the sag of. the groundwire is at least 10 percent less than that of the power con- ductor under all temperature conditions instill wind at the normal spans. Minimum ground clearances may be. ensured. ‘The mid-span vertical clearances as specified may be adopted with appropriate angle of shield. The length of cross-arms and conductor spacings may be determined as explained in the paper. ‘The spacings and length of eross-arms may cotrespond to both single and double suspension/tension strings. The additional allowance of 50 mm may be made for any. unforeseen projection of the earthed metal part. ‘The tower base width may be kept about jth to 1 Uoth of the overall height of the tower, that is, 1/6th for suspension towers, 1/5th for medium angle towers and ith for heavy angle towers. The top hamper width may be kept as about I/3rd of the base width for tangent and light angle towers and about 1/3.5 of the ‘base width for medium and heavy angle towers. For horizontal configurations, the width at the waist-line is, however, found to vary from 1/1.5 to 1/2.5 of the base width. Further the base width and the slopes of the leg members may be adjusted in such a manner that the legs when extended may preferably meet at the line * of action of the resultant loads. The double Warren system of bracings may be adopted for barrel type suspension towers while this system of bracings with Portal system at the one or ‘two lowest panels may be adopted for angle towers, ‘Two or three possible base and top hamper widths and different panel lengths may be worked out and the alternative which results in the lowest final structural ‘weight together with the blending bracing pattern may finally be selected. The leg sections may be developed to their full optimum capacity as it makes up approxi- mately one-third to one-half of the total weight of the structure,chap. 2 ‘TOWER CONFIGURATION 2 ‘ APPENDIX A. TA “Sample Sag-Teasion Calculations” Dara spaenaucior Mind pene onda Span = im on full project $ . Marea af IC Conduetor size Cv, By. 260 sq mi ; Code Zebra ; ‘A154j0:318 min {Steel 7/0318 mn Diametse 2.862 nim ‘Aven 4828 cout. sa S40 timate strength 13316 Bay . Wjmetee 4623 ke We 163 ‘Temperature range 0° 32° 65°C . Wing toadjmetre “Pp = 0.4806 sting actor)? = ‘at 1208 ‘Load factor in stl air—ao toe condition “1 Modulus of elasticity hj = 686 x 108 Coof, of tinea expunsioa/?C = 1.938 x 10-4 “A een 498 ae FREE | OSH se 4 mF : Says 'G? = 03957 x 10 (aah wig HP“ 850602 108 Staring Coniion . FOS, 2 41, » 38°C ~ Ni Wind : a =3329 ke “ry 9 39 sie os9 58 “eg = 14273 Fa gia fa SNOT “SAG: 146m Sg und‘Teosion at 05°C: No Wiad ie ‘ Temperature change ty ~ 65 ~ 32 : . m aae Eure C600 19 | 105233 3004 Jef hy ken Jue or ni [aC ars ameg ] 20395 or 2 [f+ stort ]> eon : se tes — saa06 x 4828 sry = 280s ke) 2) anbi6ans j FOS = 473 — Faq, OS x 03862 x 1 ay as sb ‘BAO = OB ewe Sagan Tentom ot ty» OPC and 2rd Full Wind ‘aa! = 143 and gg = 12798 : “Temperature change fa — fy = 0~ 32 em : Ext = 6896 5 108 51935 % 1 x (=) 32 “aan gl A- weit [ce nton ] = ese x me yame 1273 + aarp] = xMANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LNB TOWERS APPENDIX A (Consd.) TeX A= 903.69 x 4, 28 “Ty = 4s be : 13316136, FOS. = 305 Bie ‘SAG = 644m Sag and Tension at t3 x “Gy! = 1.277 and “gs” = 1.6296, Temperature change : #[4-Cwam ]~0 x 1o096 or fe [fan] 020s wes nese : ow re [eta] perature conditions assumed to be siringens. number of other assumptions made are, ba: fon the test results of model towers and . formance of transmission lines. erected. in“ past. There may not be trade for the tc being designed, ‘Stresses introduced by end fixation, lack symmetry of members, eccentricity of cox tions, faulty fabrication, erection and foot settlement, (6) ‘As such, the design of structure must, be prac rather than'exact, 50 that it is done asa producti assignment., - _ B Basically the stress analysis of any tower 2 applica fon oF Re laws Of teatlss- Av-towes ics tp: frame rather than™a~coplaner structure, the soly"! required becomes Complicated if all external loads . simulltneously and tha nantyel-cassled ov at Toud system, ln ofder to simplify the ant”cane. 3 certain basic assumptions are made, which are detailed out below : (@) All members of a tower frame work are pin- connected in such a manner that the members earry axial loads only. (®). The bolts slippages throughout the structure are such, to allow the use of the same modulus of, elasticity for the entire structure, thus peri ting the use of the principle of super position for stress analysis. (©). Shear is distributed equally between the. two members of a double web system, ie,, Warren system, 2 (d) Shear is carried by the memb:t under tension in a double web system with members designed for tension only, ie.. Pratt system. (©) Twist shears applied at cross-arm level are résisted by all the four tower faces in direct, proportion to the distance from the ‘centre of the tower to the tower face. Cross frames at levels other than those at which external loads are applied are redundant and serve only to facilitate ervetion, w (g) Any face of the tower subjected to external loads lies in the same plane, so far as the analysis of the particular face is concerned. ‘The transverse loads are shared by the mem- bers on the transverse faces of the tower equally. Similarly, the longitudinal loads are shared equally by the two longitudinal faces. (hy) (i) Vertical loads and dead weight of the struc- ture is shared equally by the four legs, except the eross-arm panel web members in ‘certain cases. () The torsional loads are resisted by all the four {aces in proportion tovhe lever arm of each face, tion of Loads 3.4 Point of Appli Transverse Load This load acts along the longitudinal axis of the cross-arms. It is assumed that two faces parallel to the Tongitudinal axis of the cross-arms equally share the: ‘transverse load. The analysis of transverse load is most conveniently carried out by considering the reactions at ‘the point of attachment of the eross-arm to the tower lens [ANALYSIS OF STRESSES AND PROPORTIONING OF MEMBER SIZES AND JOINTS 9 Longitudinal Load The longitudinal load acts horizontally, along of line, and it is assumed that ‘of the tower (faces along 2 the linc) equally share this load. Similar, to the transverse loads, direct and torsional loads are assumed to act at the point of attachment of the eross-arm to the tower legs, and analysis is. carried out in a similar manner, as in the case of transverse loads for transverse faces Torsional Load Longitudinal loads applied at the end of the cross-arms,. besides imposing direct loads which are shared by the two: longitudinal faces of the tower, also induce torsics.al loads, ‘These are shared by all the four faces of the tower. ‘The torsional loads, are resisted by all the four faces in proportion to the lever arm of each face, as such in the case of a square based tower, all four faces will carry-equal shears. AS all four faces of a tower are subjected to twist shears, ech leg member acts in conjunction with two adjacent system of bracings. In the Warren system of bracingsy only very little load is taken by the leg members, in the case of square section tower, However, in the case of Pratt or Staggered system of bracings and rectangular bused towers the legs are ako loaded by torsional loads. Vertical and Eccenirte Vertical Loads The vertical loads are applied at the point of con ductor supports, Vertical eccentric loads act in the case of a single circuit tower, delta or right angle formation, but in the case of double circuit towers in normal con ditions, there are no eccentric vertical loads, and they occur only under brokenwire conditions or unequal loading of the two circuits under ice conditions. Vertical and eccentric vertical loads induce forces in the web members of crosvarm panels, however, it ihag been found that eccentric vertical loads cause insignificaot load in the web members and their ana lysis is not warranted in most of the towers and is generally neglected. However, above the bend line the oad in the web members of tke transverse faces due to. Vertical loads is quite significant as compared. to the loads induced into these bracings of the transverse face due to other loads, e.g., transverse and torsional loads and, therefore, must be taken into account, Dead Weight of Structure and Overload Allowed. ‘The dead weight of the structure and the overload allowed for erection or maintenance usually constitute‘small percentage of the total load-on the tower, tis assumed to act on the main legs. Based on the above assumption the weight of the structure. above the sec- tion under consideration is considered for analysis. ion Line 3S Analysis of Stresses in the ‘Transmi Tower Members The stresses in the tower members are computed by graphical method. unalytical method or with the aid of digital computer. Graphical stress analysis of tower is easier than analytical method, but the accuracy of the calculated Stresses by graphical method depends upon the accuracy Of stress diagram drawn and measurement of stres- Ses made on proportionate scale, All he assumptions which are made in the stress analysis of the tower by Eraphical method are also made while making analy- teal stress analysis, The calculation of stresses in_leg members with staggefed bracings on transverse and “Tongitudinal Tace are slightly more involved. Digitial computer aids the designers to uy different tower configurations 10. arrive at an economical design. For analysing the loads in the various. members ‘of the tower, various organisations have developed computer programmes suitable for use with the parti- Solar computer, available with them. Some computer programmes have. been. evolved. which consi Poner as a statically indeterminate space “Toad analysis of the siructure fs carried Comparison of stress analysis by_ graphical ange AG? pater method Tvenl iat tough sea a eet the practical suctral deg does nol Mike" naijs by computer gives more insight ' regardi ing (he stress distribution: ‘int various members-due to-varibus external loads." Whereas, in rar ee Heal and analytical metbods issue ‘med that the transverse faces take care of transverse loads and members of longitudinal faces carry stresses due to Jongitudinal loads only, the stress analysis by Computer shows the stress distribution in the members ‘of ail the four faces of the tower due to any type of cee coe oplied tothe structure. Silay, wile ere oP by graphical and analytical method, Sone Se Gay’ clelted inthe: members at be Be Soe applied loud and below it, he computer analysis gives the stresses even in the ‘members above the level of the external applied load. Fete aoe tea analyse we asrume thatthe main ‘members carry the transverse and longitudinal loads: ‘and a portion of vertical load, whereas the top inclined aa a ror the verieal Toads, but the compute analysis indicates the contribution of top members ‘even for transverse and longitudinal loads. Computer vies mare reaiie Ei analyser ae Inc ean be lcd as an efeive {ool 10 arrive at the most economical design of tower Smucepaweme MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS _sappendices D, E aud F give the manner of tabula tion of stresses in'tower legs, bracings and design of the same members by graphical method, with the aid ‘of computer and by analytical methods. 3.6 Permissible Stresses ‘Stress in Compression : 1s: 802 (Part 1)-1973 lays down the permissible slenderness ratio, and appropriate length. to be taken. for working out the same. It also specifies the Strut’ formulae for ‘working out. the permissible compressive stresses. The formulae for calculating the working stresses in various members are given in Appendix F. ‘The stress analysis of a typical tower with the help of these formulae is also. tabulated at the end of this appendix. Stress in Tension stress in a member, . multi- plied by the appropriate factor of safety’ should hot. exceed 2,600 kgf/cm. The — slenderness ratio of member carrying axial tension should not exceed 375. ‘The net effective area of angle section in” tension to workout the permissible tensile load in a member shall be taken as under = ‘The estimated tensi (A Single angle in tension connected on one flange only AtBK ‘A = Net sectional area of the, connected flange B = Area of the outstanding flange Thickness of the member 1 T+ 0.35 BA k air of angles back to back ; connected on one ange of each angle to the same side of gusset A+BK where, A = Net sectional area of the connected flange B = Area of the outstanding flange 1 2 BA Gi) Ke TF ‘The back to back angles are to be connected or stitched together throughout their entire length in accor dance with the requirements of IS : 800-1969 (Code of Practices for Use of Structural Steel in General Build- ing Construction).cur. 3 Shress ia Bolts : mnated stresses in bows multiplied by ne ‘appropriate factor of safety should not exceed = following values : Permissible Eefem® “ay Shear stress on gross Gross area of the batt ‘area of bolt shall” be taken ay Ge inal area of the Nate of Suess Remarks b) Bearing ress on © 4440——“Bolt area shall be ta! 4 gross diameter of asd Xf were, tote = Diameter ofben thianer tember. ‘el Axial tension stress 1,980 Thenet area of a be. Gh the root area of in tension shall be take Sear bolt atthe area at the ro of the treed. ve bolts used in tower structures are generally of diameter. Recently bolt size of 12 mm diameter > been recomre:nded to be included in the ~ ¢ 302-1973. With this bolt size, use of augle sections. Feving leg width of 40 mm wouid also be permitted. sus sizes of bolts used in one structure should, ho ever, be kept minimum. The length of the bolt should Ue such tat sie thecaded portion docs not lie in the foatie oT Conaeet Uf at bers, 3.7. Selection of Members Huuving catestated the stresses in al! tower for specified set of applied loads, ANALYSIS OF STKESSES AND PROPOKTIONING OF MUMBLX SIZES AND JOINTS. 2 suitable augle section is made. The total toad multiplied by the appropriate factor of safely. Angle section is selected out of a list of available rationalized seotions given in Appendix G, and checked for c= reessive, tensile und bearing stresses with refercace + the allowable unit stresses as stipulated “in 1S 802 (Pact 1)-1973 (Appendix A). The selection of members is’ influenced by their position in relation to other members and the end connection conditions. The leg sections which carry diferent stresses at each panel, may be assigned a different section, but because of the number of splizcs involved, it is usually more economical and convenicat, even though heavier, to use one sectio’ for a number of panels, Similarly, for other members it may te ‘economical to choose'a section of larger flange widts zo se tWo gauge lines, rather than one, eliminating gusset, plates and correspondingly reducing the number of alts required In the selection of structural members, a desigusr is guided by his past experience gained from the be our of toners tested on a test-bed and the perforrsak of structures designed earlier and taken up for pr tion and exected in the field. At some structural members are provided with more safety than dhe calculated one, eg. the horizontal member where ihe slope of the tower changes and the web-members of the panel immediately below th: ok line.’ ‘Tic members only designed for tension are some- times found too light, ard iigher section need to be provided.2 MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS APPENDIX A Eatracts from IS : 802 (Part 1)-1973—Code of Practice for Use of Structural Steel in Overhead ‘Transmission Line Towers—Part I—Loads and Permissible Stresses 3. Wind Pressures 3.1 Wind Pressure Map of fndia—On the basis of measured maximum wind velocities for different pasts of the country including winds of short duration as in squall, the country has been divided into three zones of low, medium and heavy wind pressures. Basic maximum wind pressure map of India and charts showing highest and lowest minimum temperatures in the country are given in Figures 3.1 (a), 3.1 (8) and 3.1 (e), 3.2 Wino Prussune Loans 3.2.1 The wind pressures on towers and conductors shall be as given in Tables 3.1 & 3.2 and shall be assumed ‘as acting horizontally. 3.2.1.1 In the case of towers the wind pressure shall be calculated on 1.5 times the projected area of the ‘members on the wind-ward face. In the case of conductors and groundwires the pressure given in Table 3.2 shall be assumed as acting on the full projected area, TABLE 31 ‘Wind pressures on towersand sappor (Clauses 3.2.1 and 3.2.2) Pressure in kef/m* on towers and supports at a hight in metres of —— ecasiacna Intensity of pressure Zone Up to 30 m above 30-35 35-40 40-45 ‘mean retarding surface Light See Figure 130 135 N37 140 . 3.1 (@) Medium 195 203 206 - 210: Heavy 260 200 214 280. TABLE 32 f ‘Wind pressure on conductors and éroundwires, (Clauses 3.2.1.3.2.2 and. 29-2IC MAXIMUM, WIND PRESSURE MAP OF IND! j INCLUDING WINDS OF | /HORT DURATION AS IN SQU.24 MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS: 3.22 The wind pressure values given in Figure 3.1(a) and Tubles 3.1 & 3.2 are based on maximum wind pressure likely to be experiesiced over different parts of the country, within a height of about 30\m or more ‘above ground level, irrespective of the height of the place above. the sea level. ‘The altitude of the. country aversed may, therefore, be ignored in so far as the maximum wind pressure on towers, supports and condi, e1ors, and groundwires is concerned. 3.2.3 Forthe purpose of computing wind load on bundle conductors (more than one conductor per phase) Mind pressure given in Table 3.2 shall be assumed as acting on full projected area of each conductor ins undle. - 3.24 For the purpose of computation of wind load on insulator strings the effective projected area of the string shall be assumed a5 50 percent of the projected avea of the cylinder with a diameter equal to that of the insulator skirt. The pressure shall be assumed as for tower members. 4. Temperature Variations 41 The temperature range varies for different localities under different diurnal and seasonal conditions. The absolute maximum and minimum temperatures, which wuay be expected in different localities in the country, are indicated on the maps of India (Figure 3.1(@—c)].Thsse may be used for assessing the temperature stresses in Conductors and ground wires. The absolute maximun. temperature values given in Figure 3.1 (6) shall be increased by 17°C to allow for the sum's radiation, he: ting effect of current, etc., in the conductor. 5. Transverse Longitudinal and Veriical Louds 5.1 Transvanse LoaD DUE To WIND ON ConDUCTORS 41D GROUNDWIRES ‘The transverse load due to wind shall be calculatcd on the wind span, Under brokenwire conditions, 50 percent of the normal span and 10 percent of the bro} zn span shall be ussumed as wind span. These loads are in addition to the transverse load due to line deviatio: , wind loads on the tower, etc. NOTE : The wind span is the sum of the two half spans adjacent to the support under consi- deration. 5.2 Loncrtupinat Loaps ‘The unbalanced pull due to broken conductor, in the case of supports with suspension strings, may be assumed as equal to 50 percent of the maximum working tension of the conductor, 5.2.1 For the groundwire broken condition, 100 percent or such percent of the groundwire tension, for which the ground wire clamp is proportioned and whichever is less should be considered for the purpose of design of tower FOOT-NOTE OF FIGURE 3. (a) Sminunct. |* For the purpose of this map, « short durusion wind is that which last oily for a few minutes, generally less than. + Note 2 The relationship between wind pressure and velocity is 2c ence 3 where, > wind pressure pei unit urea on a rectangular surface 5 C ~ shape factor ot * — specific weight of air taken 2s 1.225 kylcmn® under average conditions of tempertivee, humidity und barometric Pressure = velocity of wind in msec : and 4 ~ acceleration due to gravity taken as 981 misec?, , For the purpose of computing wind pressure on fat surface, the,value of C has been assumed as 1.6. ed in Figute 31(a) and Table 3.1 & 3.2 are the maximum eve key to oecurin infase of moutinnoun Set, he alse dened soot thon be seen ace wind esos 1 dopond munteay ons tea see ere, Te asi wind resus in the regpective ateas. under fully exposed cone ssconding (othe local conditions booms theMAP OF INDIA SHOWING HIGHEST MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE ISOPLETHS.¢ BASED ON DATA UP TO 1958 SUPPLIED BY’ INDIA METEOROLOGICAL DEPARTMENT Jeipur > aye ° Gwalior Syenus Hyetobaa® vijoyawoag 40 : ‘ ishakhopatnam If ARABI AW ies cna 7 ‘eiee unan Sorvey of nga mapeie ‘ma Parmaion ov the Surveyor Genero! (Wh Courtesy from 18.13 FIGURE 3,10), .MAP OF INDIA SHOWING LOWEST MINIMUM TEMPERATURE ISOPLETHS © fees DATAUP TO 1958 SUPPLIED | INDIA METEOROLOGICAL DEPARTMENT sy ~ Freie ARABIAN ‘0 | SEA ANoAWAN sed upon Survey of indio mop wih ecmasrn of the Surveyor General (Wk Courtesy from 18.1) FIGURE 31 (©).cuar. 3 avicat, Loaps use Vertical load due te conductors and gre wu of 150 kg may be made for the weight of he case of 400 KV towers. The: ao stud Weight of the structures. NOTE : ‘The weight spun is the hori ductor, on the spans adj. point at which the tangent 1 8.0 Brokenwire Conditions 8.1 The following brokenwire condition may be assum (2) Siugle Circuit Towers Tangent tower (0° ty, 2°) Sinail angle tower (2° to 15°) 5 Medium angle tower (15° t0 30°) Large angle tower (30° to 60°) and dead tower. (8) Double Circuit Towers () Tangent with (0 to 2") tower suspension str (15" to 30°) (4) Large angle (30° to 60°) and de rowers with tension strings. (@) Cross Arms—In all types of towers, th power ©. ductor supports an ground ware supports shill be Jesiuaed for the brokenwite —snditions also. 9.0 Slenderness Ratio ¥.1 Sleaderness ratio for members s! "* ~ computed reproduced below : 9.2.0 Slenderness Ratios for Com; vembers ». 1 Slenae-ne.s ratio for comy Type of members (i) Leg sections or jyint inctabers bolted towers. with tension “ss wgle towers with tension © sags sf connections in borh faces ANALYSIS OF STRESSES AND PROMORTIONING OF MIAMIUK SIZES AND JOINES wire shall be based “on appropti« “neman with tools. ‘This figure may 2 tothe vertical loads due to insulato: al distance between the lowest: points. tty the tower. The lowest point is delined as the «¢ sag curve or to the sag curve produced, is horizontal. in the designs : Any one power conductor broken or one groundwire broken, whichever is more «ringent for a particular ‘member, Any one power conductor broken or one groundwite broken whichever is more stringent for a particular member. Any two of the power conductors broken on the same side and on the sume span or any one of the povet feonductors and any one ground wire broken on ie {same span whichever combination is mete stringent for a particular member. end Three power conductors broken on the same side and on the same span or any two of the power conductors and any one groundwire broken on the: same span, Whichever combination constitutes the. most stringent condition for a particular condition ‘for 3 particular member. in accordance: with clause 10 of is sion viembers shail be determined as follows + Vatue ot ai28 MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS (ii Members with concentric loading at both ends of the unsupported panel with value ot woomnd nctng 0 (iii) Members with concentric loading at one end and normal eccentricities at the other P up to and including 120 soto7s & znd of he spp ‘pent ih ap 2 (iv) Members with normal framing eccentricities at both ends of the ‘unsupported panel . ‘ for values of & up to and including 120 w+os0 (1) Members unrestrained against rotation at both ends of the unsupported panel for value, of -& from 120 to 200 z 7 7 (01) Members partially restrained against rotation et one end of the unsupported panel for values of over 120 up to and includi vg 225 28.640.762 (it) Members partially restrained against rotation :t Eoth ends of the unsupported panel for vae of over 120 up to and incaing 2 ssasoas £ 9.2.2 A single bolt connection shall not be considered + offering restraint against rotation. A multiple-bolt ‘connection properly detailed to minimise eccentricities s1 all be considered to offer partial restraint if connect tion is to a member having adequate flexural strength to resist rotation of the joint. Points of intermediate Supports shall not be considered as offering ‘restraint tc rotation unless they mect the criteria outlined above, In the design of members, the length shall be centre to ces tre intersection at each end of the member, 923 Te tng ees of Eales shal te fan: Leg members and main members of the cross-arm ia compression 150 ‘Members carrying computed stresses 200 5 Redundant members and those carrying nominal stresses 250° 93 Slenderness Ratios for Tension Members 9.3.1 The slenderness iatio-of member carrying axial tension only sluall not exceed 375, 94 Permissible Stresses 9.4.1 ~ Axial Stress in Tension 9.4.1.1 The estimated tensile stresses in various members multiplied by the appropriate factor of safety shall not exceed 2600 kgffcm*, 9.4.2 Axial Stresses in Compression 9.42.1 The estimated compressive stresses in various members multiplied by the appropriate factor of safety shall not exceed the value given as under, i 2 The permissible stress on the gross-section of the axially loaded compression member shall be : KLY* [ 7 hy where, XL _ 129 § ae : : & Gi 0.424 Where “2 width-thickness ratio exceeds iim formulae given in 9.4,2.2 shall be used substi aD i ig Fe Value ra os - a . BY tim 20 9426: The net effective tte of angle sections in tension shall be calculated in accord: it 12408: 802 Part )-1973, ee i lance with clanse30 MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS APPENDIX B Extract from Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 Chapter VINE ‘Amricki 76: MAXIMUM STRESSES : FACTOR OF SAPETY (1) @) The owner of every overhead line shall ensure that it has the following minimum factor of safety. ‘The minimum factors of safety for supports based on crippling load shall be as follows : - @ For metal supports, we ae 20 (i) For mechanically processed concrete supports... 2.5 lil) For hand moulded concrete supports, 3.0 (i) For wood supports E 35 “The suid owner shall alo ensure. that the strength of the supports fi ,the diection of the line isnot less than ‘one-fourth of the strength required in the direction transverse to the li Provided that in the ease of latticed steel_or other compound structures, factor of sufety shall not be less than 1.5 under <"ch brokeawire condition as may be specified by the State Government ia tis behalf. @) The minimus factor of safety £ tay-wites, guard-wires or bearer wires shall be 2.5 based ... the > ultimate strength of the wire, (©) The minioum the conducte ubimate tensile for of safety for conductors shall be 2 based on the ultimate tensile strength. In addi« at 90°F, without external load, shull not excved the following percentages of the ath of the conductor : 435 percent Final unloaded tension 25 percent Provided that ia the case of conductors having # cross-section of a general triangular shape, sich us concuctors composed of 3 wires, the final unloaded tension at 90°F shall not exceed 30 pervcat of the ullinicie tensile strength of such conductor, (@) For thé purpose of calculating factors of safety prescribed in sub-rule (1) : (@) the maximum wind pressure shall be such as the State Government may specify in each case. () for cylindrical bodies the effective area shall be ‘aken as two-thirds of the projected area exposed to wind pressure. (©) for lattice steel or other compound structures the wind pressure.on the fee-side members shall be taken 3s one-half of the wind pressure on the windward side members and the factors of safety shall be caleulated on the crippling load of struts and upon the elastic limit of tension members. the State Government may specify in each (2) the maximum and minimum temperatures shull be such case, (3). Nutw'chstanding anythin tained in sub-rules (1) and (2), ia localities where overhead lines are liable to Bye in eal coed ae and eas mre onsen oes ar Halecae. 3 a cs cs [ANALYSIS OF STRESSES AND PROPORTIONING OF MEMBER SIZES AND JOINTS 3t APPENDIX C Calculation of Tower Loadings for a Typical 132 kV Double Cireuit Line Basie Data (0) Type of Toner (©) Normal spun Me) Wind pressure : (0 Tower (on 14 thes the exposed srea of face) {lt Conductors and groundnre (on fll projected area) (Characteristics of Conductor? (@) Sie conformiog to 18 : 398-1961 (6) Oreraltdlameter of the conductor (0) Area ofthe complete conductor (2) Ubimate tense steength (0) Weiett (U) Maxiqum working tension Characteristics of Growndvire (2) Size conforming 1S : 2141-1968 (0) Diameter (© Area of complete ground wire (2) Ultimate tense strength fo) Weight () Maximum working tenston Tomer Loodings ¢ deviation ‘Tangent tower with $ degrees bi 335m . 195 aja? 45 kg/m? 39/3.00 mm Al-+7/3.00 mm St ACSR 21mm 261.2 mnt 9127 kg 976 kgjkan 3800 kx (say) 72.15 pm gure stranded tel wie ‘kg/mm quality. aan 9.45 mm 545 ont ‘S710 kg. 428 kak 2500 kg oar) ‘Table below gives typleal method of calculation of tomer Iéadlog : TowER LoApINes Description ‘Normil condition Brokenwire condition. 7 1 ~ z 3 1 Groundwire Support a ~ (0) Transverse loads (Wind toud on wite . (2) Due to devtation Total 335" x 0.00045 x 45 = 1420 2 x 2800 x Sin25 218.0 O6t & 142,0 = 85.0 apie 05 x 218 = 1036 MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS c APPENDIX. D ; ‘Table showing the manner of Tabulation of Stresses in Tower Legs and Design of the same—Graphical Method. Details ‘Noksat Coxpiti0N Design Crnexia Stresses produced by A. Ground Wire Loads B. Top Conductor Loads C. Middle Conductor Loads D. Bottom Conductor Loads E, Torsional Load F. Direct Vertical Load G. Unbalanced Vertical Load H. Tower Weight Totat COMPRESSION TorAt Tension Broken Wine Conbition Grouno Wins Broken DesiGn CRITERIA Stresses produced by A. Ground Wire Loads B. Top. Conductor Loads C. Middle Conductor Loads D. Bottom Conductor Loads E. Torsional LoadHar. 3 ANALYSIS OF STKESSES AND PROFORTIONING OF MEMBER SIZES AND JOINTS 37 Table showing the manner of Tabulation of stresses in Tower Legs and Desiga of the saime— Graphical Method (Contd) Bld A1B A200 A220 2k. 26 Details F. Direct Vertical Loads G. Unbalanced Vertical Load Hy Tower Weight Torat COMPRESSION TOTAL TeNston Secriow L mm Radius of gyration Unsupported Length (Z) Slenderness Ratio any 2 Sectional Area (Gross) Utimate Strength in Comp. Factor of Safety NC. Factor of Safety B.W.C. Sectional Area (Net) Utkimate Strength in Tension Factor of Safety N.C, Factor of Safety B.W.C. No. of Bolts Size of Bolts Ultimate Shearing Strength Uhimate Bearing Strength Factor of Safety N.C. Factor of Safety B.W.C. beMANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS Lattices on Longitudinal Face. Critical Face MARKING NoRMAL CONDITIONS Stresses due to Ground Wire Loads Top Conductor Loads Middle Conductor Loads Bottom Conductor Loads . Unbalanced Vertical Load . Torsional Load Toad Stresses, mmol p> Broxen WIRE CONDITION Suresses due to Ground Wire Loads Top Conductor Loads Middle Conductor Loads Bottom Conductor Loads ‘Unbalanced Vertical Load Torsional Load Torat, STmesses section L Radius of gyration Unsupported Length (L) Slenderness Ratio (1/7) Sectional Area (Gross) Ultimate Compression Strength Factor of Safety N.C. Factor of Safety B.W.C. Sectional Area (Net) Ultimate Tensile Strength Factor of Safety N.C. Factor of Safety B.W.C. No. of Bolts Size of the Bolts Ultimate Shearing Strength ‘Uhimate Bearing Strength Factor of Safety N.C. Factor of Safety B.W.C. mppop> a 22 10-11 1213 1415 TC. Te. TC. MC. MC. MC. 16-17 BC. 18-19 B.C. 24-25 25-26 26-27 BC. B.C. BC. BC. BC.car. 3 ANALYSIS OF STRESSES AND PROPORTIONING OF MEMBER SIZES AND JOINTS 4 ed ‘Tabulation of Stresses in Cross-arms—Graphical Method. Top cross-arm Middle cross-arm Bottom cross- Details Boye FF og ug Design Criteria se Boge oct 22 32 32 6&3 38 32 Nosmat Coxpinioy Stresses due to A. Tranyverse Loads B. Vertical Loads . Longitudinal Loads D. Torsional Loud Tota Compression Net Tension Broken Wine Conpition Stresses due 10 A. Transverse Loads B. Vertical Loads C. Longitudinal Loads D. Torsion Load Torat Compnession Net Texsion Section L Radius of gyration Unsupported Length (1) Slenderness Ratio (ir) Sectional Area (Gross) Ubimate Compression Strength Factor of Safety N.C. sa Factor of Safety B.W.C, Sectional Area (Net) Ultimate Tensile Strength Factor of Sufety N.C. Factor of Safety B.W.C. No. of Bolts, Size of the Bolts Unimate Shearing Strength Ultimate Bearing Strength Fictor of Safety N.C. Factor of Safety B.W.C.a2 MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWEKS ‘Tabulation of Foundation Design Data for a Typical Tower. Details Dows Tunusr Compression on each leg Vertical load Weight of Tower Uruirr Tension on each leg Vertical load Weight of the tower Net uplift Sipe Tanust Side thrust due to shear Side thrust due to torsion Total side thrustcuar. 3 ANALYSIS OF STRESSES AND PROPORTIONING OF MEMBER SIZES AND JOINTS 43 AR Appendix D et > eran . i : ; ; ; , ; |. , FIGURE32: Outline diagram of stoic! 220 KY wicung33+ Usk“4 MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS Appendix D ospssines Sea ONE oe aseeses 5 Re Selec <= Lee z ES. Ue ‘Vertical loading Vrficalleosing G___s ES . oy hun Longitudinal loading typical 220 XV. ember ales and Jolata, FIGURE 3S: A. tomer ghing FIGURE 3.4: Stress diagram for crose-arms,cuar, 3 ‘ANALYSIS OF STRESSES AND PROPORTIONING OF MEMBER SIZES AND JOINTS . APPENDIX E Stress Analysis by Computer A typical 220 kV Double Circuit tangent transmission tower has beet analysed and designed as a statically indeterminate space frame. 2. Figure 3.6 shows the axes of reference, joint numbers and group numbers. Joint numbers are assigned to joints lying in the positive quadrant only'and are showa circled in the figure. Members constituting the space Trame are classified into 39 groups as indicated in the figure, Members of similar status which at mee cna “ gther experience, the same maximum forces are put ina single group. The same group number is sesigecd co similar members lying within various parts of tower as indicated in Figure 3.6. Jy homers are analysed for the five loading conditions shown in Figure 3.7. Table 3.3 shows the “manner in which the values ate. to be tabulated for the determination of sizes of members and also the loading conaiicn nder which designed forces become critical in a member. The maximum compressive and the marine wae foress occurring inl any member of a particular group are taken as the design forces. The various lective conditions are coded as follows : NC Normal condition of loading GW ~ Ground Wire broken TW Top conductor broken MW Middle conductor broken. LW Lower conductor broken ‘The design table also gives for each group the slenderness ratio, permissible stresses in compression and tension, the section proposed and its cross-sectional area, £., The weight of space frame and the weight of secondary bracings can be worked out as given in Table 3.3. Secondary bracings are shown dotted in Figure 3.6 and other details ate tabulated in Table 36. Tolle 34 tabulates the forces in each member in each quadrant (explained in Figure 3.6) under each loading condivions After multiplication by corresponding factors of safety. Table 3.4 records the forces. in compression-and. teanon for the analysis of tower. Table 3.5 gives the reactions in three directions at the bottom joints for the tee different loading conditions.46 MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS Te Lo Appendin a 4 ie ad ii oo i 2 wD a mh ! vos 04 | a 2 i a 209 39 2 g a [Ter 2=——_2 | Pron ot 27580 o sea 8) ‘4 { a B mee 2 Ten Owe Sey ermal condition NC Ground wir broken GW Son oO te ‘ype ot pateesion Pe we i case 4 = 1229 92240 sea 2oweet 3 fon Yon Year jon! sone 61 © at 1641 O” 4 ner ence Ol roe isa Oetis of proposed ‘minimum weight tower ‘Top conductor broken TW Middle wire broken MW 7 z 206 Fe tcadsinng. Ome” 2aa@ ‘om an Qereo on | We 3000+ —- 6800} 5180+ 3700--HroHoRORD FIGURE 36: Model diagram for tower.* car. 3 ANALYSIS OF STRESSES AND PROPORTIONING OF MEMBER SIZES AND JOINTS 47 & TABLE 33 Design table for proposed tower. Group Comp. UR mp. Stress _ Tensile Tensile. Area Section No. force ~ ratio “allow. actual Forze stress proposed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 948 + MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS TABLE 3.3 (Contd.) r 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 3 7 4 (Weight of space frame ko Weight of secondary bracings ke Total weight of tower kg TABLE 34 Member force inthe proposed tower. ‘Member designation Forces in members under different Toad conditions Nearend Type. = Far end = Type, Group, |) GW TW MW LW joint joint No. 1 2 + 6 7 3 9 10 1 0 2 ° 1 1 o 2 1 1 1 o 2 2 1 1 °° 2 3 1 2 o 2 1 2 2 o 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 2 2 22 3 2 2 o 3 ° 3 2 ipereers ° 3 2 203 2 3 . 2 Slee omen 3car. 3 ANALYSIS. OF STRESSES AND PROPORTIONING OF MEMBER SIZES AND JOINTS. 9 TABLE 3.4 (Contd) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 2 3 a 1 36 20 3 a 2 36 . 4 ° 4 3 37 4 1 4 2 37 8 0 8 3 38 8 1 8 2 38 R 0 2 3 39 2 1 12 2 39 Type of joint is explained in Figure 3.6 Compression © +VE Tension ~VE TABLE 3.8 Reactions. Joint Type Lotd Condition PX FY mz 2 ° 1 2 1 t i “ 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 0 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 o 3 2 1 3 2 2 3 2 3 3MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWEKS TABLE 3.5 (Cond) Type Load Condition ny tr FZ 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 ° 5 1 5 2 3 : 3 5 Fx Reaction along XX Axis Reaction along YY Axis. FZ -= Reaction along ZZ Axis. Load Condition : | = NC cw = LW TABLE 3.6 Design of secondary bracings. Section proposed 42 a 44 45 46 aANALYSIS OF STRESSES AND PROPORTIONING OF MEMBER SIZES AND JOINTS Group No. 48 49 50 sl 32 3 4 35 56 37 58 59 6 61 0 6 64 65 66 TABLE 3.6 (Contd) Section proposed Weight of secondary braoo 2 MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS APPENDIX F Stress Analysis of 220 kV Double Circuit Tower by Analytical Metho: ‘The method of section is employed for calculating the forces in the various members of the tower and the following formulae are used to calculate the stresses : Foi Leg Members (i) Due to Transverse loads : 2A Th + The algebric sum of the moments of the transverse loads per face about the point of inte section of the bracings of the concerned panel [Figure 3.8 (a) } a : Perpendicular distance of the point of intersection of bracing members from the leg. By Tose (i) Due to Vertical Loads EV: Total external vertical load per face (Figure 3.8 (a) ] @ : The angle thatthe leg makes with the vertical [Figure 3.8 (a) 1 zel (iii) Due to Eccentric Vertical Loa Where, 2Q/: The algebraic sum of the couples due 16 evcentric vertical loads ( Gs) Due to Longitudinal Loads It can be calculated in the same manner as due to transverse'load. 2 Forces in Bracing Members [Figure 3.8 (¢) } =Irc (i) Due to Transverse Loads : 957 Gop T : Transverse load pet face. C= Intercept measured horizontally at the load point between the lines of projection of leg members, STC : Algebraic sum of the shear moments obtained by multiplying external loads with intercepts. ay: Intercept measured horizontally between leg members, at the intersection of bracings. a: Angle that the bracing makes with the horizontal. (ii) Due to Longitudinal Loads It can be calculated in the same manner as due to transverse loads. ii) Due to Torsional Load ‘Torsional louds cause shear forces on transverse and longitudinal faces (Figure 3.8 (b) }. ‘The stresses in bracing members due to torsional loads is calculated in the same manner as due svansverse loads, except that the transverse load per face is replaced by torsional shear per face.cuar. 3 ANALYSIS OF STRESSES AND PROPORTIONING OF MEMBER SIZES AND JOINTS 53 F—3 Load in Cross-ram Members (i) Forces in the lower main members of cross-arm due to transverse and vertical louds, Cos T : Transverse load per face . + the angle included between the two lower main members of cross-arm in horizontal plane 8 + the angle included between the upper and lower main members of the cross-arm in vertical *” plane + Vertical load per face (i Forces in the upper main member of the cross-arm (tii) Forces in main member due to unbalanced longitudinal load “2 sink. 2 Sing ‘Where, P : Unbalanced longitudinal load at the end of ‘cross-arm [Figure 3.8 (6) } F4. Conductor Peak (@) Due to transverse and vertical loads To Vo “Tsi rt 2C : . ae oe F Where, To : Transverse load per face at ground wire peak Vo + Vertical load per face at ground wire peak 3+ Angle included in between 2 main members of ground wire peuk ii) Due to longitudinal load (under broken wire condition) Po : 3 2sin Where, Po is unbalanced longitudinal load per face at the ground wire peak. B.S Torsional Members (At Cross-arm Level) [Figure 2.8 (b) ) pe PLP Torsional shear force on fue Hig PL P Total shear force on face ‘D's Fh — Stress in the plan diagonal torsional membe! a(S) ‘Tables 3.7, 3.8 & 3.9 give the tabulation of forces in Jeg members, bracings and cross-arm members by anaiytical method.54 . MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS TABLE3.7 ~ p Tabulation of forces in leg members by analytical method. L Transverse Longitudinal Vertical ~—-Eee. Vert.” Dead Wi. Total =Total X F.0.S. member. load Toad load Toad NomMAL ConpiTion Grounn Wine Broken ‘Transverse and Longitudinal ‘Tor ConpucTok BROKENS OF STRESSES AND PRUFOXTIONING-OF MEMBER 33. ‘TABLE 3.8 Stresses in bracing members by analytical method. Lattice Design condition Stress x F.0.S, (a) Transvense Face 23 45 TC. 67 Te. 89 Te. . 1O-1L MC. = 1213 Mc. 1415 MC. 1617 : BC. 1819 BC. 20-21 BC,56 Top crossarm Middle cross-arm Bottom cross-arm MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS. TABLE 3.9 Forces in cross-arm members by ;suslytical method. ; Design Main member ‘Tensional member Torsional member conditions (total x F.O. (total x F.0.S.) (otal x FOS.) Normal condition z Broken condition Normal condition Broken condition ‘i Normal condition Broken condition38 MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS APPENDIX G Properties of angle sections normally rolled in the country. Sk, Section size mm) Radius of Gyration (om) Weight/m —__Area (with 17.5 mm diameter_hole) 5. ir Tove tke) Gross area_—sNet_——~SCNt effective (em) (em?) (em!) 1 2 3 4. 5 6 1 7 a2 5 on 1.20 30 3.78 2 ay asx 5 087 1.36 34 4.28 "3. 454 wun 5 0.63 - 28 3.52 4 MS x ASK 6 087 1.35 40 5.07 5 50x 50% 5 097 152 38 479 6 MN ON 6 0.96 1st 4s 5.68 2 SS x SSX S 1.06 1.67 4 $27 K SSN SSX 8 1.06 1.66 49 6.26 % x OX S 116 1.82 45 515 10. 60x 60x 6 1s 1.82 54 6.84 1. 6x 60x 8 1s 1.80 10 8.96 12 4 657 5 1.26 1.99 49 625 13, 63% 65% 6 126 1.98 58 144 14 65% 65K 8 1.25 1.96 a 9.76 15. “65 x 65 x 10 125 194 94 12.00 16.1 75% 15x 6 1.46 230 68 8.66 1, Sx 5x 8B has 2.28 89 11.38 18, 15x 75 x 10 14s" 2.26 11.0 1402 19. 80x 80x 6 1.56 2.46 13 929 2. ws 1% B 1.58 244 96 1221 2 9% 9x 6 has 217 82 1047 2 We WEE 115 275 108 13.79 23, 100 x 100 x 6 1.95 3.09 92 11.67 24, 100 x 100 x 8 195 3.07 124 1539 5.34 6.96 8.50 6.56 8.58 10.52 79 9.41 8.37 10.99 9.57 12.59 S.170 6.760 8265 6.240 8.172 10.040 6.795 8,905, 7.825 10.285 8.875 11,685cnar. 3 ANALYSIS OF STRESSES AND PROPORTIONING OF MEMBER SIZES AND JOINTS 9 , APPENDIX G (Cond) 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 8 25. 100 x 100x 101.94 3.05 149 1903 15.53 14.425 26 NOx dx 8 218 34 B4 1108 14.22 B10 27. 0x s10x 102.16 337 166 aia 17.56 16.90 28. 130% 130.x 10°27 402 197 2512 21.56 19:70 29. 130% 10x12 -2.56 3.99 235 2988 25.62 23.40 130, 150x150 12297 461 220. 34773039 257 31. 150x150 x16 2.98 458388 45.65 32. 150X150 x 182.91 454 399 50.79 44.49 - . 33, 200 20x15 3.91 6.17 454 5780 51.50 S41° Fabrication ‘After the design is complete, the tower line diagram is translated into @ structural assembly drawing which gives complete details of joints, member sizes and bolt ‘Gauge lines, size and lengths of bolts, washers, first and second. slope dimensions, etc. A more detailed draw- | ing is then prepared for all the individual members from. the structural assembly drawing. ‘These are called shop or fabrication drawings. Shop drawing for a typical tower member is shown in Figure 4:1. The shop drawings for joints/connections and. indivi dual members should be prepared in a systemati manner and should have a correct index or key. These drawings should be drawn to a suitable scale and shall clearly indicate = (i) Corner cuts required to provide clearance against fouting ; Closing or opening of angle sections required wa ‘on members fitting over tapering faces ; (it) Notches required to provide clearance against fouling ; (i) Bevel cut required to provide clearance against fouling : () Flange cutjlange reduétion required to provide clearance against fouling (vi) Centre lin ~ (vit) Splice or joint details, lap joint, butt joint or connections shall be plate connection. All eccentricity of the detailed to minimise connection ; (oily Bend lines. All parts of the tower shall be fabricated in accor- dance with the fabrication drawings. [Al steel sections to be used for fabrication shall_ be reasonably straight, free from rust, scales and pitting. ‘Angle sections shall have appropriate root radius as provided in IS: 808 and shall have sharp heel lines. Sections having a rolling chamfer of more than 1 in 1000 shall not be used. FABRICATION, GALVANISING AND TESTING Various operations to be performed in fabrication of a tower are discussed below. In case of bent members or plate, all fabrication shall be done after bending is over. Straightening Before any other work or cutting is started, all “steel sections shall be carefully straightened and trued up by pressure. These sections shall again be trued up after being fabricated. For angle sections up to 100x100x8 mm sizes, roller straighteners are used while’ for angles over 100x100x8 mm size, hammer straighteners are employed. Nore Tower engineers should take cognizance of the fact that a uniform permanent curvature on section length is formed only after the yield stress is exceeded. Re-straightcning means exercising the yield stress for the second time, thus rendering the materials much weaker tha one can imagine. Bending All bending shall be done hot. Redundant members with angle section up to 65x 65%6 mm and plates not exceeding 6 mm in thickness with bends not exceeding 5° could be cold bent, The machines used for bending are : (i) Screw press, (ii) Hydraulic press and, (tii) Ball-point press, All jogsling, flange-opening or closing shall invari~ ‘ably be done hot. The flange thickness shall not be reduced during bending operations. Over-beating shall Cropping, Shearing, Gas Cutting (1) All cut ends of angles shall be clean square and free from any distortion with the length and shaped as per drawing. (2) All burns at the edges shall be removed. (3) Cropping/cutting shall normally be done after straightening/bending is over.cHar. 4 FABRICATION, GALVANISING AND TESTING 61 Note SHOP DRAWING 2BesignsectioniOxOx8. : r 5.Rot scale F T i 2354 20 | 40 ae das Hot ene 20 [aolso]aol im [59] 7 lisa) i023, 70]093 [1092 [516 |40 [40 |40 [40)20] NOK NOx8 angie 44505 mm long Hole dic. 9716 MKD. @ 1 Reqd. thus MKO (8-265) sn WG om Bord 2- smn [B-264) Oni) SB.MLS. Im nw [o-265 » » » FIGURE 4.1: Shop drawing. (4) Where gas cutting of high tensile steel is fesor- should be avoided. 7 ted to, care shall be taken to leave sufficient ——— metal fo be removed by machining so that all (3) All burrs left by punch or drill shall be remo- metal that has been hardened by flame is ved. removed. (4 In case of bent members or plate, punching! (5) Cropping and shearing shall be permitted Gn ucilling shall be done after bending operation sections up to 12 mm thick. 1s completed. Punching shall be permitted on sections up to 12 mm thick arid sections with thickness over 12 mm shall be drilled. The machines used for punching are : (6) Scctions with thickness over 12 mm shall be sawngas cut, ‘The machines used for cropping are + (oRUeecniaae eee (2) Universal Machine and » (i) Cropping Machine (single operation). The machine used for shearing is the universal machine, ‘The gas cutting sets may be mechanically guided or of manual set type. The machine used for sawing is the circular saw. Punching and Drilling Marking 1) Bult hules shall be punched or drilled to sizes. ; i (1) Balt holes shall be punched or drilled to sizes Marking the identification mark allotted 10 each (2) The holes must be square with the plutes/angles member shall be printed by stencilling/die-punch, mati with their walls being parallel. “Slant holes ing with’dies of 16 mm size before galvanizing (ii) Single Operation—Punching Machine. The machines used for drilling are : @_1-M-arm heavy radial drilling and (ii) 2-M-arm heavy radial drilling2 The machines used for marking are, ( Die-punch marking machine and Gi) “Steneilling’ Appendix A gives list of machines required for a selh equipped tower fabricating workshop. Appendix Be shows, the - workshop. operation chart whereas, “Appendix C gives process flow chart for fabrication of. Bundling Before despatch, the members shall be securely bundled us per bill of material and the directions thereon, ~All flange-cut members shail be bundied with the flange-cut members on the inside. Workmanship and. finish shall correspond to the est modern workshop practice, All similar parts shall Remade interchangeable. All steel, sections, before ahd afier any work is done on them, shall be ‘arcfully INeiied, steaightened and made true by methods which SRal not injure the material. Care shall be taken. so thar when” assembled the adjacent surfaces are in close Guitact throughout. No rough edge shall be permitted Gnywhere throughout the work. Shearing, clipping. or Pudching shall be done neatly and accurately. For Finis, eure shall be exercised to provide for the pollowing fa) Steel chamfer required on cover cleats and lap joints 5 (b) Joggling on ‘lattice when placed/laid in different places. Fabrication Tolerances ‘All dimensional tolerances on the sections used for fabrication shali be within the provisions of IS : 1852. ‘The following is recommended for tower fabrication ¢ Straightness : No tolerance. “On Iéngth : Compression Members + 1.6 mm Tension Members — 1.6 mm to 00 Hole to hole distance + 0.8 mm (not cumulative) Ene Secunity AND BoLT Gavots Boh Hole Pitch Edge security Hole centre Bok GG vnin, holecentre toto, sheared fam) (mm) | (mm) ‘rolled edue edge (mm) am) 2 135 2 6 20 16 Ws 40 20 2 20 as a 2 2B 2 232 56 2 30 m 255 a 30 35 MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWLKS — of bath. Onremoval In determining gauge lines, allowances shall be made for the mill tolerances in accordance with 1S: 1852. Gauge line and edge security shall be determined from the lech end of angle sections, Hous’ > (a) Holes shall be perfectly circular and no toler- aanee in this respect is permissible. (6) The maximum allowable difference in the dia meter of the holes on two faces of plate on angle is +1/32 in. or 0.8 mm. Bolt holes, whether punched or drilled,. shall not be more than 1/16 in, of 1.5 mm larger in diameter than the corresponding bolt diameter. wo Cuts (@ Corner cuts + 1.6mm = 00 mm (®) Notching +16 mm = 00 mm (c) Flange cuts $0.0 mm =16 mm Bends, Joggles, Opening/closing, Nil (No tolerance) 42 Galvanizing ‘Tower members, bolts, nuts, fittings shall be bot dip galvanised except spring Washers which shall be electro galvanised, Galvanising shall be done after fabrication JScompleted but the nuts may be tapped or re-run after galvanizing. Threads of the bolts may be'tinder cut to provide for increase in diameter because of galvanising. Re-running of the bolt threads is not permitted. Before ulvanising, the steel section shall be “thoroughly cleaned of any paint, grease, rust, scale acid of alkali or such other foreign matters as are likely to Interfere with the galvanizing processor withthe quality or durubility of the zinc coating. Galvanising of each rember shall be carried out in one complete immersion. ‘The galvanising bath shall contain only the approved standard spelt. The galvanising bath shall be reasonably free from dross, and the steel stiall be dipped in the molten fine jn such a manner that it does not come in contact with the dross which might have collected at the bottom from the kettle the galvanized materials may have the surface by “*buniping". The process known as Sipping’ or “scrapping” shall not be used for this pur- pose. ‘The temperature of the spelter in the kettle shall Beonelied by means of securate pyrometers within close limits,cue 4 Famnec ation, The galvanised surface shall eonsist of a conti- uous and uniformly thick bright coating of zinc, firmly adhering Jo the surface of steel. The. galvanising shall. be free from any defect which may affect or tend. to affect its anti-corrosive properties. The finished surface shall be clean and smooth and shall be free from defects like discoloured patches, bad spots, tneven coating, zine which is loosely attached to the steel, globules of zinc, spiky deposits of zine, blistered surface, flaking or peeled off zine, etc. The presence of any of the above defects or deformation noticed on Visual inspection even without carrying out any test shall render the material liable for rejection. Detective gulvanised steel scetions requiring regalva- rising shal have the rine coating. entirely. removed By Suitable acid. treatment without damaging the steel surface and regalvanised only after proper pickling. Guivanised articles, zinc to be used for galvani- sing, method of testing, etc., shall conform to the relevant standards. 4.3 Testing A transmission tine tower is an indeterminate space frame and is designed normally with a number of simplifying assumptions, It is highly desirable thar the Gesigners and users are both convinced that the tower Shall stand under the most critical loads. This can nly be proved by carrying out full scule test of the tower, This full size testing of tower is genevally termed as prototype test. For conducting prototype tests, a perm went station is required where it would’ be possibl> to measure applied loads and deflections. A tower testing station should consist of : (1) A test bed to withstand bending and_ torsional moments and shear up to. destruction: The ‘most suitable one is a R.C.C. raft over pile foundation desighed on the basis of the capa~ city of the station. Two sets of slit holed joists Jaid at right angles to each other with adjus- table caps to fix any leg of any dimension, These joists are in turn anchored suitably and strongly on the R.C.C. raft. Q Permanent anchorage to take transverse, longitudinal and vertical pulls applied to the towers of the maximum expected width, height und a strength proposed to be tested at the test bed : Longitudinal Tower (L) is a structure approximately 60m tall constructed at a distance of 50 m to 60 m from the tower bed and equipped with all rigging arrangement for applying longitudinal joads. The transverse loads are applied through pulleys positioned on the transverse Intermediate Mast (7). Vertical Joads are applied by means of dead weight oF through anchors. /ANISING AND TESTING 63 (3) The arrangements for applying any combination of given loads at a specified rate of increase. (4) Load and deflection measuring apparatus. Load application to different points of tower structure are done by manually operated winches of remote controlled electric winches operated from the control room. Instruments used for recording the load applied are either Mechitnical Spring Gauges or Elec- trical/Electronic Controlled ‘Transducers/ Dynamometers. The dials of the respective Dynamometer Transducers indicate the. input load in particular wire. ~ Deflection readings are taken as follows : (a) By fixed sight of theodolites : (@) om scale fixed to transverse berid at a suita- ble position on top of the tower 5 (ii) on scale fixed to longitudinal bend at a suitable height. (b) By Plumb Bob pointer movement : (ili) at peak, transverse, (Gv) at peak, longitudinal, (0) at cross-arm tip, longitudinal. (5) Remote control of leading, mechanisms. (© Remote and precise reading of measuring instruments. (7) Arrangement for calibration of the measuring instruments. From control room, the winches, dynamometer) angle transducers are operated/controlled. Control oom shall have the facility of full view of transverse and longitudinal testing. arrangement and test tower. ‘All other electrically operated machines and instru- ‘nents are connected and controlled from the control centre. The electrically operated winches ate also controlled from control centre. Calitrenion 1n order to check the correctness of all measuring instruments at the time of any test to ensure the reliability of the measurements and of the validity, of the tests, a complete calibration of instruments before tnd after the test is conducted. A typical calibration hart is shown in Appendix D. Test Procedure ‘The prototype tower is erected on the test bed and all the arrangements necessary for applying loads are completed. The tower is examined carefully, all its bolts“ MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS and nuts are properly tightened, the tower is made truly plumb and square, and all ts meubers ate checked for freedom trom viable defects. Figures 4 2 (a & b) show the tower test Toading and the appliestion, of arrange ment of s tower in test frame. Two graduated metallic seales ure fixed, one at the peak and the other at the top cross-urm level, on both the transverse and longi- tudinal faces. Readings on these scales with referciice to the plumb line in the centre of the tower are taken from the theodolite stations. Figures 4.3 & 4.4 give rigging for applying test loading and rigging arrange- ment of a typical tower testing station respectively. FIGURE 42a): Test Cover loading application FIGURE 42(0): Arrangement of toner a test frame, Before proceeding with the test proper, the bolts take-up test is done. “The procedure adopled is to apply gradually frst the vertical loads at the peak and erost-arms from 0 to 75 percent of the working loads in steps of 25 percent. At each step, the tower shall be allowed to stand loaded for five minutes. Deflection. readings on the scales are taken at each step both on Hepa niens Jr eeci| 27 tenn Boe Msromdeen a mame CHC ‘so ettersesP SS Ee, FIGURE 43: Rigging for plying test louding,FABRICATION, GALVANISING AND TESTING cHar. 4 won Buyer s0m0) poqEs © Jo eB TOI 3 yy TUNA seo, manne deh NOUS ONWSIL WEMOL 40 NVTd TWOHAL 04 p00 1} Zr avn aac. Os INaNaONVELY Fnpawo 30) woos Faswes ot Some 4531, 0¥07 TWNIONLIDNOT HOS LNaWAONVEEY. j | ¥ f |66 MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS the transverse and longitudinal sides by theodolite. ‘The loads are then released and brought to zero. Next, scitical loads of a value equal to 75 percent of the working load are directly applied, and simultancoush transvelse loads are also applied gradually at the pe land the cross-arm, the loads being ruised in steps 25t0 75 percent’ of the working load. Deflection readings on the scale are taken at each step. The transverse and vertical loads are then released. When the final readings with both the vertical and transverse Joads at zero are taken they are found to be different from the initial readings, ie., a permanent deflection is obtained after the loads’ are’ released. The deffection fs due to the light take-up of the clearances of about 1.5 mm between the bolts, and the holes throughout the structure. It is only to climinate as far as possible, this take up from the actual deflections that the bolts take-up test is done. For test purposes, the readings ‘with zero loads taken after the bolts-check ate taken as the initial readings. Details of Tests ‘Test 1—WrTH SIMULTANEOUS LOADS UNDER’ NORMAL ‘ConiTions This test represents loading of the tower in the trans- verse and vertical directions to meet the requirements of its specification with a factor of safety of 2.0 for normal conditions. Vertical loads equivalent to 100 percent of the working load are first applied. Transverse loads are then applied from 0 to 100 percent, deflections of the tower being noted for every 25 percent increase in load. ‘After the transverse loads are increased to 100 percent ‘oth the vertical and transverse loads are increased to 200 percent deilections being noted again from every 25 percent increase in loads. The loads are then Feleased gradually and brought down to_100 percent readings being again taken at intervals. The loads are then completely released and with zero load the eadings are taken. The residual deflection is noted. ‘A permanent deflection of 25 mm for every 9 m height of tower may be assumed to be within permissible Jimits. ‘The tower should stand the above test_ without any sign of crippling or deformation of its members. ‘Test 2— Wir SIMULTANEOUS LOADS UNDER BROKEN ‘Wine CONDITIONS This test represents loading of tower in the longi- tudinal and transverse directions with vertical loads “applied to meet the requirements of its, specification with a factor of safety of 1.5. ‘The transverse and Yertical loads are first ruised to the required value and maintained so, while the longitudinal loads are_gradu- ally increased from 0 to 150 percent of the working loud, and deflections are noted both for cross-arm and tower for every 25 percent increase in load. After Teading the deflection at the full test load, ie., 150 percent of the. working load, the longitudinal Toads bre gradually released and brought down to 100 percent, readings being taken at intervals. After this, all the Toads (vertical, longitudinal and . transverse) are released and the readings with zero load noted, The tower should stand this test without showing any sign of crippling or permanent deformation of its members. ‘Test 3—Test To DesTRUCTION After the above tests, the, tower is loaded to the maximum loads as in test No. 1. Then keeping. the Wertical loads constant, the transverse loads at all the loading points are uniformly increased in. steps of for 10 percent till failure occurs. ‘The point of failure is easly detected from the release of load on the dynamometer. This release incidentally prevents the complete collupse of the tower. Such a test to destru- lion gives valuable information from the design point of view. Itis not desirable to re-use any member of the tower on test in other towers as they might have suffered strain beyond the elastic limit. The entire test tower has to be scrapped. NOTE: All the loads at each stage shall be kept constant for five minutes. Preparation of Test Report ‘A detailed report as per Appendix. E incorporating all ihe results of complete tests alongwith photographs of the tower at alternate steps of loading, shall be prepared by the incharge of tower test yard in quadru- Plicate. . Tabulation of design loads and applied loads Shall be made in accordance with Appendix F. ‘Appendix G gives # few tower failure cases during tests together with the probable causes of failure. ‘Tower tested separately up to ultimate loads only can be made part of the regular supplies for use on the line provided there is no permanent set in any member. When a tower is tested beyond ultimate Toads, that is tested to destruction, no. part of such tower shall form part of the regular supplies.cuar. 4 a @ @ @ ) © ~ O @) o (10) an a2) (13) a4) qs) (6) ay FABRICATION, GALVANISING AND TESTING APPENDIX A List of Machines required for a well equipped Tower Fabricating Workshop + -atily Production Roller Straightener Hammer Straightener Screw Press Bending Machine Hydraulic Press Bending Machine Ball Point Bending Machine Universal Machine (Punching, Croppling, Shearing, Notching). (or tower manufacturing universal machine is not favoured because stacking of ‘materials for two or more operations is very difficult). Single Operation Machine for Cropping 2-M-arm heavy radial drilling Single Operation (automatic machine preferable) Machine for punching Single Operation Machine for Notching Die-punch Masking Machine Stenciling Machine Circular Saw Gas-cutting (mechanically guided) Gas-cutting Torches : ; Portable Grinder Field Grinder or 500 Tonnes One Two Two One ‘One Two Two One: One One One Three sets Three68 MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS. Appendix B WORKSHOP CHART. 5 ha of operat No} Operation symbot | Machine |S involved. Rémorks Roler 13-1| Straightening [trosghtne stroightner [Screw pres rosie 0th on Flange and 32} Bending By hee! : | 33] Crope.ng, sheorng | goscutting siversot 3.4) Punchin phe Moy be one or more ° sel diameters, Drting ost May be one or more | driting diometers == ‘On lattice in case laid Jogsting a in different planes Heel chamfer Required on cover Cleats ond lop jonts losin ni Closing oF opening (On members fitting over topering faces Notch Required to provice ‘clearance aganst fouling Bevel cut Required 10 provide clearance against fouling Corner cut [Required to provice clearance against fouling Flonge cut / Flange reduction | Sans Required to provide clearance egainst foulingour. 4 FABRICATION, GALVANISING AND TESTING Appendix C Process flow chart for fabrication of tower Detail drawing eet eee __] Floor layout and shop drawing r Material procurement Proto manufacture ‘Assembly of tower —————_—_______ Proto test and approval ere eee Mass fabrication “Marking 1 Galvonizing ~ Bundling Despatch70 MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS Appendix D Calibration chart No.3 Moke - . Type ~ Transducer Dial No. 5 {Control room panel) Reading in | Reading in Stondord 9 , Stoge | Sts the dial | the diol Adjustment No. [weight ploced) tiogding) funiooding» {Difference | (ya) (kg) (kg) (kg) ' ° ° ° ° |] 2 500 500 500 ° 3 tooo 1000 1000 ° +25 4 1500 148 1480" 20 5 | 2000 1975 1975 23 |] 6 | 2500 2465 2465 35 a +50— 7 3000 2950 2950 so 8 3500 3435 3435 5 7] 9 | 4000 3900 3900 100 10 | 4500 4350 Note: Standard weights of IOkg, 20kg are used “Weight of case for putting standard Weight. ‘Self weight of transducer Weight of tools, tockles etc.cHap. 4 FABRICATION, GALVANISING AND TESTING a APPENDIX E 1. Report Design tests were carried out on the KV line at the tower test yard on Design Data Size of conductor Size of ground cable Normat span Angle of devi Wino Pressure Conductor . Tower FACTOK oF Satury Conductor Tower (2) Normal conditions (8) Broken wire conditions Tower perans Base width Peak width Width of cross-arm Height to bottom cross-arm Height of tower Weatuex Convitions Imma Deviation The initial deviation was mim away from the’ direction of pull in the transverse direction, 2. Bolts take up Test . Vertical loads were applied by weights placed on cradles ond transverse loads by means of turnbuckles or through winches. : lly loaded to 75 percent of the working To allow for the take up in the bolt holes, the tower as in to zero. Ther. transverse loads were Toad in the vertical directions, ufter which the loads. were redu2 MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINB TOWERS. : applied up to 75 percent of the working load after which aii iouds were brought to zero. The permanent sets observed as follow: Part rested Initial reading Reading after Permanent in mm’ test in mun set in mm Tower Transverse Longitudinal Peak Transverse Longitudinal cross-arm 3, Test under Normal Conditions Keeping the vertical loads equal to 100 percent of the working load the transverse loads were increased in steps to 25 percent to 100 percent of the working load, after which both loads were increased in steps of 25 percent to 200 percent. The loads were then decreased in steps of 25 percent to 100 percent, after which they were reduced to zero. ‘The transverse deflection readings obtained in the test are given below : Part Tnitial reading Reading after Deflection in Reading after Permanent set tested in mm Toading to mm release in mm 200 percent in mm Tower 4, Test under Broken Wire Conditions In this test the vertical and transverse loads were raised to 150 percent of the working load and then the longitudinal loads were increased in steps of 25 percent to 150 percent of the working load. The longi- tudinal loads were first reduced to zero and then the other loads. ‘The test readings are given belo\ Reading after Deflection in Reading after Permanent Toading to inmm release of set in mm 150 percent in mm load in mm Tower Transverse Tower > Longitudinal Longitudinal cross-arm4 a ele Geico eelaAlaee Ie Tea aay [ar pew ERO RTE Pal yeoani saad mo] Sum | Gram | a Cea aT Tin ae | oa Poa [Seepeenien onan) ao ELSE Oa] ar] ®x*savon aaindey 30 NOILYINGWLchar. 4 FABRICATION, GALVANISING AND TESTING . 8 APPENDIX G ‘Some Test Cases where Towers failed during Tests Case 1 sys [ne flue was exclusively due to the eccentricity brought about by lap splicing of two identical profiles, Case 2 A leg member kept fuiling substantially below the expected value. due to insufficient bracing action allowing te leg to twist around its long axis and to buckle against the minimum rather than the minimam ius of gyration. Case 3 This is a very thin leg member that failed to soon due to local crimping of one of the flanges. Cased” ‘ The main member of a cross-arm that failed due too eccentticity of the conductor attachment (some- times very difficult to remove). Case 5 A similar case but for different causes, namely the failure of the tie, which ceased to hold the secon dary bracing thus causing the main member to fall ia turn. Case 6 The inner upright of a seemingly “unbreakable” delta rotated base tower. Due to complex loading assumptions most members were over dimensioned for the selected breaking test and th-ir contribution doubt lessly teduced the actual stress in one member that finally failed. Design and fabrication being accurate no other limiting factor came into play. - Case 7 : r Probably due to favourable erection stress a second test after replacement caused the same member to fall within the shaded area. ; Cases 8&9 . too long flat portion’at one of bolt epds, A fairly common cause of early failure in web members, 10 ol 70 50 30 105" 20 60 100 —=—Values of Ne and Na Values of Nr —e FIGURE 5.1: Terzaphi's bearing capacity factor. rounding the footing partly compensates for that of the TABLE 52 increase due to saturat mn. Blow cout, consistency, cobslon, bearing capactes In Table 5.1 are shown the blow counts (N) in secorangien ae sandy soils along with their respective relative density, angle of intemal friction, and ultimate bearing capaci. Type of Consis- Blowcount Cohesion Ultimate bear~ ties. The consistency, blow counts, cohesion and Soll tency thy ing capackty Ultimate bearing capacity of cohesive soils are given in for cuvuler Table 5.2. Kee TABLE 5.1 Blow cout, elatve density, ange of Internal tition, bearing Clay——Very soft Lest than Less than ‘Spacites according fo standard penetration test 025" ose Soft 24 025080 asaa.ss Toprol. Dens mowrcount gle of (Umar be Medium 4850-600 1.85.70 for “cal Sut 81s 1.00200 370-740 footing (For 2m wide foot. Very aiff 15:30 2004.00 740-16.80 Hard Over30- Over 400. Over 14.80 Sand & Very loose Les than 4 Less than2® — It may, however, be noted that recent studies have Site eos e10 | aa 3O 28 indicated ‘that the ‘values of bearing pressure obtained Medium 1015 30°36" 20 from Terzaghi’s table are rather conservative, Meyethof Dense 1330 36a" 2030 —_ hus suggested ap increase of these vulues by 50 percent. Very dense Over30” Over al Over3540.— Tetzughi's and Meyerbof's vues of allowable pressures, in kglem* for a foundation of width B = 3 m can alsocaar 5 es — _ | oe ~, 09 | t SA TN Eso} 240) ~ : ae 3 | Pw =30 : =| 8 Papp Lars io | Um+Si0+e)-5 OWE = 8 vo jeight of soil inthe cones <"* pyramid for stability U © Uplift onthe leg of tower '$ = Moximum horizontal sheor ‘on tower le: ~ 9 wu Weight of tower <2~ w, a the soil below the footing (Figures 5.5(a), 5.6, 5.10(b) and 5.12] the soil pressure below the footing will not be uniform; and the unit maximum toe pressure ‘p* on the soil can be determined from the equation : w p= Har ( 1+ SF) Gonen the resultant ties Within the middle third) (4) ot p= sq7t@cr (when the resultant lies outside SAE-2 he middle third) S where, A & B are the base dimensions of the footing & in which M = the maximum moment of the Joads taken at the level and niid point of the base, andar cur. 5 \ Nee TLL be raen—| FIGURE 5.19: Uplift resttance, DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS 7 W = total vertical thrust including that of the footing, When the footing is under biaxial moment the maxi- ‘mum pressure at the critical corner should be worked ‘out as done in Example 3, ‘The maximum pressure on the soil so obtained should not exceed the permissible pressure on the soil. The allowable pressure may, however, be increased by 25 percent if the loading considered includes dead load and wind or earthquake loads. (©) Design for Uplift—Available Uplift Resistance Uplift resistance to anchored footing is provided by the bond between the grouted steel and rocks through the grouting materials which is usually determined by experiments. This bond will increase ‘when deformed bars or bars with indentation are used instead of plain rods, Use of eyebolts, for-bolis or threaded rods can also increase the uplift capacity. of 25. ° 025 FIGURE 5.20; For volume oftrxtr=x of pyramid: square footing. | (0-50 075 100 Ratio & —MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS a | I 2 oa ce a >B al s t | 2 4-4-4 a a | [44 ee ez To cH 4 = (4 [4 —t i | [i | ° 025 050 O75 100 Rotio FIGURES21: ~ In the ease of other foundations, the resistance to uplift is considered to be provided by the buoyant Weight of the foundation and the weight of the soil volume contained in the frustrum of pyramid/cone on the base of the footing with sides making an angle equal to the angle of internal friction of the soil. Again, in practice, many designs done on the basis of Weight of frustrum of cone/pyramid with sides making ‘angle of 20° in the case of non-cohesive soils and 30" in the case of cohesive soils have given quite satisfactory service. Referring to Figure 5.19. the ultimate resistance to uplift will be given by U, = Wy + Wr in which W, = weight of soil in the frusirum of pyramidjeone "and I, = buoyant ‘weight of the foundation. are footing, which is common for the type ¢ 8f foundation shown in Figures 5.4, 5.5, 5.6 & 5.10 (6), For volume of frastrum of cone the volume of earth in the frustrum of pyramid v= 2 Ow +a ants + 69010). In case of circular slab for augered footing in Figure 3.7 or precast footing in Figure 5.10, the volume of the soil in the frustrum of cone SP (mF + 40° tant § + 68D tang)... (2) To facilitate computations, intercept charts, Figures 5.20 & 5.21-have been drawn’ for different values of v D for the Equations (6) and (7) respectively. nd 3 for various angles of internal friction To obtain the. weight of the soil, the volume of earth obtained with the help of the applicable chart should be multiplied by the unit weight of the soil, While this unit weight may be the average weight of‘car. 5 soil obtained from soil test, in case of submerged site, ‘buoyant weight of soil within the cut line and concrete should only be taken into consideration, larger uplift. capacity for augered footing or footings with undereut, if intended to be used, should be established by actual tests. (©) Design for Side Thrust—Moment dnd Available Soil . Resistance The types of footing shown in Figures 5.6 & 5.11, under the action of the lateral load will normally act as a single rigid body. The critical soil pressure and the moment developed in the footing can be worked ‘out considering the foundation to behave as a rigid pile (*) or as a. block-foundation (). However, the foundation of the type shown in Figure 5.4, which is, very common in India as well as in some’ European countries, and which has usually a slender chimney compared to the footing base-slab is not likely to act ‘asa rigid body when acted upon by a lateral load. ‘The comparatively slender chimne here shall rather fact as a.cantilever beam embedde. in clastic soil and fixed at the base. The augered foo:'ng in Figure 5.7(a) with large under-reamed base and slender shaft is also Jikely to behave in a similar manner. Analysis of such a foundation and design of the chimney/shaft for ‘combined bending and direct pull/thrust are, therefore, Yery important for structural safety of the foundation. However, rigorous analysis of these footings, which involves ihe concept of soil-structure interaction and -— 8 —+4 Failure mechanism DESION OF FOUNDATIONS Lateral oressure. in fon-cohesive soils. the coefficient of sub-grade reaction, is complicated and-tedious for routine design works, Moreover, in view of the large number. of assumptions inherent in such a solution, the results are of questionable value for practical designs. Simplified solution should, there- fore, be preferred. The problem of deep laterally loaded pile, which is ‘more or less similar to the above, has been solved with the concept of plastic hinge developed in the pile at the point of , maximum coment and the ultimate Jateral resistance offered by the soil ; and this solution has enabled computation of the ultimate strength of the pile. On the basis of more or less a similar appro- ach, governing equations and design curves for the tower foundations of the type shown in Figures 5.4 & 5.1(a), which are most common and economical, have been developed (*). The analysis is based on the following assumptions : (i) When acted upon by a lateral load, the chimney or shaft will work as a cantilever beam on elastic. soil- support. When the chimney/shaft is shallow (Figure 5.22), the maximum moment will develop either at the Junction of the footing slab and the chimney or along the length of the chimney/shaft while in case of deep footing (Figure 5.23), the maximum moment will develop always at a point along the length of the chimney/shaft. As the lateral load increases, a binge will develop at the point of the maximum ‘moment. After the formation of the hinge, the chimney is trans- (deb) ee Lateral pressure in Cohesive soils FIGURE 522: Fallare mechanlom and soll pressures for shallow chimney.Failure mechanism soils 2Sepb - 2°57 gkpb Assumed ultimate lateral pressure in non-conesive lg'5Cub Assumed ultimate lateral pressure in cohesive Soils FIGURE 5.23: Fallure mechanism and sll pressures for deep chimney. formed into a mechanism and redistribution of moment takes place. The lateral load is then primarily resisted by the reaction of the surrounding soil. Complete collapse of the chimney will occur when the soi reaction attains its ultimate value or when the redist buted moment in the chimney exceeds the ultimate resisting capacity of the section of the chimney. Gi) In non-cohesive soils, the ultimate passive pressure is considered t0 be 2.5 times the Rankine’s passive earth pressure (Figures 5.22 & 5.23) given by the equation op yky, where, Y = unit weight of the sol, lepth at which the passive pressure is required 1+ sing and ky =n g? fristion of the soil. in which angle of internal (ii) In cohesive soils, the ultimate. lateral soil reaction is assumed to be zero at the ground level, ut it attains its maximum value of 8.5 cy at a depth equal to the width of the chimney, where, ¢w is equal to half the unconfined compressive strength of the soil (Figures 5.22 & 5.23). On the basis of above assumptions and from the conditions of equilibrium, necessary equations relating ultimate lateral load and ‘ultimate’ moment resistance hhave been derived (*), From these equations, the dimensionless ultimate load p55 for foundations in on-cobesive soils is plotted in igure 5.26 against for diferent values of Sand in Figure 5.25 is drawn the dimensionless moment resistance == against Ge For diferent values of ~£. For foun dation in cohesive soils, the corresponding uhimate s 4 e load 58000 iy Desien for Downward Thrust: Design thrust ~ 70,780 by (N.C) Weight’of foundation 1,204 hy, Weight of earth directly on the base slab = tso[ton 315 — font x 238 4 22 oe tases seme = 1006.06 — 1.272) = 1500 6748 = 200g ¥ Total weight = 70,780 + 1,204 + 10,200 = 82,184 by Latensity of pressure Design of Side Thrust : Design Shear = 3.645 ke BW.C) 1+ sin 30° . : Design ky -SHE 4 235° 030 Fray ~ 8875; 5-38. ons s From Figure 5.24, 54. = 12.75 ‘Therefore, avaiable = 12.75 x 1500 x 3 x 0,408 = 3670 kg > 3645 kg, ‘The auf, therefore, acts it a deep member,no Ta find Desisn Mo Mow the dongHtuinal dirt ‘twa and Frou Figure $25, Therefore, ‘Moment inthe transverse direction: From Figure 5.25, ‘yhy bt ‘Therefore, May = 1500 x 3 x O40! x 1615 = 1.860 hg Design for Strength: (1) Shaft as Reinforced Concrete. (0 Tension Combined with Bending + Design uplift = 56,700 ke Design moments, Maa = 3,61,000 kg cm and Myy = 186,000 kg em wot s41s0 concrete with mld te relforcement of tm = 2,60 bo rear trvganeatafreaforemet a shows Fur 32 arses reed trate dint pl SEN0 = 2,8 et forbg eoe abattoir a tonsils [Neglecting tension i 25cm ‘therefore, steel requited to resist tension arising out of Man, 361000 ages = OT eee 2218 + 28.18 + 6.17) = 118 + 9.33. x2 21.8 + 187 = 405 emt ‘Area of each bar Provide 22 mm bar, total steel = 45.6 emDESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS a ts { x mae Y Figure 5:32 3 - y 3 { oO aI 3 i : 8} lx ¢ | Cl Q| 3 a 1600. }+-————400; Figure 5-33 Figure 5-31 Figures 5:31,32 and 33 of Examplenz : MANUAL ON TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS. iy, Thrust and Bending: Design thrust = 65,970 bg (BW.C) Desiga moment, Mes — 3,61,000 ke em Design moment, Myy = 1,86,000 kg em toa = 22000 5 4m and t= OO en : y Tha cee are ery salad te section i, core, my a parcuar ch Senin Cope ete ten tech ete, shall be checked on the basis of ultimate load design for combine @) Asan alternative design, consider the muff to have no othe ug Will termine the requirement of steel ing the stub angle relaforcement to colncie with the ceniud ofthe canerte section the assumed 3 It is considered that the concrete in the tension side has cracked. cana ‘As in the case of rei forced concrete section, the tension combined with ben ‘Therefore, total tension Use an angle 150 x 150 x 15, ‘Compressive stress on the seclon isnot eital. ‘The angle fy assumed to actos seid reoforcement, and befog near the centroid ofthe eomerete, has youd concrete cover avound i No binder a practice are caseaally rules for this ops of eae Example 2 Sep ta aca Tl tn TW dae Ala acts Vac ran eee sees nye asi tl ae i da eat eke aoa Sorina eae i ha eet ‘Nature of loud ‘Load in kg under condition Loud ia kg with respective factor of safety Ne. NC BW.c. Dowaward 17300 4000 38000 @) 3) cae upiite 12500. * 0400 25600 ° @ ay) ae Shear = "1000 2000 2220 (transverse) @ Shear = ~ 960 Vongitudinal) (The figures in paremtheses are the overload factors or factors of safety). ‘Tey the Foundutlon shown in Figure 5.34, (CHECK FOR DEEP OX SHALLOW FOUNDATION: ‘Shear = 2,220 kg (B.W.C. with 15 8S.)= (2300 — 500) [03* « 15.49% sot + 03+ + 1 3029005 150] + 0 03" x 20 ei ath eto ae city seo 1s 29 [ass cars 034 150 x03n}] = sae 2 ‘Moment at base : ‘Actual S = 2,220 kg (B.V:.C. with 15 FS.) 4 : s 2.220 a 1s 030. petal Sem apa Spar = 16%, Fagg eS oe B From Figure 5.28, for shallow footings, ——¥f;- = 308 of M = 305 x 1500 x 033 = 1,236 kg m. : - ee teen rec ec in cea somone cote eta eo es Ep eR tue eat a eos ‘and ia {he chimney Will behave as deep foundation, ae [Now sesign vertical thrust = 24000 x 15 = 36,000 kg : ‘Seif. weight of foundation = 86Ke ‘Weight of earth on base = a10Kg Total B06 Ke K - Ae ‘Area of base = 1.50 x 150 = 2.25 em" os es : 4 and section modulas,Z? = Lx (1.50)* = 0.563 en? “ ett prone ato = ME IEE yen a een Fr avon, he maximum te pressure = 21,50 km" < 25,00 kg/m? the bearng pressure of soll, Hence ane, : [UPLIFT AND OVERTURNING CHECK + Bis Bo A50m Doe 23M, Fi gS = O65 iad roe Pipe 520, for 9 = 34% = 184 : : ey “Therefore, weight of earth in the frastram of pyramid, W, = 1.68 X (2.3)? X 1500 = 30,000 kg Wy = 836 kg Total” 30,836 kg ‘Design uplift = 19400 x 1,5 — 29,100 ig < 30,836 ke, Hence safe.Ovens unnane : pj) Céidering the tet of? and the aati Fesstancs, the moment ath | Fortine condi, taking moment all eter teers seus | ws Ye~Wrx Bae i Ee | tS ere, WI the might of earth needs 1 ‘ 4 if Ls if 2(29100—-836) x. “> + 1236 Bor We ETE 260 < 2000 ug Saas. ar DESIGN For STRENGTH: (Tension Combined with Bending Design inthis ease willbe done by working load methods, Det of mine manent ge as oat ‘This is less than d; hence the maximum moment occurs slong the le s wth of the chimney, compe it, cal S, = 1640-4 mrt ene Pei, tom Fewe 52,2, = ann Tierefore, M= 1500 039 48.6 = 4970 bg m Arwesaate wong toad monet = 9 = 104g rater ate, member nthe gta econ ate ate ond in td Somes dese moni he nh Under working toad, maximum uplift = 19,400 ky ‘The calney wll thes be dxiged fr an wplft of 19,400 by anda bending momeat of 1,310 em. Use Af 150 concrete with mild stec!relaforcement 2,600 kgjem?) ‘The worklng stresses u Concrete stress in bending ogy = S0kgjemt Coneret = 40 kgjemt ‘Tensile stees i steel = L400 kyjem? “Depth of metral axis balanced) n = 0.865 x ‘Neglecting tension in concrete and considering, e, ‘sctloo, we have, (Figure 8.36), dy <1 cme thi aun ene a aaa ee Se 29,500 i ‘Area of sect required = ERO nt ca Provide 100 >°100 x 12 angle, area = 2259 cm?DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS. us 2 = 24,000 kg = 1310 kgm 131000 2 = raat” = $46 em > 5 ABS 5 1M tas ars From above, the maximum compression In concrete ~ 46,0 kg/cm and maximum (esion = — 9.0 kg/em* 50. bre, 1500, b zoo Pd Figure 534 Figure 5:35 . A 0.405den C:S of cone. . Figure 5:36 Figures 5-34,35,and36 of Example 2opllonable tension according 0 1S : 800 for uniaxial bending ts. 25 pox ‘eptare of concrete, 3 a 3X45 = MS bgleat £00 tglemt Gee or EX 21 = 1525 glen 2 90 Lgjent Mace the footing is OK. Exonpte3 The foundation of 4 teansmivsion tower wlth: (30° i loadings, "The overload factory ace. 2.00 und 1:30 fot norual ae onccobcsive suis with augle of internal frellaa gcc 28° aed ea ‘$60,000 kj, ‘Design 8 suitable yrillage foundation with weutheroge ‘Consider the following loadings: Nature of loading Ne. awe. Downward Ths 3000 3000 ss00" . * ‘20 (13) mene. vin 36000 7000 2 70500 (2.0) (45) ran Shea i ranvertedrcetion «00 2500 too as (2.0) (1.5) ee Shea ia longitudinal direction = 1660 = 2450 (The figures in pereatheses are the overload factors or factors of safety) A. STABILITY ANALYSIS : 4 ‘Adopt base dizcasious shown in Figure 6.37, Area of base = 2.4 x 2.4 = 5.76 m? Soil pressure will be maximum with vertical and side thrust under B.W.C. i] Vertical Torust. = 79500 kg Foundation ood = 1000 kg (assumed) "Total. 90500 kg ‘Nediecting the passive resistance ofthe sol, the moment atte bate leel due to sds trast, Mex = 4350x3925 - = 17,100kg m | | i | | Mey = 26903925 = 900g m section modulus : of base - ae = 230m 80500, 17100, 9800 | Therefore, te prenures ~ 396 +a tap = 14000 4. 7440 4. 4250 From abore, the maximum pressure = 25,600 kg/m! ‘nd the motu pressure = 2310%¢H : 3B. Cumcx rox Uru Axo OveeTURNe B24 mw; D~ 320 ad 07s From rare $20,% 1583 Dates earth nthe steam of promi Bs ccakien 1440 332° Taste 57 wee ot taage, ke ppeny> 270500 — 1000) x 24 + 4350 x 35 we — Hence safe, C._DesIGN FoR STRENGTH () Bottom Tier ‘Maximum soll pressures at A, B, Cand 79.500 for B.W.C. (Figure 5.39) pom So 13.00 gym : pan 100 O50 39096 FE = 13800 + 7440 Pe 13800 +749 13800 + 4250 ~ 18,050 kgjm? Pa = 13800 + 7440 + 4250 = 25,490 kg/m? 13809 + 2124 ‘Therefore, average pressure = A380 + 220 1HOS0 25990 + 19,650 kj owes 24 x AE 34000 Ultimate moment about 2 — 34000 x 100 Plastic modulus required Se Using ISLE 125, Plastic modulus of each = 74,0 cm? 145 “Therefore, nuober of olnts ia Bottom ter ~ So, provide 11 Nos. of above member, 0) Top Tier Plastic modulus required = 745 em* ‘Providing 2 Nos, of ISLC 300, the available plastic modulus w- 2,5 460 = 920 cai? > 745 om? Fequted ‘Shear ; Shear sees a oth op and bottom tiers willbe very sal, ‘Siresses tn the Members From atest dlagram, (Figure $40), Son = 13000 KG 5 og = oe 12800 bg = 10825 < 73,500 ix‘Therefore, total uplift ‘and total Compression inate eae strength Conpresive Senin: Maxinum aime axl Gompreson 92500 kg tect egt ofthe member BP Least radian gyal ig = Bom Now t= Bw 6 ana $$ y46 > 09 Thro tis cmpuc secon : 161 Stenderness catio = 29% 75.1 From CRC columa curve (IS : 802) buckling stress = 3,080 kgjemt Therefore, total buckling loud «= 3,080 x 32.76 = 1,00,000 kg > 92,500 kg, Hence O.K, Y; i wm xy Figure 5:39 lo IS 1200 |, 004100 Is 2400-——} 2 N“ISLB-I25 75mm lean concret Figure 5-37 G Stress diagram 2009 04000 kg. ey 12ce diagram sree 48 Figure 5:40 Figures 5-37,38,39 and 40 of. Example 3es “Therefore, efletve area — 4.29 + 569 x 0678 ~ 8.15 cm ‘Tension capacity = 8.15 x 4560 = 37500 kg > 12,800 kg. Design for Compression 3180 iifective tength — 2282. 1,590 mm ~ 159 cm Design utinate aval compression = 12,800 ky Radins of gration rg = 146 em S 946 640 = 937 SH Ven mo 8 “Hence, tis a compact 5 159, Stendemess “ratio ~ 715% = 109 ‘Therefore, from CRC column curve, (I sn — the buck ing stress — 1,705 hgem? ‘Therefore, total buckling loud = 11.38 X 170S -- 19,400 hg > 12,800 ke. Hence OK. Example $ Desiga conditions (0) Type of vat = Normal (0) Safe bearing capacity wt sll — 1,000 iat (©) Side resistance — 25 porcent of safe bearing capaclty (a) , Density of concrete ~ 2240 kaj? 2 4) . (0) Density of sit = 1440 bpm i () Anil of sear of nol ers . (2) Vertical downward loud : maximo 31437 ag upite — NC~ 18479 WE 1 25815 Shear = 3145 ua, __ Minianam area of pad required a7 287 Provide a pad of 1.8 m? ‘Assuaning foundation as per Figure 5,@ ® o @ auto coerce - +034 18x03 Je 0223 = 0249+ 09604 0207 = Lanne : WW of comaete 240 140) 5 13914 2240» 0027 = 194 64 — LATA Chek for Don Tot Tal dowavard tht facing wt of cede = ua eines sane Ste bear capacity S15 oot = Mens Powered drt Chek for oth ° base 2? 18D mt een dpi. = 2.25 mt Gras vlune of ert fescum Sa + 1388 an + 0444 rm ADS aes ase x 18 0 278-4 8.444 2754 I sam 115m Nett lame rae We. of earth 7 = 32.73 x 1440 = 47,131 ke Wa cone marae pyre = anaes tg : ctr ost: Noma cnditn BS 3 > 280 Uoken wre condon (= BS otras . Check for Side Tat Side argon 19x00 + GEO ons 03 x19 = tates Se ering apy = 134 ie 2688 > Sie tra Check for Unrooing of Sib Bond of stub In concrete = (Ax 13 x —2 x 48x I3)IS121 Point af which : overturning HI / ssaumedto Sake é place Point where ear pressure assumed foact te. FIGURE 5.42 iv Pawo x a345x : 7 ase Ewe, ot earth = SE 8 23566 ue : z T P= Upward tars = 25.85 4g i MW, — Buoyant wt. of concrete 14k { S —Side trast orhortowin shear 3,045 bg B 18m, ¥= 2215 m } cass — 079 x 1 4 14s x 215 : 14785 + 6967 axis + = ITT kg < 2 ‘Therefore, foundation is safe for overturning due to side thrust, Quantities Excavation = 4x 208 x 2905 = 6.83 ot Concrete volume mize x 0075 + no 2 [asso 10x03 ] +03 x23 7 +2 O75 x 0.25" = 0204 0965+ 0207+ 0004~ 1512 wt er toer (Se saat