/

INTRODUCTION
Flight safety requires an understanding of atmospheric phenomena. Present day jet flight crews are not only confronted with weather
associated with the lower atmosphere, but with weather conditions found within the high troposphere and lower stratosphere as well. In
this chapter, high altitude weather phenomena, thunderstorms, and mountain waves will be discussed. Also, high altitude physiology is
included at the end of this section.

It has been assumed that the reader has a basic knowledge of meteorology. Therefore, most of the weather theory associated with the lower
atmosphere has been omitted.

In meteorology, the earths atmosphere can generally be divided into two major regions the lower atmosphere and the upper atmosphere.
The lower atmosphere consists of the troposphere, and the upper atmosphere begins with the stratosphere. Between the troposphere and
the stratosphere is a boundary zone known as a tropopause.

ATMOSPHERE Its thickness is constantly changing due to temperature changes of the earth
and of the lower atmosphere itself. At 45 latitude, the average height of the
TROPOSPHERE troposphere is approximately 35,000 feet.

The troposphere, which lies next to the surface of

the earth, has a thickness which varies with time, The troposphere is the most unsettled layer of the earths
season, and altitude. On the average, its height atmosphere. It is the area where nearly all visible weather
is extends to about 55,000 feet above the Equator to found. Most weathe
28,000 feet above the polar regions.

2-
1
r JEPPE5EINI AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT COURSE

phenomena is confined to the troposphere for the

following reasons:
STRATOSPHERE
The region of the atmosphere just above the
1. temperature changes due to tropopause is called the stratosphere. This layer of
radiation are at a maximum at the the atmosphere is normally stable and has a
earths surface; temperature range from about -45 Celsius (-49
Fahrenheit) to -75 Celsius (-103 Fahrenheit). Its
2. the availability of water vapor is lapse rate is stable and, therefore, few clouds are
found in the lower atmosphere; and found at this height. However, cirrus clouds and
the tops of cumulonimbus will at times be located
3. the greatest concentration of within this region. Figure 2-1 depicts the general
condensation nuclei is in the structure of the atmosphere.
troposphere.
Fig. 2-1. Genera! Structure of the Atmosphere
In the troposphere, the average temperature vari-
ation is a decrease of approximately 2 Celsius (3.5
Fahrenheit) for each 1,000-foot rise from the
surface (standard lapse rate).

TROPOPAUSE
The tropopause is a relatively thick layer, or
boundary zone, which separates the lower
atmosphere from the upper atmosphere. By
definition, the tropopause is that area where the
temperature change does not exceed two-thirds of
one degree Celsius per thousand foot increase in
altitude over a range of 6,000 feet. It is at a height
where the atmosphere ceases to be affected by
surface heating. At 45 latitude, the temperature of
the tropopause is approximately -46 Celsius (-69
Fahrenheit). It should be remembered that the
tropopause is just a dividing boundary zone and
that its height changes with changing thickness of
the troposphere.

That portion of the atmosphere which lies next to the surface of

1. the earth is called the

At a height where the atmosphere ceases to be affected by

2.
surface heating is a boundary zone known as the troposphere

3. tropopause
The region of the atmosphere which is normally stable and has few
clouds is known as the

stratosphere

2-2
 /

METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT

THE JET STREAM mile or so in depth. A vertical wind shear is of the

order of five knots per 1,000 feet or more and a
As previously discussed, the tropopause is the horizontal shear is of the order of 10 knots or more
boundary zone that lies between the troposphere in 60 nautical miles. An arbitrary lower limit of 60
and the stratosphere. It is relatively high over the knots is assigned to the speed of the wind along the
tropics (tropical tropopause) and relatively low over core of the jet stream. (See Fig. 2-3.)
the poles (polar tropopause). The average height of
the tropopause over the poles is approximately
Fig. 2-2. JetStream Location
25,000 feet to 30,000 feet and slopes gradually
upward to approximately 50,000 feet to 60,000 feet
at the Equator. However, the tropopause is
interrupted at various points; one of these breaks
occurs at mid-latitude (30 to 50 north latitude).
At such a break, the polar tropopause ends and the
higher tropical tropopause begins.

The jet stream is usually found in the regions

where the break in the tropopause occurs, as
illustrated in figure 2-2. It can be described as a
narrow band of high velocity winds which are
embedded within a region of slower moving winds.
The World Meteorological Organization
recommends the following description: Normally, a
jet stream is several thousand miles in length,
several hundred miles in width, and a

Fig. 2-3. Jet Stream Dimensions

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3
 /

Fig. 2-4. Jet Stream Viewed Looking Downstream into Jet

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JEPPESE1NI AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT COURSE

METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT

By using this definition of the jet stream, it can be
seen that excessive winds are not necessary. Jet
streams are more predominant during winter
months with speeds of 100 to 150 knots, occurring
rather frequently. Occasionally, winds of over 200
knots have been observed and it is probable that
wind speeds in excess of 250 knots have occurred.
Their location is depicted on the 200 mb. and 300
mb. prognostic (forecast) constant pressure charts
as a series of bold arrows. (Constant pressure
charts are discussed in chapter 3.)
There are two rather distinct jet streams which
occur over the Northern Hemisphere. They are the
polar jet and the subtropical jet. The polar jet is the
name applied to the jet stream frequently
encountered in the middle and subpolar latitudes.
The subtropical jet stream is normally observed
overchange in the temperature
the northern limits of thepatterns.
tropics. Below
In the the
core, relatively cold air is found on
Southern Hemisphere there are similar jet stream the left side.
However, above the core the opposite is true since The over
systems.
relatively cold air is located on the right side. temperature).
The Relatively
jet streamwarmmostairfrequently encountered
is found below the coreover
and to from one side of the core to the other, but below
the continental United
the right and also States
above is thejets
the polarcore and to the and above the core there is a marked
left.
Early research on the jet stream seemed to indi-
cate a direct relationship between the polar jet and
the polar front. However, this is not always
jet. However, the subtropical jet is sometimes found
over the southern portion of the United States.
Figure 2-4 depicts the cross-section of a typical
polar jet stream. The reader should view this figure
as looking east at the same level as the jet stream.
The jet core is portrayed as blowing into the page
with the reader looking downstream. The polar jet
stream has winds which flow predominantly from
the west toward the east. However, it does meander
north and south remaining approximately parallel
to the surface cold front, but behind it roughly 200
to 300 miles, as shown in figure 2-5. The core of
the polar jet usually lies between 30,000 and
40,000 feet. The blue lines in figure 2-4 are
isotachs (lines of equal wind speed) which are
drawn at 30-knot intervals. Note that the core of
the polar jet is found just below the tropical tropo-
pause level.
true since, in some cases, there is little evidence to
connect the two. The polar jet stream may pass
thin black lines are isotherms (lines of equal
areas of little or no clouds. Also, paradoxically,
the jet
There is little change in temperature
stream may occur above low pressure and
well-developed storm centers. Therefore, the
presence of a jet does not necessarily mean the
presence of weather. Yet, especially during *
wintery months, well-developed storms and
extensive bad weather areas tend to be connected
with jet streams.

1. Narrow bands of high velocity winds

true, false

called jet streams are found where breaks occur in the tropo-
pause.

true
2. Jet stream location is depicted on milli- bar and millibar constant pressure prog- ...
' . . :
nostic charts. a. ' .- ' ' '

;
3. The two most common jet streams found over the Northern

Hemisphere are the jet and the jet.

subtropical
4. The jet stream usually found over the continental United States is the jet.

2-5
 /

JEPPESEIM AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT COURSE

5. The core of a polar jet is found just below the polar

tropopause.

6. Viewing the jet core in figure 2-4 as looking downstream,

relatively cold air is found below the jet core and to the tropical
_______________side. left
left, right Relatively cold air is also found above the jet core and to the side.
7. left, right

8.
Relatively warm air is found below the core and to the side and

also above the jet core to the right

left, right left, right

9.
There is always a direct relationship right
true, false
between the polar jet and the polar front. left

false

CLEAR AIR TURBULANCE Locating the tropopause level can be of great

AT HIGH ALTITUDES
Clear air turbulence, or simply CAT, is normally
caused by wind shear between two different layers
of air which are adjacent to one another. These two
different layers of air may be moving in either
different directions or velocities, or a combination of
direction and velocity. This turbulence can often
develop into small waves.
The tropopause boundary zone is a place where
vertical movement within the troposphere stops and
begins to flow laterally beneath the stable air of the
stratosphere. This boundary zone can either be very
sharp or somewhat diffuse. When the boundary
zone is relatively sharp, turbulence can be expected
at the tropopause level. The degree of turbulence
will be greater when the boundary zone is very
sharp and a great amount of vertical movement is
present. If the boundary zone is diffused and
vertical movement is minimal, the turbulence will
be considerably less.
assistance in determining where smooth flight
conditions are most likely to exist. The stratosphere
above the tropopause is normally very stable air
and any pollution which has penetrated this height
will form into a haze layer. Thus, the tropopause
level is often indicated by the presence of a haze
layer. It is interesting to note that the haze layer
can be considerably dense, permitting very little
horizontal visibility.
Turbulence associated with the jet stream can be
considerable. Horizontal wind shear is more pre-
dominant on the north side of the jet core where the
isotachs are closely spaced. To the north, the
decrease may be as much as 100 knots in 100
nautical miles. Vertical wind shear may be as great
as 30 knots in a 1,000-foot change in altitude.
The occurrence of CAT can be associated with other
windflow patterns which produce the necessary
shears. An example is a sharp trough aloft. When a
sharp trough aloft is moving at a

2-6
 /

METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT

speed of 20 knots or more, clear air turbulence in

or near the trough is common even though the
wind speeds may be rather low as compared with
the speeds near the jet stream. As illustrated in
figure 2-6, the winds on opposite sides of the
trough can have a difference of more than 90
change in direction. The shaded area is the region
where CAT is most likely to take place.

Normally, high level clear air turbulence is isolated

or in patchy locations. These patches of CAT have
variable dimensions with thicknesses as great as
10,000 feet in depth, 500 miles in width, and over
1,000 miles in length. However, they usually
average about 2,000 feet in depth, 20 miles in
width, and 50 miles in length and are elongated
with the direction of the upper winds.

When CAT conditions are anticipated or en-

countered, the following procedures should be
used:
Figure 2-7 shows where CAT can occur in a
1. Use the turbulent air penetration
circulation pattern around a closed low aloft.
speed. Severe clear air turbulence will
Another example, as shown in figure 2-8, is the
cause large and often rapid variations in
area of CAT formation to the northeast of a cut
indicated airspeed. Once the aircraft has
off low aloft.
been stabilized at the turbulent air
penetration speed, it is normally
recommended that the aircraft should
not be retrimmed and that the thrust
setting remain fairly constant.

2. The attitude indicator should be

used as a primary flight instrument.
Maintain level wings and control pitch
attitude smoothly. In extreme turbu-
lence, large attitude changes may occur.
It is important not to use sudden or
large control inputs as excessive G
forces may occur.

3. The altitude of the aircraft should

be allowed to vary. Large altitude varia-
tions can occur in severe turbulence.

Fig. 2-7. CA T Associated With Closed Low Aloft

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JEPPESEIM AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT COURSE

It is preferred to sacrifice altitude in and usually is recommended. However,

order to maintain the desired attitude if the autopilot is equipped with an
and airspeed. altitude hold, it should be turned off and
4. If the aircraft is equipped with an the aircraft altitude allowed to fluctuate.
autopilot, its use can be advantageous

1. High altitude turbulence is normally caused by wind

9. When the tropopause boundary zone is true, false

very sharp, little or no turbulence should be expected. shear

3. The tropopause level is often indicated by the presence of a

false
layer.

4. Turbulence associated with the jet stream core is more predominant

haze
on the side.
north, south

5. Clear air turbulence should be antici-

true, false

pated when a sharp trough area aloft is present, even though the wind speeds north

may be considerably less than that of jet stream winds.

6. Whenever encountering severe turbulence, a primary flight

true
instrument is the indicator.

7 Tf an autopilot is being used while en- true, false

attitude
countering severe turbulence, the altitude hold feature should be kept ON.

2-8

false
CLOUDS ASSOCIATED
WITH JET STREAMS
As previously mentioned, turbulence at high
altitudes is produced by the effect of shear between
two layers of air. As a result, the turbulence at the
point of shear is often in the form of small waves in
a very highly organized fashion. When there is
sufficient moisture available, condensation and
evaporation may take place as particles of moisture
move along with the wave action. When they move
up, expansion cooling results in the cloud
formation. As the moisture particles move down,
compression heating takes place and the cloud
evaporates. As a result, the cloud formation will
appear on the crest of the waves. Between the rows
there may be clear spaces, but often the clouds will
appear in a roll pattern as part of a complete
overcast, as viewed in figure 2-9. This type of cloud
has frequently been seen in the vicinity of jet
stream locations. They mark the shear zone, or the
edge of the jet stream.
Fig. 2-9. Jet Stream Clouds
At the present time, it is not definitely known just
where clouds lie in relation to the jet stream core.
However, these clouds do represent the zone where
wind shear is present and, therefore, can be of
considerable assistance to the pilot.
JET STREAM SUMMARY
1. A jet stream can be thought of as a
narrow, high-speed, meandering river
/
METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT
of wind moving around the earth in a
wave-like pattern. It may be continuous
around the earth, but most often it is
broken up into several discontinuous
segments. The jet stream positions vary
from day-to-day and to location, with
larger scale variations occurring with the
seasons.
2. As a rule, the jet stream is composed
of winds between 100 and 150 knots. In
extreme cases, 200 to 250 knots or
greater may occur.
3. A well-developed jet stream is nor-
mally 1,000 to 3,000 miles in length,
100 to 400 miles wide, and 3,000 to
7,0 feet thick.
4. In the summer, the polar jet is
usually found somewhere between 40
and 50 north longitude, and in the
winter it is more likely to be found be-
tween 20 and 45 north longitude.
5. Wind speeds decrease very rapidly to
the north (polar side) and more slowly to
the south (tropical side) of the jet core.
6. The vertical shear (change of wind
speed in a vertical plane) is more abrupt.
A decrease of 30 to 40 knots within
1,000 feet above or below the core of
maximum winds is not uncommon.
7. The jet stream does not always
appear at any one altitude. The core
level in any one jet is likely to vary
several thousand feet and occasionally
as much as 10,000 feet. In general, the
further south the jet, the higher the core
is likely to be.
8. The frequency of occurrence of jet
streams does not seem to have any
marked seasonal variation generally
as many occur in summer as in winter.
However, jet streams have a seasonal
north to south shift and are more
frequently encountered over the
2-9
JEPPESEIVI AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT COURSE
1. ______________________ The polar jet stream is usually found
true, false

temperate regions in the winter than in the right of the tropopause break as
summer. viewed looking downwind.

2. 9. Jet streams appear Wind to be speeds

better decrease
de- very rapidly
12.on At times, there appears to be
fined andtrue, false the in
stronger polar
the side of than in
winter true
a definite relationship between the polar
thesummer.
the jet core.
front and the jet stream activity, but
10. As the jet stream moves this relationship frequently does not
south, it appears that the speed of the occur.
core increases; i.e., if two jet streams
exist over the United States at the same 13. Turbulence may be found in
time, the more southerly one will gen- regions of strong temperature and/or
erally contain the higher speeds. wind gradients.

11. Where a jet stream appears, 14. A potential region of

there is usually a discontinuity in the turbulence may be encountered at or
tropo- pause, with the jet core location just below the tropopause.
to

3.

somewhere within the

Changes in wind speed in the horizontal
mid-latitudes during
the summer months.
true, false

plane are generally more abrupt than changes in wind speed in the vertical plane.
~

5. J
4. In general, the further south the jet true e t
true, false false
stream, the higher the core is likely to be.

streams are usually better defined and stronger in the

winter, summer

6. If two jet streams exist over the United States at the same
time, the stronger jet stream will most likely be to the winter

2-
10
 /

METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT

~--//
-
7. Turbulence is most likelv where there :
true, false
south
are regions of strong temperature gradients.
- /;/// : / A . ,
.-.
^ ( ___. 9} ^
'//'-
' '
, " - - - . , -- -

8. The potential regions of turhulence are : V . ' x '-O' true

true, false be encountered at or just below the tropo-
most likely to pause level.
> ; ; . WMzt

----

true

When these conditions exist, the stable layer of air just

THE MOUNTAIN WAVE above the mountaintops forms a barrier to the rising
currents because the stable air will not permit these

> MOUNTAIN WAVE TURBULENCE vertical currents to penetrate. This causes the air, which
is forced to rise because of the barrier, to be squeezed
Moutain waves, sometimes referred to as standing between the mountaintop and the layer of stable air
waves, are a product of displaced stable air. The immediately above it. Once this squeezed air moves to
turbulence produced by mountain wave action can be the lee side of the mountain, it then begins to descend
destructively severe. When conditions are suitable for toward its original level where it was prior to being
mountain wave formation, turbulence will develop on forced aloft. However, in its attempt to seek its previous
the lee side of the mountains and extend as high as the altitude, it begins to move too fast and penetrates below
lower stratosphere for a distance frequently in excess of its desired level. It then begins to rise again, thus
150 miles downwind of the mountaintops. creating a wave-like pattern, as illustrated in figure 2-
10. As the air moves further downstream from the
MOUNTAIN WAVE MECHANICS mountain barrier, these oscillations eventually dampen
out.
The meteorological conditions required to form
mountain waves are:
50,000 STRATOSPHERE
1. a stable layer of air located just above -TR0P0PAUSE-
the mountaintops; TROPOSPHERE

wwr.
2. a wind blowing approximately perpen-
dicular to the mountain range with a speed
of 25 knots or more at mountain top level; ROTOR CLOUDS
LENTICULAR
and
MILES 0 2
3. a wind profile whereby the wind velocity
increases with increasing altitude and a iCLOUDS Fig. 2-10.
strong, steady wind flow at higher levels -10,000
Mountain
often extending to the tropopause. CAP CLOUD Wave
Mechanic

2-
11
 /

sJEPPESE 1NJ AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT COURSE

1.
Mountain waves are the product of displaced stable, unstable

air.

2. Sometimes referred to as standing waves, mountain waves develop

stable
on the______________________________ side of mountain ranges.

3. Wind speeds as low as 25 knots at the mountaintop level can

produce mountain wave conditions. The wind profile should
lee
be such that its velocity________________________with increasing
altitude. increases, decreases - v: :

increases

MOUNTAIN WAVE stable, but is moving rapidly. When

CLOUDS the edges are smooth in appearance,
aircraft in or near this type of cloud
will experience little or no
The best means for identifying
turbulence, but there will be
mountain waves is by visual
updrafts and downdrafts associated
identification of their characteristic
with the motion of the wave. When
cloud forms. If there is insufficient
the edges of this type
moisture in the air, there will be no
clouds. However, the wave action can
still be present and just as severe.
When the moisture is sufficient to
cause clouds to form, they can easily
be recognized both from the air and
on the ground. The three main cloud
formations are lenticular, rotor, and
cap clouds.

LENTICULAR CLOUDS

The lenticular clouds can be easily

recognized since they resemble the
cross-section of a camera lens. Also,
this type of cloud is seen often in the
vicinity of jet streams. Figure 2-11
illustrates a typical lenticular-type
cloud. Notice that they are
sometimes piled one on top of
another, as indicated in figure 2-10.
This type of cloud indicates the air is

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 METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT

of cloud appear rough or

ragged, it means that the
entire wave pattern is
becoming unstable and
that moderate to extreme
turbulence should be
expected. Lenticular clouds
are usually reported as
standing lenticular
altocumulus, which is
abbreviated in weather
reports as ACSL.

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 JEPPESEIM AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT COURSE

Fig. 2-11. Lenticular Cloud

line of cumulus or
ROTOR CLOUDS fractocumulus clouds lying
The rotor clouds look like a parallel to the ridg
e
line. They form on the lee side of the mountains and have bases sometimes
located below the heights of the mountain peaks their tops extend
considerably above the mountain peaks and sometimes may be as high as
twice the height of the highest peak. Rotor clouds will normally be found
directly below the lenticular clouds and, at times, they may actually merge
with the lenticular clouds above. Their appearance makes them look
harmless. However, with the use of laDse-time photography, the rotor cloud
can be seen as a dangerously turbulent area with updrafts and downdrafts
exceeding over 5,000 feet per second. It appears as a stationary cloud, but is
constantly forming on the windward side and dissipating on the leeward side.
Flight conditions through this type of cloud will be extremely dangerous and,
therefore, one should absolutely avoid the rotor cloud.
CAP CLOUDS
The cap clouds usually obscure the entire mountain peak. They hug the
windward side of the mountain and flow partially down the leeward side,
similar to a waterfall. They also appear to be harmless, but downdrafts as
great as
5,0 feet per minute can be expected on the leeward
side. The extent to which this cloud hangs over the
leeward side is an indication that the downdrafts are
very great. As it passes over the ridge and begins to
move downhill, it heats adiabatically and, therefore,
evaporates. If the movement of air is slow, the
evaporation process will be quite rapid, indicating that
movement of air is not too great. If the movement of air
over the mountain ridge is fast, the cap cloud will hang
down further on the lee side of the mountain.

1. Tf no clouds are present, mountain wave true, false

action will not be severe.

2-
14
 METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT

ee types of cloud formations associated with standing waves are , , and

false
A " A | %k AAAW,

3. Flight conditions near lenticular clouds lenticular

true, false
:'-
which have smooth edges will most likely have little or no rotor
- .
turbulence, but will have updrafts and downdrafts. cap
-
:

4. The cloud formations located parallel to the mountain range which

produce the most violent turbulence are called clouds. true

oud which obscures the entire mountain peak and flows downward on the
rotor
ard side like that of a waterfall is the cloud.

cap

TIPS ON FLYING DURING pilot should

be on the alert for turbu-
lence
MOUNTAIN WAVE CONDITIONS
1. If possible, the area where the moun-
tain wave conditions exist should be
laterally detoured. If this is not possible,
an altitude should be used which is at
least 50 percent higher than the height
of the mountain range.
2. When mountain wave turbulence is
suspected, the aircraft should be flown
at the turbulent air penetration speed.
3. The area around and directly beneath
the rotor cloud should be avoided.
4. When high lenticular clouds have
edges which are ragged or irregular, a
5. Abnormal altimeter readings with
errors as great as 2,000 feet may be
prevalent with mountain wave con-
ditions.
6. Flight conditions at the tropopause
level may be extremely turbulent;
therefore, the aircraft should be flown
well above the tropopause in the area of
the stratosphere, or at an altitude well
below the tropopause level. Remember,
at turbojet flight levels, mountain wave
turbulence may be encountered with the
highest exposure more likely in the
vicinity of the tropopause.

2-
15
1.
JEPPESEIM AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT COURSE
If mountain wave conditions are suspected over a mountain range
having an average height of 12,000 feet MSL, the minimum altitude
used to fly over this area should be feet MRT.

2.

The type of cloud most likely indicating the greatest turbulent area
18,000
during mountain wave conditions is the cloud.

3.
When a mountain wave is present, flight
true, false

conditions at the tropopause level may be extremely turbulent and rotor

should be avoided.

true

2-
16
THUNDERSTORMS
It has been estimated that at any given instant, there are approximately 1,800 thunderstorms in
progress over the earths surface. The frequency
 /

of thunderstorm occurrence increases with the seasonal rise in temperature during the spring and
summer months. All thunderstorms contain a concentrated mass of very unstable air in vio lent
motion capable of producing severe to extreme turbulence.METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT

CLASSIFICATION OF nomena creates the development of a

vertical circulation pattern when the
THUNDERSTORMS airmass is made unstable due to the
Thunderstorms are normally classified as airmass or addition or subtraction of heat.
front. Airmass thunderstorms include the following The atmospheric instability necessary for
types: thunderstorm development can occur in many
Convective different ways:
1.
(1) Radiational cooling of cloud tops
2. Orographic
(2) Heating the cloud base from the
3. Nocturnal ground

(3) Frontal lifting

Frontal thunderstorms include:
(4) Mechanical lifting
1. Warm front (5) Convergence of horizontal winds into
the center of a low pressure area, forcing
2. Cold front warm air near the center to flow upward

3. Prefrontal (squall line)
4. Occluded front
In general, airmass thunderstorms are isolated and
can be circumnavigated without too much difficulty.
Thunderstorms associated with frontal systems pose
a more difficult problem. Warm front thunderstorms
may be embedded in stratiform clouds. Airborne
radar is needed to detect the location of warm front
thunderstorms. Cold front thunderstorms are
commonly found in a continuous line parallel to and
along the frontal surface. The prefrontal squall lines
generally are located 50 to 300 miles in advance of a
cold front, approximately parallel and normally
faster moving. Heavy hail and tornadoes are common
features of squall lines.
THUNDERSTORM MECHANICS
Thunderstorms are . the result of thermal instability
in the atmosphere. This atmospheric phe
.
Cumulus clouds are the result of parcels of air that
have been lifted vertically high enough to condense
any water vapor. Initially, these droplets will be very
small and too light to fall out as rain. As the lifting
continues, however, these droplets begin to grow in
size by colliding and merging with each other.
Eventually, they are large enough to fall against the
updrafts responsible for their formation. Therefore, a
cumulus cloud is the result of atmospheric
instability as warm, light air rises rapidly into
surrounding cooler air.
Within the cumulus cloud itself there is
another source of energy which
further enhances its development. The
formation of water droplets from water
vapor results in a release of heat
energy referred to as the latent heat
of condensation. This latent heat
increases the momentum of the
vertical movement. The rate at which
this energy is released is directly
related to the amount of water vapor
available as it is converted into a
liquid state

2-
18
METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT

2-
19
 2. The type of fronts which are capable of producing thunder- convective

storms are orographic

, and nocturnal

S Airmass thunderstorms are eenerallv warm

true, false
isolated or scattered over a large area. cold
prefrontal (squall
line)
occluded
true
4. The most severe type of thunderstorm is generally associated with

lines.

5. Thunderstorms are the result of insta- bility. squall

6. The type of cloud formed when warm, light air rises rapidly into
thermal
cooler air is a -type cloud.

7 When water vapor condenses into water

true, false

droplets, there is a release of heat energy which makes the cumulus

surrounding air warmer.

:
- A : A-A.A true

THUNDERSTORM STAGES atmospheric pressure

which is slightly less
In the first stage of thunderstorm than the surrounding
development, the cumulus stage, there area. Also, as the
is a predominant updraft causing warm development
air to rise beyond the condensation continues, air flows
level, producing the familiar cumulus- into the cumulus
type cloud, as shown in figure 2-12. cloud from all sides.
The region below this updraft has This is called entrain-
convergent surface winds and an ment, which helps
feed the updraft

Fig. 2-12. Cumulus Stage

JEPPE5EINI AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT COURSE

.
MATURE STAGE

Once the water droplets are large enough and in sufficient quantity to fall against the updraft, the second
stage of the thunderstorm begins. This is referred to as the mature stage. (See Fig. 2-13.) The mature stage
is evidenced by a marked change in the wind direction within the storm cell. The prevailing updrafts in the
cumulus stage, which initiated the clouds growth, now are accompanied by down- drafts which are
generated by the falling precipitation. The mature stage of a storm cell dominates the electrical field and
atmospheric circulation over a considerable area. Lightning is the result of a discharge of electricity between
large opposing charges and occurs soon after the precipitation begins.

Fig. 2-13. Mature Stage

Once the thunderstorm has reached its maturity, it is several miles across at the base and may exceed an
altitude of over 40,000 feet. Upper winds at the troposphere cause the development of the familiar anvil top.
At the surface, beneath the mature stage, the initial precipitation is in the form of light rain which is soon
joined by the strong downdraft. This downdraft spreads outward from the cloud in divergent directions with
gusty winds and a large drop in air temperature. If no precipitation is present, then a thunderstorms
mature stage is recognized by the cold air flowing outward over the surface. The thunderstorms mature
stage is the most violent phase in the storms life. Lightning, heavy rain, high winds, and sometimes hail are
all present. The most destructive form of the severe thunderstorm is the tornado. Evidence indicates that
the tornado funnel cloud will normally be located in the south or southwest quadrant, outside the area of
heavy precipitation, as depicted in figure 2-14.

2-
21
JEPPESEINI AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT COURSE

Fig. 2-14. Tornado Funnels

DISSIPATING STAGE

1.____________________________________Once the thunderstorm

cell has reached a mature stage, it begins to die. This is due to

the violent downdraft which begins to dissipate the updraft

which supported the storm. The down- draft prevents the

convergence of low-level winds and the storm loses its main

source of moisture and, therefore, energy. This last stage, in

which the storm dies, is considered to be the dissipating stage.

(See Fig. 2-15.)In the cumulus stage of thunderstorm

development, there is a predominant__

updraft, downdraft

2. __________________________ Divergent surface winds are common

true, false updraft
beneath a growing cumulus cloud.
3. Tn the mature stage of a thunderstorm true, false false
the updrafts are accompanied by downdrafts caused by the falling
precipitation.

4. Tornadoes are nearly always located in true

true, false
the area of heaviest precipitation.

2- Fig. 2-15. Dissipating Stage

22
 METEORLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT

5. In the dissipating stage, the predomi-

true, false

nant downdraft prevents the convergence of low-level winds, false

thereby denying the storm its main source of energy.

true

FLYING IN THE VICINITY OF altitude about one-fifth as often as in the

center of severe storms. Also, severe
SEVERE THUNDERSTORMS turbulence may be encountered within the
anvil cloud as much as 15 to 20 miles
Thunderstorm research to date has provided the downwind from well- developed storms. It
following information: should be remembered that the storm
cloud is only the visible portion of the
1. In most well-developed
turbulence area and that updrafts and
thunderstorms (those extending up to or
downdrafts extend outside of the visible
beyond
storm edge.
60,0 feet) there is little variation of
turbulence intensity with altitude.
The radar reflectivity increases
2. The severity and frequency of with the severity and frequency of
turbulence decreases slowly with
turbulence. The reflectivity is a
distance from the storm center. Data
indicates that 20 miles from the center of function of the number and size of
severe storms, moderate to severe water droplets in a given unit
turbulence can be encountered at any volume

2-
23
 .
3.
4. The clear air next to a thunderstorm is a place where severe turbulence can occur. Further, this
turbulence is more likely on the downwind side of the storm. At the edge of the visible portion of the
storm, there is a mixing of clear air with the cloud, which produces strong temperature gradients.
These temperature gradients produce rapid variations of vertical airflow velocities.

5. Above the storm tops, the turbulence appears to be related to the speed of the upper troposphere
winds. When these upper troposphere winds are high (100 knots), significant turbulence can be
expected as much as
10,0 feet above the top of the storm.

6. Turbulence below the cloud base can be as severe as in the storm itself. Strong downdrafts have
been encountered to the earths surface.

7. In severe storms, the possibility of large hail and strong vertical currents should be expected to
within a few thousand feet of the tops. It is vitally important to avoid any large buildups at all
altitudes. The tops of the severe storms can sometimes be obtained from radar and by a reference to
the radar summary charts.

8. The probability of hail is more clearly identified with the intensity of the radar echoes than is the
turbulence. Whenever the storms reflectivity is strong, the occurrence of hail is likely. Pilots should be
on the alert for hail when radar echoes are well-defined.

9. The greatest temperature variations take place along the edges of the cloud where the air is
relatively dry. Temperature variations can be expected to be as great as 10 Celsius per mile near
severe thunderstorms.
A
10. There appears to be no correlation between the external appearance of a
severe thunderstorm and the turbulence and hail that are contained within them.

11. With severe thunderstorms, the radar echoes may grow in intensity by a factor of 10 each
minute. The rate of growth of the cloud tops can exceed over 7,000 feet per minute. Two severe storms
separated by a distance of 20 miles or less may contain moderate to severe turbulence in the clear air
between them.
12. Tornadoes usually occur on the'upwind side of severe storms, but it should be noted that
their funnels are not visible to radar. It has been hypothesized by some scientists that the tornado
funnels are connected to, and evacuated by, the updraft of the parent thunderstorm through vortex
tubes. These vortex tubes are located within the sloping clouds that grow on the upwind side of major
thunderstorms. Flight within this region of the storm should be avoided as the tornado funnel extends
up into the cloud and cannot readily be discernible by radar.

13. Avoidance of the heavy thunderstorm echoes to the south and southwest is extremely
important. It is estimated that the minimum separation distance from the center of a severe storm
should be at least 20 nautical miles up to altitudes of 5,000 feet from the surface, 15 miles at 15,000
feet, and approximately 7 miles at 20,000 feet.

14. Although tornado vortices are not visible on radar, a hooked or scalloped echo is frequently
seen on the edge of the main echo in tornado situations.

15. Tornado vortices beneath a cloud deck may or may not be visible.

.J
16. Avoidance, rather than penetration, of thunderstorms is always the best
procedure, and the most effective tool for severe storm avoidance is airborne
radar.1. In severe thunderstorms, there is little
true, false
variation of turbulence intensity with altitude.

2. Radar reflectivity is a function of the

true, false

number and size of water droplets in a given unit volume, and this reflectivity true

increases with the severity and frequency of turbulence.

3. In general, the turbulence 10 miles from

, true, false
the center of severe storms will be only light or occasionally true
moderate.

4. _______________________When upper troposphere winds are high,

true, false false
significant turbulence should be expected as much as 10,000 feet
above the tops of severe storms.

5. Turbulence below the cloud base can be

true, false true
as severe as within the storm itself.

6. Well-defined radar echoes may indicate

true, false true
the presence of hail.

7. Moderate to severe turbulence should be

true, false true
anticipated between two severe storms separated by a distance of 20
miles or less.

8 The location of tornadoes usuallv can

true, false true
be identified with the use of radar.

9. Hooked or scalloped radar echoes may

true, false false
indicate the presence of tornadoes.

10. Tornado vortices are always visible and

true, false true
can be easily avoided during daylight hours.

false
 METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT

HIGH ALTITUDE altitude. At relatively low altitudes, time of useful

consciousness may be considerable, but when
PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS above 35,000 feet, it is measured in seconds. There
are various factors which determine the time of
HYPOXIA useful consciousness. Some of these factors are:
1. Altitude With increasing
Hypoxia is one of the more important problems altitude, time of useful consciousness
confronting the jet flight crew. It can be extremely decreases.
dangerous because its onset may not be apparent
and unconsciousness may eventually occur. 2. Rate of ascent Generally
Therefore, it is important that the flight crew have a speaking, the faster the rate of ascent,
complete understanding of hypoxia. the shorter the time of useful
consciousness.
Hypoxia can be defined as a lack of sufficient
oxygen available to the body cells. The degree of
3. Physical activity As physical
hypoxia depends upon the reduction of the partial
activity increases, time of useful
pressure of oxygen in the air sacs located within the
consciousness is reduced considerably.
lungs. This reduction of oxygen pressure becomes
apparent in what is referred to as the physiological
4. Day-to-day factors The
deficient zone. This zone extends from about
individuals physical fitness or his ability
12,000 feet to about 50,000 feet. When the supply
to tolerate hypoxia changes daily.
of oxygen to the cells of the body becomes
Therefore, time of useful consciousness
insufficient, abnormal physiological functions
will vary from day to day.
become evident. An inadequate oxygen supply to
the cells can be caused by various conditions.

The most important characteristic of hypoxia is that

a crewmember may not be aware of the effects that
hypoxia is having on his body. Each individual
reacts to hypoxia differently. However, there are
certain symptoms which might indicate to the
individual that he is suffering from an oxygen
deficiency. Some common symptoms are:

1. an increased breathing rate,

2. lightheaded or dizzy sensations,

3. tingling or warm sensations,

4. sweating,

5. reduced vision or loss of vision,

6. fatigue or sleepiness,
7. a light blue coloring of the skin,
fingernails, and lips, and

8. behavioral changes.
The time of useful consciousness is the amount of
time from the onset of hypoxia until deterioration of
the individuals effective performance. Time of
useful consciousness varies considerably with

2-
26
 METEOROLOGY FOR JET AIRCRAFT
Figure 2-16 is a time of useful consciousness chart for various altitudes. These times will vary
depending upon the various factors previously discussed and, therefore, represent average
times which may be expected without supplemental oxygen.

2-
27
JEPPE55EIM AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT COURSE

The immediate application of emergency oxygen is
necessary for the treatment of hypoxia. If the
individual is unconscious, emergency oxygen must
be administered immediately. If the individual has
been unconscious for only a couple of minutes,
recovery will usually be rapid and complete.
However, sometimes a hypoxic reaction takes place.
The individual enters a state of shock which is
evidenced by a weak pulse and sweating. In this
situation, treatment for shock will be required.

When there is an inadequate oxygen supply to the cells of the body,

1.
the resulting condition is called
2.

When the oxygen supply available to the body cells is insuf ficient, '
the amount of time available until deterioration of the individuals
hypoxia
effective performance takes place is called the time of useful

3.
The treatment for hypoxia is accomplished by the immediate
consciousness
application of emorgenev

oxygen

HYPERVENTILATION When hyperventilation occurs, the most common

symptoms are:
Hyperventilation, or overbreathing, is a disturbance
1. dizziness,
of the respiration system. It may occur in
individuals as a result of physical exertion, emo-
2. hot and cold sensations,
tional tension, or anxiety. When this happens, the
individuals respiratory rate and depth are
3. tingling of the hands, legs, and feet,
abnormally increased. This overbreathing results in
an excessive loss of carbon dioxide from the lungs.
4. muscle spasms,
The respiratory center of the brain reacts to the
amount of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream. When 5. nausea,
an individual is in a physically relaxed state, the
amount of carbon dioxide in the blood stimulates 6. sleepiness, and
the respiratory center of the brain and the
breathing rate is lowered to about 12 to 16 breaths 7. unconsciousness.
a minute. When physical activity is increased, the When unconsciousness occurs, the
body cells use more oxygen and, hence, more
breathing rate will be exceedingly low
carbon dioxide is produced. This excessive carbon
dioxide enters the bloodstream and indicates to the
until enough carbon dioxide is
brain that more oxygen is required. Breathing produced to stimulate the respiratory
increases in depth and rate to remove this excess center. As mentioned previously,
carbon dioxide. As the excess is removed, the hyper
respiratory center returns the breathing rate to
normal.
-ventilation is a normal response to hypoxia. However, this excessive breathing is of little
 value and can be very serious.
Unfortunately, some of the symptoms associated
with hyperventilation are also found with hypoxia.
However, the following steps should be taken if
either is suspected:
1. Check oxygen equipment immediately
and put the oxygen regulator on 100
percent.
.
2. Take three or four deep breaths of
oxygen. If the condition experienced was
hypoxia, the symptoms should improve
rapidly. Remember that recovery from
hypoxia is extremely rapid.
If the symptoms persist,
consciously reduce the rate of
breathing to an abnormally slow
rate for 30 to 45 seconds. After
this period of time, the symptoms
of hyperventilation should begin
to subside. Then, resume breath-
ing at a normal rate

1. Hyperventilation, or overbreathing, results in excessive loss of

from the lungs.

2. Some of the symptoms associated with hypoxia are also associated with carbon dioxide

3. Whenever an individual has a slight dizziness or tingling sensation of the hands,

hyperventilation
legs, and feet, it is important to immediatelv administer

4. After taking three or four deep breaths, the symptoms should improve rapidly if

the condition experienced was oxygen

5. If the symptoms persist, the condition experienced is most likelv hypoxia

hy perven tila tion