Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior CHAPTER| | 1 October 17, 1989, at 5:04 p.m, Pacific daylight time, millions of television viewers around the world were settling in to watch the third game of the World Series. In- stead, they saw their television sets go black as tremors hit San Francisco's Can- diestick Park. Although the earthquake was centered in a remote section of the Santa Cruz | Mountains, 100 kilometers to the south, major damage occurred in the Marina District of San Francisco, | The most tragic result of the violent shaking was the collapse of some double-decked | sections of Interstate 880, also known as the Nimitz Freeway. The ground motions caused | the upper deck to sway, shattering the concrete support columns along a mile-long section | of the freeway. The upper deck then collapsed onto the lower roadway, flattening cars as if they were aluminum beverage cans. This earthquake, named the Loma Prieta quake for its point of origin, claimed 67 lives. In mid-January 1994, less than five years after the Loma Prieta earthquake devastated Portions of the San Francisco Bay Area, a major earthquake struck the Northridge area of Los Angeles. Although not the fabled “Big One,” this moderate 6,7-magnitude earthquake left 57 dead, more than 5,000 injured, and tens of thousands of households without water and electricity. The damage exceeded $40 billion and was attributed to an apparently un- known fault that ruptured 18 kilometers (11 miles) beneath Northridge. ‘The Northridge earthquake began at 4:31 a.m, and lasted roughly 40 seconds. During this brief period, the quake terrorized the entire Los Angeles area. In the three-story North- ridge Meadows apartment complex, 16 people died when sections of the upper floors col- _ lapsed onto the first-floor units. Nearly 300 schools were seriously damaged, and a dozen major roadways buckled. Among these were two of California's major arteries—the Golden State Freeway (Interstate 5), where an overpass collapsed completely and blocked the roadway, and the Santa Monica Freeway. Fortunately, these roadways had practically no traffic at this early morning hour. In nearby Granada Hills, broken gas lines were set ablaze while the streets flooded from broken water mains. Seventy homes burned in the Syimar area. A 64-car freight train de- railed, including some cars carrying hazardous cargo. But it is remarkable that the destruc- | tion was not greater. Unquestionably, the upgrading of structures to meet the requirements of building codes developed for this earthquake-prone area helped minimize what could _ have been a much greater human tragedy. L Students Sometimes Ash... How often do earthquakes occur? All the time—in fact, there are literally thousands of earthquakes What Is an Earthquake? S Forces Within SAE b Earthquakes daily! Fortunately, the majority of them are too small tobe felt by people, and many of them occur in remote regions. Their exis- tence is known only because of sensitive seismogeaphs, 220 An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the rapid release of enengy (Figure 8.1). Most often earthquakes are caused by slippage along a fault in Earth's crust. The en- ergy released radiates in all directions from its source, the focus (foci = a point), in the form of waves. These waves are analogous to those produced when a stone is dropped into a calm pond (Figure 8.2). Just as the impact of the stone sets water waves in motion, an earthquake generates seismic waves that radiate throughout the Earth. Even though theFIGURE 8.1 Destruction caused by @ major earthquake that struck northwestern Turkey on August 17, 1999, More than 17,000 people perished. Proto by Yann Arthus-Bestrand/Peter Amold, In.) energy dissipates rapidly with increasing distance from the focus, sensitive instruments located throughout the world record the event. More than 30,000 earthquakes that are strong enough to be felt occur worldwide annually. Fortunately, most are minor tremors and do very little damage. Only about 75 significant ‘earthquakes take place each year, and many of these occur in remote regions. Occasionally, however, a large earthquake occurs near a large population center. Under these conditions, FIGURE 8.2. The focus ofan earthquake is located at depth. The ‘surface locaton arectly above I scaled the epicenter. an earthquake is among the most destructive natural forces on Earth. ‘The shaking of the ground, coupled with the liquefaction ‘of some soils, wreaks havoc on buildings and other struc- tures. In addition, when a quake occurs in a populated area, power and gas lines are often ruptured, causing numerous fires. In the famous 1906 San Francisco earthquake, much of the damage was caused by fires (Figure 8.3), which quickly became uncontrollable when broken water mains left fire- fighters with only trickles of water. Earthquakes and Faults ‘The tremendous energy released by atomic explosions or by volcanic eruptions can produce an earthquake, but these events are relatively weak and infrequent. What mechanism produces a destructive earthquake? Ample evidence exists that Earth is not a static planet. We know that Earth’s crust has been uplifted at times, because we have found numerous ancient wavecut benches many meters above the level of the hhighest tides, Other regions exhibit evidence of extensive sub- siclence. In addition to these vertical displacements, offsets in fence lines, roads, and other structures indicate that horizon- tal movement is common (Figure 8.4). These movements are associated with large fractures in Earth's crust called faults. ‘Typically, earthquakes occur along preexisting faults that formed in the distant past along zones of weakness in Earth's 221San Francisco in ames after the 1906 earthquake. (Reproduced from the collection of the Lirary of Congress) Inset photo shows fre triggered when a ga line ruptured during the Norridge earthquake in southern California in 1984, (AFP/Getty Images) crust. Some are very large and can generate major earth- Most faults are not perfectly straight or continuous; in- quakes, One example is the San Andreas Fault, which is a stead, they consist of numerous branches and smaller ftac- transform fault boundary that separates two great sections tures that display kinks and offsets. Such a pattern is of Earth’s lithosphere: the North American plate and the Pa- displayed in Figure 10.A (p. 292), which shows that the San cific plate. Other faults are small and produce only minor Andreas Fault is actually a system that consists of several earthquakes. large faults and innumerable small fractures (not shown). i Slippage along a faut produced an offset inthis orange grove east of Calexico, California. (Photo by John S, Shelton) Insot photo showe a fence offeet 2.5, ‘meters (8.5 feet) during the 1908 Sen Francisco earthquake. (Photo by G. K. Gert, US. Geological Survey) 222 It is also clear that most faults are locked, ex- cept for brief, abrupt movements that accom- pany an earthquake rupture. The primary reason faults are locked is that the confining, pressure exerted by the overlying crust is enor- ‘mous and essentially squeezes the fractures in the crust shut. Nevertheless, even faults that have been inactive for thousands of years can rupture again if the stresses acting on the region increase sufficiently. ‘The actual mechanism of earthquake generation eluded geologists until H. F Reid of Johns Hop- kins University conducted a study following the great 1906 San Francisco earthquake. The earth- quake was accompanied by horizontal surface displacements of several meters along the north- em portion of the San Andreas Fault. Field in- vestigations determined that during this single earthquake, the Pacific plate lurched as much as 4.7 meters (15 feet) northward relative to the ad~ jacent North American plate.‘The mechanism for earthquake formation that Reid deduced from this information is illustrated in Figure 8.5. Part A of the figure shows an existing fault, or break in the rock. In part B, tec tonic forces ever so slowly deform the crustal rocks on both sides of the fault, as demonstrated by the bent features. Under these conditions, rocks are bending and storing elastic energy, ‘much likea wooden stick does ifbent. Eventually, the frictional resistance holding the rocks in place is overcome. As slippage ‘occurs at the weakest point (the focus), displacement will exert stress farther along the fault, where additional slippage will ‘occur releasing the built-up strain (Figure 8.50). This slippage allows the deformed rock to “snap back.” The vibrations we now as an earthquake occur as the rock elastically returns to its original shape. The “springing back” of the rock was termed FIGURE 8.5. Elastic rebound. As rock is deformed it bends, storing elastic energy. Once the rock Is ‘rained beyond its breaking point it ruptures, releasing the stored-up energy inthe form of earthquake waves. Deformation of rocks B. Buildup of strain C. Sippage (eernquake) D. Stain eased Deformation ofa limber stick ¢—? a) a) Whatisan Earthquake? 223 elastic rebound by Reid, because the rock behaves elastically, ‘much like a stretched rubber band does when itis released. Most of the motion along fauits can be satisfactorily ex- plained by the plate tectonics theory, which states that large slabs of Earth’s lithosphere are in continual slow motion. ‘These mobile plates interact with neighboring plates, strain- ing and deforming the rocks at their margins. In fact, it is along faults associated with plate boundaries that most earth- quakes occur, Furthermore, earthquakes are repetitive: As soon as one is over, the continuous motion of the plates adds strain to the rocks until they eventually fail again. In summary, most earthquakes are produced by the rapid release of elastic energy stored in rock that has been subjected. to great stress. Once the strength of the rock is exceeded, it suddenly ruptures, causing the vi- brations of an earthquake. Earth- quakes most often occur along existing faults whenever the fric- tional forces on the fault surfaces are overcome (see Box 8.1). Foreshocks and Aftershocks ‘The intense vibrations of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake lasted about 40 seconds. Although mast of the displacement along the fault occurred in this rather short period, additional movements along thisand other nearby faults continued for several days fol- lowing the main quake. The ad- justments that follow a major earthquake often generate smaller earthquakes called aftershocks. Although these aftershocks are usually much weaker than the main earthquake, they can some- times destroy already badly weakened structures. This oc- curred, for example, during a 1988 earthquake in Armenia. A lange aftershock of magnitude 58 collapsed many structures that had been weakened by the main tremor. Inaddition, small earthquakes called foreshocks often precede a major earthquake by days or, in some cases, by as much as several years. Monitoring of these fore- ‘shocks has been used as a means of predicting forthcoming major earthquakes, with mixed success. ‘We consider the topic of earth- ‘quake prediction ina later section of this chapter. ‘A. Orginal position B. Buildup of strain . Slippage (earthquake) . strain released224° CHAPTER 8 Earthquakes and Earth’ Interior BOX 8.1 > PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT § > Damaging Earthquakes East of the Rockies ‘When you think earthquake, you probably think of California and Japan, However, six major earthquakes have occurred in the cen- tral and eastern United States since colonial times. Three ofthese had estimated Richter ‘magnitudes of 75, 73, and 7.8, and they ‘were centered near the Mississippi River Valley in southeastern Missouri, Occurring ‘on December 16, 1811, January 23, 1812, and February 7, 1812, these earthquakes, plus numerous smaller tremors, destroyed the town of New Madrid, Missouri, triggered massive landslides, and caused damage vera six-state area. The course ofthe Mis- sissippi River was altered, and Tennessee's Reolfoot Lake was enlarged. The distances ‘over which these earthquakes were felt are truly remarkable, Chimneys were reported downed in Cincinnati, Ohio, and Rich- ‘mond, Vigginia, while Boston residents, lo- cated 1,770 kilometers (1,100 miles) to the northeast, felt the tremor. Despite the history of the New Madrid earthquake, Memphis, Tennessee, the largest population center in the area today, does not have adequate earthquake provi- sions in its building code. Furthermore, because Memphis is located on unconsoli- dated floodplain deposits, buildings are ‘more susceptible to damage than similar structures built on bedrock. It has been es- timated that ifan earthquake the sizeof the 1811-1812 New Madtrid event were to strike inthe next decade, it would result in casu- alties in the thousands and damages in tens of billions of dollars. Damaging earthquakes that occurred in Aurora, Mlinois (1909), and Valentine, Texas (1831), remind ws that other areas inthe cen- tral United States are vulnerable, ‘The greatest historical earthquake in the eastern states occurred August 31, 1886, in Charleston, South Carolina, The event, which spanned 1 minute, caused 60 deaths, ‘numerous injuries, and great economic loss FIGURE 8.4 Damage to Charleston, South Carolina, caused by the August 91, 1886, ‘earthquake. Damage ranged from toppled chimneys and broken plaster to total collapse. (Photo courtesy of U.S, Geolageal Survey) within a radius of 20 kilometers (120 miles) of Charleston. Within 8 minutes, effects were felt as far away as Chicago and St. Louis, where strong vibrations shook the upper floors of buildings, causing people to rsh outdoors. In Charleston alone, over 100 buildings were destroyed, and 90 percent of the remaining structures were damaged (igure 8.4). Numerous other strong earthquakes have been recorded in the easter United States. New England and adjacent areas have experienced sizable shocks since colo- nial times. The first reported earthquake in the Northeast took place in Plymouth, ‘Massachusetts, in 1683, and was followed {in 1755 by the destructive Cambridge, Mass- achusetts, earthquake. Moreover, ever since records have been kept, New York State alone has experienced over 300 earthquakes lange enough to be felt Earthquakes in the central and eastern United States occur far less frequently than in California. Yet history indicates that the East is vulnerable. Furthermore, these shocks east of the Rockies have generally produced structural damage over a larger area than counterparts of similar magnitude in California. The reason is that the under- lying bedrock in the central and eastern United States is older and more rigid. As a result, seismic waves are able to travel ‘greater distances with less weakening than in the western United States. Its estimated that for earthquakes of similar magnitude, the region of maximum ground motion in the East may be up to 10 times larger than in the West. Consequently, the higher rate of earthquake occurrence in the western United States is balanced somewhat by the fact that central and eastern US. quakes can damage larger areas. San Andreas Fault: An Active Earthquake Zone ‘The San Andreas is undoubtedly the most studied fault sys- tem in the world (Figure 8.6). Over the years, investigations have shown that displacement occurs along discrete segments, that are 100 to 200 kilometers long. Furthermore, each fault segment behaves somewhat differently from the others. Some portions of the San Andreas exhibit a slow, gradual dis- placement known as fault creep, which occurs relatively smoothly and therefore with little noticable seismic activity Other segments regularly slip, producing small earthquakes. Still other segments remain locked and store elastic energy for hundreds of years before rupturing in great earthquakes. ‘The latter process is described as stick-slip motion, because the fault exhibits alternating periods of locked behavior fol- lowed by sudden slippage. It is estimated that great earth- quakes should occur about every 50 to 200 years along thoseFIGURE 8.6 Tace ofthe San Andreas Fault, north of Landers California, (Photo by Roger Ressmeyer/CORBIS) sections of the San Andreas Faull that exhibit stick-slip mo- tion. This knowledge is useful when assigning a potential earthquake risk to a given segment of the fault zone, ‘The tectonic forces along the San Andreas Fault zone that ‘were responsible for the 1906 San Francisco earthquake are ae Students So: Do moderate earthquakes decrease the chances of a major quake in the same region? [re et cm ried ry ci Rn cs pata ence ts tete & carters Sie eskisss ensues ineioe coe Se RGR Geka aa wd wm eg camuaorebey waa ioee “pear eratgate Solamology: The Study of Earthquake Waves 225 still active. Currently, laser beams are used to measure the relative motion between the opposite sides of this fault. These measurements reveal a displacement of 2-5 centimeters (1-2 inches) per year. Although this seems slow, it produces sub- stantial movement over millions of years. ‘To illustrate, in 30 million years this rate of displacement would slide the western portion of California northward so that Los Angeles, on the Pacific plate, would be adjacent to San Francisco on the North American plate! More important in the short term, a displacement of just 2 centimeters each year produces 2 meters of offset every 100 years. Conse- quently, the 4 meters of displacement produced during the 1906 San Francisco earthquake should occur at least every 200 years along this segment of the fault zone. This fact lies behind California’s concern for making buildings earthquake- resistant in anticipation of the inevitable “Big One.” Seismology: The Study f Earthquake Wi Forces Within > Earthquakes The study of earthquake waves, seismology (seisinos = shake, ology = the study of), dates back to attempts by the Chinese almost 2,000 years ago to determine the direction of the source of each earthquake. Modern seismographs (seismos = shake, graph = write) are instruments that record ‘earthquake waves. Their principle is simple: A weight is freely suspended from a support that is attached to bedrock (Figure 8.7). When waves from an earthquake reach the instrument, the inertia of the weight keeps it stationary, while Earth and the support vibrate, The movement of Earth in relation to the stationary weight is recorded on a rotating drum. (Inertia is the tendency of a stationary object to remain still, or a mov- ing object to stay in motion.) Modern seismographs amplify and record ground motion, producing a trace as shown in Figure 8.8. These records, called seismograms (seismos = shake, gramma = what is written), reveal that seismic waves are elastic energy. This energy radiates outward in all directions from the focus, as you saw in Figure 82. The transmission of this energy can be compared to the shaking of gelatin in a bowl that is jarred. Seismograms reveal that two main types of seismic waves are generated by the slippage of a rock mass. Some travel along Earth’s outer layer and are called surface waves, Oth- ers travel through Earth’s interior and are called body waves. Body waves are further divided into primary waves (P waves) and secondary waves (S waves) Body waves are divided into P and $ waves by their mode of travel through intervening materials. P waves are push-pull waves—they push (compress) and pull (expand) rocks in the direction the wave is traveling (Figure 89A). Imagine holding someone by the shoulders and shaking them. This push-pull movement is how P waves move through the Earth. This wave motion is analogous to that gen- erated by human vocal cords as they move air to create226 © CHAPTER 8 Earthquakes and Earth's Interior ae FIGURE 8.7 Principle ofthe seismograph. The inertia of the suspended mass tends to keep it ‘motionless, wl the recording drum, which fs anchored to bedrock, vibrates in response to solsmic ‘8 reference point from which to measure the amount of waves. Thus, the stationary mass provid ‘displacement occuring as the selemiec waves passthrough the ground below, (Photo by Zephyr/Photo Rearchers, Inc) sound. Solids, liquids, and gases resist a change in volume ‘when compressed and will elastically spring back once the force is removed (Figure 8.9B). Therefore, P waves, which are compressional waves, can travel through all these materials. In contrast, $ waves shake the particles at right angles to their direction of travel. This can be illustrated by fastening one end of a rope and shaking the other end, as shown in FIGURE 88 Typical seismic record. Note the time interval about 5 minutes) between the arival ofthe fist P wave and the arrival ofthe fst S wave Figure 8.9C. Unlike P waves, which temporarily change the volume of the intervening material by alternately compressing and expanding it, $ waves temporarily change the shape of the material that transmits them (Figure 8.9D). Because fluids (gases and liquids) do not respond elastically to changes in shape, they will not trans- mitS waves. The motion of surface waves is somewhat more complex. As surface ‘waves travel along the ground, they cause the ground and anything resting upon it to move, much like ocean swells toss a ship. In addition to their up-and-down motion, surface waves have a side-to-side motion similar to an S wave oriented in a horizontal plane. This latter motion is particularly damaging to the foundations of structures, By observing a typical seismic record, as shown in Figure 8.8, you can see a major difference among these seismic waves: P waves arrive at the recording station first, then $ waves, and then surface waves, This is a con- sequence of their speeds. To illustrate, the velocity of P waves through gran- ite within the crust is about 6 kilometers (4 miles) per second. Under the same conditions, $ waves travel at 3.5 kilometers (2 miles) per second. Differences in density and elastic prop- erties of the rock greatly influence the velocities of these ‘waves, Generally, in any solid material, Pwaves travel about 117 times faster than $ waves, and surface waves can be ex- pected to travel at 90 percent of the velocity of the S waves. As you will see, seismic waves allow us to determine the lo- cation and magnitude of earthquakes. In addition, seismic waves provide us with an important tool for probing Earth's interior. Locating an Earthquake B Forces Within SEE > Earthquakes Recall that the focus is the place within Earth where earth- quake waves originate. The epicenter (epi = upon, center = a point) is the location on the surface directly above the focus (ee Figure 8.2). ‘The difference in velocities of P and $ waves provides a method for locating the epicenter. The principle used is anal- ‘ogous to a race between two autos, one faster than the other. ‘The P wave always wins the race, arriving ahead of the S ‘wave. But the greater the length of the race, the greater will bbe the difference in the arrival times atthe finish line (the seis- mic station). Therefore, the greater the interval measured onSlinky atest GeO Push ky ssa TT DOOOUTATOONUNTOONONAT Wave droctione> ese oreT ONT Expand Compress i WTO cee oan ‘A. P waves generated using a slinky ope atest . S waves generated using a rope Locating an Earthquake 227 P waves traveling along the surface 1D. S waves traveling along the surface FIGURE 89 Types of seismic waves and ther characteristic motion. (Note that during a strong earthquake, ground shaking consists of a combination of various kinds of seismic waves) ALAS IMustrate by asinky, P waves ae compressional waves that atematey compross and expand tho ‘material trough which they pass. B. The back-and-forth motion produced as compressional waves. ‘rave along the surface can cause the ground to buckle and fracture, and may cause power ines to break. C. $ waves cause materi to osclate a right anges tothe direction of wave mation. D. ‘Because S waves can travel in any plane, they produce up-and-down and sideways shaking ofthe a seismogram between the arrival of the first P wave and the first S wave, the greater the distance to the earthquake source. ‘Asystem for locating earthquake epicenters was developed by using seismograms from earthquakes whose epicenters ‘could be easily pinpointed from physical evidence. From these seismograms, travel-time graphs were constructed (Figure 8.108). The first travel-time graphs were greatly improved when seismograms became available from nuclear explosions, be- ‘cause the precise location and time of detonation were known. Using the sample seismogram in Figure 8.10A and the travel-time curve in Figure 8.10B, we can determine the d tance separating the recording station from the earthquake in two steps: (1) using the seismogram, determine the time in- terval between the arrival of the first P wave and the first S wave, and (2) using the travel-time graph, find the P-S inter- valon the vertical axis and use that information to determine the distance to the epicenter on the horizontal axis. From this information, we can determine that this earthquake occurred 3800 kilometers (2350 miles) from the recording instrument. Now we know the distance, but what about the direction? ‘The epicenter could be in any direction from the seismic sta- tion. As shown in Figure 8.11, the precise location of a quake canbe found when the distance is known from three or more different seismic stations. On a globe, a circle is drawn around each station with each circle's radius equal to the station’s distance from the epicenter. The point where the three circles intersect is the epicenter of the quake. This method is called triangulation. ‘About 95 percent of the enengy released by earthquakes originates in a few relatively narrow zones (Figure 8.12). The ‘greatest energy is released along a path around the outer edge of the Pacific Ocean known as the circum-Pacific belt. Included in this zone are regions of great seismic activity, such as Japan, the Philippines, Chile, and numerous volcanic island chains, as exemplified by Alaska’s Aleutian Islands. Figure 8.12 reveals another continuous belt that extends for thousands of kilometers through the world’s oceans. This zone coincides with the oceanic ridge system, an area of fre- quent but low-intensity seismic activity. By comparing this figure with Figure 7.10 (pp. 196-197), you can see a close cor- relation between the location of earthquake epicenters and plate boundaries.228 CHAPTER 8 Earthquakes and Ears Interior Fst S minutes 2345678 9 10111213 1415 “Tavel ime in minutes o4 ‘A. Seismogram Distance in miles 500 1000 150020002500 3000 Distance in kilometers B.Traveltime graph FIGURE 8.10. Using a seismogram and a travel-time graph to determine the distance to an earthquake's epicenter. A. The time delay between the aval ofthe fist P- and -waves on this selemogeam is 5 minutes. B. Using the travel-time grap itis determined that the epicenter s rughly 3,800 kilometers (2,350 miles) from the seismic station, Measuring the Size of Earthquakes Seismologists have employed a variety of methods to obtain two fundamentally different measures that describe the size of an earthquake: intensity and magnitude. The first of these to be used was intensity—a measure of the degree of earth- quake shaking at a given locale based on the amount of dam- age. With the development of seismographs, it became clear that a quantitative measure of an earthquake based on sei mic records rather than uncertain personal estimates of dam- age was desirable. The measurement that was developed, called magnitude, relies on calculations that use data pro vvided by seismic records (and other techniques) to estimate the amount of energy released at the source of the earth- quake. FIGURE 8:11 An earthquake epicenter is located using the distances ‘obtained from thre seismic stations. On a globe, a cc is drawn around jech station, with each circles radius equal to tha stations stance from the earthquake's epicenter. Today, computers using data fom numerous seismic stations can rapicly pinpoint lage eartnauakes. Intensity Scales Until a little more than a century ago, historical records pro- vided the only accounts of the Severity of earthquake shak- ing and destruction. Using these descriptions—which were compiled without any established standards for reporting — made accurate comparisons of earthquake sizes difficult, at best. In order to standardize the study of earthquake severity, scientists developed various intensity scales that considered damage done to buildings, as well as individual descriptions. of the event, and secondary effects such as landslides and the ‘extent of ground rupture. By 1902, Guiseppe Mercalli had de- veloped a relatively reliable intensity scale, which in a mod- ified form is still used today. The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale shown in Table 8.1 was developed using California buildings as its standard, but itis appropriate for use through- out most of the world to estimate the strength of an earth- quake (Figure 8.13). For example, if some well-built wood structures and most masonry buildings are destroyed by an earthquake, a region would be assigned an intensity of X on. the Mercalli scale (Table 8.1). Despite their usefulness in providing seismologists with a tool o compare earthquake severity, particularly in regions where there are no seismographs, intensity scales have se- vere drawbacks. In particular, intensity scales are based on effects (largely destruction) of earthquakes that depend not only on the severity of ground shaking but also on factors such as population density, building design, and the nature of surface materials.FIGURE 8.12 Distribution ofthe 14229 earthquakes with magnitudes equal to or greater than § for ‘10-year period. Ingot photo shows earthquake damage near Ist, Turkey, in 1998. Photo courtesy of CORBIS/SYGMA) Magnitude Scales In order to compare earthquakes across the globe, a measure was needed that did not rely on parameters that vary con- siderably from one part of the world to another, such as con- struction practices. As a consequence, a number of magnitude scales were developed. Richter Magnitude In 1935, Charles Richter of the Califor- nia Institute of Technology developed the first magnitude scale using seismic recortis to estimate the relative sizes of earthquakes. As shown in Figure 8.14 (top), the Richter scale is based on the amplitude of the largest seismic wave (P,S, or surface wave) recorded on a seismogram. Because seismic waves weaken as the distance between the earthquake focus and the seismograph increases (in a manner similar to light), Richter developed a method that accounted for the decrease in wave amplitude with increased distance. Theoretically, as long as the same, or equivalent, instruments were used, mon- itoring stations at various locations would obtain the same Richter magnitude for every recorded earthquake. (Richter selected the Wood-Anderson seismograph as the standard recording device.) Although the Richter scale has no upper limit, the largest magnitude recorded on a Wood-Anderson seismograph was 89. These great shocks release approximately 10° ergs of en- ergy—roughly equivalent to the detonation of 1 billion tons of TNT. Conversely, earthquakes with a Richter magnitude of less than 2.0 are not felt by humans. With the development of more sensitive instruments, tremors of a magnitude of minus 2 were recorded. Table 8.2 shows how Richter magnitudes and their effects are related, t Fatt only by a few persons at ret, especialy on upper floors of buildings. Fet quite noticeably indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings, but many people do not recognize it as an earthquake, Felt by nearly everyone, many awakened. Disturbances of tres, poles, and other tall objects sometimes noticed. Fe by al: many figntened and run outdoors. Some heavy furniture moved; few instances of fallen plaster or damaged chimneys. Damage: sight. ‘considerabl n poorly bul or badly designed structures Everybody runs outdoors. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction; slght-to-moderate in well-built ordinary structures; Iii ie tr erecta cicatioeg asm pecans > | i \VIl__Damage sight in specially designed structures; considerable in ordinary substantial buldings with partial colapse; great in poorly bul stuctures. Fal of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, wall) ‘Damage considerable in specially designed structures. Buildings shifted off foundations. Ground cracked conspicuously ‘Some wall-bult wooden structures destroyed. Most masonry and frame structures destroyed. Ground badly cracked. Few if any, (mason) structures remain standing. ridges destroyed. Bread fissures in ground, ‘Damage total. Waves seen on ground surfaces, Objects thrown upward int at230° CHAPTER 8 Earthquakes and Earth's Interior FIGURE 8.13 Zones of destruction associated with an earthquake that struck Japan in 1925. Intensity levels based on the Modified Mercall Intensity Sale. FIGURE 8.14 Mustration showing how the Richter magnitude of an ‘earthquake can be determined graphically using a seismograph record from a Wood-Anderson instrument, Fst, measure the height famptude) of the largest wave onthe seismogram (23 mm) and then the distance to the focus using the te interval between S and P waves (24 seconds) "Next, daw a ne between the distance scale lt) and the wave amplitude scale (ight). By doing this, you should obtain the Fichter ‘magnitude (M,) of 5. (Data from California Institute of Technology) Earthquakes vary enormously in strength, and greatearth- quakes produce wave amplitudes that are thousands of times larger than those generated by weak tremors. To accommo- date this wide variation, Richter used a logarithmic scale to ex- press magnitude, where a fenfold increase in wave amplitude corresponds to an increase of 1 on the magnitude scale. Thus, the amount of ground shaking for a 5-magnitude earthquake is 10 times greater than that produced by an earthquake hav- nga Richter magnitude of 4. In addition, each unit of Richter magnitude equates to roughly a 32-fold energy increase, Thus, an earthquake with a ‘magnitude of 6.5 releases 32 times more energy than one with a magnitude of 55, and roughly 1,000 times more energy than a 45-magnitude quake. A major earthquake with a magni- tude of 8.5 releases millions of times more energy than the smallest earthquakes felt by humans. Richter’s original goal was modest in that he only at- tempted to rank the earthquakes of southern California (Ghallow-focus earthquakes) into groups of large, medium, and small magnitude. Hence, Richter magnitude was de- signed to study nearby (or local) earthquakes and is denoted by the symbol (Mz) where Mis for magnitude and L is for local. ‘The convenience of describing the size of an earthquake bya single number that could be calculated quickly from seis- ‘mograms makes the Richter scale a powerful tool. Further- ‘more, unlike intensity scales that could only be applied to populated areas of the globe, Richter magnitudes could be assigned to earthquakes in more remote regions and even to events that occurred in the ocean basins. As a result, the method devised by Richter was adapted to a number of dif- ferent seismographs located throughout the world. In time, seismologists modified Richter’s work and developed new ‘magnitude scales, Moment Magnitude Seismologists have recently been em- ploying a more precise measure called moment magnitude (My), which can be calculated using several techniques. In ‘one method, the moment magnitude is calculated from field studies using a combination of factors that include the aver- age amount of displacement along the fault, the area of the rupture surface, and the shear strength of the faulted rock— a measure of how much energy a rock can store before it suddenly slips and releases this energy in the form of an earthquake (and heat). ‘The moment magnitude can also be readily calculated from seismograms by examining very long period seismic waves. The values obtained have been calibrated so that small- and moderate-sized earthquakes have moment mag- nitudes that are roughly equivalent to Richter magnitudes. However, moment magnitudes are much better for describ- ing very large earthquakes. For example, on the moment ‘magnitude scale, the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, which hada Richter magnitude of 83, would be demoted to 7.9 on the moment magnitude scale, whereas the 1964 Alaskan earthquake with an 8.3 Richter magnitude would be in- creased! to 9.2, The strongest earthquake on record is the 1960 Chilean earthquake with a moment magnitude of 9.5,231 Destruction from Earthquakes feet Richter Magnitudes Effects Near Epicenter Estimated Number per Year =20 “Genera no elt, but recorded 00,000 2029 Potentially perceptibie 300,000 30-39 Felt by some 49,000 | 4049 Felt by most 6.200 | 50-59 Damaging shocks ‘300 60-59 Destructive in populous regions 286 70-79 Major earthquakes; inflict sarious damage 18 Bo and above Great earthquakes; destroy communities near opicantor 14. Source: Eatiquake information Bulletin and others. ane Moment magnitude has gained wide acceptance among seismologists and engineers because (1) itis the only magni: tude scale that estimates adequately the size of very large earthquakes; (2) itis a measure that can be derived mathe- ‘matically from the size of the rupture surface and the amount of displacement and it better reflects the total energy released uring an earthquake; and (3) it can be verified by two inde- pendent methods—field studies that are based on meastre- ments of fault displacement and seismographic methods using long-period waves. Destruction from Earthquakes ‘The most violent earthquake to jar North America this cen- tury—the Good Friday Alaskan Earthquake—occurred in 1964, Felt throughout the state, the earthquake had a mo- ‘ment magnitude of 9.2 and reportedly lasted 3-4 minutes. This event left 131 people dead, thousands homeless, and the economy of the state badly disrupted because it occurred near major towns and seaports (Figure 8.15). Had the schools and business districts been open on this holiday, the toll surely would have been Stideats Sometimes Ash... Tee heard thatthe safest place to bein a house during an earthquake isin « doorframe. Is that really the best place? Not! An enduring earthquake image of Califomia isa collapsed adobe home with the door frame as the only standing part. From this came the belief that a doorway isthe safest place to be dur- ing an earthquake. In modern homes, doorways are no stronger than any other part ofthe house and usually have doors that will swing and can injure you. If you're inside, the best advice is to duck, cover, an hold. When, you feel an earthquake, duck under a desk or sturdy table. Stay away from windows, bookcases, file cabinets, heavy mirrors, hanging plants, and other heavy objects that could fall. Stay under cover until the shaking stops. And, hold on to the desk or table: IFit moves, move with it. higher. Within 24 hours of the initial shock, 28 aftershocks were recorded, 10 of which exceeded a Richter magnitude of6. FIGURE 8.15 Region most affected by the Good Friday earthquake of 1964. Note the location of the epicenter (red do) Inset photo shows the collapse ofa street in Anchorage, Alaska, caused by this earthquake. Photo courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey), Damage from Seismic Vibrations ‘The 1964 Alaskan earthquake provided geologists with new insights into the role of ground shaking as a destructive force. As the energy released by an earthquake travels along Earth’s surface, it causes the ground to vibrate in a complex manner by moving up and down as well as from side to side. The amount of structuralFIGURE 6.16 Damage to the five-story J.C. Penney Co. building, ‘Anchorage, Alaska. Very litle structural damage was incured by the ‘adjacent bulding, (Courtesy of NOAA) damage attributable to the vibrations depends on several fac- tors, including (1) the intensity and (2) duration of the vibra- tions, (3) the nature of the material upon which the structure rests, and (4) the design of the structure. All multistory structures in Anchorage were damaged by the vibrations, but the more flexible wood-frame residential buildings fared best. Figure 8.16 offers a striking example of how construction variations affect earthquake damage; you cansee that the steel-frame building on the left withstood the vibrations, whereas the poorly designed J.C. Penney building was badly damaged. Engineers have learned that unrein- forced masonry buildings are the most serious safety threat in earthquakes. FIGURE 8.17 Effects of iquefaction This tited building ests on unconsolidated sediment that imitated quicksand during the 1985 Mexican earthquake. (Photo by James L. Beck) Most large structures in Anchorage were damaged, even though they were built according to the earthquake provi- sions of the Uniform Building Code. Perhaps some of that destruction can be attributed to the unusually long duration of this earthquake. Most quakes consist of tremors that last Jess than a minute. The 1994 Northridge earthquake was felt for about 40 seconds, and the strong vibrations of the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake lasted less than 15 seconds. But the Alaska quake reverberated for 3 to 4 minutes. Amplification of Seismic Waves Although the region within 20 to 50 kilometers (12 to 30 miles) of the epicenter will ex- perience about the same intensity of ground shaking, the de- struction varies considerably within this area. This difference is mainly attributable to the nature of the ground on which the structures ae built. Soft sediments, for example, generally amplify the vibrations more than solid bedrock. Thus, the buildings located in Anchorage, which were situated on un- consolidated seciments, experienced heavy structural dam- age. By contrast, most ofthe town of Whittier, although much nearer the epicenter, rests ona firm foundation of granite and hence suffered much less damage. However, Whittier was damaged by a seismic sea wave (described in the next section) Liquefaction In areas where unconsolidated materials are saturated with water, earthquake vibrations can generate a phenomenon known as liquefaction (ligueo = to be fluid, facio = to make). Under these conditions, what had been a Stable soil tums into a mobile fluid that is not capable of sup- porting buildings or other structures (Figure 8.17). As a re- sult, underground objects such as storage tanks and sewer lines may literally float toward the surface of their newly liq- uefied environment. Buildings and other structures may set- tle and collapse. During the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, in San Francisco's Marina District, foundations failed and geysers ofsand and water shot from the ground, indicating that lique- faction had occurred (Figure 8.18), What Is a Tsunami? Large undersea earthquakes oc- casionally set in motion massive waves of water called se sea waves, or tsunami* (isu: = harbor, nami = waves). These destructive waves often are called “tidal waves” by the media. However, this name is “Selmi sn waves were given the name ‘sum by the Japenese ee have sued 2FIGURE 8.18 Liquefaction. A. These mud volcanoes were produced by the Loma Prieta earthquake In 1989, Mud voloanoes form whed ‘gey82°8 of sand and water shoot from the ground, aninccation that liquefaction has occurred. (Photo by Richard Hiton, courtesy of Dennis Fox B. Students experiencing the “strength” of water-saturated sol, a hallmark of iquofaction. (Photo by M. Miler Destruction rom Earthquakes 233 inappropriate, because these waves are not created by the tidal effect of the Moon or Sun. Most tsunami result from ver- tical displacement along a fault located on the ocean floor, or from a large underwater landslide triggered by an earthquake (Figure 8.19) Once formed, a tsunami resembles the ripples created when a pebble is dropped into a pond. In contrast to ripples, a tsunami advances across the ocean at speeds between 500 and 950 Kilometers (300 and 600 miles) per hour. Despite this, a tsunami in the open ocean can pass undetected because its height is usually less than 1 meter and the distance between wave crests is great, ranging from 100 to 700 kilometers (62 to 435 miles). Upon entering shallower coastal water, these destructive waves are slowed and the water begins to pile up to heights that occasionally exceed 30 meters (100 feet), as shown in Figure 8.19. As the crest of a tsunami approaches shore, it appears as a rapid rise in sea level with a turbulent and chaotic surface. The first warning of an approaching tsunami is usually a rapid withdrawal of water from beaches. Some residents liv- ing near the Pacific basin have learned to heed this warning and move to higher ground, because about 5 to 30 minutes later the retreat of water is followed by a surge capable of ex- tending hundreds of meters inland. In a successive fashion, each surge is followed by a rapid oceanward retreat of the water. Tsunami Damage from the 2004 Indonesian Earthquake ‘massive undersea earthquake of moment magnitude 9.0 oc- curred near the island of Sumatra on December 26, 2004, and sent waves of water racing across the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal (Figure 8.20A). This tsunami was one of the dead- liest natural disasters of any kind in modern times, claiming ‘more than 230,000 lives. As water surged several kilometers inland, cars and trucks were flung around like toys ina bath- ‘ub, and fishing boats were rammed into homes (see chapter ‘opening photo). In some locations, the backwash of water dragged bodies and huge amounts of debris out to sea FIGURE 8.19 Schomatic drawing ofa tsunami generated by deplacement ofthe ocean floor, The speed ofa wave moving across the acean correlates with ocean depth. As showin, waves moving in \doup water advance at speeds in excess of 800 kllometers per hour. Speed gradually slows to 50 kilometers per hour at depths of 20 meters. Decreasing depth slows the movement of the wave Column, As waves stow n shallow wate, they growin height unl they topple and rush onto shore with tremendous force. The size and spacing ofthese sells are not to scale Tailjampspeec: 85 kr sateen vy Subimoters ‘oun’ sped Okie234 CHAPTER 8 Earthquakes and Earth's Interior 10 _Amassive earthquake (9.0 My.) off the Indonesian island of Sumatra sent a tsunami racing aerose the Inlan Ocean and Bay of Bengal en December 26, 2004. A. Unsuspecting foreign tourists who walked seaward aa the water receded, us toward shore as tho fst of six tsunami oled toward Hat Rai Lay Bach near Krabiin southern Thaland, (AFP/Getty Images. Inc.) B. Teunari survivors walk among the debris from ths eathquake-tiggered event. (Photo by Kimmasa MayamarReuters/COREIS) ‘The destruction was indiscriminate, destroying luxury re- sorts and poor fishing hamlets on the Indian Ocean coast (Figure 8.208). Devastation was most severe along the south- east coast of Sri Lanka, inthe Indonesian province of Aceh, in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, and on Thailand’ resort i- land of Phuket. Damages were reported as far away as the Somalia coast of Africa, 4,100 kilometers (2,500 miles) west of the earthquake epicenter. ‘The killer waves generated by this massive quake achieved heights as great as 10 meters (33 feet) and struck many un- prepared areas within three hours of the event. Although the Pacific basin was equipped with deep-sea buoys and tide gauges that can spot tsunami waves at sea, the Indian Ocean was not. (The deep-sea buoys have pressure sensors that de- tect changes in pressure as the earthquake's energy travels through the ocean, and tide gauges measure the rise and fallin sea level.) The rarity of tsunami in the Indian Ocean also contributed to the lack of preparedness for such an event. It should come as no surprise that a tsunami warning system for the Indian Ocean has now been established. Tsunami Warning System In 1946, a large tsunami struck the Hawaiian Islands without warning. A wave more than 15 meters (50 feet) high left several coastal villages in sham- bles. This destruction motivated the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey to establish a tsunami warning system for coastal areas of the Pacific. From seismic observatories throughout the region, large earthquakes are reported to the Tsunami ‘Warning Center in Honolulu. Scientists at the center use tidal ‘gauges to determine whether a tsunami has formed. Within an hour, a warning is issued. Although tsunami travel very rapidly, there is sufficient time to evacuate all but the region nearest the epicenter. For example, a tsunami generated near the Aleutian Islands would take five hours to reach Hawaii, and one generated near the coast of Chile would travel 15, hours before reaching Hawaii (Figure 8.21). Students Sometimes Ask... What is the largest wave triggered by an earthquake? ‘The largest wave ever recorded occurred in Lituya Bay, about 200 kilometers (125 miles) west of Juneau, Alaska’s capital. On July 9, 1958, an earthquake triggered an enormous rockslide that ‘dumped 90 million tons of rock into the upper part of the bay. The rockslide created a huge splash unve (different than a tsunami, these waves are produced when an object splashes into water) that swept over the ridge facing the rockslide and uprooted or snapped off trees 1,740 feet above the bay. Even larger splash ‘waves have occurred in prehistoric times, including an estimated, 3,000-foot wave that is thought to have resulted from a meteorite impact in the Gulf of Mexico about 65 million years ago. FIGURE 8.21 Tounami travel imes to Honolulu, Hawall fom selected locations throughout the Pacific ata from NOAA) Destruction from Earthquakes 235 Landslides and Ground Subsidence In the 1964 Alaskan earthquake, the greatest damage to struc- tures was from landslides and ground subsidence triggered by the vibrations, not from the vibrations themselves, At the seaports of Valdez. and Seward, the violent shaking caused water logged sediments to experience liquefaction; the sub- sequent slumping carried both waterfronts into the sea. Be- cause the disaster could happen again, the entire town of Valdez was relocated about 7 kilometers (4 miles) away on more stable ground. In Valdez, 31 people on a dock died ‘when it was jettisoned into the sea. Most of the damage in Anchorage was attributed to land- slides caused by shaking and lurching ground. Many homes ‘were destroyed in Turnagain Heights when a layer of clay lost its strength and more than 200 acres of land slid toward the ocean (Figure 8.22). A portion of this landslide has been left undisturbed to serve as a reminder of this destructive event. The site was named “Earthquake Park.” Downtown Anchorage was also disrupted as sections of the main busi- ness district dropped by as much as 3 meters (10 feet). FIGURE 8.22 Turnagain Heights slde caused by the 1964 Alaskan earthquake. A. Vibrations from the earthquake caused cracks to appear rear the edge of the bil. B. Within seconds blocks of land began to slide toward the sea on a weak layer of czy. nfs than § minutes much of the Turnagain Heights blu area had been destroyed. C. Photo of a small potion ofthe Tumagain Heights side. Photo courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey) Layers of sand. ‘and gravel Bootleg Tumagain Heights ‘ oe